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REPORT 


OF  THE 


s 


ONER  OF  EDUCATION 


FOR 


THE  YEAR  1900-1901 

NO  LONGER  PROPERTY  OF 
FALVEY  MEMORIAL  LIBRARY 

Volume  1 . 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1902. 


u®mr 

I1S  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

MAR  2  8  2013 

s.w. 

02 

400  MARYLAND  AVENUE 
WASHINGTON.  D.C.  202 

THE  UNITED  STATES 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION, 

Created  as  a  Department  March  2,  1867. 

Made  an  Office  of  the  Interior  Department  July  1 ,  1869. 


COMMISSIONERS. 


HeSnry  Barnard,  LL.  D., 

^  t March  1\,  l$67,lo  fifcereh  15:  1870. \'\r 


•  John  EMTon;  Pfi. '!>.*,  'LL:  D., 
March  16,  1870,  to  August  5,  1886. 


Nathaniel  H.  R.  Dawson,  L.  H.  D., 
August  6,  1886,  to  September  3,  Is 89. 
William  T.  Harris,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 
September  12,  1889,  to  date . 


I 

I!1 


CONTENT'S  OF  VOLUME  I. 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 

Page. 

Total  enrollment  in  schools  and  colleges . . . . .  ix 

The  common  schools . . . . . . . . .  xi 

Average  amount  of  schooling  per  inhabitant . . . . . . . .  xvn 

Education  in  central  Europe  . . . . . . . . . . .  xvm 

kt oire’s  logos  theory _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  xxii 

International  association  for  the  advancement  of  science,  arts,  and  education _ _  xxv 

Biological  contributions  to  educational  theory . . . . . . . .  xxvn 

German  instruction  in  American  schools . . . . . . . . .  xxxn 

Education  of  the  negro . . . . . . . . . . . .  xxxvi 

Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland . . . . .  xxxvm 

Temperance  instruction . . . . . . .  xli 

The  Carnegie  Institution _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  xliii 

Education  in  France. . . . . . . .  xliii 

Higher  commercial  education . . . . . . . . . .  xlviii 

Coeducation  of  the  sexes  in  the  schools,  colleges,  and  universities  of  the  United  States,  xlviii 

The  Philippines . . . . . . . . .  L 

Introduction  of  reindeer  into  Alaska _ _ _ _ _ _  liii 

City  school  systems . . . . . .  liv 

Higher  education _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  l vi 

Secondary  schools.. . . . . . . .  lx 

Education  in  Porto  Rico . . . . . . .  lxii 

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . .  lxiii 

Cuba _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  lxiv 


STATISTICS  OF  STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

Total  population,  school  population,  and  adult  male  population . . . .  lxxi 

School  ages  and  State  school  censuses . . . . . . . .  lxxiii 

Enrollment  of  pupils . . . . . . .  lxxiv 

Average  daily  attendance . . . . . . . . . . .  lxxix 

Length  of  school  term . . . . . . . . . .  lxxxii 

Teachers  and  salaries. . . . .  . .  lxxxiv 

School  moneys  received. . . . . . . . . . . . . lxxxvii 

School  expenditures _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  lxxxix 

Tables  of  school  expenditure  in  the  Southern  States,  classified  by  race. . .  xcvm 

Publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education . . .  chi 


Chapter  I.— Education  in  Central  Europe. 

Articles  on  education  in  central  Europe  published  in  previous  Reports  of  the  Commissioner 

of  Education . . . . _  1 

Educational  movements  in  Germany . . . . . . .  3 

The  necessity  of  technological  education _ _ _ . _  8 

Art  education  in  Germany _ _ _ _ _  14 

Commercial  schools  and  commercial  universities  in  Germany . . . .  21 

School  supervision  in  Germany . . . .  33 


2-73  SI 


III 


IV 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Institutions  for  the  defective . . .  40 

A  new  law  concerning  reformatory  education  of  children  in  Prussia  . . _ . _  48 

Child  labor  in  Germany  outside  of- factories . . .  54 

The  German  library  system . . . . . . .  80 

Higher  education  of  women  in  Austria .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  84 

Agricultural  schools  in  Austria _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  88 

Noire’s  logos  theory. . . . . . . . . . . .  102 

Goethe  and  the  great  thinkers . . . . .  110 

State  appropriations  for  education  in  Europe _ _ _ _ _  115 

Health  and  mortality  among  teachers  in  Berlin _ _ _ _ _ _  119 

Continuation  schools  in  Germany . . . . . . . .  123 

Increase  in  the  number  of  women  teachers  in  German  cities _  123 

Growth  of  the  German  national  union  of  teachers  _ _ _  124 

Cost  of  free  text-books  in  Zurich _ _ _  124 

Sons  of  laborers  in  German  secondary  schools _ _ _  125 

Salaries  of  teachers  in  Prussian  cities  _ _ _  126 

German  university  students . .- . . . . . . .  126 

Chapter  II.— A  Legislative  History  of  the  Public  School  System  of  the  State 

of  Ohio. 

Preface . . . . . .  129 

The  period  1785-1821. _ _ _ _  130 

The  period  1821-1825 . . . . . .  133 

The  period  1825-1838 _ _ _ _ _ _ _  135 

The  period  1838-1853 . . . . . . . . . .  140 

The  period  1853-1873. _ _ _ _  150 

The  period  1873-1900 . . . . . . . .  153 

Chapter  III.— Consolidation  of  Schools  and  Transportation  of  Pupils. 

A  visit  to  the  centralized  schools  of  Ohio. . . . . .  161 

Consolidation  of  schools  and  conveyance  of  children  in  Massachusetts _ _ _  172 

Transportation  of  pupils  in  Indiana  . . . . . . . .  184 

An  inquiry  regarding  conveyance  of  scholars  in  New  Hampshire . . . .  204 

Transportation  of  pupils  in  N ebraska  . .  212 

Chapter  IV. 

American  Industrial  Education:  What  Shall  It  Be . . . . . .  215 

Chapter  V.— Educational  Pathology,  or  Self-Government  in  School. 

Institutions  for  preventing  social  diseases . . .  235 

Saving  boys  from  crime . . . . . . . . .  236 

The  Junior  Republic _ _ _ _ _ _ _  238 

Government  of  boys,  for  boys,  by  boys. . . . . . . .  244 

School  government . . . .  249 

Chapter  VI.— International  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 

Arts,  and  Education. 

List  of  officers . . . . . . .  263 

Introductory  summary . . . . . __  _  _  _ v - - -  264 

General  purpose  of  the  association . . . . . .  266 

Reports  of  meetings  of  the  association  held  in  Paris  in  1900 . . . . .  277 

International  museums  and  institutes,  Paris . . . . ' - - -  280 

Arrangements  for  the  Glasgow  International  Assembly,  1901 . . .  287 

Chapter  VII.— Educational  Training  for  Railroad  Service. 

The  American  technical  school  and  its  relation  to  railroads . . . .  305 

Education  in  railway  engineering  at  the  University  of  Illinois' . . .  318 

Chapter  VIII. 

From  Fundamental  to  Accessory  in  the  Development  of  the  Nervous  System 
and  of  Movements . - .  825 

Chapter  IX. 

Inhibition . . . .  345 


CONTENTS. 


y 


Page. 

Chapter  X.— The  Common  School  in  the  Southern  States  Beyond  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  River,  from  1830  to  1860. 


L  ouisiana . . - . .  357 

Missouri . - - - - - - -  373 

Arkansas . - . . . - - - -  388 

Texas . - . - . - . . . -  391 


Chapter  XL— Common  School  Education  in  the  South  from  the  Beginning  of 
the  Civil  War  to  1870-1876. 


Introductory . - . . . - .  103 

Elementary  schooling  of  the  freedmen  in  Washington  during  the  war . . . .  410 

Beginnings  of  education  for  the  freedmen  in  Virginia - - - -  414 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  in  the  education  of  the  freedmen . .  415 

The  educational  work  of  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  among  the  freedmen _ _ _ _  416 

The  administration  of  Gen.  John  Eaton  among  the  freedmen  in  the  Mississippi  Valley -  424 

The  inauguration  of  the  common  school  system  among  the  colored  people  of  Louisiana  "by 

Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  1863-64  . . . . - . . . - . .  435 

The  Freedmen’s  Bureau  - . . . . . . .  437 

The  Peabody  Education  Fund . . .  451 

The  mission  schools  established  by  the  churches  and  the  people  of  the  North .  471 

The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  . .  474 


Chapter  XII. 


Letter  Concerning  the  Establishment  of  a  Normal  School  for  the  Women  of 
Virginia.  By  Edward  S.  Joynes . . .  491 

Chapter  XIII.— Education  in  the  South. 

Industrial  education  and  the  new  South.  By  George  T.  Winston . . . .  509 

Education  and  production.  By  Charles  W.  Dabney . .  513 

Negro  education  in  the  South.  By  Paul  B.  Barringer. . . . . . .  517 

Reply  to  Dr.  Barringer’s  paper.  By  Julius  D.  Dreher _  523 

Discussion.  By  H.  B.  Frissell . . . . . . . . .  527 

Chapter  XIV.— German  Instruction  in  American  Schools. 

Preface . 531 

List  of  works  consulted  . . . . . . .  533 

Historical  development . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  538 

From  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  1825 . . . . _ . . .  539 

From  1825' to  1876 . . . . . . . . . . . . .  552 

From  1876  to  the  close  of  the  century _ _ _ _  564 

Position  of  German  instruction  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century . . . .  589 

Colleges  and  universities . . . . . .  589 

Public  secondary  schools . 635 

Public  primary  schools . 639 

N ormal  schools . . . . . . .  646 

Parochial  schools  _  . . . . . . .  650 

Association  and  private  schools . . . . . . .  654 

Summer  and  night  schools,  kindergartens,  instruction  in  athletics,  singing,  and  manual 

training . . . . . . . . .  655 

Statistics  . . . . . . . . .  659 

The  future  of  German  instruction . . . . .  663 

Silent  universities  . . . . . . . . . .  663 

Associations  and  periodical  publications  for  the  promotion  of  German  instruction _  672 

Special  institutions  and  endowments . . . .  679 

Biographical  notes . . . . . . . .  687 

Effect  on  relations  between  Germany  and  America . . .  703 

Chapter  XV. 

The  First  Comprehensive  Attempts  at  Child  Study .  709 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  XVI.—1 The  Education  of  the  Negro. 

Page. 

The  educational  significance  of  the  growth  and  tendency  of  the  negro  population _ _  733 

Early  struggle  for  education,  personal  risk,  and  economic  sacrifice  - . . .  743 

Separate  school  provisions . . . . . .  749 

Negro  owners  and  tenants  of  farms  and  homes . . . . . . . . .  757 

Occupations  of  negroes . . . . . .  763 

Special  studies  of  the  economic  conditions  of  the  negro . . . .  772 

The  education  of  the  city  negro  . . . . - . . . . . .  781 

The  intellectual  capacity  of  the  negro . . . . .  794 

The  need  of  the  higher  education. . . .  802 

Objections  to  the  higher  education  of  the  negro  answered. . . . . .  810 

The  relative  claims  of  industrial  and  higher  education  . . . . .  817 

The  higher  education  of  colored  women  . . . . . . .  623 

The  origin  of  the  negro  college  . . . . . . . . . . .  828 

Work,  ways,  and  future  of  negro  colleges . . . . . . . . .  832 

ThenegroinN  or  them  colleges . . . . . . . .  842 

Colored  men  in  the  professions . . . . . . . . . .  £48 

Negroes  who  have  achieved  distinction  along  lines  calling  for  definite  intellectual  activity.  £54 

Chapter  XVII 

Notices  of  Some  Early  English  Writers  on  Education . . .  861 

Chapter  XVIII.— Third  Annual  Conference  of  the  Association  of  Catholic 

Colleges. 

Officers  of  the  association . . . . . . . .  885 

Delega  tes  present . . . . . . .  885 

The  Catholic  college  of  the  twentieth  century.  By  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Conaty .  886 

Catholic  secondary  schools.  By  Rev.  James  A.  Burns . . . . .  894 

The  teaching  of  science.  By  Rev.  Henry  J.  De  Laak _ _ _ _ _  994 

The  teaching  of  history  in  college.  By  Rev.  Laurence  A.  Delurey . . .  916 

The  teaching  of  English  in  college.  By  Prof.  Edmund  J.  Ryan  _ _  922 

Educational  legislation  in  the  United  States.  Discussion _ _  930 

Report  of  committee  on  college  entrance  requirements _ _ _ _  932 

Greek  in  our  Catholic  colleges.  By  Rev.  Candidus  Eichenlaub . .  933 

Chapter  XIX.— Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Information  on  education  in  Great  Britain  in  previous  Reports . . .  939 

Brief  outlines  of  systems  of  education  of  England  and  Wales,  Scotland  and  Ireland.. .  940 

Measures  affecting  higher  grade  board  schools . . . . . . .  944 

Legislative  measures  . . . . . .  951 

State  of  rural  schools . . . . . . . .  953 

Development  of  board  schools  in  the  cities . . . . . . . .  955 

Statistical  tables . . . . .  970 

Secondary  education  in  England  and  Scotland . . .  980 

Higher  education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland . . . . . . .  985 

The  Irish  university  commission  and  university  education  in  Ireland _ _  986 

The  Government  educational  bill.  By  E.  Lyulph  Stanley. . . . . .  994 

A  national  system  of  education.  By  Cloudesley  Brereton _ _ _ _  1002 

Chapter  XX.— The  Public  School  Problem  in  the  South. 

The  South  waiting  for  education . . . . . . . .  1009 

The  effects  of  war  and  reconstruction . . . . . . . . .  1009 

The  country  schools . . . . . . : .  1011 

Compulsory  attendance . . . . . .  1014 

Supervision . . . . . . . . . . .  1016 

Appendix.  The  Conference  for  Education  in  the  South,  Athens,  Ga.,  1902  . .  1022 

Chapter  XXI.— Temperance  Instruction. 

Is  there  too  much  temperance  matter  in  the  school  physiologies?  By  Mary  H.  Hunt .  1027 

Report  of  a  committee  of  the  department  of  superintendence  . . .  1031 

Temperance  teaching  and  recent  legislation  in  Connecticut.  By  W.  B.  Ferguson . . .  1032 

The  modern  subjection  of  science  and  education  to  a  propaganda.  By  Wm.  T.  Sedgwick..  1041 

The  will  of  the  people,  not  of  an  oligarchy.  By  Mary  H.  Hunt. .  1044 

Alcoholic  physiology  in  school . . . . . .  1046 

Enforced  temperance  among  railway  employees  . . . . .  1047 

Report  of  a  committee  of  the  New  York  State  Science  Teachers’  Association . .  1049 


CONTENTS. 


YII 


Chapter  XXII. 

Page. 

Relations  oe  the  National  Government  to  Higher  Education  and  Research..  1051 

Chapter  XXIII. 

The  Carnegie  Institution  op  Washington,  D.  C.  (with  an  Appended  List  op  the 
Principal  Educational  Benefactions  op  Andrew  Carnegie  in  the  United 
States  and  a  Statement  op  His  Gift  in  Aid  of  Higher  Education  in 
Scotland)... .  1067 

Chapter  XXIV.— Education  in  Prance. 

Previous  articles  on  education  in  France . . . .  1081 

Statistical  summary  of  education  in  France _ _ _ _ _  1082 

Detailed  statistics  of  primary  education . . . . . .  1087 

Movement  for  prolonging  tlie  education  of  the  people . . . . .  1095 

The  organization  of  the  State  teaching  system  (University  of  France)  and  the  inspectorate 

for  primary  schools . . . . . . . . .  1099 

Secondary  education . . . 1103 

Higher  education . . . . . . . . . . . .  1109 

Admission  of  foreign  students  to  French  universities. . . . . . .  1113 

Conspectus  of  courses  of  study  in  the  University  of  Paris . . . . .  1115 

International  correspondence  of  students . . . . . . . . .  1118 

Instruction  in  morals  in  the  primary  schools  of  France . .  1120 

Juvenile  crime . 1125 

(The  simplification  of  French  syntax . . . . .  1130 

Chapter  XXV.— Higher  Commercial  Education. 

Establishment  of  schools  for  commercial  and  business  education .  1137 

Commercial  course  in  the  University  of  California,  Berkeley . . .  1139 

Colorado  Agricultural  College,  Boulder . 1140 

University  of  Chicago,  Chicago  . . . . . . . .  1140 

Northwestern  University,  Evanston  . . . . . . . .  1147 

University  of  Illinois,  Urbana . . . . . .  1148 

Indiana  University,  Bloomington . . . . . . . . .  1153 

Louisiana  State  University,  Baton  Rouge . . . . . . . . . . .  1154 

University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor  . .- . . . . . . . .  1154 

N evada  State  University,  Reno. . . . . . . . .  1158 

Dartmouth  College,  Hanover . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1159 

N  ew  Y  ork  U ni  versity ,  N  ew  Y ork . . . . . . . . . . .  1165 

Ohio  State  University,  Columbus _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  1166 

Central  High  School,  Philadelphia . . . . . . .  1166 

Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia  . . . . . . . . . .  1167 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia . . . . . . . . .  1173 

University  of  South  Dakota,  Vermilion . . . . . .  1176 

University  of  the  South,  Sewanee . . . . . . . .  1177 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  Logan  . . . . . .  1177 

Universities  of  Vermont,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia . . . . . . . .  1178 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison . . . . . . . . .  1179 

University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie . . . . .  1182 

Chapter  XXVI. 

List  of  Educational  Periodicals  in  the  United  States . . . . .  1183 

Chapter  XXVII.— Educational  Directory. 

Chief  State  school  officers . . . .  1189 

City  superintendents . . . . . . .  1190 

Presidents  of  colleges  for  men  and  of  coeducational  colleges . . .  1200 

Presidents  of  colleges  for  women . . . .  1206 

Presidents  of  schools  of  technology . . . .  1208 

Principals  of  normaT schools . . . . .  1209 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  October  1 ,  1901. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  the  Annual  Report  of 
this^Office  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1901. 

There  were  enrolled  in  schools  and  colleges,  public  and  private, 
during  the  year  1900-1901,  17,299,230  pupils,  the  same  being  an 
increase  of  278,520  pupils  over  the  previous  year. 

Of  this  number  the  enrollment  in  public  institutions — that  is  to 
say,  institutions  supported  by  taxation  and  funds  belonging  to  States 
and  municipalities — was  15,710,394,  as  against  15,443,462,  the  number 
reported  for  the  previous  year. 

Besides  the  enrollment  in  schools  and  colleges  of  the  prevailing 
type,  as  given  above,  there  were  pupils  enrolled  in  special  institu¬ 
tions  of  varying  degrees  of  educational  character,  from  the  city  even¬ 
ing  schools,  business  schools,  and  schools  for  Indians,  all  of  which 
approach  nearly  the  type  of  the  common  schools,  to  schools  for  cook¬ 
ery,  reform  schools,  schools  for  special  trades  and  vocations,  which 
depart  more  widely  from  the  common  type  of  school,  as  follows: 


Enrollment  in  special  schools,  1900-1901. 


City  evening  schools _ _ _ 

Business  schools _ _ _ 

Schools  for  defectives _ _ 

Reform  schools _ _ _ 

Government  Indian  schools _ 

Indian  schools  (Five  Civilized  Tribes) _ . 

Schools  in  Alaska  supported  by  the  Government _ _ 

Schools  in  Alaska  supported  by  incorporated  municipalities  (partly  esti¬ 
mated)  _ _ _ _ _ 

Orphan  asylums  and  other  benevolent  institutions _ 

Private  kindergartens _ 

Miscellaneous  (including  schools  of  music,  oratory,  elocution,  cookery, 
and  various  special  arts) _ _ _ _ 


203,000 
110,031 
27, 159 
25, 337 
23,077 
11,590 
1,963 


1,393 
15,000 
95, 000 

50, 000 


Total 


563, 550 


Adding  the  enrollment  in  these  special  schools  to  the  total  of  schools 
giving  general  education  we  have  a  total  of  17,862,780. 


IX 


X 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  general  items  of  statistics  for  the  country  as  a  whole  and  for 
the  five  census  divisions  may  be  seen  in  the  following  three  tables. 

In  Table  I  is  given  a  comparative  summary  of  items  of  attendance 
of  pupils,  teaching  force,  and  receipts  and  expenditures,  showing  the 
increase  from  decade  to  decade  for  thirty  years  and  more  in  what  are 
called  “  common  schools,”  that  is  to  say,  schools  of  elementary  and 
secondary  grades  supported  from  public  funds. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  average  length  of  school  term  in  days  has 
increased  from  132.2  days  in  1870  to  144.2  the  past  year.  But  there 
is  a  slight  decrease  from  the  previous  year  (1900)  in  this  respect, 
amounting  to  three-tenths  of  a  daj^. 

The  number  of  women  teachers  has  reached  306,063,  from  122,986 
thirty-one  years  ago.  The  number  of  male  teachers  was  77,529  in 
1870  and  reached  132,257  in  1898,  from  which  it  has  declined  in  three 
years  to  123,941.  The  ratio  of  male  to  female  teachers  has  declined 
from  42.8  in  1880  to  28.8  per  cent  in  1901.  This  preponderance  of 
women  teachers  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  three-fourths  of  all  the 
pupils  are  in  the  first  four  years’  work  of  the  elementary  schools,  and 
to  the  fact  that  women  are  to  be  preferred  over  men  for  instruction 
of  children  under  ten  years  of  age. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  aggregate  of  school  property  is  nearly 
$577,000,000,  having  increased  to  that  amount  from  $130,000,000 
reported  in  1870. 

The  income  from  local  taxes  has  increased  to  $161,245,764  the  past 
year,  from  $97,222,426  in  1890. 


Table  I.— -Common  school  statistics  of  the  United  States. 


THE  COMMISSIONER  S  INTRODUCTION. 


XI 


1900-1901. a 

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306,063 

430,004 

28.8 

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249,969 

$576,963,089 

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The  figures  for  this  year  are  subject  to  correction.  c  Estimated  e  Including  buildings  rented. 

United  States  census.  d  Several  States  are  not  included  in  this  average. 


XII 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


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THE  COMMISSIONER  S  INTRODUCTION. 


XIII 


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Students  receiving  higher  instruction. 

Total  higher. 

Private. 

16 

149, 904 

s^lgg 

aTco'otAo 
^  rH  <M  lO 

iPuhlic. 

i 

15 

89,933 

cc^i  coi— 1*>. 

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j  In  normal  schools.?/ 

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14 

1 

1 

co^wcS^ 

CDOCD'rHTO 

Private. 

13 

20,030 

1,030 

1,216 

2,574 

15,002 

208 

Public. 

a* 

H 

43,372 

15,301 

4,197 

4,261 

16,363 

3,250 

In  schools  of  medicine, 
law,  and  theology,  e 

Total. 

11 

61,164 

17,933 

7,553 

7,259 

25,750 

2,669 

Private. 

10 

50,804 

17,728 
6,228 
5,919 
19, 164 

1,765 

Public./ 

a 

10,360 

205 

1,325 

1,340 

6,586 

804 

In  universities  and  col¬ 
leges.  c 

'Total. 

CO 

115,271 

35,919 

15,079 

15,184 

40,615 

8,474 

Private. 

1- 

79,070 

30,477 

10,727 

11,542 

23,233 

3,081 

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3 

a 

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0 

36,201 

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Pupils  rec e i  vi n g 
secondary  in¬ 
struction  (high- 
school  grades)  a 

Private  (in 
prepara¬ 
tory 
schools, 
academies, 
semi¬ 
naries, 
etc.). 

»o 

177,260 

55,930 

28,346 

32,643 

49,640 

10,701 

Public.  & 

558,740 
_ _ 

178,322 

30,569 

44,886 

269,830 

35,133 

Pupils  receiving  ele¬ 
mentary  instruc¬ 
tion  (primary  and 
grammar  grades). 

Private 

(largely 

esti¬ 

mated). 

CO 

©3 

c5 

CO 

526,950 
111,  344 
162,614 
403,562 
57,202 

Public. 

5? 

15,061,721 

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I  cd©f©d'o' 

Division. 

H 

The  United  States. 

North  Atlantic  Division. 
South  Atlantic  Division  . 
South  Central  Division  . 
North  Central  Division . 
Western  Division . 

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Table  II. — Number  of  pupils  and  students  of  all  grades  in  both  public  and  private  schools  and  colleges,  1900-1901 — Continued. 


XIV 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


Per  cent  of  the  total  pop¬ 
ulation  enrolled  in  each 
grade. 

Total. 

CO 

22.39 

SfefSSS 

©  Os*  03  CO  tH 

03  03  03  0103 

High¬ 

er. 

31 

0. 31 

0.33 

0. 27 

0. 21 

0.33 

0.35 

Sec¬ 

ond¬ 

ary. 

30 

0.95 

1.09 

0.56 

0.54 

1.19 

1.09 

Ele¬ 

men¬ 

tary- 

© 

0? 

CO 

03 

cn>  -±<  cn 

CO  00003  CO 

ssas'sia 

Per  cent  of  public 
pupils. 

High¬ 

er. 

at 

« 

§ 

8  8  5?  3  8 

Sec¬ 

ond¬ 

ary. 

t- 

« 

03 

as 

lO 

76. 12 

51.89 

57.90 
84.46 
76. 65 

Ele¬ 

men¬ 

tary. 

os 

« 

& 

oi 

c& 

86.99 
95. 16 
94. 83 
93.24 
93.34 

Per  cent  in  each  grade 
of  the  whole  num¬ 
ber  of  pupils. 

High¬ 

er. 

to 

« 

1.39 

1.61 

1.17 

0.90 

1.53 

1.59 

Sec¬ 

ond¬ 

ary. 

T* 

0? 

4.25 

CO  3>-  CJOC5 
COvHCOOC^ 

lO  03  03  TiH 

Ele¬ 

men¬ 

tary. 

CO 

0* 

94.36 

rH  ©  r— 1  fc—  03 
OCOl-rH  vH 

CO  CO  O  CO  CO 
©©©©© 

Grand 

total. 

e? 

8 

03 

cT 

S 

rH 

4,354,472 

2,389,499 

3,250,015 

6,386,487 

918,757 

Summary  according 
to  control. 

Private. 

H 

0? 

1,588,836 

SfeSSg 

Public. 

© 

Ci 

15,710,394 

ctf  ©  ^  co  t- 

ofr-T^iCkO' 

03  CO  CO  1-  -r» 
fc-  03  ©  CO  GO 

C0  03C010 

Summary  of  pupils  by  grade. 

Higher. 

19 

239,837 

70,183 
28,045 
29, 278 
97, 730 
14,601 

Second¬ 

ary. 

IS 

736,000 

cm  at  o  oo 

oSsVs'is 

<C>i  CO 

Elemen¬ 

tary. 

17 

16,323,393 

05  00  3^  03 

CO  CO  O  CO  03 
©  lO  03  03  CO 

©~o3cobfco' 

^03  CO 

Division. 

H 

The  United  States. 

N  or  th  Atlantic  Di  visi  on . 
South  Atlantic  Division. 
South  Central  Division . 
North  Central  Division. 
Western  Division . 

THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XV 


In  the  following  table  (Table  Ilia)  I  have  shown  the  variation  of 
increase  of  the  school  system  in  the  United  States  for  the  past  twelve 
years.  The  entire  increase  in  eleven  years  has  been  2,786,452,  the 
same  being  an  average  of  253,314  per  annum.  I  have  shown  in  the 
fourth  column  the  per  cent  of  increase  over  the  previous  year  in 
order  to  indicate  the  irregularities  from  year  to  year.  Some  of  these 
irregularities  are  doubtless  due  to  carelessness  in  the  preparation  of 
returns  made  to  this  Office.  These  irregularities  are  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  be  corrected  in  some  cases  in  the  following  year,  and  in  some 
eases  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  afterwards,  so  that  the  average  for 
four  years  will  eliminate  irregularities  that  arise  from  error  in  the 
collection  and  tabulation  of  the  details  of  the  statistical  aggregate.  In 
one  year  the  annual  increase  may  be  a  little  too  large,  in  another  too 
small ;  but  after  making  allowance  for  errors  of  this  description  the 
evidence  remains  that  there  exists  an  actual  variation  of  considerable 
importance  in  school  attendance  from  one  year  to  another,  and  in 
some  cases  it  is  easy  to  assign  a  cause. 

Up  to  1893  there  had  been  a  great  increase  of  productive  industry 
in  the  way  of  manufacture  and  transportation.  The  increase  had 
begun  as  early  as  in  1880,  and  with  the  development  of  new  and  higher 
fields  of  manufacture  and  transportation  there  had  been  a  call  upon 
the  laborers  in  the  general  trades  for  alert  and  skillful  workmen  for 
the  new  positions  created.  The  most  skillful  blacksmiths  were  invited 
to  step  up  higher  into  the  new  situations  opened  for  a  higher  order  of 
metal  work.  In  the  same  way  the  vast  army  of  carpenters  had  been 
drawn  upon  for  their  most  skillful  laborers  to  fill  places  in  establish¬ 
ments  doing  cabinetwork  and  the  higher  orders  of  wood  manufacture. 

This  same  change  had  taken  place  in  transportation.  The  larger 
the  combination  the  more  places  for  intelligent  skill  and  productive 
power.  The  farms  had  been  drawn  upon  for  their  most  intelligent 
youth  to  leave  the  plow  and  take  up  manufactures  in  wood,  in  metal, 
in  leather,  or  in  textiles.  When  business  is  very  good  it  is  apt  to  be 
the  case  that  the  older  youth  leave  the  school  and  take  their  places  in 
the  ranks  of  productive  industry.  This  is  what  happened  in  the  years 
directly  preceding  1893.  On  the  first  check  to  productive  industry  the 
less  skillful  laborers  are  likely  to  be  thrown  out  of  employment.  A 
manager  prefers  to  keep  his  most  skillful  laborers.  A  parent  also 
prefers  to  send  his  youngest  sons  back  to  school,  if  he  has  been  obliged 
for  lack  of  help  to  withdraw  them  prematurely,  and  his  stress  is  now 
relieved.  This  explains  how  it  is  that  there  was  a  sudden  annual 
increase  of  nearly  400,000  pupils  enrolled  in  the  year  ending  June, 
1893.  It  is  probable  that  the  excess  that  was  enrolled  was  chiefly  in 
the  spring  and  summer,  but  it  seems  to  have  continued  the  whole  of 
the  next  year,  because  the  increase  of  the  next  year  is  nearly  half  a 
million.  But  with  the  long  continuation  of  hard  times  the  parent 


XVI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

begins  to  withdraw  again  his  older  youth  from  school  in  order  that 
they  may  assist  in  the  support  of  the  family,  although  it  be  by  means 
of  poorly  remunerated  industries. 

In  columns  5,  6,  and  7  the  specialist  on  State  systems  in  this  Office 
has  prepared  a  careful  estimate  of  the  increase  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  from  year  to  year  for  purposes  of  comparison. 
And  it  would  seem  that  the  average  annual  increase  of  1.61  per  cent 
in  the  enrollment  of  pupils  over  that  for  the  previous  year  is  sur¬ 
passed  in  the  general  population,  which  amounts  to  1.93  per  cent. 
The  attendance  on  schools  in  the  decade  1890-1900  has  not  quite 
equaled  in  its  ratio  of  increase  that  of  the  entire  population.  This 
ten  years’  change  of  rate,  however,  corresponds  to  a  decrease  of  only 
0.67  of  1  per  cent  in  the  proportion  of  the  population  receiving  edu¬ 
cation  (see  Table  III5),  and  in  my  opinion  this  is  due  chiefly  to  a 
gradual  improvement  in  the  methods  of  collecting  and  tabulating 
statistics  of  the  rural  portions  of  the  country,  many  of  which  were 
formerly  in  the  habit  of  adding  the  children  of  the  summer  session 
of  school  without  deduction ;  said  summer  school  being  taught  b}^  a 
separate  teacher;  counting  it  with  the  enrollment  of  the  winter  term 
without  making  any  allowance  for  duplicate  registration,  which  in 
some  cases  may  have  amounted  to  one-sixth  of  the  entire  enrollment. 
In  the  rapid-moving  populations  of  cities  and  villages  in  the  far  West 
there  is  very  much  duplicate  registration  at  the  present  time,  and  it 
happens  often  that  the  methods  of  excluding  this  error  are  far  from 
efficient.  The  falling  off  in  the  proportion  of  the  population  enrolled 
is  something  less  than  seven  one-hundredths  of  1  per  cent  on  the  quota 
from  year  to  year. 

But  the  statistics  of  schools  in  other  nations  where  a  complete 
compulsory  system  is  in  efficient  operation  show  that  20  per  cent  of 
the  entire  population  enrolled  in  schools  is  too  large  to  expect  under 
normal  conditions.  And  yet  in  Table  III6  it  is  shown  that  the  per 
cent  enrolled  in  1889-90  amounted  to  23.17  of  the  entire  population, 
while  in  1899-1900  it  amounted  to  22.50.  The  increase  of  population 
enrolled  in  secondary  and  higher  schools  proves  conclusively  that  the 
amount  of  schooling  for  each  person  as  a  whole  is  increasing  in  the 
United  States,  and  that  the  schools  are  reaching  more  persons  from 
year  to  year.  The  system  of  higher  education  in  1890  enrolled  only 
one  five-hundredth  of  the  population,  while  it  enrolled  nearly  one 
three-hundredth  in  1900  (i.  e.,  it  increased  from  2,181  to  3,139  in  the 
million).  The  increase  in  secondary  education  also  was  approxi¬ 
mately  from  1  in  200  to  1  in  100  (i.  e.,  from  5,872  in  the  million  of 
population  to  9,449  in  the  million). 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XYII 


Table  Ilia. — Increase  in  eleven  years  of  the  total  number  of  persons  receiving 
education  and  the  total  population. 


School  year. 

Pupils, 
public  and 
private, of 
all  grades. 

Increase 
over  pre¬ 
ceding 
year. 

Per  cent 
of  in¬ 
crease. 

Estimated 

population. 

Increase 
over  pre¬ 
ceding 
year. 

Per  cent 
of  in¬ 
crease. 

1889-90 . - 

14,512, 778 

a  62, 622, 250 

1890-91  _ 

14,669,069 

156, 291 

1.08 

63,809,588 

1,187,338 

1.90 

1891-92 . . . 

14, 714,933 

45,864 

.31 

65, 027, 377 

1,217,789 

1.91 

1892-93  _ 

15,083,630 

368,697 

2.51 

66,266,491 

1,239,114 

1.91 

1893-94... . 

15,530,268 

446,638 

2.96 

67,537,727 

1,271,236 

1.92 

1894-95 . . . 

15,688,622 

158,354 

1.02 

68,844,341 

1,308,614 

1.93 

1895-86. . . . . 

15,997,197 

308,575 

1.97 

70,127,242 

1,282,901 

1.86 

1896-97  _ _ 

16,255,093 

257, 896 

1.61 

71,445,273 

1,318,031 

1.88 

1837-98  . . 

16,687,643 

432,550 

2.66 

72,792,617 

1,347,344 

1.89 

1898-99 . . . 

18,738,362 

50,719 

.30 

74,178,968 

1,386,349 

1.90 

1899-1900  . . . 

17,020,710 

282, 348 

1.69 

a  75, 602, 515 

1,423,549 

1.92 

1900-1901  b, . _ 

17,299,230 

278,520 

1.64 

77,262,743 

1,660,228 

2.20 

Total  increase .  . 

2,786, 452 

19.20 

14,640,493 

23.38 

Average . 

253,314 

1.61 

1,330,954 

1.93 

a  United  States  census.  &  Indian  Territory  added. 


Table  III&J — Per  cent  of  the  population  receiving  education  of  different  grades 

in  1889-90  and  1899-1900. 


Grade. 

1889-90. 

1899-1900. 

Pupils. 

Per  cent 
of  popu¬ 
lation. 

Pupils. 

Per  cent 
of  popu¬ 
lation. 

Elementary: 

Public  . . 

12,494,233 

1,516,300 

221,522 
145, 481 
135,242 

M 

... 

14,821,969 

1,240,925 

530.425 
188; 816 
238,575 

19.60 

1.64 

.70 

.25 

.31 

Private ..  . . . . . . . . . 

Secondary: 

Public  . . . 

Private . . . . . . 

Higher 

Total . . . . 

14,512, 778 

23. 17 

17,020,710 

22.50 

THE  AVERAGE  AMOUNT  OF  SCHOOLING  PER  INHABITANT. 

It  will  be  seen  from  Table  IVa  that  the  average  schooling  in  years 
of  200  days  each  in  public  and  private  schools  for  the  whole  United 
States  was  5.14.  The  different  divisions  of  the  United  States,  how¬ 
ever,  varied  much,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  table.  One 
also  sees  in  what  manner  the  total  amount  of  schooling  per  individual 
has  increased  during  the  past  thirty  years. 

In  Table  IV5  the  same  items  are  given  with  reference  to  the  public 
elementary  and  secondary  schools,  the  private  schools  and  higher 
institutions  being  left  out  of  consideration.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
common  schools,  including  the  elementary  and  high  schools,  give 
an  average  to  the  entire  population  of  nearly  six  years  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Division. 

I  repeat  here  certain  interesting  estimates  upon  the  amount  of 
schooling  given  to  each  inhabitant  on  an  average  at  different  selected 
dates  in  the  past  century.  While  there  were  many  sections  of  the 
country,  in  cities  and  wealthy  towns,  that  extended  the  blessings  of 


ED  1901 


-II 


XVIII 


EDUCATION  EEPOKT,  1900-1901. 


education  practically  to  the  entire  population  early  in  the  century, 
yet,  on  the  whole,  no  State  or  Territory  had  any  compulsory  law’s  or 
attempted  to  provide  in  an  effective  wray  for  the  education  of  all  the 
children  of  the  people.  A  careful  estimate  of  the  entire  amount  of 
schooling  obtained  by  the  average  person  in  1800  shows  that  it  did 
not  exceed  82  days  of  school  instruction  during  his  life.  The  vast 
majority  of  the  people  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States  did 
not  receive  any  school  instruction  at  that  time.  In  1840,  the  year 
in  which  the  United  States  census  began  to  enumerate  the  number 
of  persons  that  had  attended  school  the  previous  year,  the  total 
amount  of  schooling  for  each  inhabitant  had  risen  to  208  days;  and 
according  to  the  census  of  1850  the  average  amount  of  schooling  had 
increased  to  420  days,  for  this  decade  was  a  period  of  agitation  on 
the  part  of  Horace  Mann  and  his  disciples.  A  great  revival  in 
common-school  interest  extending  through  the  thickly  populated  sec¬ 
tions  of  the  country  had  produced  this  great  change  in  the  ten  years, 
1840-1850.  In  1860  the  average  amount  of  schooling  had  risen  to  434 
days,  only  14  days  more  than  it  had  been  in  1850.  But  in  1870  the 
number  had  reached  672  days;  in  1880,  792  days;  in  1890,  892  days, 
and  in  1900,  1,026  days. 

Table  IV  a. — Average  number  of  years  of  schooling  (of  200  days  each)  that  each 
individual  of  the  population  received  at  the  different  dates  specified  in  the  table, 
taking  into  account  all  public  and  private  schooling  of  whatever  grade. 


1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1893. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

alSOO. 

a  1991. 

The  United.  States 

3.36 

3. 

96 

4. 

46 

4.58 

4.85 

4.87 

4. 

99 

5.09 

5.20 

5.09 

5.13 

5.14 

north  Atlantic  Division. 

5.06 

5. 

69 

6. 

05 

6.13 

6. 41 

6.52 

6. 

67 

6.84 

6.95 

6.90 

6.98 

6.94 

South  Atlantic  Division . 

1.23 

2. 

22 

2. 

73 

2.84 

3.02 

3.01 

3. 

01 

3. 07 

3.32 

3.11 

3.17 

3.35 

South  Central  Division.. 

1.12 

1. 

86 

2. 

42 

2.70 

3.00 

2.81 

2. 

87 

3.03 

3.04 

3.09 

3. 11 

2.97 

North  Central  Division.. 

4.01 

4. 

65 

5. 

36 

5. 43 

5. 72 

5. 81 

6. 

00 

6.01 

6. 15 

6.01 

6.09 

6.05 

Western  Division . 

3.56 

4. 

17 

4. 

-57 

5.17 

5.29 

5. 62 

5. 

66 

5.90 

5.85 

5.42 

5.53 

5.61 

a  Subject  to  'correction. 


Table  IV  b. — The  same,  taking  into  account  only  the  schooling  furnished  by  public 
elementary  and  secondary  schools. 


' 1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

a  1800. 

a  1901. 

The  United  States 

2.91 

3.45 

3. 85 

4.05 

4.28 

4. 35 

4.43 

4.53 

4.63 

4.55 

4.59 

4.58 

north  Atlantic  Division  . 

4.43 

4.84 

4.99 

5.12 

5. 34 

5.51 

5.64 

5.78 

5.88 

5,85 

5.81 

5. 87 

South  Atlantic  Division . 

.80 

1.90 

2.42 

2.55 

2. 76 

2. 73 

2.74 

2.79 

3.05 

2. 83 

2.88 

3.04 

South  Central  Division. . 

.80 

1.57 

2.20 

2.44 

2.68 

2.53 

2.-59 

2.75 

.2. 76 

2,81 

2.83 

2.69 

north  Central  Division.  . 

3.71 

4. 19 

4. 67 

4. 88 

5.14 

5.26 

5. 35 

5.40 

5.51 

5.41 

5. 48 

5.48 

Western  Division _ 

2.77 

3.57 

3.98 

4.60 

4. 71 

5.04 

5.12 

5.38 

5.34 

4.98 

4.99 

5.01 

«  Subject  to  correction. 


Education  in  centred  Europe. — Chapter  I  presents,  among  other 
items,  a  view  of  recent  educational  movements  in  Germany,  and  gives 
some  idea  of  the  conflict  existing  there  between  classical  and  modern 
tendencies  in  secondary  schools.  The  most  interesting  point  is  per- 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


NIX 


haps  that  found  in  the  Emperor’s  order  which  assigns  great  impor¬ 
tance  to  instruction  in  the  English  language.  He  says:  “I  desire 
*  *  *  that  English  be  introduced  as  an  optional  study  of  equal 

rank,  with  Greek  in  classical  schools  throughout  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia.  Where  local  needs  suggest,  English  may  replace  French  as 
a  regular  study  and  French  be  taught  as  an  optional  study.”  That 
this  is  the  result  of  modern  commercial  and  industrial  conditions  is 
plainly  seen  from  the  equanimity  with  which  the  people  view  this 
step.  The  Journal  des  Debats  (Paris)  says  ‘  ‘  that  the  Emperor  morally 
gives  to  English  that  increased  importance  which  naturally  belongs 
to  it.”  The  Gaulois  (Paris)  is  of  like  opinion  when  it  says :  “Friendly 
competition  between  England  and  Germany  is  the  reason  why  the 
young  men  of  the  German  middle  classes,  who  are  not  intended  to 
become  gentlemen  of  leisure  nor  men  of  the  world,  but  business  men 
and  industrialists,  are  advised  by  their  Emperor  to  learn  English 
rather  than  French.  ”  In  order  to  further  show  the  powerful  influence 
modern  industrialism  has  upon  education  in  Germany,  some  extracts 
from  aii  address  of  Prof.  A.  Riedler,  of  Berlin,  on  “The  necessity  of 
technological  education”  are  given.  Professor  Riedler  argues  that 
the  teaching  of  science  for  its  own  sake,  as  is  done  in  the  old  estab¬ 
lished  universities,  will  not  suffice  in  the  present  age.  Knowledge  is 
valuable  only  when  it  can  be  applied  in  life.  He  urges  that  the  poly- 
technica  of  Germany  should  direct  their  main  attention  to  adaptations 
and  applications.  A  creative  agency,  he  says,  is  not  an  end  in  itself, 
but  is  a  means  toward  definite  economic  purposes.  Every  engineer 
who  wishes  to  be  a  creative  agent  must  realize  that  he  is  a  link  in  the 
chain  of  productive  industry.  All  instruction,  especially  that  in  the 
higher  seats  of  learning,  must  conform  to  this  tendency.  The  time 
has  passed  when  pure  scientific  education  meets  all  demands.  It  is 
said  that  this  professor,  a  very  frank  and  outspoken  advocate  of  the 
polytechnicum  as  against  the  classical  university,  succeeded  in  con¬ 
vincing  the  Emperor  that  by  giving  the  polytechniea  the  right  to  grant 
degrees  (Doctor  of  Engineering),  the  institutions  would  rise  in  the 
estimation  of  the  people,  and  subsequent  events  have  proved  this 
opinion  correct.  Students  from  other  lands  visit  the  German  poly- 
technical  schools.  There  are  now  more  than  2,000  foreign  students 
among  a  total  of  12,000.  But  this  does  not,  as  might  be  expected, 
diminish  the  number  of  foreigners  in  the  old-established  universities. 

Art  education  in  Germany . — W.  von  Seidlitz,  in  the  Deutsche  Revue, 
like  other  philosophic  writers  on  aesthetics,  uses  the  term  art  not  in  any 
restricted  but  in  the  widest  sense,  as  embracing  poetry,  or  rather 
good  literature,  painting,  sculpture,  the  drama,  and  music  ;  he  includes 
even  industrial  art.  He  gives  an  account  of  the  efforts  of  the  Ham¬ 
burg  teachers  to  sift  out  what  is  undesirable  in  juvenile  reading  mat¬ 
ter  and  to  decorate  the  school  houses  and  rooms.  The  numerous 
advocates  of  schoolroom  decoration  in  the  United  States  will  read 


XX 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 

with  some  interest  what  he  say s  on  this  topic.  One  will  he  surprised 
at  what  he  says  against  juvenile  literature.  He  contends,  namely, 
that  a  juvenile  hook  of  poetic  form  should  he  a  masterpiece;  hut  lit¬ 
erary  masterpieces,  he  says,  belong  to  general  literature,  and  hence  a 
specific  juvenile  literature  has  no  right  to  exist. 

Commercial  schools  and  commercial  universities  in  Germany. — In  a 
historical  review  of  the  gradual  growth  of  commercial  educational 
institutions,  the  fact  is  brought  out  that  as  early  as  1715  a  petition 
was  presented  to  the  Government  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  to  open 
a  commercial  academy,  the  plan  of  which  resembled  that  of  a  univer¬ 
sity.  The  recent  opening  of  a  higher  commercial  institution  affiliated 
with  the  Leipzig  University,  of  a  similar  institution  connected  with  the 
polytechnicum  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  of  independent  commercial 
universities  at  Hamburg  and  Cologne  are  indications  of  the  intense 
earnestness  with  which  the  Germans  are  preparing  themselves  for 
competition  in  the  world’s  markets. 

School  supervision  in  Germany. — An  account  is  given  of  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  school  supervision  existing  in  the  German  Empire,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  Saxony.  It  sketches  the  legal  provisi  ons  for  the  three  grades — 
local,  county,  and  State  supervision — showing  that  neither  local  nor 
State  supervision  exerts  much  influence  upon  the  schools,  hut  that 
county  supervision,  being  professional  supervision,  exerts  a  very  bene¬ 
ficial  influence.  Comparing  the  number  of  school  supervisors  with 
that  in  American  cities,  it  becomes  at  once  apparent  that  German 
schools  seem  to  get  along  and  produce  good  results  without  much 
supervision,  for  rarely  do  the  members  of  a  local  board  visit  the 
schools,  the  county  supervisor  or  inspector  scarcely  more  than  once 
or  twice  a  year,  and  the  minister  of  education,  as  State  supervisor, 
never.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  no  person  can  be  employed 
as  an  elementary  teacher  in  central  Europe  unless  he  have  a  certifi¬ 
cate  acquired  in  a  State  examination  after  four  years’  (in  some  German 
States  six  years’)  attendance  at  a  normal  school,  and  no  one  can  be 
appointed  to  a  position  in  a  secondary  school  who  is  not  a  university 
graduate  or  has  university  and  normal-school  training  combined.  This 
naturally  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  constantly  directing  the 
teachers  in  their  daily  work,  and  hence  the  small  number  of  super¬ 
vising  officers. 

Institutions  for  the  defective  in  Germany. — A  statistical  review  of 
institutions  for  the  blind,  the  deaf,  idiots  or  the  intellectually  weak, 
and  the  morally  depraved  is  offered,  which  proves  that  the  26  States 
of  the  Empire  are  eager  to  save  the  unfortunates,  to  enable  them  to 
make  a  living,  and  to  change  them  from  social  debits  to  social  credits. 

A  new  law  concerning  reformatory  education  of  children  in  Prus¬ 
sia. — This  law  affords  a  characteristic  example  of  German  thrift  and 
parental  government,  containing,  as  it  does,  provisions  for  placing 
depraved  children,  duly  convicted,  not  in  institutions  where  they 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXI 


might  he  further  contaminated  with  crime,  hut  in  well-reputed  fami¬ 
lies,  where  they  are  kept  as  apprentices  under  strict  supervision  and 
seclusion  from  the  evil  influence  of  the  streets.  Such  commitments, 
however,  are  made  only  hy  the  proper  judicial  authorities,  and  the 
expense  of  such  children  is  defrayed  at  first  hy  the  local  government, 
hut  the  government  may  reimburse  itself  by  collecting  the  costs  from 
the  families  from  whom  they  are  taken,  except  in  cases  of  poverty. 
This  law  has  now  been  in  force  a  year  and  a  half,  and  has  proved  so 
well  devised  and  of  such  beneficial  effect  that  other  States  of  the 
Empire  are  beginning  to  copy  it.  The  cause  of  this  new  departure 
in  the  treatment  of  juvenile  criminals  is  the  adoption  of  the  imperial 
criminal  code  in  1871,  which  fixes  the  age  limit  of  criminal  responsi¬ 
bility  at  12  or  in  some  cases  at  14  years  of  age.  Children  under  12 
who  commit  crimes  and  neglected  children  over  12  and  under  16  or  18 
are  now,  through  the  operation  of  this  law,  not  subject  to  punishment. 
Two  years’  margin  (12  to  14)  is  the  period  allowed  at  the  discretion  of 
the  judge,  who  in  each  individual  case  may  decide  whether  the  child 
is  intellectually  mature  enough  to  realize  the  consequences  of  its  evil 
acts,  and  the  margin  from  16  to  18  years  is  the  period  allowed  at  the 
same  discretion  in  cases  where  the  moral  deficiency  of  the  individual 
is  in  question. 

Child  labor  outside  of  factories. — This  gives  the  results  of  an  official 
inquirj^  set  afoot  by  the  German  imperial  chancellor,  Prince  Hohen- 
lohe.  The  purpose  and  nature  of  the  inquiry  is  revealed  in  a  circular 
letter,  which  sets  forth  that  the  census  returns,  which  give  a  total  of 
54,375  wage-earning  children,  offer  but  inadequate  information  on 
child  labor,  since  the  enumerators  register  only  those  children  who 
are  laboring  for  wages  after  having  left  school,  though  not  yet  14 
years  of  age.  The  figures,  it  is  said,  apply  only  to  the  most  important 
occupations  of  wage-earning  children,  and  even  then  are  far  from  being 
accurate  statements,  since  the  number  of  school  children  employed  in 
partly  remunerative  labor  was  not  ascertained  by  the  census.  The 
different  State  and  local  governments  conducted  the  investigations 
from  January  till  April,  1898.  In  a  few  States  the  police  authorities 
acted  as  agents,  but  in  by  far  the  most  States  the  teachers  of  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  were  instructed  to  ascertain  the  facts.  The  results 
of  the  inquiry  are  startling.  There  were  reported  to  have  been 
employed  for  wages  outside  of  factories  (where  child  labor  is  imo- 
hibited  by  law)  532,283  children  of  school  age  (6  to  14),  or  about  1  xjer 
cent  of  the  population  of  the  Empire.  If  one  adds  to  that  an  equal 
number  who  are  employed  for  wages  in  agricultural  pursuits,  there 
may  be  said  to  be  about  1,000,000  school  children  employed  in  earn¬ 
ing  wages,  or  about  10  per  cent  of  the  school  population.  This  is  a 
very  great  number,  and  accounts  for  the  many  complaints  of  teachers 
who  find  school  children  listless,  sleepy,  fatigued,  and  generally  inca¬ 
pacitated  for  vigorous  mental  action.  The  report  goes  into  details  as 


XXII 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


to  the  kinds  of  occupation,  the  age  of  wage-earning  children,  the  daily 
work  hours,  the  arrangement  of  work  rooms,  the  amount  of  pay,  and 
the  police  regulations  concerning  child  labor  in  Germany  and  other 
countries.  The  Berlin  Tagliehe  Rundschau  discusses  the  report  and 
adds  some  instructive  details.  The  official  character  of  the  inquiry 
secured  for  this  report  the  attention  of  legislators  in  Germany,  and 
measures  are  being  prepared  to  counteract  the  dangers  arising  from 
excessive  child  labor,  but  it  is  generally  understood  in  that  country 
that  a  limited  amount  of  responsibility  may  safely  be  laid  upon 
children,  in  order  to  accustom  them  to  regular  habits  and  thrift,  and 
to  lay  the  foundation  for  an  active,  useful  life.  Hence  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  all  wage-earning  child  labor  will  be  prohibited,  but  that 
excessive  demands  and  overburdening  will  be  checked. 

Higher  education  of  women  in  Austria. — This  is  a  brief  account  of 
the  efforts  made  in  behalf  of  women  in  that  Empire.  They  indicate 
a  considerable  degree  of  progress  if  viewed  from  the  Austrian  stand¬ 
point,  for  the  educational  efforts  of  any  country  should  be  viewed 
only  in  the  light  of  its  own  development.  It  is  apparent,  however, 
that  in  Austria  and  other  European  countries  the  problem  of  how  to 
make  woman’s  intellectual  talents  an  available  resource  in  the  social 
wealth  of  the  nation  is  being  solved. 

Agricultural  schools  in  Austria. — The  account  which  was  prepared 
for  the  late  exposition  in  Paris  by  the  chief  of  the  educational  section 
of  the  department  of  agriculture  in  Austria  is  of  unusual  interest, 
inasmuch  as  it  shows  not  only  what  is  done  for  agriculture  and  for¬ 
estry  in  Austria,  but  how  it  is  done.  It  will  challenge  comparison 
with  the  noteworthy  operations  carried  on  in  recent  years  in  our  own 
Department  of  Agriculture.  In  view  of  the  rigid  centralization  of 
the  government  of  the  Empire,  it  is  worthy  of  notice  how  great  an 
amount  of  liberty  is  granted,  in  establishing  educational  facilities 
where  necessity  or  special  demands  suggest  them.  Especially  in 
regard  to  forestry  Austria’s  example  is  worthy  of  imitation. 

Noire’ s  logos  theory. — In  an  extract  from  Eoire’s  book,  “Logos, 
Ursprung  und  Wesen  der  Begriffe,”  is  offered  the  classic  passage  in 
which  the  author  elucidates  the  theory  of  apperception  in  so  instruct¬ 
ive  a  manner  that  it  is  worthy  of  a  place  even  in  an  annual  report 
like  the  present.  Herbart  has  become  the  counterpart  of  Pestalozzi. 
While  Pestalozzi  has  based  ail  education  on  sense  perception  (An- 
sehauung),  Herbart  has  based  all  on  the  explanation  or  interpretation 
of  what  is  perceived,  and  this  he  called  apperception.  Pestalozzi 
would  say,  fit  your  children  to  see  for  themselves  the  objects  which 
they  wish  to  learn;  Herbart  would  say,  have  the  children  understand 
what  they  see,  have  them  think  out  the  relations  of  every  new  item 
of  knowledge  to  the  accumulated  experiences  regarding  the  object. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that  Herbart  is  more  important  than  Pestalozzi  as  far 
as  his  theory  of  the  faculties  of  the  mind  is  concerned.  Anyone  who 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXIII 


wishes  to  get  the  clearest  idea  of  this  doctrine  of  apperception  will 
study  carefully  Loire’s  illustration  on  page  106,  of  the  apperception 
that  is  involved  in  perceiving  so  simple  an  object  as  a  piece  of  bread. 
The  apperceiving  mind  in  looking  at  the  piece  of  bread  thinks  of  the 
steps  of  its  production,  as,  for  instance,  dough,  hour,  grain,  and  of 
the  processes  by  which  each  of  these  have  originated;  also,  of  the  uses 
of  bread  as  food  in  restoring  the  waste  of  the  organism  and  of  the 
activities  of  life  that  are  made  possible  by  this  food.  Apperception 
reenforces  the  senses  by  adding  all  that  is  stored,  up  in  the  mind 
as  an  aggregate  of  experience,  and  thus  produces  what  we  call  an 
understanding  of  the  object,  or  a  comprehension  of  it.  It  is  the 
insight  into  causality  that  explains  what  exists  in  the  present  by  what 
has  existed  in  the  past,  and  it  looks  forward  and  predicts  the  future 
as  results  of  causal  activities  that  it  sees  now  in  operation.  Schopen¬ 
hauer  wrote  a  book  on  the  fourfold  root  of  the  principle  of  efficient 
causality,  Ho  ir  e  discusses  the  conclusions  arrived  at  in  that  treatise 
and  explains  by  it  his  views  of  apperception  and  the  elements  of 
causality  which  it  involves.  He  who  deals  successfully  with  German 
pedagogy  need  not  be  told  that  it  is  necessary  to  master  the  German 
systems  of  philosophy.  American  students  who  bring  home  from 
Germany  mere  fragments  or  dead  results  of  German  systems,  without 
their  life-giving  principles,  usually  end  in  producing  what  are  called 
“fads.”  They  try  to  adopt  German  methods  in  circumstances  where 
they  are  in  no  wise  appropriate.  The  life-giving  principle  of  the 
German,  if  seized  by  an  American,  will  prove  a  lasting  source  of 
inspiration  and  of  profounder  insight  into  practical  problems.  It  is 
of  course  slow  work  to  master  a  theorem  in  German  philosophy,  but 
no  one  who  has  done  this  will  say  that  he  has  not  been  recompensed 
for  his  time. 

Goethe  and  the  great  thinkers. — An  address  of  Prof.  Rudolf  Eucken 
in  Jena  is  translated  for  this  report.  There  has  hardly  been  another 
mind  of  such  comprehensive  grasp  in  modern  times  as  Goethe’s. 
Hence  it  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  see  how'the  great  thinkers 
of  all  ages,  especially  of  antiquity,  have  influenced  the  great  German 
thinker. 

State  appropriations  for  education  in  Europe. — A  brief  statement 
from  a  German  authority  is  given  of  what  the  Russian  Empire,  Swit¬ 
zerland,  Prussia,  amd  Italy  expended  in  1900-1901  for  popular  educa¬ 
tion,  and  also  a  discussion  of  the  cost  of  professional  preparation  of 
teachers  in  certain  of  the  German  States. 

The  Ohio  school  system. — In  Chapter  II,  Miss  Mary  L.  Hinsdale  has 
traced  the  evolution  of  the  Ohio  public  school  system,  basing  her  work 
upon  a  study  of  the  session  lav/s  of  the  State.  Although  the  usual 
clause  enjoining  upon  the  legislature  the  perpetual  encouragement  of 
schools  and  the  means  of  instruction  was  incorporated  into  the  first 
constitution  of  Ohio  (1802),  yet  for  twenty  years  it  seems  that  “the 


XXIV 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


State  did  absolutely  nothing  to  carry  out  the  provision,”  relying 
entirely  upon  private  initiative.  The  gradual  formation  of  a  senti¬ 
ment  in  favor  of  public  schools  is  shown  by  the  appearance  upon  the 
statute  book,  first,  of  a  permissive  law  (1821),  then  of  a  mandatory 
one  (1825).  The  latter  measure,  though  crude,  weak,  and  tentative, 
marked  the  true  beginning  of  public  education  in  Ohio.  The  further 
development  of  the  system,  the  successive  introduction  of  features 
then  untried  but  now  familiar,  the  mistakes  made  and  rectified,  the 
steps  taken  forward  and  backward  as  the  progressive  or  conservative 
elements  of  the  population  alternately  gained  the  upper  hand,  are 
typical  of  what  occurred  in  many  other  States  and  form  an  instructive 
chapter  in  our  educational  history. 

Consolidation  of  rural  schools. — A  compendium  of  information 
regarding  the  consolidation  of  rural  schools,  and  the  transportation  of 
pupils  at  the  public  expense,  is  given  in  Chapter  III.  It  contains  a 
report  by  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern  of  a  visit  to  the  centralized 
schools  of  Ohio,  in  which  are  given  many  useful  particulars  of  the 
practical  workings  of  consolidation  in  that  State;  also  detailed 
accounts,  reprinted  from  the  reports  of  the  State  superintendents  of 
Massachusetts,  Indiana,  New  Hampshire,  and  Nebraska,  of  the 
attempts  that  have  been  made  in  the  direction  of  consolidation  in 
those  States,  as  ascertained  by  those  superintendents  in  each  case 
through  a  special  inquiry  made  of  the  local  officials  who  have  had  to 
put  the  system  into  actual  operation.  The  statements  by  these  local 
officials  of  the  steps  that  were  taken,  the  modes  of  procedure,  the 
saving  in  cost,  and  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  resulting  from 
consolidation  in  widely  separated  localities,  and  under  a  great  diver¬ 
sity  of  social,  climatic,  and  topographical  conditions,  furnish  a  con¬ 
siderable  body  of  first-hand  information  on  this  subject.  Upon  the 
success  of  this  movement  rests  the  chief  hope  for  the  improvement  of 
the  rural  school.  It  is  fortunate  that  a  device  which  changes  the 
ungraded  school  into  a  graded  school  involves  a  saving  of  expense. 
The  improvement  is  well  worth  trial,  even  were  it  to  double  the  cost 
of  the  rural  school,  but  as  will  be  seen  by  the  statistics  given  in  this 
chapter  it  is  secured  with  an  actual  saving  of  expenditure.  Better 
teachers,  more  sanitary  buildings,  less  personal  exposure  on  the  part 
of  pupils,  better  classification,  and  many  lesser  advantages  are  com¬ 
mending  this  reform  to  county  superintendents  over  the  country. 
It  was  first  tried  in  certain  rural  towns  of  Massachusetts,  notably 
Quincy  and  Concord. 

Industrial  education  (Chapter  IV). — At  a  meeting  of  the  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education,  held  at  New  York  July  2 
and  3,  1900,  a  committee  specially  appointed  for  the  purpose  made  a 
preliminary  report  upon  “the  educational  means  and  methods  which 
they  are  prepared  to  recommend  as  best  adapted  to  advance  the  gen¬ 
eral  cause  of  industrial  education  in  this  country.”  The  committee 


THE  COMMISSIOXEE’s  INTEODUCTION. 


XXV 


in  their  rex>ort  consider  in  turn  the  various  schools  and  other  agencies 
designed  to  furnish  the  necessary  training  for  those  young  people  who, 
having  had  a  common  school  education,  desire  to  prepare  themselves 
for  employment  in  manufacturing  industries,  in  commercial  houses, 
or  with  the  great  transportation  companies.  The  functions  and  office 
of  each  class  of  these  schools  are  characterized  by  the  committee,  and 
an  opinion  is  expressed  as  to  the  degree  of  usefulness  of  each,  con¬ 
sidering  the  particular  end  it  has  in  view. 

Chapter  V  contains  an  account  of  various  efforts  made  in  this 
country  to  apply  self-government  in  education.  This  account  refers 
chiefly  to  those  attempts  which  direct  their  attention  to  the  unfor¬ 
tunate,  weak,  neglected,  or  depraved  children,  and  try  to  save 
these  members  of  the  social  body  for  a  life  of  usefulness.  These 
efforts  have  a  double  purpose — first,  to  give  proper  treatment  to  chil¬ 
dren  who  are  apt  to  sink  under  neglect  into  confirmed  criminals,  and 
second,  to  free  the  schools  from  a  contingent  that  tends  to  retard  the 
progress  of  normal  pupils.  Many  noble  men  and  women  are  devoting 
their  energy  to  raising  the  lowly  to  a  higher  degree  of  usefulness,  and 
their  methods,  though  varying  to  suit  the  existing  circumstances, 
are  all  successful.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  efforts 
in  the  line  of  what  has  .been  called  educational  pathology  the  one 
which  aims  at  the  establishment  of  special  children’s  courts  in 
several  of  the  large  cities  of  this  country — deserves  particular  mention. 
Lawyers  of  repute  in  New  York  and  Chicago  have  taken  interest  in 
the  establishment  of  children’s  courts,  and  much  is  said  in  praise  of 
those  which  have  been  in  operation  in  Massachusetts.  Another 
method  is  the  application  of  self-government  in  education,  as  is  seen 
in  settlements  organized  on  the  model  of  the  “George  Junior  Repub¬ 
lic,”  all  of  which  are  intended  to  aid  in  raising  the  social  standard 
among  youth  and  to  prepare  useful  citizens  for  the  State.  "Several 
years  of  experience  have  proved  the  desirability  of  such  measures,  but 
all  throve  indisputably  that  the  vital  force  in  such  an  experiment  is, 
and  needs  must  remain,  the  teacher.  Where  his  sympathy  and  wise 
suggestions  are  lacking  the  attempts  at  managing  a  school  by  methods 
of  local  self-government  will  result  in  failure.  While  the  efforts 
sketched  in  this  chapter  are  mostly  such  as  deal  with  the  weaklings 
of  society,  there  are  advocates  who  propose  to  introduce  self-govern¬ 
ment  into  schools  of  normally  endowed  and  properly  behaved  children. 

International  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science ,  Arts,  and 
Education. — In  Chapter  VI  an  account  is  given  of  the  International 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Arts,  and  Education,  by 
Prof.  Patrick  Geddes,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  secretary  of  the  British  and  Amer¬ 
ican  groups.  Considerable  space  is  devoted  by  Professor  Geddes  to  an 
account  of  the  origin  of  this  association.  The  idea,  as  he  shows,  was 
several  times  broached  in  conferences  of  scientific  societies,  and  in 
1899  the  occasion  was  offered  for  active  measures  in  furtherance  of 


XXVI 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


the  project  by  the  simultaneous  meetings  of  the  “British  Association” 
at  Dover  and  the  “French  Association  ”  at  Boulogne.  The  first  inter¬ 
national  assembly  of  the  association  was  held  at  Paris  during  the 
exposition  of  1000.  The  purposes  of  the  association  and  the  method 
of  its  practical  operations  are  set  forth  in  a  report  of  this  assembly, 
which  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  chapter.  £  ‘  The  first  task  of 
the  association  and  its  assembly,”  says  Professor  Geddes,  “was  to 
cooperate  with  the  various  international  congresses  to  be  held  during 
the  exposition,  and  wherever  necessary  or  desirable  to  aid  the  exist¬ 
ing  agencies  in  recruiting  suitable  members  for  these.  To  the  many 
specialists  of  all  kinds  who  attended  the  exposition  without  being 
able  to  be  present  at  the  exact  time  of  the  particular  congress  most 
interesting  to  them,  the  congress  information  bureau  of  the  associa¬ 
tion  and  the  special  rendezvous  which  it  arranged  proved  of  great 
service.  Thus  each  member  of  the  association  on  reaching  Paris  was 
enabled  rapidly  to  avail  himself  of  its  resources  and  to  meet  his  fellow- 
workers,  French  and  foreign  alike.  The  international  assembly  was 
included  in  the  official  list  of  congresses  as  the  permanent  fCcole 
Internationale  de  FExposition.  Besides  keeping  record  of  the  con¬ 
gresses  in  the  usual  way,  it  was  attempted,  in  some  measure,  to 
indicate  their  main  problems  and  to  summarize  their  main  results  by 
a  full  use  of  graphic  methods.” 

The  assembly  also  furnished  interpretation  and  skilled  guidance  to  all 
the  departments  of  the  exposition,  programmes  of  lectures  and  of  visits 
to  the  collections  having  been  carefully  prepared  beforehand.  The 
special  literature  of  the  exposition  was  carefully  collected  and  classi¬ 
fied  by  the  assembly  and  a  beginning  was  made  in  respect  to  securing 
typical  exhibits  for  circulation.  Thus  a  duplicate  of  the  admirable 
nature-study  exhibit  of  the  Philadelphia  Normal  College,  supplied  by 
the  kindness  of  Professor  Wilson  and  her  pupils,  Avas  circulated 
among  Scottish  and  English  schools  for  some  months,  and  the  “  tene¬ 
ment  house  exhibition  organized  in  New  York  and  exhibited  in  Chi¬ 
cago  and  Boston  ”  Avas  secured  for  exhibition  in  Great  Britain,  where 
the  question  of  the  housing  of  the  poor  is  urgent. 

As  a  result  of  the  Paris  assembly  several  standing  committees 
were  formed,  of  Avhich  the  most  important  was  a  committee  on 
museums.  This  committee  purposes  in  particular  to  Avork  for  the 
coordination  and  perfection  of  museum  plans  in  different  countries 
and  cities,  and  to  conserve  so  far  as  possible  certain  parts  of  interna¬ 
tional  or  world  expositions  which  have  a  permanent  educative  value. 
In  general  the  aim  of  the  International  Association  for  Science,  as 
unfolded  by  Professor  Geddes,  is  to  correlate  the  work  of  individual 
organizations  of  various  but  kindred  characters.  The  association  is 
still  in  a  tentative  stage,  but  the  experience  at  Paris  helped  materially 
toward  defining  its  scope  and  methods. 

In  summing  up  the  work  of  the  Paris  assembly,  M.  Bourgeois 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXVII 


reports  that  800  lectures  were  given  in  120  days,  being  an  average 
of  6  lectures  daily.  The  auditors  ordinarily  ranged  in  number  between 
40  and  50,  but  sometimes  reached  over  300.  The  total  number  of 
professors  who  took  part  in  these  lectures  was  100,  and  8  secretaries 
were  employed. 

Professor  Geddes  has  included  in  his  paper  an  account  of  the  pre¬ 
liminary  arrangements  made  for  the  second  assembly  of  the  associa¬ 
tion,  which  was  held  in  connection  with  the  Glasgow  Exposition  of 
1901. 

Training  for  railroad  service. — Chapter  VII,  on  educational  train¬ 
ing  for  railroad  service,  gives  an  account  of  those  technological 
schools  in  this  country  which  recognize  this  branch  of  activity  in  their 
courses  of  study.  My  Annual  Report  of  1898-99  contained  an  article 
on  this  subject,  and  this  chapter  may  be  regarded  as  a  supplement  to 
it.  Courses  of  study  in  civil  and  railway  engineering  are  given  with 
much  detail.  The  question  of  specific  preparation  for  railroad  serv¬ 
ice  is  frequently  discussed  by  railroad  men,  and  it  is  often  urged  that 
much  waste  of  time  and  energy  could  be  avoided  by  such  a  prepara¬ 
tion.  In  calling  attention  to  the  very  great  extent  of  the  railroad 
interests  as  a  factor  of  the  present  industrial  life  in  this  country,  the 
necessity  of  special  preparation  for  railroad  engineering  is  brought  out 
in  a  forcible  manner. 

Biological  contributions  to  educational  theory. — I  have  printed  in 
Chapter  VIII  an  abstract  of  an  interesting  article  in  the  Pedagogi¬ 
cal  Seminary  (edited  and  published  by  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  president 
of  Clark  University  in  Worcester,  Mass.)  relating  to  the  development 
of  the  nerves  and  motor  systems  in  children,  the  title  of  the  article 
being  “From  fundamental  to  accessory  in  the  development  of  the 
nervous  system  and  of  movements”  (by  Frederick  Burk,  October, 
1898).  An  attempt  is  made  to  fix  the  relation  in  the  order  of  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  different  structures  of  the  nervous  system.  These  are 
divided  into  fundamental  and  accessory  by  Dr.  Ross,  and  by  later 
writers  on  the  same  subject.  The  fundamental  system  includes  such 
portions  of  the  nervous  system  as  man  possesses  in  common  with  lower 
animals  and  which  are  well  developed  in  the  human  embryo  at  birth. 
The  accessory  part  of  the  nervous  system  includes  those  portions  that 
differentiate  the  nervous  system  of  man  from  that  of  the  highest  ani¬ 
mals  and  which  are  absent  in  the  human  embryo.  The  accessory 
movements  are  those  which  man  has  acquired  since  he  adopted  the 
erect  posture — that  is  to  say,  most  of  the  movements  of  the  hand  in 
the  grasping  and  holding  of  objects,  and  in  using  tools  of  various 
kinds.  All  his  movements  of  the  organs  of  articulation  concerned  in 
speech  and  most  of  the  movements  of  facial  expression  are  accessory. 
That  the  fundamental  structures  develop  before  the  accessory  would 
seem  to  be  a  matter  of  course,  inasmuch  as  these  terms  are  adopted  to 
express  this  very  fact.  The  main  point  to  be  ascertained  for  the  bene- 


XXVIII 


EDUCATION  EE  PORT,  1900-1901. 


fit  of  educational  theory  is,  at  what  period  of  life  the  latter  begin  to 
develop  and  how  long  their  period  of  development  lasts.  This  period  of 
development  is  called,  technically,  the  “nascent  period.”  During  the 
nascent  period  the  muscle  or  nerve  system  maybe  educated.  Funda¬ 
mental  muscles  correspond  to  fundamental  nerves;  accessory  muscles 
to  accessory  nerves.  The  observations  on  the  development  of  those 
parts  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system  which  relate  to  the  fundamental 
nervous  system  can  not  in  the  nature  of  things  furnish  original  data 
for  the  determining  this  question  as  to  time  of  development.  For  it 
is  only  by  comparing  brain  development,  ascertained  by  post-mortem 
dissection,  with  the  external  development  of  power  in  the  use  of  the 
two  different  kinds  of  muscles  that  the  conjecture  is  reached  that  there 
are  certain  portions  of  the  brain  which  furnish  motive  power  to  one 
set  of  muscles  and  certain  other  portions  which  furnish  power  to 
another  set  of  muscles.  One  could  never  tell  in  advance,  for  instance, 
that  the  existence  of  brain  matter  at  certain  centers  near  the  so-called 
fissure  of  Rolando  would  imply  that  the  individual  possessed  the  power 
of  performing  deft  processes  with  his  fingers,  unless  a  great  mass  of 
observations  had  shown  that  the  one  invariably  accompanied  the  other. 
The  record  of  the  actual  possession  of  the  different  kinds  of  manual 
dexterity  could  be  made  only  by  a  study  on  the  living  individual,  the 
record  of  the  differences  in  development  of  portions  of  the  brain  would 
naturally  have  to  be  made  after  death.  Obviously  the  education  of 
the  individual  can  not  be  directed  by  a  knowledge  of  brain  develop¬ 
ment  ascertained  only  after  his  death.  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  can  a 
body  of  knowledge  relating  to  post-mortem  dissection  determine  in 
advance  the  education  of  the  individual  case.  For  the  diagnosis  of 
the  condition  of  the  individual,  and  it  is  the  same  with  the  multitude, 
must  proceed  by  observation  of  the  external  manifestations  of  power, 
the  actual  use,  for  instance,  of  the  fingers  of  the  hand  or  of  the  mus¬ 
cles  of  the  vocal  organs.  The  external  observations  must  be  organized 
into  a  consistent  whole  before  they  can  be  used  to  interpret  the  obser¬ 
vations  on  brain  development.  Hence  education  would  be  bound  to 
draw  its  conclusions  from  direct  observations  of  external  manifesta¬ 
tion  of  power,  and  not  from  the  more  remote  and  less  certain  indica¬ 
tions  of  brain  development  ascertainable  in  comparatively  rare  cases, 
and  only  after  death. 

It  would  not  settle  the  question  of  the  introduction  of  the  art  of 
writing  into  the  work  of  the  primary  school  to  inquire  whether  those 
parts  of  the  brain  which  have  to  deal  with  the  coordination  of  the 
writing  muscles  are  yet  developed  at  the  age  of  7,  8,  or  9  years.  But 
it,  educational  theory,  would  appeal  to  the  more  primary  scientific 
data  which  concern  the  fact  of  the  actual  capacity  of  the  child  at  those 
ages  to  learn  to  write,  and  it  would  study  the  actual  effects  or  influ¬ 
ence  of  such  training  on  the  subsequent  development  of  the  child. 
It  would  notice  whether  evil  effects  followed,  and  by  such  inquiries 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXIX 


determine  the  best  time  when  a  special  training  should  begin,  all 
things  considered.  It  would  be  taken  for  granted  if  the  child  could 
learn  to  write  at  7  years,  that  his  brain  development  must  be  already 
advanced  sufficiently.  IS  or  can  the  supposed  anthropological  origin — 
the  origin  of  man  in  the  lower  animals — be  of  any  value  here  for  the 
determining  of  questions  of  education.  Mr.  Burk  says,  it  is  true, 
“The  child  traverses  before  he  is  6  or  7  years  old,  not  only  the  long, 
deep  worn  road  of  racial  ancestry,  reaching  back  perhaps  as  far  as 
arboreal,  or  even  aquatic  life,  but  I  think  we  may  say  he  takes  a  few 
paces  in  certain  few  coordinations  that  are  his  own,  blazes  a  few  trees 
and  leaves  his  mark.”  If  the  inferences  from  the  anatomy  of  the 
brain  as  a  result  of  post-mortem  dissection  are  far  less  reliable  than 
inferences  based  on  the  direct  data  of  observation  and  of  experiments 
made  with  the  living  child  in  the  special  functions  which  are  in  ques¬ 
tion,  it  must  be  admitted  that  those  inferences  that  are  based  on  a 
possible  or  conjectured  heredity  in  lower  animal  life  are  in  the  nature 
of  idle  speculations.  Whether  man’s  ancestry  was  arboreal  or  aquatic 
or  vermiform,  or  even  some  phase  of  plant  life,  does  not  contain  even 
a  hint  as  to  the  epochs  of  his  present  life.  Only  a  study  of  present 
conditions  and  a  comparison  of  these  with  the  conditions  of  life  in 
lower  animals  can  establish  such  a  relation  if  any  exists,  and  the 
data  of  this  class  of  direct  observations  contain  the  only  bases  on 
which  valid  inferences  for  education  may  rest.  To  find  these  bases 
in  conjectured  anthropological  principles,  giving  them  an  air  of 
scientific  demonstration,  is  an  unwarranted  procedure,  for  the  anthro¬ 
pological  principles  in  this  case  are  unscientific  conjectures.  No  one 
has  shown  what  the  line  of  descent  (or  ascent)  of  man  Avas,  or  whether 
it  is  the  same  for  all  men,  still  less  has  any  one  adduced  scientific 
proof  of  the  correspondence  of  any  of  the  ages  of  man’s  life  to  the  life 
of  his  ancestry.  It  would  be  unwarranted,  therefore,  to  make  out  a 
course  of  study  for  the  schools  on  any  conjectures  relative  to  these 
things.  Even  were  the  conjectures  to  be  established  as  scientifically 
probable,  it  would  remain  to  be  determined  whether  the  “road  of 
racial  ancestry  ”  should  be  taken  positively  or  negatively  in  human 
education;  whether  it  should  cause  education  to  eliminate  all  traits 
and  life  habits  of  such  racial  ancestry,  or  whether  education  should 
encourage  the  Tinman  being  to  endeavor  to  repeat  them  in  his  own 
life. 

Ethics  and  human  conventions  determine  this  matter  in  all  nations, 
and  education  follows  their  behests  as  an  actual  fact.  However  lack¬ 
ing  in  valid  basis  such  conclusions  as  those  of  Mr.  Burk  are  in  regard 
to  the  age  of  teaching  accuracy  in  hand  and  finger  movements  such 
as  are  involved  in  writing  or  in  the  kindergarten  occupations,  yet  the 
question  is  an  important  one  to  be  considered  by  the  director  of 
schools.  Mr.  Burk  infers  that  the  ninth  or  tenth  year  should  be 
reached  before  the  school  should  make  efforts  “to  compel  accuracy,” 


XXX 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


but,  as  we  have  seen,  an  inference  that  is  based  on  anatomical  inves¬ 
tigation  is  of  no  value  unless  it  rests  likewise  on  a  previous  investiga¬ 
tion  ql  the  external  manifestations  of  power.  In  the  present  case  the 
inference  from  nerve  development  must  presuppose  a  body  of  knowl¬ 
edge  obtained  from  investigation  of  the  child’s  efforts  to  learn  to  write 
or  to  manipulate  the  kindergarten  gifts.  The  efforts  of  the  child  to 
obtain  skill  in  these  matters  are,  as  ah  actual  fact,  crowned  with  some 
success  at  three  years  of  age,  more  success  at  four  years  and  subse¬ 
quently.  The  child’s  effort  develops  the  brain,  presumably.  The 
child,  as  a  fact,  does  not,  if  left  alone  till  ten  years,  learn  to  write  with 
more  elegance.  The  actual  facts  are  ignored  or  slighted  by  reason  of 
the  anatomical  delusion  that  an  inspection  of  the  brain  settles  in 
advance  this  question  of  the  time  to  begin  to  teach  writing.  The 
child,  as  shown  by  Preyer,  puts  himself  to  school  in  learning  manipula¬ 
tion  from  the  time  when  he  begins  to  grasp  objects  in  the  seventeenth 
week.  Before  the  age  of  six  years  he  has  arrived  at  the  time  when  ho 
may  begin  by  easy  lessons  to  learn  the  use  of  the  pen  and  pencil. 
How  fast  he  is  to  learn,  and  how  much  time  he  is  to  give  per  day,  how 
long  he  should  write  at  a  time,  these  are  important  matters,  to  be 
ascertained  by  wise  attention  to  fatigue  and  to  the  bodily  reaction 
which  manifests  itself  on  occasion  of  the  occupation  of  special  mus¬ 
cles  by  the  will,  and  by  carefully  noting  that  the  elasticity  is  preserved, 
these  being  matters  of  practical  investigation  in  the  school  room  and 
the  home  rather  than  in  the  anatomical  laboratory. 

Biological  theory  of  inhibition. — In  Chapter  IX  the  word  “inhibi¬ 
tion  ”  is  not  used  in  its  ordinary  sense  as  a  restraining  act  on  the  part 
of  the  conscious  will,  but  rather  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Herbartian 
expression  “Hemmung,”  which  may  be  otherwise  translated  arrest, 
or  suppression,  referring  to  the  suppression  or  submerging  of  an  idea 
that  has  already  come  into  consciousness  by  an  idea  exciting  greater 
immediate  interest.  One  idea  thus  eclipses  or  obscures  another  idea, 
and  this  eclipsing  or  obscuring  is  called  “inhibition”  in  this  chapter 
(which  is  an  abstract  of  an  interesting  article  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Curtis,  in  the 
Pedagogical  Seminary  for  October,  1898).  Inhibition  as  an  act  of 
conscious  will  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the 
self-education  of  _ mind.  Everything  that  is  ethical,  everything  that 
is  rational,  is  accompanied  by  inhibition.  And  the  most  plausible 
suggestion  that  has  been  made  in  physiological  psychology  is  that  the 
function  of  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain,  the  so-called  cortex,  is 
wholly  devoted  to  inhibiting  and  coordinating  the  impulses  that  arise 
in  the  lower  centers  of  sensation  and  motion.  If  this  conjecture  has 
a  basis  in  fact  it  furnishes  a  very  luminous  explanation  of  the  rela¬ 
tion  of  the  mind  to  the  brain;  it  makes  the  will  the  prime  mover  in 
building  the  body  and  in  using  the  body  as  its  instrument;  it  makes 
the  brain  the  instrument  of  the  soul.  But  Ilerbart  has  no  place  in 
his  system  for  the  will  as  the  governing  principle,  for  he  substitutes 


THE  COMMISSIOXEIl’s  IXTBOBUCTION. 


XXXI 


desire  for  will  in  his  theory.  There  is  no  individual  -sovereignty,  hut 
only  a  conflict  between  ideas  within  the  mind  and  ideas  that  are  seek¬ 
ing  to  enter  the  mind.  The  result  of  the  struggle  is  the  triumph  of 
the  stronger  concept,  according  to  his  method  of  looking  at  mental 
operations.  The  ordinary  view  is  that  the  will  is  supreme  whether  it 
permits  a  struggle  between  fancies  that  arise,  or  whether  it  sup¬ 
presses  them  altogether  by  an  inhibitive  act.  Attention  is  to  be 
called  to  that  ■part  of  this  -article '  which  relates  'to  fatigue  and  the 
encroachment  of  one  set  of  activities  upon  another,  and  to  the  rob¬ 
bery  of  the  muscles  by  the  waste  of  brain  tissue  through  worry  or 
close  intellectual  application;  and  likewise  the  robbery -of  the  digest¬ 
ive  organs  through  the  -same  causes;  the  effects  of  the  deprivation  of 
'sleep.  The  author -says  well,  “Justus  the  heart  and  brain  will  starve 
the  rest  of  the  body  and  still  be  undimimshed  themselves,  so  it  seem-s 
to  be  nature’s  law  that  active  parts  shall  be  fed  at  the  expense  of 
inactive  ones,  if  necessary,  or  even  at  the  expense  of  parts  active  in 
a  lower  -degree. ”  Professor  Sargent,  of  Harvard,  is  quoted  as  'saying, 
:U  porters,  •draymen,  heavy  iron  workers,  and  a  certain  class  of  ath¬ 
letes  often  illustrate  the  effects  of  an  excessive  use  of  the  muscular 
system.  Where  the  body’s  nutriment  is  expended  in  this  direction 
the  impairment  of  the  heart  and  lung  tissue  is  likely  to  follow.”  The 
action  of  the  will  produces  fatigue  in  the  bodily  organs,  whether  the 
same  be  muscle  or  brain,  and  the  exertion  of  the  will  in  persons  of 
nervous  temperament  is  prone  to  rob  the  vital  organs,  such  as  the 
Stomach  or  the  heart,  of  the  nervous  -energy  required  for  their  normal 
action.  This -deserves  the  most  careful  consideration  on  the  part  of 
the  directors  -of  physical  training  in  our  schools  -and  colleges. 

History  -of  public  ecluccttion  in  the  South. — In  Chapter  X,  Rev.  A.  ID. 
Mayo  has  given  an  historical  account  of  the  movements  that  were 
made  toward  the  establishment  of  common-school  systems,  previous  to 
the  civil  war,  in  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Texas. 
In  Missouri  such  a  system  had  been  put  into  fairly  successful  operation 
by  T86Q.  In  the  other  States  of  the  group  some  sort  of  beginning  had 
been  -made. 

In  Chapter  XI  the  same  writer  treats  of  education  in  the  South — 
principally  of  the  f reedmen — during  the  civil  war  and  the  period  of 
Tecorisiruetion.  The  first  considerable  attempt  to  provide  -schools 
for  the  refugee  slaves  was  made  in  the -city  of  Washington,  whither 
these  unfortunate  people  had  fled  in  large  numbers  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  war.  The  same  work  was  entered  upon  in  southeast  'Virginia 
at  an  early  period  of  the  -conflict.  The  educational  labors  of  -Gen. 
Hufus.  Saxton  among  the  freedmen  of  the  Department  of  the  South, 
of  Gen.  John  Eaton  among  those  -of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  -of 
Gen.  X.  P.  Banks  in  Louisiana,  are  narrated  at  considerable  length 
by  Dr.  Mayo.  An  account  is  also  given  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau, 
the  Peabody  Education  Fund,  the  mission  schools  established  by 


XXXII  EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

funds  from  the  North,  and  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 
Institute. 

An  historical  document.— In  August,  1864,  during  the  civil  war, 
Prof.  Edward  S.  Joynes,  of  William  and  Mary  College,  Virginia, 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  trustees  and  faculty  of  Hollins  Institute  at 
Botetourt  Springs  in  the  same  State,  where  he  was  temporarily 
employed,  in  which  he  made  an  elaborate  argument  in  behalf  of  a 
plan  which  he  had  devised  for  the  normal  instruction  of  women  at 
that  institute,  in  order  to  provide  a  corps  of  trained  teachers  for  the 
schools  of  Virginia.  Ilis  discussion  of  the  subject  forms  an  instruct¬ 
ive  chapter  in  the  history  of  normal  schools.  The  many  side-lights 
which  this  letter  throws  upon  educational  and  social  affairs  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  at  this  period  render  it  of  peculiar  interest  and  value,  and  I 
have  included  it  in  the  present  Report  (Chapter  XII). 

Industrial  education  in  the  South. — A  number  of  addresses  delivered 
at  the  tenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Southern  Educational  Association, 
held  at  Richmond  in  December,  1900,  are  printed  here  (Chapter  XIII). 
In  one,  President  George  T.  Winston,  of  the  North  Carolina  College 
of  Agriculture,  emphasizes  the  need  of  industrial  education  for  the 
development  of  the  new  South;  he  urges  that  the  whole  scheme  of 
negro  education,  from  elementary  to  higher,  should  be  industrial. 
President  Charles  W.  Dabney,  of  the  University  of  Tennessee,  also 
lays  stress  on  the  necessity  of  industrial  and  technical  education,  but 
maintains  that  a  more  thorough  public-school  education  must  precede 
and  form  the  foundation;  he  shows  by  statistics  that  the  education 
of  the  masses  of  a  people  increases  their  wealth-producing  power,  and 
that  this  power  in  any  people  may  be  measured  by  the  school  privi¬ 
leges  that  they  have  enjoyed.  A  discussion  of  the  social  phases  of 
negro  education  by  Dr.  Paul  B.  Barringer,  chairman  of  the  faculty 
of  the  University  of  Virginia;  by  President  Julius  D.  Dreher,  of  Roa¬ 
noke  College,  and  by  Principal  IB  B.  Frissell,  of  Hampton  Institute, 
follows. 

German  instruction  in  American  schools  (Chapter  XIV)  is  an  espe¬ 
cially  interesting  contribution  as  throwing  light  on  the  function  of  the 
American  public  school  in  rendering  homogeneous  the  composite  ele¬ 
ments  of  the  population.  It  has  been  prepared  by  Prof.  L.  Viereck, 
formerly  a  member  of  the  German  Reichstag,  who  came  to  this  coun¬ 
try  for  the  express  purpose  of  studying  the  extent  of  German  influence 
upon  American  civilization. 

All  school  education  at  public  expense  demands  for  its  justification 
the  existence  of  some  political  necessity  which  it  provides  for,  or  the 
existence  of  a  general  want  in  society  for  the  supply  of  which  the 
system  of  education  serves  a  useful  purpose.  Thus  our  common 
schools  are  generally  supposed  to  provide  voters  who  can  not  only 
read  the  ballots  which  they  cast,  but  also  read  the  political  discus¬ 
sions  in  the  newspapers  and  form  an  intelligent  opinion  on  the  polit- 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXXIII 


ical  issues  which  their  ballots  shall  decide.  Without  such  ability  to 
read  on  the  part  of  its  citizens  the  right  of  suffrage  is  a  mockery. 
The  citizen  is  supposed  not  only  to  cast  an  intelligent  vote  for  the 
election  of  his  lawanakers,  but  also-  to  be  able  to  read  the  laws  made 
to  govern  him.  The  ancient  and  necessary  ceremony  of  publishing 
laws  b}^  the  mouth  of  the  herald,  who  read  them  in  public  places  to 
the  people,  is  abolished,  and  yet  people  are  held  responsible  for  a 
knowledge  of  all  laws  enacted,  it  being  assumed  that  every  person 
can  and  will  read  the  laws.  There  is  a  still  further  assumption  that 
ordinary  citizens  shall  be  able  to  serve  their  turn  as  legislators,  and 
make  laws,  as  well  as  elect  others  to  make  them. 

Unless  the  State  does  injustice  to  the  poor  class  it  will  give  all  its 
children  a  chance  to  learn  how  to  make  laws  as  well  as  how  to  obey 
them.  Uo  class  of  citizens  can  claim  as  a  right  to  have  anj^  other 
language  than  the  language  of  the  government  taught  in  the  schools 
at  public  expense,  yet  the  fact  that  they  have  a  right  to  retain  the 
use  of  a  foreign  language  and  to  educate  their  children  in  private 
schools  to  use  that  language  alone,  and  the  further  fact  that  a  class 
of  citizens  do  in  fact  exercise  this  right,  may  make  it  expedient  and 
desirable  that  such  language  be  taught  in  the  schools  at  public 
expense,  provided  that  by  this  means  great  social  and  political  advan¬ 
tages  result  to  the  community  as  a  whole;  the  community  has  the 
right  to  teach  any  modern  language  in  its  schools  if  it  finds  it  expe¬ 
dient  to  do  so. 

The  expediency  of  introducing  German-English  instruction  into 
public  schools  is  the  question  to,  be  decided,  and  not  the  question  of 
the  legal  right  to  do  so,  nor  the  question  of  the  right  of  a  class  to 
demand  it.  It  is  generally  recognized  by  the  people  of  the  United 
States  that  immigration  into  our  territory  is  a  good  and  desirable 
thing.  Inducements  have  been  and  are  held  out  to  foreigners  to 
settle  in  America.  The  territory  at  first  a  wilderness  becomes  a  pop¬ 
ulous  and  civilized  State  through  the  agency  of  foreign  immigration. 
The  conversion  of  natural  possibilities  into  actual  wealth  is  acceler¬ 
ated.  The  immigrant  is  bettered  in  circumstances  by  coming  here, 
and  still  more  is  the  native  citizen  benefited  by  the  creation  of  wealth 
where  there  was  no  wealth  before,  for  the  native  acquires  wealth 
through  the  rise  in  the  price  of  land  and  its  sale  to  the  immigrant, 
and  secondly,  through  the  profits  of  traffic  with  him,  and  thirdly, 
through  a  share  in  the  increased  production  which  the  immigrant 
contributes. 

But  this  direct  benefit  may  be  counterbalanced  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  by  the  fact  that  the  immigrant  is  a  citizen  not  only  with  social 
rights,  but  also  with  civil  and  political  rights.  He  can  choose  law¬ 
makers  for  the  natives;  more  than  this,  he  can  be  elected  to  make 
the  laws.  If  he  has  not  absorbed  the  spirit  of  our  institutions  and 

ED  1901 


in 


XXXIV 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


eome  into  sympathy  with  it,  if  he  has  not  learned  how  to  perpetuate 
our  institutions  as  a  lawgiver,  he  will  foist  upon  us  parts  of  foreign 
laws  and  institutions.  If  he  is  ignorant  even  of  the  institutions  of 
his  native  country,  he  will  he  a  still  worse  element  in  our  politics  and 
will  seek  narrow,  selfish  advantages  under  the  banner  of  the  dema¬ 
gogue  whom  he  will  aid  to  corrupt  our  politics  and  rob  our  public 
treasury. 

It  is  all  imxiortant,  therefore,  that  the  immigrant  shall  be  educated 
in  our  best  institutions  and  “Americanized”  in  the  spirit  of  our  free 
intelligence.  Otherwise  he  certainly  will  be  “Americanized”  by  the 
worst  forms  of  our  political  corruption.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  choice 
between  two  different  courses  of  action.  If  we  do  not  “Americanize” 
our  immigrants  by  luring  them  to  participate  in  our  best  civilization 
and  to  adopt  an  enlightened  social  intercourse  with  us,  they  will  con¬ 
tribute  to  the  degeneration  of  our  political  body,  and  thus  de- Amer¬ 
icanize  and  destroy  our  national  life.  If  we  allow  them  to  grow  up 
in  ignorance,  they  will  lower  the  standard  of  political  honor  and 
intelligence.  If  they  establish  schools  of  their  own  and  even  achieve 
a  high  culture  in  them,  as  Germans  have  done  when  they  have  refused 
to  enter  our  public  schools,  still  they  may  lack  training  in  the  spirit 
of  our  special  forms  of  government,  and  being  educated  into  foreign 
ways  of  viewing  and  acting,  they  are  all  the  more  incapable  of  rightly 
judging  public  exigencies,  of  understanding  the  motives  of,  and  sym¬ 
pathizing  with,  the  native  population. 

The  more  highly  cultured  and  civilized  the  immigrants  that  come 
to  our  countiy,  the  more  stubbornly^  will  they  hold  to  their  own  man¬ 
ners  and  customs.  Hence  the  very  qualities  which  should  make  them 
desirable  from  the  economical  point  of  view  may  make  them  dan¬ 
gerous  politically.  Under  all  circumstances  it  is  desirable  that  the 
immigrant  shall  be  educated  in  the  same  schools  with  the  native  pop¬ 
ulation  if  he  is  to  have  and  exercise  political  power.  Acting  upon 
this  principle,  most  of  our  cities  east  and  west  having  large  propor¬ 
tions  of  German  population,  have  adopted  at  one  time  or  another  the 
study  of  German  into  their  public  schools.  The  immediate  effects 
justified  expectations.  Large  numbers  formerly  taught  by  foreign 
teachers  and  in  private  schools  came  into  public  schools,  and  while 
learning  some  German  have  learned  much  English,  to  their  great 
future  benefit  and  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  native  population. 
Every  year  has  witnessed  the  breaking  down  of  barriers  of  caste  in 
those  cities. 

The  public  school  is  the  instrumentality  designed  to  preserve  dem¬ 
ocratic  principles.  It  protects  one  class  against  another  by  giving  an 
opportunity  to  the  children  of  all  classes  for  free  competition  in  the 
struggle  to  become  intelligent  and  virtuous.  An  aristocracy  built  on 
the  accident^ of  birth,  wealth,  or  position,  can  not  resist  the  counter¬ 
influence  of  a  system  of  free  schools  wherein  all  are  given  the  same 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXXV 


cliances.  To  eradicate  caste  distinctions  in  the  community  is  the  most 
important  f  unction  of  the  public  school.  Homogeneity  of  population 
is  the  great  desideratum  for  free  institutions,  but  it  should  be  homo¬ 
geneity  on  the  basis  of  educated  intelligence,  and  not  of  illiteracy. 

No  public  institution  is  established  on  a  firm  foundation  so  long  as 
it  is  beneficial  only  to  a  small  class  of  the  community.  The  introduc¬ 
tion  of  German  into  the  schools  makes  them  useful  to  a  greater  num¬ 
ber,  and  hence  more  stable.  The  thorough  mingling  of  the  popula¬ 
tions  has  produced  a  very  rapid  assimilation.  The  German  children 
in  the  public  schools  are  as  thoroughly  American  in  sympathies,  views, 
and  aspirations  as  the  Anglo-Americans.  The  influence  of  the  schools 
largely  reacts  upon  the  parents  through  the  children,  and  where  for¬ 
merly  German  was  spoken  altogether  by  parents  and  children  within 
the  family,  now  both  speak  English  to  gratify  the  strong  preference 
of  the  children. 

For  a  long  time  after  immigration  the  immigrants  keep  a  relation 
with  their  kindred  in  the  mother  country.  Our  population  in  the 
Northwestern  States  keeps  up  correspondence  and  recognizes  the 
family  ties  that  exist  with  the  people  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Germany,  and  the  Atlantic  States.  No  difficulty  is  experienced  by  the 
Anglo-American  settler  among  us  in  this  matter.  But  the  German- 
American  is  obliged  to  learn  two  languages.  For  if  his  children  learn 
English  only  there  must  be  a  too  sudden  and  abrupt  breaking  off  of 
the  continuity  of  race,  and  a  consequent  great  evil  wrought  upon  the 
character.  The  consciousness  of  the  history  of  one’s  ancestry,  and  the 
influences  derived  from  communication  with  the  oldest  members 
of  one’s  family,  are  very  potent  in  giving  tone  to  the  individuality  of 
youth  and  ripening  age.  This  continue  of  history  is  a  kind  of 
solid,  substantial  ground  for  the  individual,  and  from  its  soil  spring 
up  his  self-respect  and  aspiration.  A  class  of  immigrants  who  had  no 
desire  to  preserve  a  relation  with  their  family  stock  would  bring 
calamity  upon  the  community  into  which  they  came. 

Child  study . — In  Chapter  XY,  I  xDrint  a  translation  from  the  German 
giving  an  account  of  the  first  extensive  attempts  at  child  study,  which 
were  made  in  Berlin  in  1869.  The  object  of  the  effort  in  Berlin  was  to 
ascertain  the  contents  of  children’s  minds  at  the  age  of  6,  when  enter¬ 
ing  school.  The  teachers  of  that  city  had  been  induced  by  the  study 
of  psychology  to  make  the  inquiry  very  thorough.  Circular  letters 
were  sent  out  instructing  the  teachers  to  ascertain  how  many  of  the 
young  children  entering  school  possessed  some  knowledge  of  the 
familiar  objects  named  in  a  long  list.  The  answers  to  75  questions 
can  not  be  obtained  in  a  few  minutes,  and  hence  the  examination  was 
prolonged  for  weeks  and  months,  thereby,  as  one  would  suppose,  caus¬ 
ing  the  influence  of  school  to  become  an  important  factor  in  the 
equation.  Plowever,  such  as  it  is,  it  is  of  great  value  owing  to  its 
influence  on  subsequent  inquiries  made  in  this  country.  The  teachers 


XXXVI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


in  Berlin  were  desirous  to  find  whether  children  coining  from  kinder¬ 
gartens  were  better  prepared  for  school  work  than  those  coming  from 
home;  and  again,  whether  children  from  infant  asylums  (creches) 
showed  less  information  than  those  coming  from  kindergartens.  It 
must  be  noted  that  the  date  of  the  report  is  1869,  when  kindergartens 
were  still  in  their  infancy  in  Germany.  The  tabulated  results  seem 
to  show  that  kindergarten  children  have  a  greater  wealth  of  ideas, 
both  regarding  facts  in  their  immediate  environment  and  regarding 
ideas  involving  some  action  of  the  imagination. 

The  education  of  the  negro. — I  print  in  Chapter  XVI  the  results  of 
an  investigation  of  the  present  condition  of  negro  education,  espe¬ 
cially  as  affected  by  the  geographical  distribution  of  negroes,  by  their 
moral,  social,  and  economic  status,  by  race  prejudice,  and  other 
influences.  The  author  (Prof.  Kelly  Miller,  of  Howard  University) 
has  made  free  use  of  any  published  statistics  that  would  throw  light 
upon  the  subject  of  his  inquiry,  and  has  been  at  some  pains  to  inter- 
jiret  their  results.  Apart  from  a  current  of  migration  of  negroes  to 
cities,  where  the  women  find  employment  as  domestic  servants  and 
the  men  as  day  laborers,  the  main  tendency  of  the  race  is  to  mass 
itself  in  the  fertile  plains  and  river  bottoms  of  the  extreme  Southern 
States,  forming  the  so-called  “black  belt.”  The  reasons  for  this 
segregation  of  the  black  population  are  fully  considered  in  this 
article.  Its  effects  upon  the  border  States  may  be  shown  in  some 
degree  by  the  circumstance  that  throughout  those  States  the  race 
increased  only  26  per  cent  in  the  thirty  years  preceding  1890,  while  as 
a  whole  the  negro  population  of  the  country  increased  about  70  per 
cent  in  the  same  period.  In  Kentucky  the  negro  element  declined  in 
thirty  years  from  20  to  14  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  and  in 
Missouri  from  10  to  less  than  6  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
were,  in  1870,  79  counties,  mostly  in  the  Gulf  States  and  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  in  which  the  negroes  exceeded  the  whites  by  a  ratio  of  nearly  3 
to  1,  the  average  being  276  negroes  to  100  whites;  while  in  1890  there 
were  103  such  counties,  and  in  them  an  average  of  319  negroes  to  100 
whites,  or  more  than  3  to  1.  This  increasing  concentration  of  the 
negro  population  in  certain  localities  tends  to  intensify  in  a  two-fold 
way  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  education  of  these  people.  In 
the  border  States,  where  the  negro  element  is  in  many  sections  disap¬ 
pearing  and  where  separate  schools  for  the  races  are  rigidly  pre¬ 
scribed,  the  sparseness  of  the  colored  population  forms  an  obstacle 
to  an  efficient  school  system;  in  fact,  there  are  not  enough  colored 
pupils  in  some  of  the  counties  to  supply  children  for  a  single  school, 
and  consequently  a  school  organization  of  the  ordinary  form  is 
impracticable.  At  the  other  extreme,  those  communities  in  which 
the  colored  people  largely  predominate  suffer  from  a  lack  of  means. 
Of  even  more  interest  to  the  general  race  question  is  the  study  made 
of  the  occupations  of  negroes  and  of  the  amount  of  property  they 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XXXVII 


have  acquired,  including  their  status  as  owners  and  tenants  of  farms 
and  homes.  One-sixth  of  the  negro  families  owned  their  own  homes 
in  1890.  There  were  nearly  30,000  negro  owners  in  Virginia  alone, 
though  the  absolute  value  of  holdings  was  not  large.  Of  the  negroes 
employed  in  gainful  occupations,  57  per  cent  were  engaged  in  agri¬ 
culture  and  31  per  cent  in  personal  service,  leaving  only  a  little  more 
than  10  per  cent  for  all  other  occupations. 

A  separate  section  is  devoted  to  the  higher  education  of  the  negro, 
in  which  are  considered  the  intellectual  capacity  of  the  negro,  his 
need  of  the  higher  education,  the  relative  claims  of  industrial  and 
higher  education,  the  higher  education  of  colored  women,  negro  col¬ 
leges,  the  negro  in  Northern  colleges,  colored  men  in  the  professions, 
and  negroes  who  have  achieved  distinction  along  lines  demanding 
intellectual  ability. 

Early  English  writers  on  education  ( Chapter  X  VII). — It  is  impor¬ 
tant  to  the  historian  of  education  to  read  the  notices  of  some  early 
English  writers  on  education,  with  descriptions,  extracts,  and  notes, 
prepared  for  this  report  by  Prof.  Foster  Watson  of  University  Col¬ 
lege,  Wales.  The  writers  taken  up  are  La  Tour  Landry,  Juliana 
Bernes,  Erasmus,  Sir  Thomas  Elyot,  and  John  Baret,  and  the  extracts 
from  their  works  afford  considerable  insight  into  the  educational 
ideals  and  methods  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

The  Association  of  Catholic  Colleges. — In  Chapter  XVIII  are 
reprinted  a  number  of  papers  and  discussions  from  the  proceedings  of 
the  third  annual  conference  of  the  Association  of  Catholic  Colleges, 
held  in  Chicago,  April  10-13,  1901. 

Right  Rev.  Mgr.  Conaty,  rector  of  the  Catholic  Llniversity  of  Amer¬ 
ica  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  president  of  the  association,  in  his 
opening  address  on  “The  Catholic  College  of  the  twentieth  century,” 
enlarges  upon  the  need  of  unification  and  coordination  in  the  Catholic 
system  of  schools  and  higher  institutions;  in  particular,  he  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  colleges  should  not  undertake  graduate  work,  but 
should  encourage  that  class  of  students  who  seek  advanced  education 
along  graduate  lines  to  resort  to  the  University  at  Washington,  where 
the  best  facilities  are  offered  for  this  kind  of  instruction.  Rev.  James 
A.  Burns,  in  a  paper  on  Catholic  secondary  schools,  states  that  this 
class  of  schools  is  the  weakest  point  in  the  Catholic  educational  sys¬ 
tem  ;  according  to  his  statistics  and  classification  of  pupils,  Catholic 
secondary  schools  for  boys  have  only  one-third  of  the  pupils  they 
should  have,  or  13  to  each  10,000  of  the  Catholic  population*,  whereas 
in  all  secondary  schools  for  boys  in  the  country  combined  there  are 
39  pupils  to  each  10,000  of  the  total  population.  He  concludes  that 
efforts  for  the  improvement  of  Catholic  education  can  be  best  applied 
in  building  up  a  system  of  secondary  schools,  as  nearly  as  may  be 
parallel  to  the  public  high  school  system.  The  papers  read  at  the 
conference  on  the  teaching  of  science,  history,  English,  and  Greek, 


XXXVIII 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


respectively,  form  together  a  contribution  to  the  literature  of  peda¬ 
gogics  of  peculiar  interest,  considering,  as  they  do,  from  the  Catholic 
point  of  view,  the  aims,  subjects,  and  methods  of  instruction  in  these 
branches. 

Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland* — Chapter  XIX  treats  of 
education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with  special  reference  to  the 
organized  S37stems  of  elementary  education.  The  record  of  current 
events  is  brought  into  proper  historical  continuity  by  brief  conspec¬ 
tuses  of  the  different  systems  in  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  elementary  system  of  England,  based  on  the  law  of 
1870,  and  that  of  Scotland  (law  of  1872),  are  substantially  alike  in 
respect  ‘to  the  application  of  the  Government  grant  for  schools  and 
the  mode  of  Government  inspection.  Scotland,  however,  has  been 
saved  from  the  complications  that  beset  the  English  system  by  the 
continuance  of  principles  which  had  struck  deep  root  in  the  country 
under  the  Scotch  parish-school  system,  dating  from  a  law  of  1696. 
This  system  prepared  the  way  for  universal  public  schools  under 
elected  local  boards,  and  thus  avoided  the  friction  of  a  dual  system  of 
public  and  parochial  schools  like  that  existing  in  England.  The 
statistics  show  that  of  the  5,705,675  pupils  enrolled  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  England  in  1900,  a  little  more  than  half  (53.3  per  cent)  were 
in  “  voluntary,”  chiefly  parochial,  schools,  and  46.7  per  cent  in  board 
schools  under  municipal  control.  The  central  Government  bears  the 
greater  part  of  the  expenditure  for  both  classes  of  schools,  viz,  for  the 
parochial  schools,  78  per  cent;  for  the  board  schools,  53  per  cent. 
The  balance  of  expense  for  the  parochial  schools,  which  are  under 
private  (chiefly  clerical)  management,  is  met  by  endowments,  sub¬ 
scriptions,  and  fees.  The  board  schools,  that  is  schools  under  public 
control,  claim  the  balance  of  their  support  from  the  local  taxes 
(“rates  ”).  From  these  unequal  policies,  financial  and  administrative, 
have  grown  unfortunate  differences  in  resources  and  in  purposes.  In 
the  thirty  years  since  the  passage  of  the  Forster  law  of  1870  the 
increase  of  school  provision  and  school  attendance  in  England  has 
been  noteworthy.  At  that  date  it  was  estimated  that  the  school  pro¬ 
vision  was  adequate  for  8-J  per  cent  of  the  population,  and  that  the 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  equal  to  7. 6 per  cent  of  the  population; 
in  1900  the  school  provision  was  sufficient  for  20-J-  per  cent  of  the  pop¬ 
ulation  and  the  number  of  enrolled  pupils  equalled  17.7  per  cent  of 
the  population  (retrospective  Table  XVII).  Both  classes  of  schools, 
denominational  and  board,  have  contributed  to  this  result,  but  the 
multiplication  of  board  schools  is  the  most  impressive  fact  in  the 
record.  Three  years  after  the  passage  of  the  school  law  board  schools 
enrolled  about  5  per  cent  of  the  elementary  pupils;  this  proportion 
now  reaches  47  per  cent  (Table  IV).  The  accommodation  in  board 
schools,  sufficient  for  2,788,129  children,  has  occasioned  an  outlay  of 
about  $209,000,000,  or  an  estimated  cost  per  child  of  £14  18s.  7d.  ($73). 


THE  CQMMISSXONEE’s  XHTEODXJCTXOH. 


XXXIX 


This  sum  has  been  advanced  by  loans  to  the  school  boards  and  is 
secured  by  local  taxes.  During  the  same  period  of  thirty  years 
the  denominational  schools  have  raised  by  subscription  for  building 
purposes  above  $55,000,000  (Table  IX).  Board  schools  have  made 
their  chief  progress  in  the  cities  (as  is  shown  in  detail  in  Table  II), 
comprising  London  and  65  county  boroughs.  In  these  communities 
the  enrollment  in  board  schools  is  60  per  cent  of  all  pupils,  as  against 
37-j-  jjer  cent  for  the  remainder  of  the  country  outside  of  these  bor¬ 
oughs.  In  the  more  populous  centers  the  board  schools  have  devel¬ 
oped  great  power  of  adaptation  to  the  varying  needs  of  children  of 
different  ages  and  conditions  in  life.  This  is  shown  by  the  success¬ 
ful  conduct  of  infant  departments,  of  special  schools  for  the  blind, 
the  deaf  mute,  and  the  feeble-minded,  and  by  the  remedial  influences 
brought  to  bear  upon  neglected  and  even  vicious  children.  This 
adax>tability  of  the  board  school  is  illustrated  by  detailed  accounts  of 
the  work  in  London  and  five  other  typical  cities  (Table  III  and 
context) . 

These  efforts  in  behalf  of  special  classes  of  children  are  not  more 
important  than  the  progress  in  respect  to  the  general  conditions  of 
school  efficiency.  The  improvement  in  the  teaching  force  of  England 
is  indicated  by  the  steady  increase  in  the  proportion  of  adult  as  com¬ 
pared  with  x>upil  teachers,  the  increase  being  for  all  schools  from  48 
per  cent  of  the  total  force  in  1870  to  84  per  cent  in  1900.  The  board 
schools  have  had  the  larger  share  in  this  increase,  and  they  have  also 
been  most  favored  in  respect  to  efforts  for  raising  the  standard  and 
prolonging  the  period  of  instruction.  The  rural  parishes  have  in 
general  only  parochial  schools.  Even  if  there  be  a  school  board  in  a 
rural  parish  its  jurisdiction  is  so  restricted  and  the  property  assess¬ 
ment  so  low  that  the  local  tax  yields  but  little  for  school  expenditure, 
so  that  in  any  case  the  rural  school  has  a  x>oor  outlook.  The  current 
income  of  parochial  schools  is  estimated  to  be  10s.  6d.  ($2.50)  less 
than  the  income  of  board  schools  for  the  children  per  capita.  This 
difference,  as  is  shown  in  the  address  quoted  from  Dr.  MacNamara, 
M.  P. ,  falls  most  heavily  upon  the  rural  districts.  It  is  reflected  in 
the  comparatively  poor  teaching  staff  of  rural  schools,  and  is  empha¬ 
sized  by  unsuitable  school  buildings  and  generally  meager  appurte¬ 
nances.  The  city  school  boards  have  also  been  able  to  command 
liberal  support  from  local  taxes  for  advanced  classes,  and  have  in 
many  instances  developed  what  are  known  as  higher  grade  schools 
(see  Table  III).  The  upper  classes  of  these  schools  are  on  a  par.  with 
the  scientific  departments  of  our  own  high  schools,  but  the  English 
higher  grade  school  comprises  also  lower  grades,  to  which  children  who 
are  likely  to  continue  in  school  up  to  the  age.  of  15  or  16  years  are 
admitted  at  about  10  years  of  age.  Thus  in  1900  the  44  higher  grade 
schools  of  London  enrolled  23,968  pupils  10  years  of  age  and  upwards, 
of  whom  910  were  above  15  years  of  age.  The  higher  grade  schools 


XL 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


act  as  a  stimulus.  Although  access  to  them  is  not  limited  to  "board- 
school  pupils,  nor  are  they  in  every  case  created  by  the  school  boards, 
nevertheless  it  is  to  what  may  be  called  the  sphere  of  school-board 
influence  that  the  higher  grade  schools  pertain.  Thus  it  appears  that 
the  combination  of  public  and  parochial  schools  recognized  by  the 
English  school  law  has  really  operated  to  bring  about  an  urban  school 
system  of  peculiar  efficiency  and  promise  and  a  rural  system  hopelessly 
hampered. 

The  problem  of  equalizing  the  school  provision  of  England  is  involved 
with  another  problem  apparently  not  less  urgent,  namely,  that  of  an 
adequate  supply  of  secondary  schools  accessible  to  the  artisan  and 
working  classes.  This  need  was  recognized  as  far  back  as  1868  by  the 
British  schools  inquiry  commission  and  has  been  reiterated  by  subse¬ 
quent  commissions.  Meanwhile  the  stress  of  business  and  commer¬ 
cial  conditions  has  intensified  the  need.  The  upper  grade  board 
schools  have  indeed  risen  in  response  to  this  need,  but  they  have  come 
into  conflict  and  sometimes  into  wasteful  competition  with  the  county 
councils  and  with  other  authorities  in  control  of  technical  or  of 
secondary  education.  The  Government,  which  formerly  favored  the 
school  board  efforts  in  respect  to  higher  grade  schools,  has  recently 
shown  the  disposition  to  restrict  their  activity  to  a  very  limited  range 
of  elementary  instruction.  This  action  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
policy  in  Scotland.  The  Scotch  law  of  1872  expressly  authorized 
school  boards  to  maintain  secondary  schools,  and  subsequent  laws 
allowed  them  to  levy  local  taxes  for  the  support  of  such  schools;  but 
in  Scotland,  as  already  stated,  school  boards  are  universal,  so  that  the 
unity  of  the  system  operates  in  favor  of  both  elementary  and  secondary 
education. 

The  prolonged  and  bitter  conflict  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of 
the  Government  education  bills  of  1896  and  1901,  and  the  controversy 
over  the  pending  measure,  are  made  intelligible  by  the  discussion  of 
these  two  items — rural  education  and  secondary  education.  This 
last  measure  aims  at  a  radical  change  in  the  local  administration  of 
schools  and  includes  in  its  provisions  both  elementary  and  secondary 
education.  While  the  proposals  threaten  the  school  boards  with 
extinction,  they  seem,  at  least  to  the  American  student  of  the  facts, 
designed  to  strengthen  the  parochial  schools.  The  comparative  Table 
XVIII,  showing  the  progress  under  the  Scotch  law  of  1872,  illustrates 
the  advantages  of  universal  public  schools.  The  school  accommoda¬ 
tion  in  this  division  of  the  kingdom,  which  even  under  the  traditional 
influences  of  the  parish  system  was  only  adequate  for  8  per  cent  of 
the  population  in  1872,  is  now  sufficient  for  20  per  cent  (Table  XVIII). 

The  statistics  relating  to  higher  education  (Table  XIX)  show  for 
the  decade  1889  to  1900,  considerable  increase  in  the  attendance  at  the 
universities  and  university  colleges  of  England,  but  a  decline  in  those 
of  both  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  most  decided  step  forward  in  Eng- 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XLI 


land  is  found  in  the  university  colleges,  whose  rise  in  the  great  centers 
of  industry — Manchester,  Leeds,  Birmingham,  and  elsewhere — is  an 
important  event  in  the  recent  history  of  higher  education  in  Great 
Britain.  The  decline  of  university  students  in  Scotland  is  attributed 
chiefly  to  the  lack  of  adequate  equipments  for  meeting  modern 
demands,  especially  in  respect  to  science  instruction  and  research. 
It  is  confidently  expected  that  the  Carnegie  trust  will  do  something 
to  supply  the  necessary  equipments  in  these  respects,  as  one-half  the 
income  is  to  be  devoted  to  “improvement  and  expansion,”  in  the 
widest  sense,  “in  the  faculties  of  science  and  medicine,”  and  in  the 
“  modern  part  of  the  arts  faculty.”  By  the  terms  of  this  gift,  which 
are  given  in  Chapter  XXIII  of  this  Report,  the  other  half  of  the  annual 
income  is  to  be  spent  in  the  payment  of  the  fees  of  students  of  Scot¬ 
tish  birth  and  extraction,  according  to  the  terms  laid  down  in  the  deed 
of  foundation  of  the  Carnegie  trust  and  the  regulations  of  the  trustees. 
The  amount  of  the  trust  fund  is  £2,000,000  and  the  estimated  annual 
income  $500,000.  The  first  report  of  the  administration  of  the,  trust 
shows  that  for  the  winter  session  1901-2  the  sum  of  £22,941  16s.  6d. 
was  paid  by  it  up  to  December  31,  1901,  in  behalf  of  2,441  students, 
representing  the  fees  of  7,610  classes.  This  comes  to  a  little  over  £9 
($45)  per  capita.  The  circumstances  that  caused  the  appointment  of 
a  Government  commission  to  report  on  the  state  of  university  affairs 
in  Ireland  are  set  forth  in  Chapter  XIX  in  a  paper  by  Judge  William 
O’Connor  Morris,  republished  from  the  Fortnightly  Review.  The 
paper  reviews  incidentally  and  briefly  the  history  of  university  educa¬ 
tion  in  Ireland,  and  discusses  the  present  situation  dispassionately 
from  the  Catholic  standpoint. 

Temperance  instruction. — Various  papers  relating  to  temperance 
instruction  in  the  public  schools  have  been  brought  together  in  Chap¬ 
ter  XXI,  showing  the  trend  of  opinion  on  this  subject.  A  report  of  a 
special  committee  of  the  department  of  superintendence  of  the 
National  Educational  Association  sums  up  tersely  the  functions  of 
teachers  and  superintendents  in  regard  to  temperance  instruction, 
and  points  out  the  questions  of  importance  for  them  to  consider.  A 
paper  by  W.  B.  Ferguson,  superintendent  of  the  schools  of  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  treats  of  temperance  teaching  in  Connecticut,  and  of 
the  new  and  less  radical  law  which  has  been  recently  enacted  by  the 
legislature  of  that  State;  the  law  as  modified  does  not  require  temper¬ 
ance  instruction  below  the  fourth  grade  nor  in  the  high  school;  the 
use  of  text-books  is  not  required  below  the  sixth  grade,  nor  must  any 
definite  space  in  any  grade  of  books  be  devoted  to  narcotics.  Among 
the  other  topics  discussed  in  this  chapter,  the  conclusions  and  recom¬ 
mendations  which  appear  in  a  report  of  a  committee  of  the  New  York 
State  Science  Teachers’  Association  are  worthy  of  notice,  as  a  further 
indication  of  some  reaction  against  the  extreme  views  which  have 
hitherto  prevailed. 


XLII 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900*1901. 


The  State  of  Georgia  has  recently  adopted  the  law  requiring  tem¬ 
perance  instruction  in  its  public  schools.  This  legislation  has  com¬ 
pleted  the  list  of  States  requiring,  by  statute,  text-book  instruction 
on  the  effects  of  intemperance. 

All  persons  with  a  knowledge  of  the  situation  will  admit  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  teach  temperance  in  schools,  and  all  will  equally 
admit  that  such  teaching  is  of  the  highest  importance.  Moreover,  it 
must  be  total  abstinence  that  is  taught  and  not  a  compromise  which 
admits  moderate  drinking  as  the  ideal  to  be  reached.  It  is  custom¬ 
ary  for  teachers  and  superintendents  of  schools  to  criticize  whatever 
instruction  is  attempted  in  the  schools  that  has  not  yet  been  reduced 
to  “  pedagogical  form.”  Many  things  thought  necessary  to  be  taught 
in  the  schools,  such  as  manual  training,  cookery,  temperance,  and  nat¬ 
ural  science,  for  example,  have  not  been  as  yet  reduced  to  the  form  of 
“progressive  lessons.”  Arithmetic,  geography,  history,  and  gram¬ 
mar  have  been  long  since  reduced  to  a  “pedagogic  form,”  and  the 
first  lesson  or  the  first  five  lessons  are  good  and  valuable  if  no  more 
lessons  are  given.  The  earlier  lessons  prepare  the  pupil  step  by  step 
for  the  later  lessons.  In  the  new  branches  above  mentioned  the  nec¬ 
essary  steps  to  connect  one  point  with  the  next  are  lacking  and  the 
instruction  can  not  be  made  so  thorough  as  it  is  made  in  the  course 
of  lessons  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 

Admitting  this,  I  think  it  explains  the  disparagements  written 
regarding  temperance  instruction  which  we  find  in  some  of  the  reports 
of  the  superintendents  of  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  I  think  that 
it  will  be  admitted  that  instruction  in  what  is  called  “  scientific  tem¬ 
perance,”  conducted  as  it  is  under  the  laws  of  all  the  States,  in  the 
public  elementary  schools,  furnishes  a  permanent  and  active  means 
for  the  dissemination  of  correct  views  regarding  the  effect  of  intoxi¬ 
cating  drinks  upon  the  human  body.  The  pupils  will  have  their 
attention  called  to  the  subject  every  year  and  the  intelligent  ones  will 
understand  with  some  degree  of  clearness  the  results  of  scientific 
investigations  in  this  matter.  Even  the  dull  pupils  who  fail  to  seize 
the  scientific  points  will  carry  away  an  impression  in  their  minds  that 
intoxicating  drinks  are  very  dangerous  and  should  not  be  used  even  in 
moderate  quantities.  It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  a  moderate  use  of 
intoxicating  liquors  is  liable  to  lead,  especially  in  predisposed  organ¬ 
isms,  to  “  alcoholism.”  Total  abstinence  is  the  only  safe  course  with 
such  persons,  and  no  one  can  tell  in  advance  what  person  can  safely 
become  a  moderate  drinker  of  alcoholic  beverages  in  any  form. 

Dull  pupils,  and  I  may  say  all  pupils,  if  taught  by  incompetent 
teachers,  will  fail  to  master  the  scientific  evidence  on  which  these  con¬ 
clusions  are  based.  The  examination  papers  of  such  pupils  will  pro¬ 
voke  ridicule  if  made  public.  This  is  true  not  only  in  regard  to 
temperance  instruction,  but  in  regard  to  instruction  in  all  branches 
of  natural  science,  manual  training,  history,  religion,  and  whatever 


XL  III 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 

other  branches  of  useful  information  are  tanght  in  schools  without 
having  first  been  carefully  reduced  to  pedagogic  form.  But  very 
useful  results  are  attained  in  these  subjects  notwithstanding.  The 
scientific  temperance  instruction  required  in  the  several  States  of  this 
nation  is  certainly  a  permanent  and  efficient  source  for  the  promul¬ 
gation  throughout  the  community  of  correct  opinion  regarding  the 
effects  of  intoxicating  beverages  upon  the  body.  Such  instruction, 
too,  is  sure  to  furnish  the  greater  number  of  the  intelligent  pupils  in 
schools  with  a  tolerably  correct  notion  with  regard  to  the  scientific 
investigations  which  have  furnished  the  evidence  for  these  conclu¬ 
sions.  The  utter  destruction  to  the  body  and  mind  which  comes  from 
habitual  intemperance  and  the  danger  of  moderate  drinking  in  arous¬ 
ing  an  abnormal  appetite  for  intoxicating  liquors  will  certainly  be 
seen  and  understood  by  the  great  mass  of  pupils  that  attend  the  public 
schools.  It  may  be  said  that  this  movement  is  the  most  effective  one 
ever  devised  by  the  friends  of  temperance  to  abate  a  great  evil,  one 
of  the  greatest  evils  abroad  in  the  land. 

Relations  of  the  National  Government  to  higher  education  and 
research. — The  substance  of  an  address  on  this  subject  before  the 
University  of  Chicago  by  Director  Charles  D.  Walcott,  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  forms  Chapter  XXII.  The  different  ways 
in  which  the  Federal  Government  has  aided  higher  education  are 
reviewed  in  some  detail.  This  assistance  until  recent  years  usually 
took  the  form  of  grants  of  land,  though  some  grants  of  money  were 
made  in  the  case  of  technical  education.  In  1892  a  further  step  was 
taken  by  the  Government  in  the  direction  of  promoting  higher  educa¬ 
tion  and  research;  by  a  resolution  of  Congress  approved  Aj)ril  12  of 
that  year,  and  amended  in  1901,  the  literary  and  scientific  collections 
of  the  Government  departments  were  made  available  for  study  and 
research  to  duly  qualified  students.  Mr.  Walcott  gives  in  the  course 
of  his  address  a  summary  account  of  the  situation  in  relation  to  the 
founding  of  a  national  university,  and  of  the  Washington  Memorial 
Institution. 

The  Carnegie  Institution. — Chapter  XXIII  contains  various  docu¬ 
ments  and  authoritative  statements  relating  to  the  Carnegie  Institu¬ 
tion  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  its  organization,  objects,  methods,  etc.  A 
list  of  the  principal  educational  benefactions  of  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie 
is  appended,  together  with  some  notice  of  his  gift  in  aid  of  university 
education  in  Scotland. 

Education  in  France. — Chapter  XXIY  presents  an  historical  and 
descriptive  survey  of  the  comprehensive  system  of  public  education 
in  France  and  of  the  complementary  system  maintained  by  church 
authorities.  The  history  is  an  integral  part  of  the  history  of  the 
Republic,  which  has  fostered  education  as  an  essential  condition  of 
its  existence.  Hence  the  progress  of  the  public  or  State  system  affords 
an  index  of  the  growing  stability  of  the  existing  government.  The 


XLIV 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 

traditional  distinctions  between  primary  or  popular  education  and  the 
liberal  education  of  the  higher  classes  are  preserved  in  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  present  system,  which  comprises  three  departments:  pri¬ 
mary,  secondary,  and  higher.  The  distinction  between  the  two  last- 
named  divisions  is  merely  nominal — secondary  education  comprising 
the  colleges  for  general  education  preparatory  to  the  specialized  higher 
or  university  education.  The  efforts  of  the  Republic  in  respect  both 
to  the  colleges  (lycees)  and  the  universities  have  been  directed  to  the 
increase  of  their  resources  and  the  revival  of  the  free  and  powerful 
activities  which  were  repressed  under  the  Napoleonic  or  Imperial 
University.  The  primary  system  is  essentially  the  creation  of  the 
Republic  and  therefore  most  deeply  involved  in  its  life.  The  princi¬ 
ples  upon  which  it  is  based  are  the  outcome  of  the  revolution  of  1789. 
Their  embodiment  in  law  was  a  gradual  process,  extending  through  a 
century  of  effort,  as  shown  in  the  chapter  under  consideration.  As  a 
public  service  primary  education  dates  from  Guizot’s  law  of  1833, 
passed  in  the  brief  calm  of  Louis  Philippe’s  reign.  This  law  recog¬ 
nized  church  schools,  providing  for  public  schools  simply  as  a  means 
of  supplementing  the  deficiency  of  the  former.  Like  the  later  English 
law  of  1870,  it  indicated  a  serious  intention  of  preventing  gross  illit¬ 
eracy  among  the  common  people.  It  was  estimated  at  the  time  of  its 
passage  that  7,000  or  8,000  communes  (about  one-fourth  of  the  whole 
number)  were  destitute  of  schools  and  that  as  many  more  had  only 
worthless  schools.  The  effects  of  the  law  were  apparent  in  a  rapid 
increase  of  school  enrollment,  which  continued  with  varying  fluctua¬ 
tions  until  the  coup  d’etat  of  1851. 

The  permanent  contribution  of  Guizot’s  law  to  the  cause  of  popular 
education  was  the  clause  obliging  communes  to  maintain  a  primary 
school ;  the  principle  of  local  responsibility  thus  legally  sanctioned  has 
never  since  been  ignored.  Scarcely  less  important  was  the  require¬ 
ment  that  every  department  should  maintain  a  normal  school.  Not 
only  was  the  principle  of  professional  training  for  teachers  thus  estab¬ 
lished,  but  the  machinery  was  devised  for  its  uniform  application 
throughout  the  country.  The  principle  of  local  obligation  was  ex¬ 
tended  by  a  law  of  1867,  passed  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III  at 
the  instance  of  Minister  Duruy.  This  law  made  the  maintenance  of 
a  separate  public  school  for  girls  obligatory  upon  every  commune  hav¬ 
ing  500  or  more  inhabitants.  The  response  with  which  it  met  indicated 
the  growth  of  local  interest  in  education.  Within  twelve  years  above 
2,000  new  schools  were  opened,  of  which  1,580  were  for  girls.  The 
present  Republic  was  proclaimed  September  3,  1870;  but  the  siege  of 
Paris  and  the  humiliations  and  distractions  of  the  country  precluded 
for  a  time  attention  to  education.  The  serious  purpose  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  in  this  respect  was  first  manifested  by  the  law  of  June  1, 
1878,  creating  a  fund  of  120,000,000  francs  for  the  erection  of  school- 
houses.  The  year  following  began  the  memorable  ministry  of  Jules 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION.  XLY 

Ferry,  who  consecrated  all  his  abilities  to  the  cause  of  popular  educa¬ 
tion.  Ilis  first  efforts  were  directed  to  administrative  reform;  there 
followed  in  rapid  succession  the  laws  which  have  given  an  exclusively 
civic  or  national  character  to  public  primary  schools,  namely,  the  law 
reaffirming  the  obligation  of  every  commune  to  maintain  a  school 
which  should  be  free  and  secular;  requiring  all  teachers,  public  and 
private,  to  be  provided  with  State  diplomas;  and  making  it  compul- 
sary  upon  parents  to  secure  the  education  of  their  children  either  in 
public  schools  or  by  private  means.  In  the  State  schools  nothing 
was  left  to  chance  or  caprice;  the  law  of  October  30,  1886,  prescribed 
minutely  all  particulars  respecting  the  conduct  of  schools,  their 
classification,  inspection,  studies,  etc.  In  virtue  of  these  regulations 
and  the  efficient  supervision  of  the  State,  the  humblest  commune  in 
France  is  assured  of  an  efficient  school.  From  the  detailed  statistics 
given  in  Chapter  XXIY  it  appears  that  out  of  the  total  of  36,520  com¬ 
munes  only  87  are  now  destitute  of  a  public  school,  and  that  92  per 
cent  of  the  communes  having  500  or  more  inhabitants  have  a  separate 
school  for  girls.  The  enrollment  in  primary  schools  increased  steadily 
up  to  1889-90,  reaching  in  that  year  a  total  of  5,623,401,  or  14.7  per  cent 
of  the  population,  as  against  5,539,299  in  1898-99,  or  14.3  per  cent  of 
the  population.  The  slight  decline  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
intervening  decade  is  attributed  to  the  actual  decrease  in  the  school 
population,  to  the  rapid  advance  of  pupils  in  the  primary  schools, 
with  the  result  that  the  leaving  certificate  is  obtained  at  an  earlier 
age  than  formerly,  and  to  the  less  vigorous  enforcement  of  the  obliga¬ 
tory  school  law.  The  relative  enrollment  in  public  and  in  private 
schools  for  successive  years  (Table  III)  shows  between  1887-88  and 
1898-99  a  slight  decline  in  the  proportion  of  public  school  enrollment, 
i.  e.,  from  79.9  per  cent  of  the  total  to  75.3,  and  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  proportion  of  private  school  enrollment,  i.  e.,  from  20.1  per 
cent  to  24.7.  This  change  appears  to  be'due  to  the  law  of  1886  for¬ 
bidding  the  employment  in  public  schools  of  teachers  belonging  to 
religious  orders.  As  regards  the  schools  for  boys,  the  law  was  to 
take  effect  by  1891,  and  consequently  public  schools  for  boys  are  now 
completely  secularized.  Considering  the  prejudices  which  the  law 
had  to  encounter  the  effect  upon  public  school  attendance  appears  to 
have  been  slight.  This  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  increasing 
confidence  in  the  public  schools.  One  of  the  most  important  evidences 
of  the  actual  efficiency  of  schools  is  furnished  by  the  item  of  average 
daily  attendance.  This  item  is  approximately  indicated  in  the  official 
statistics  of  France  by  a  comparison  between  the  enrollment  in  the 
months  of  December  and'  June,  the  months,  respectively,  of  highest 
and  lowest  school  attendance,  and  the  number  present  on  a  selected 
day  in  each  of  the  months  named. 

On  this  showing  the  attendance  upon  public  schools  was  in  Decem¬ 
ber  89.8  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  and  in  June  84.6  per  cent.  The 


XLYI 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


corresponding  rates  for  private  schools  were  93.4  per  cent  and  92.3. 
Both  in  this  respect  and  in  respect  to  the  number  of  classes  and  the 
number  of  pupils  to  a  teacher  the  advantage  appears  to  be  with  the 
private  or  church  schools.  This  is  explained  in  part  by  the  fact  that 
the  latter  are  most  numerous  in  the  large  cities  and  towns.  Further¬ 
more,  for  every  such  school  there  is  always  more  than  one  “brother” 
or  “sister,”  as  the  case  may  be.  There  are  about  30,000  nuns  and 
9,000  members  of  brotherhoods  engaged  in  the  schools,  and  their  num¬ 
ber  can  be  almost  indefinitely  increased.  They  live,  it  is  stated,  with 
their  respective  orders  and  receive  not  a  penny  of  salary  for  their 
work,  to  which  they  are  passionately  devoted.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  x>ublic  schools  are  better  organized  than  the  private  and  have  a 
larger  proportion  of  teachers  who  have  obtained  professional  diplomas 
(Tables  YII  and  VIXI).  The  remarkable  progress  made  by  France  in 
securing  trained  teachers  for  its  public  schools  is  due  in  great  meas¬ 
ure  to  the  liberal  provision  for  normal  schools  and  the  high  standard 
at  which  these  are  maintained.  In  continuance  of  the  policy  begun 
by  Guizot,  every  department  (civil  divisions,  now  numbering  90)  main¬ 
tains  two  normal  schools,  either  of  itself  or  in  union  with  another 
department,  one  for  men  and  one  for  women.  The  professors  for 
these  local  normal  schools  are  carefully  trained  in  two  higher  State 
normal  schools.  The  State  also  assures  to  every  public  school  teacher 
a  minimum  salary,  ranging  from  1,000  to  2,000  francs  ($200  to  $400) 
for  men  and  for  women  1,000  to  1,600  francs  ($200  to  $320).  This 
amount  is  generally  increased  by  the  communes,  which  must  at  least 
furnish  a  house  or  its  money  equivalent  to  the  teacher.  Primary 
teachers  are  also  borne  on  the  State  pension  list.  Thus,  the  position 
of  a  primary  teacher  is  one  of  security  and  of  assured  though  modest 
income. 

The  total  current  expenditure  for  primary  education  more  than 
doubled  in  the  two  decades,  1877  to  1897,  increasing  from  94,397,554 
francs  ($18,879,510)  to  214,015,250  francs  ($42,803,050),  or  from  $4.69 
per  capita  of  enrollment  in  public  primary  schools  to  $9.20  per  capita. 
The  part  of  the  State  in  this  expenditure  rose  during  the  period  from 
25  per  cent  to  about  67  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  local  authorities 
declined  proportionately.  It  is  estimated  by  M.  Levasseur  that  the 
current  expenditure  for  private  primary  schools  (not  State  aided) 
would  raise  the  total  for  1897  to  293,000,000  francs  ($58,600,000),  or, 
including  cost  of  buildings  hired  and  interest  on  the  amount  invested 
in  school  property,  to  350,000,000  francs  ($70,000,000). 

The  solicitude  of  the  State  for  the  education  of  the  masses  does  not 
stop  with  the  elementary  primary  school,  as  is  shown  by  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  higher  primary  schools  and  the  adaptation  of  their  individual 
or  technical  departments  to  local  demands.  The  movement  for  the 
continued  moral  and  intellectual  training  of  the  masses  beyond  the 
brief  period  of  school  life,  recognized  in  Duruy’s  law  of  1867,  but  long 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XL  VII 


left  almost  entirely  to  private  efforts,  lias  received  substantial  aid 
from  tbe  Government  since  1895,  both  in  the  form  of  an  annual  appro¬ 
priation  and  by  tbe  loan  of  illustrative  material.  In  1900  not  less  than 
38,291  courses  of  lectures  were  given  in  various  parts  of  France,  witb 
a  total  of  540,000  regular  attendants.  Botb  through  these  popular 
conferences  and  the  societies  for  promoting  the  industrial  welfare  of 
the  youthful  pupils  and  providing  them  with  innocent  amusements, 
the  schools  have  become  centers  of  a  remarkable  movement  for  the 
social  uplifting  of  the  masses.  This  movement  has  been  in  part 
inspired  by  hostile  arraignments  of  the  moral  influence  of  secular 
schools.  The  endeavor  to  fasten  upon  them  the  responsibility  for  an 
alleged  increase  in  juvenile  crime  has,  however,  signally  failed — (1) 
by  the  accummulation  of  statistics  showing  their  opposite  tendency, 
and  (2)  by  evidence  that  the  increase  in  youthful  depravity  is  among 
the  vicious  and  vagabond  classes,  who  escape  the  influence  of  the 
schools  to  fall  under  that  of  a  pernicious  press  and  of  intemperate 
habits.  A  summary  of  the  facts  bearing  upon  this  important  prob¬ 
lem  is  presented,  supplemented  by  a  detailed  account  of  the  system 
of  moral  training,  which  is  rapidly  infusing  an  ethical  spirit  into 
primary  instruction. 

As  regards  secondary  education,  two  recent  events  of  great  signifi¬ 
cance  are  discussed.  The  first  of  these  relates  to  a  legislative  measure 
for  the  reform  of  the  public  secondary  schools  (State  lycees  and  local 
colleges);  the  second  to  efforts  for  the  repression  of  antirepublican 
tendencies  in  the  independent  or  clerical  schools.  The  most  impor¬ 
tant  feature  of  the  reform  measure  noted  above  is  that  for  the  recog¬ 
nition  of  three  distinct  but  equivalent  courses  in  the  lycees,  i.  e.,  a 
course  including  both  Latin  and  Greek,  a  course  with  Latin,  and  a 
course  in  which  modern  languages  replace  the  classics.  The  grounds 
on  which  the  proposition  is  supported  are  cited  in  this  chapter. 
Outside  government  circles  the  project  is  seriously  criticised  as  an 
endeavor  to  burden  the  lycees  “with  specialties  which  even  in  the 
law  are  stamped  as  foreign  to  the  purpose  and  spirit  of  liberal  educa¬ 
tion.”  The  law  of  July  I,  1901,  defining  the  conditions  under  which 
associations  may  legally  exist  and  work  in  France,  was  professedly 
intended  to  subordinate  the  religious  orders  to  the  civil  authority. 
As  these  orders  control  a  large  proportion  of  the  secondary  schools  of 
France,  the  law  is  really  an  educational  measure  of  deep  import.  The 
terms  which  it  imposes  and  its  effects  in  dispersing  the  members  of 
the  orders  are  briefly  stated. 

As  regards  higher  education,  statistics  are  given  and  citations  from 
official  reports  showing  the  continued  development  of  the  universities 
under  the  law  of  1890,  which  restored  to  them  in  large  measure  the 
independence  which  was  lost  by  their  absorption  into  the  State  uni¬ 
versity  or  teaching  system.  Fifteen  universities  have  been  organized 
under  the  law  and  all  give  signs  of  renewed  life  and  vigor.  The 


XL  VIII 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


increase  of  laboratory  facilities  and  the  multiplication  of  endowed 
professorships  are  noticeable  features  of  the  record.  The  number  of 
university  students  rose  from  17,605  in  1887  to  29,377  in  1900.  The 
provincial  universities  have  gained  relatively  much  more  than  the 
Paris  University,  the  total  increase  for  the  former  in  the  period  being 
8,720  students,  a  little  more  than  100  per  cent,  and  for  the  Paris  Uni¬ 
versity  8,460  students,  about  33  per  cent.  The  recent  arrangements 
facilitating  the  admission  of  foreign  students  to  the  French  universi¬ 
ties,  including  admission  requirements,  fees,  and  diplomas  attainable, 
are  given  in  full. 

Higher  commercial  education. — The  movement  for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  courses  of  study  designed  particularly  for  the  higher  educa¬ 
tion  of  business  men,  especially  in  the  lines  of  commerce  and  finance, 
is  making  considerable  progress.  The  first  institution  to  offer  such 
special  courses  was  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Economy  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which  was  established  in  1881  on  an 
endowment  of  $100,000,  given  by  Mr.  Joseph  Wharton,  of  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Pa.,  who  afterwards  gave  an  additional  sum  of  $25,000  to  estab¬ 
lish  a  library  fund  for  the  school. 

In  1889  the  education  of  business  men  was  made  the  subject  of  a 
special  inquiry  by  the  American  Bankers’  Association.  As  a  result 
of  the  inquiry  the  association  requested  the  universities  and  colleges 
of  the  country  to  establish  schools  of  finance  and  economy  on  the 
plan  of  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Economy.  During  the 
past  few  years  colleges  dnd  courses  under  various  designations,  but 
having  for  their  object  the  higher  education  of  persons  who  desire  to 
enter  upon  business  careers,  have  been  established  by  a  number  of 
universities  and  colleges.  Descriptions  of  such  courses  with  detailed 
statements  concerning  the  instruction  offered,  so  far  as  they  could  be 
obtained,  are  given  in  Chapter  XXV. 

Coeducation  of  the  sexes  in  the  schools  and  in  the  colleges  and  uni¬ 
versities  of  the  United  States. — In  Chapter  XXVIII  I  have  brought 
together  old  and  new  matter  relative  to  the  coeducation  of  the  sexes 
in  the  schools  and  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States. 
While  the  policy  is  not  entirely  peculiar  to  this  country  it  has  here  so 
much  wider  an  extension  than  elsewhere,  that  whenever  it  becomes  a 
subject  of  discussion  or  experiment  the  school  records  of  the  United 
States  are  consulted  for  precedent  and  for  arguments.  It  is  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  this  chapter  not  only  to  bring  together  the  facts  relative  to 
the  present  status  of  coeducation  in  our  schools  and  higher  institu¬ 
tions,  but  also  the  strongest  arguments  (pro  and  con)  pertaining  to 
this  policy  and  the  widest  experience  in  respect  to  its  application. 
As  regards  the  public  schools,  it  is  shown  that  the  education  of  boys 
and  girls  in  the  same  classes  is  a  very  general  practice  in  the  grades 
below  the  high  school,  the  only  exceptions  being  isolated  cases  of 
schools  and  city  school  systems  which  for  some  cause,  historical  or 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


XLIX 


local,  can  not  be  adjusted  to  the  prevailing  condition.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  vast  majority  (at  least  98  per  cent)  of  the  high  schools  of 
the  country.  In  a  few  cities,  situated  for  the  most  part  on  the  eastern 
border  of  the  country,  separate  high  schools  for  boys  and  girls  are 
maintained  and  advocated.  The  causes  of  these  exceptional  condi¬ 
tions  are  shown  in  this  chapter  by  statements  of  city  school  superin¬ 
tendents  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  situation.  As  the  public 
schools  enroll  15,840,000  children  and  youth,  or  91  per  cent  of  all 
pupils  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  it  is  readily  seen  that 
their  policy  in  a  matter  like  this  must  profoundly  affect  public  opinion 
and  the  solution  of  many  social  and  industrial  problems.  That  the 
minority  who  would  prefer  separate  instruction  for  boys  and  girls  is 
very  small  is  further  indicated  by  the  fact  that  more  than  half  of  the 
secondary  private  schools  of  the  country  are  coeducational.  This 
association  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  school  undoubtedly  explains  in  a 
measure  the  freedom  that  women  enjoy  in  respect  to  the  pursuit  of 
intellectual  careers.  In  the  public  secondary  schools  women  form  50 
per  cent  of  the  teaching  force.  The  extent  to  which  women  share  in 
the  directive  service  of  public  education  will  be  seen  by  reference  to- 
the  tabulated  statement  of  the  supervisory  school  offices  which  they 
may  hold  or  for  whose  incumbents  they  may  vote.  The  adoption  of 
coeducation  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  country  is  related 
to  the  general  movement  for  the  higher  education  of  women.  Tkis- 
movement,  beginning  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
assumed  national  extent  and  importance  through  the  cooperation  of 
several  causes,  of  which  the  most  potent  was  the  passage  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  land  grant  act  of  1862  for  the  endowment  of  colleges  making 
special  provision  for  the  branches  of  learning  that  are  related  to* 
“agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.”  The  history  of  this  general 
movement  as  related  to  the  policy  of  coeducation  is  briefly  reviewed 
in  the  chapter  under  consideration.  In  the  western  division  of  the 
country  all  influences  promoted  the  admission  of  women  to  the  high¬ 
est  institutions  on  the  same  terms  as  men.  In  the  more  conservative 
East  the  movement  was  toward  separate  endowments  for  women,  such 
asWassar,  Wellesley,  Smith,  and  others.  From  these  extremes  two* 
modifications  have  arisen,  namely,  that  of  “annexes”  for  women,, 
such  as  Radcliffe  and  Barnard,  and  that  of  coordinate  colleges,  as  at 
Western  Reserve  and  Brown  universities. 

These  different  policies  show  a  wise  regard  for  local  conditions,  and 
this  spirit  gives  significance  to  the  fact  that  the  number  of  coeduca¬ 
tional  colleges  and  universities  is  steadily  increasing.  Starting  with 
Oberlin  College,  Ohio,  in  1833,  the  policy  of  coeducation  had  spread 
by  1880  to  51.3  pef  cent  of  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  In  1900  the  proportion  had  risen  to  71.6  per  cent.  In  this  num¬ 
ber  are  included  30  State  universities  and  14  private  universities  of 
high  order. 


ED  1901 


-IV 


L 


EDUCATION  EEPOBT,  1900-1901. 

The  dearth  of  scholarship  and  fellowship  funds  available  for  women 
students  is  in  somewhat  striking  contrast  to  the  generally  liberal  pro¬ 
vision  for  men  students  in  this  country.  The  particulars  set  forth 
under  this  head  indicate  a  growing  interest  in  this  matter. 

Under  the  head  of  the  “Literature  of  coeducation”  will  be  found 
citations  from  reports  and  other  publications  of  officials  in  charge  of 
public  school  systems,  presidents  of  universities,  specialists,  and  other 
representative  men,  treating  of  the  policy  in  question.  The  purpose 
in  this  selection  has  been  to  bring  together  for  ready  reference  the 
strongest  arguments,  affirmative  and  negative,  and  the  widest  experi¬ 
ence  pertaining  to  this  important  feature  of  our  educational  policy. 

The  Philippines. — Mr.  F.  W.  Atkinson,  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  in  the  Philippines,  has  forwarded  to  the  Bureau  a  full 
account  of  the  present  educational  movement  in  the  islands,  and  from 
this  important  document,  which  appears  as  Chapter  XXIX,  I  take 
the  following  account  of  the  situation  of  the  public  school  system 
there : 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Americans  in  the  archipelago  the  Spanish 
system  of  public  instruction,  which  in  its  modern  form  was  inaugu¬ 
rated  in  1863  by  royal  decree,  consisted  of  a  normal  school  in  Manila 
for  training  teachers  and  separate  primary  schools  for  males  and 
females  in  the  various  towns  of  the  islands,  besides  a  number  of 
special  schools.  The  criticisms  of  the  methods  of  instruction  in  these 
schools,  noted  in  the  Beport  of  the  Bureau  for  1899-1900  (Chapter 
XXIX),  Mr.  Atkinson  repeats,  and  adds  some  comments  upon  the 
text-books  formerly  used.  Soon  after  the  Americans  took  possession 
the  military  government  interested  itself  in  the-  subject  of  schools, 
introduced  some  American  text-books,  and  detailed  soldiers  as  teach¬ 
ers,  especially  of  English.  General  Otis  took  particular  interest  in 
the  matter,  and  desired  the  army  officers  to  open  as  many  schools  as 
possible.  The  district  commanders  appointed  officers  to  act  as  super¬ 
intendents,  among  whom  were  many  chaplains.  About  1,000  schools 
were  in  operation  under  military  rule.  Their  equipment  was  inade¬ 
quate,  and  the  old  Spanish  text-books  were  used.  The  commanding 
officers  were  unanimous  in  urging  that  English  be  taught  in  the 
schools  on  account  of  the  assistance  the  knowledge  of  English  on  the 
part  of  the  people  of  the  Philippines  would  be  to  them.  Capt.  Albert 
Todd,  in  charge  of  public  instruction  under  the  military  government, 
recommended  that  all  the  schools  under  Government  control  be  con¬ 
ducted  in  the  English  language  as  far  as  practicable  and  that  Spanish 
and  the  dialects  be  eventually  dispensed  with,  and,  further,  that  the 
Government  schools  be  absolutely  divorced  from  the  church.  This 
period  marks  the  transition  from  the  Spanish  management  of  the 
schools  to  the  American,  which  may  be  regarded  as  beginning  with  the 
appointment  of  Mr.  Atkinson  as  general  superintendent  of  education. 
On  September  1,  1900,  Mr.  Atkinson  introduced  a  new  organization 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LI 


of  the  public  schools  which  was  modeled  on  the  American  system,  but 
different  from  that  in  certain  features  which  the  conditions  in  the 
islands  required.  He  mentions  as  esxjecially  necessary  a  centralized 
control  of  the  school  system,  with  careful  supervision  through  pro¬ 
vincial  and  district  superintendents.  Upon  his  recommendation  the 
Philippine  Commission  passed  an  act  establishing  the  present  system 
of  education  in  the  islands.  This  is  the  law  published  in  the  Keport 
of  this  Bureau  for  1899-1900. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  present  organization  is  centraliza¬ 
tion.  The  education  staff  comprises  the  secretary  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion  (who  is  a  member  of  the  Philippine  Commission);  the  general 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  the  Philippine  Islands;  18 
division  superintendents;  45  deputy  division  superintendents;  1,000 
primary  and  200  higher  teachers  of  English,  and  about  3,400  native 
teachers,  together  with  a  superior  advisory  school  board  and  local 
boards.  The  superior  advisory  board  consists  at  present  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  superintendent  of  public  instruction  (Mr.  Atkinson)  and  4  Fili¬ 
pinos.  Interesting,  biographical  sketches  of  these  latter  members  are 
given,  from  which  it  appears  that  they  are  educated  and  competent 
men.  The  school  boards  in  the  municipalities,  consisting  of  from 
5  to  7  members,  one  of  whom  is  the  presidente  of  the  municipality,  are 
composed  of  responsible  and  influential  landowners  when  possible. 
One-half  the  members  are  elected  by  the  municipal  council,  and  the 
other  half  are  appointed  by  the  division  superintendent.  It  may  be 
difficult  to  get  these  local  boards  to  show  much  enthusiasm  for  the 
primary  schools,  because  they  are  drawn  from  the  wealthy  and  edu¬ 
cated  classes  of  the  municipalities  who  have  the  hereditary  feeling  of 
their  caste  of  indifference  toward  the  common  people.  “  They  are 
no  more  interested  than  is  necessary,”  says  the  report.  The 
common  people  themselves  generally,  however,  desire  education  and 
opportunity. 

The  work  done  so  far  under  the  American  organization  is  summed 
up  as  follows:  An  education  bill  has  been  enacted;  the  archipelago 
has  been  divided  into  17  divisions  and  an  American  school  superin¬ 
tendent  placed  in  charge  of  each,  with  deputies  in  each  province; 
1,000  American  teachers  for  primary  work  have  been  appointed  and 
distributed  to  their  stations,  and  200  for  secondary  work  are  being 
appointed.  About  200  soldiers  had  been  detailed  as  teachers  until 
recently,  while  3,400  Filipino  teachers  have  been  appointed.  More 
than  three-quarters  of  a  million  American  schoolbooks  have  been  pur¬ 
chased,  together  with  a  very  great  quantity  of  school  supplies,  includ¬ 
ing  20,000  modern  school  desks.  Instruction  in  the  English  language 
has  been  provided  for  in  about  1,500  schools,  in  which  over  200,000 
children  are  enrolled.  Night  schools  for  adults  and  those  unable  to 
attend  during  the  day  have  been  opened  throughout  the  archipelago, 
and  are  working  successfully  with  an  enrollment  of  about  25,000. 


LII 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900*1901. 

The  salaries  of  the  Filipino  teachers  have  been  increased,  and  a  defi¬ 
nite  announcement  made  to  them  that  the  American  teachers  are  not 
introduced  to  displace  them  but  to  prepare  them  to  take  charge  of 
their  own  schools.  They  receive  daily  instruction  in  English,  and 
when  sufficiently  advanced  they  are  taught  the  common  branches  and 
the  methods  of  teaching  them.  Vacation  normal  courses  have  been 
organized  in  the  various  school  divisions,  and  permanent  normal 
schools,  tributary  to  the  Manila  normal  school,  have  been  established 
in  the  provinces.  Industrial  and  trade  schools  are  established  and 
will  be  increased  in  number,  and  agricultural  schools  are  in  process 
of  organization.  In  pursuance  of  the  idea  of  gradation  from  the 
primary  schools  to  the  university,  “grammar  high  schools”  have 
become  a  }3art  of  the  school  system,  recommendations  have  been  made 
for  the  establishment  of  schools  of  painting,  sculpture,  drawing,  and 
music,  and  the  plans  of  a  technical  school  and  also  of  a  university,  to 
be  established  in  Manila,  have  been  discussed. 

The  reports  from  the  superintendents  of  schools  in  the  different 
provinces  are  very  instructive.  They  j)resent,  as  far  as  schools  are 
concerned,  a  good  idea  of  the  different  intellectual  conditions  pre¬ 
vailing  in  the  various  provinces,  some  of  the  inhabitants  being  highly 
civilized  while  others  are  very  backward,  a  state  of  things  which  is 
not  surprising  when  one  remembers  that  there  are  a  great  many  tribes 
and  peoples  in  the  Philippines,  ranging  in  the  scale  of  civilization 
from  “head-hunting”  barbarians  to  cultivated  people  with  European 
tastes  and  education.  The  reports  represent  the  generally  unsatis¬ 
factory  condition  of  the  schools  for  the  common  people,  and  point  out 
the  educational  needs  of  the  latter.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  wealthy 
families,  even  in  the  remote  provinces,  send  their  children  to  Manila 
and  Hongkong  to  be  educated.  The  intellectual  quickness  of  the 
Filipino  children  is  frequently  remarked.  The  desire  to  learn  English 
seems  to  be  general.  In  many  places  the  time  of  the  American  teach¬ 
ers  could  be  fully  taken  up  in  teaching  English  alone  to  adults. 

Many  extracts  from  letters  of  governors  of  provinces  are  given  in 
Superintendent  Atkinson’s  report,  all  going  to  show  the  beneficial 
influence  of  the  new  schools  and  of  the  American  teachers.  From 
the  answers  to  a  list  of  questions  sent  to  the  teachers  relating  to  the 
intellectual  qualities  of  the  Filipino  children  the  following  interesting 
points  are  obtained:  The  Filipino  boys  “were  found  to  take  by  far 
the  greatest  interest  in  arithmetic,  next  preferring  English,  drawing, 
writing  and  reading,  in  the  order  named.  The  girls  show  the  greatest 
interest  in  English,  reading,  spelling,  drawing,  writing,  music;  their 
interest  in  English  (their  favorite  subject)  is  not  so  marked  over  the 
other  subjects  as  the  interest  of  the  boys  in  arithmetic.  Among  the 
native  games  the  boys  take  great  interest  in  kites,  pitching  pennies, 
native  football,  and  leapfrog,  introducing  the  element  of  gambling 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LIII 


wherever  practicable.  ”  They  take  kindly  also  to  new  games,  such  as 
football,  baseball,  prisoners’  base,  catch,  duff,  and  hopscotch.  The 
girls  do  not  as  a  rule  take  as  much  interest  in  games  as  the  boys,  but 
many  play  a  kind  of  marbles,  native  hopscotch,  running  games,  song- 
and-dance  games,  and  jackstraws.  The  teachers  have  also  introduced 
other  games  which  they  appear  to  enjoy.  A  very  large  majority  of 
the  teachers  remark  upon  the  superiority  of  the  Filipino  child,  in 
imitation,  memory,  and  courtesy.  On  the  other  hand,  he  is  described 
as  failing  short  in  reasoning,  in  activity,  in  morality,  and  in  ambi¬ 
tion.  The  insular  treasury  pays  the  salaries  of  the  American  super¬ 
visors  and  teachers,  their  traveling  expenses,  office  rent  of  superin¬ 
tendents,  the  cost  of  text-books  and  supplies,  and  their  transportation 
to  the  various  towns.  The  salaries  of  Filipino  teachers,  together  with 
the  cost  of  local  school  buildings  and  their  equipment,  are  paid  by 
the  municipalities.  The  expenditure  for  education  from  July  1,  1901, 
to  February  1,  1902,  was  $777,585.42.  The  average  monthly  pay  roll 
of  the  American  supervisors  and  teachers  is  approximately  $100,000. 
The  estimated  monthly  pay  of  Filipino  teachers  is  $37,756. 

Education  in  Alaska  (Chapter  XXXI). — The  report  of  the  general 
agent  shows  that  there  were  28  public  schools  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  this  Bureau  maintained  in  Alaska  during  the  school 
year  1900-1901;  these  schools  were  taught  by  37  teachers,  and  had  a 
total  enrollment  of  1,963  pupils.  On  ^account  of  the  prevalence  of 
small-pox  in  southeastern  Alaska  during  the  spring  of  1901  several  of 
the  schools  in  that  section  were  temporarily  closed.  The  cost  of  con¬ 
ducting  the  schools  per  capita  of  enrollment  was  $17.78.  The  appro¬ 
priation  for  education  in  Alaska,  which  had  been  made  annually  since 
1886,  was  discontinued  by  the  last  Congress.  The  “act  making  fur¬ 
ther  provisions  for  a  civil  government  for  Alaska,”  approved  March 
3,  1901,  prescribes  that  50  per  cent  of  all  license  moneys  for  carrying 
on  business  outside  the  incorporated  towns  of  Alaska  be  set  aside  and 
expended  in  the  discretion  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  school 
purposes  outside  the  incorporated  towns. 

The  statements  of  the  teachers  of  the  different  districts  which  the 
general  agent  has  incorporated  in  his  report  give  in  considerable  detail 
the  results  of  their  labors  the  past  year;  the  peculiar  difficulties 
encountered  in  maintaining  an  efficient  system  of  public  schools  in 
that  remote  and  thinly  settled  region,  with  its  rigorous  climate,  are 
made  very  manifest  by  a  perusal  of  these  statements.  The  informa¬ 
tion  contained  in  them  is  supplemented  by  reports  of  the  educational 
work  in  Alaska  of  the  different  church  missionary  associations. 

Introduction  of  reindeer  into  Alaska  (Chapter  XXXII). — Since  1891, 
when  the  first  reindeer  were  purchased,  up  to  the  present  time,  1,320 
reindeer  have  been  brought  into  Alaska  from  Siberia.  From  these, 
4,462  fawns  have  been  born.  Deducting  those  which  had  been  killed 


LIV 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


for  food  or  had  died  from  accident  or  disease,  there  remained  4,164  in 
the  herds  October  1,  1901,  against  3,323  in  1900.  The  native  Eskimo 
herders,  in  the  estimation  of  competent  judges,  have  been  found  to 
possess  sufficient  intelligence  and  aptitude  for  their  work  and  have 
proved  themselves  competent  after  having  been  properly  trained; 
several  instances  are  given  in  which  natives  acquitted  themselves 
with  credit  in  managing  reindeer  in  emergencies  demanding  skill, 
judgment,  and  endurance.  A  number  of  reindeer  of  unusual  stature 
were  obtained  in  the  summer  of  1901  in  the  region  back  of  Ola,  in 
Siberia,  west  of  the  Sea  of  Kamchatka,  and  brought  to  Alaska  for 
breeding  purposes,  254  in  all  having  been. landed.  It  is  hoped  with 
these  to  further  improve  our  present  stock  and  provide  for  Alaska  a 
breed  of  reindeer  superior  to  that  of  any  other  country.  Use  is  being 
made  of  reindeer  in  Siberia,  both  by  the  Government  and  by  private 
enterprise,  in  the  transportation  of  merchandise;  the  important  part 
these  animals  are  playing  there  is  suggestive  of  what  may  be  accom- 
jdished  through  their  aid  in  the  development  of  Alaska.  Already 
reindeer  teams  are  employed  in  the  latter  Territory  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  transporting  men  and  supplies  to  mining  camps  and  out¬ 
lying  stations;  as  their  number  increases  they  will  more  and  more 
take  the  place  of  dogs  for  these  purposes.  During  the  past  winter  a 
detachment  of  United  States  troops  engaged  in  constructing  a  Gov¬ 
ernment  telegraph  line  became  snow-bound  near  Kaltag  on  the  Yukon 
Diver;  their  mules  were  unable  to  make  any  progress  even  after  the 
soldiers  had  shoveled  a  trail  for  them  in  the  deep  snow.  In  this 
emergency,  at  the  request  of  General  Randall,  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  Alaska,  deer  teams  w^ere  sent  to  their  relief  from  the 
Eaton  reindeer  station  and  brought  the  troops  and  their  camp  equi¬ 
page  through  the  snow  to  a  place  of  safety.  Deer  teams  were  also 
employed  during  the  winter  in  drawing  telegraph  poles  from  the 
woods.  By  Executive  order  of  March  30,  1901,  two  specified  tracts  of 
land  were  set  apart  and  reserved  for  reindeer  stations. 

City  school  systems  (Chapter  XXXIV). — By  the  steady  increase  in 
population  of  the  cities  and  villages  of  the  country  the  list  of  cities  of 
over  8,000  inhabitants  receives  constant  additions.  From  year  to 
year  new  cities  are  added  to  the  list  when  their  populations  are  esti¬ 
mated  to  have  passed  the  8,000  mark,  these  estimates  being  based  on 
the  data  of  the  last  census,  the  growth  of  the  city  during  the  ten  years 
preceding,  and  the  reported  present  school  enrollment.  Thus  the  list 
of  city  school  systems  in  cities  of  over  8,000  inhabitants  numbered  in 
1900-1901  582,  a  gain  of  14  over  1899-1900.  This  change  in  the  list  should 
be  considered  in  making  comparisons  with  the  statistics  of  previous 
years.  The  entire  enrollment  in  the  city  schools  of  the  United  States 
for  1900-1901  was  4,090,819,  an  increase  of  141,258,  or  3.58  per  cent, 
over  the  previous  year.  The  rate  of  increase  in  enrollment  varies 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LV 


greatly  in  tlie  several  divisions,  being  notably  greatest  in  the  South 
Atlantic  division,  where  it  is  nearly  10  per  cent,  and  falling  to  less 
than  2  per  cent  in  the  North  Central  division.  The  enrollment  in 
primary  schools  shows  a  decrease  in  every  division  except  the  West¬ 
ern,  the  decrease  for  the  United  States  being  32,238,  or  3.47  per  cent. 
In  regard  to  supervision,  a  movement,  temporary  in  its  character, 
is  noticed  tending  toward  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  supervising 
officers.  The  city  of  New  York  furnishes  a  noteworthy  instance  of 
this,  for  the  number  of  supervisors  reported  for  1900-1901  shows  a  loss 
of  76  from  the  number  reported  in  1899-1900,  while  at  the  same  time 
908  places  were  added  to  the  list  of  teachers.  For  the  United  States 
the  whole  number  of  supervising  officers  is  4,733,  less  by  one  than  the 
total  of  the  previous  year,  while  the  number  of  teachers,  87,561,  shows 
a  gain  of  4,068.  All  of  the  five  divisions  share  in  the  relative  reduc¬ 
tion  of  the  list  of  supervisors,  which  reduction  is  greatest  in  the  North 
Atlantic  and  'South  Atlantic  divisions.  It  will  also  be  noted  that 
women  supervisors  were  the  principal  sufferers  in  the  cutting  down  of 
the  force.  In  the  ease  of  New  York  City,  cited  above,  74  of  the  76 
positions  lost  were  held  by  women,  and  for  the  United  States  the  num¬ 
ber  of  female  supervising  officers  is  less  by  59  than  in  1899-1900, 
against  a  gain  of  58  in  the  number  of  male  supervisors.  This  is  in 
decided  contrast  to  the  marked  tendency  of  several  years  past.  The 
per  cent  of  increase  of  male  teachers,  also,  is  slightly  greater  than 
that  of  women.  A  significant  fact  disclosed  by  the  statistics  is  the 
relatively  large  increase  in  the  amounts  expended  for  tuition  or  for 
the  teaching  force,  the  rate  of  increase  being  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  item.  The  expenditure  for  tuition  was  $63,433,167,  a  gain  of 
$4,249,601,  or  7.18  per  cent.  This  raises  the  average  annual  salary  of 
the  city  teacher  from  $670. 81  in  1899-1900  to  $687. 29  in  1900-1901.  The 
total  expenditure  was  increased  by  $8,206,551,  or  8.25  per  cent. 

Recently  there  has  been  muchyliscussion  of  the  municipal  expendi¬ 
tures,  with  a  view  to  arrive  at  the  normal  ratio  which  the  cost  of  one 
department  should  bear  to  another.  Of  course  it  is  admitted  that 
conditions  differ  in  different  cities  and  that  local  causes  peculiar  to 
one  city  may  make  it  reasonable  or  necessary  to  devote  a  larger  ratio 
of  its  taxes  to  the  police,  or  to  street  cleaning,  to  sewer  building,  or 
to  sanitation,  than  another  city  may  find  to  be  necessary.  But  com¬ 
parative  tables  throw  light  on  the  parts  of  the  budget  that  vary  from 
the  average,  and  thus  draw  attention  to  the  items  that  need  explana¬ 
tion  and  are  suspicious. 

I  give  here  the  comparative  statistics  of  20  cities,  showing  expendi¬ 
tures  for  schools  and  for  police — first,  a  table  showing  the  educational 
statistics,  with  the  cost  for  permanent  improvements  (grounds  and 
buildings)  included,  and  secondly,  a  table  with  this  item  omitted. , 


LYI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Total  expenditure  ( including  construction  and  capital  outlay)  by  the  20  largest 
cities  for  public  schools  and  for  police  departments. 


[Data  relating  to  police  from  Bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  No.  42,  September  1902; 
that  relating  to  schools  from  reports  for  corresponding  dates  made  to  the  Bureau  of  Education; 
calculations  made  in  the  Bureau  of  Education.] 


City. 


New  York  .... 

Chicago _ 

Philadelphia.. 

St.  Louis _ 

Boston _ 

Baltimore _ 

Cleveland _ 

Buffalo _ 

San  Francisco 

Cincinnati _ 

Pittsburg _ 

New  Orleans.. 

Detroit _ 

Milwaukee _ 

Washington  .. 

Newark.. . 

Jersey  City  . . . 

Louisville _ 

Minneapolis  .. 
Providence  ... 


Total  spent  Spent  for 
for  schools.  police. 


$22,845,359 
8,577,622 
4,223,278 
2,123,020 
4,007,264 
1,426,031 
2,413,548 
1,440, 714 
1, 169, 845 
1,154,301 
1,407,003 
589,480 
1,251,826 
852, 572 
1,485,695 
931,387 
634,154 
555, 812 
839,090 
799, 767 


$10,474,019 
3,890,741 
3, 118, 881 
1,627,235 
1,778,353 
967,823 
483,015 
793, 294 
789, 251 
563, 268 
490, 287 
231, 374 
570,207 
342,508 
703,819 
428, 495 
430, 241 
273,615 
216,698 
371,875 


Ratio. 


$2.18  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.21  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.35  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.30  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.25  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.47  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$5.00  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.82  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.48  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.05  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.87  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.55  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.20  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.49  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.11  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.17  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.47  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.03  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$3.87  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.15  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 


Expenditure  by  the  20  largest  cities  for  maintenance  and  operation  of  public 
schools  and  of  police  departments. 


[Data  from  Bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  No.  42,  September,  1902;  calculations  made  in 

the  Bureau  of  Education.] 


City. 

Spent  for 
schools, 
building 
omitted. 

New  York . 

$19,731, 629 

Chicago . . . 

8,203, 493 

Philadelphia _ _ _ _ 

St.  Louis . . . . 

3,319,604 
1.526,140 
3,043, 640 
1,417,392 
1, 257, 345 
1,161,834 
1, 166, 763 
1,126,631 
843,648 
478,025 
869,713 
764,968 
1,182,916 
830,081 
500,332 

Boston  . . . 

Baltimore.. . . . . 

Cleveland . 

Buffalo 

San  Francisco . . . . . . 

Cincinnati . . . . 

Pittsburg 

New  Orleans 

Detroit 

Milwaukee  . . . 

Washington  .  . . 

N  ewark _  _ _ _ 

Jersey  City  .  . . . . . 

Louisvilld  .  _  _ 

512, 947 

Minneapolis _ _ 

736,981 
739, 695 

Providence . . . 

(Spent  for  po¬ 
lice  depart¬ 
ment. 


$10,199,206 
3,685,982 
3,036,264 
1, 602, 182 
1,754,151 
967,823 
417,932 
793,294 
789, 251 
555, 185 
490, 287 
231,374 
542,049 
342,508 
687,922 
428, 495 
421,616 
273,615 
216,698 
371,875 


Ratio. 


$1.93  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.23  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.09  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$0.95  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.73  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.46  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$3.01  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.46  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.48  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.03  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.72  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.07  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.60  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$2.24  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.72  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.94  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.16  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.87  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$3.40  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 
$1.99  for  schools  to  $1  for  police. 


Higher  education. — Chapter  XXXV  contains  the  usual  statistics 
concerning  institutions  for  higher  education,  with  an  additional  table 
giving  the  number  of  students  in  the  various  courses  of  study  in  each 
institution  so  far  as  reported.  The  number  of  undergraduate  and 
resident  graduate  students  in  universities  and  colleges  for  men  and 
for  both  sexes,  colleges  for  women  (Division  A),  and  in  schools  of 
technology,  for  the  year  1900-1901,  is  reported  as  103,351,  an  increase 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LVII 


of  4,428  students  over  tlie  number  for  tlie  preceding  year.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  students  for  each  year  from  1889-90  to  1900-1901  is  as  follows: 


Year. 

Universities  and 
colleges  for 
men  and  for 
both  sexes. 

Colleges 
for  women, 
Division  A. 

Schools  of  tech¬ 
nology. 

Total  number. 

Men. 

Women. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

1889-90 . 

38,056 

8,075 

1,979 

6.870 

707 

44,926 

10,761 

1890-91 . . . 

40,089 

9,439 

2,265 

6, 131 

481 

46,220 

12,185 

1891-92 . . 

45,032 

10,390 

2,636 

6,131 

481 

51,163 

13,507 

1892-93 . . . 

46,689 

11,489 

3,198 

8,616 

843 

55,305 

15,530 

1893-94 . . 

50,297 

13, 144 

3,578 

9,517 

1,376 

59,814 

18,098 

1894-95 . 

52,588 

14,298 

3,667 

9,467 

1,106 

62,053 

19,071 

1895-96. . 

58,5.56 

16,746 

3,910 

8,587 

1,065 

65, 143 

21, 721 

1896-97 . . . 

55,755 

16,536 

3,913 

8,907 

1,094 

-64, 662 

21,543 

1897-98. . . . . 

58,407 

17, 765 

4,416 

8,611 

1,289 

67,018 

23,470 

1898-99.. . 

58,467 

18,948 

4,593 

9,038 

i,ai9 

67,505 

24.880 

1899-1900. _ _ 

61,812 

20,452 

4,872 

10,347 

1,440 

72,159 

26,764 

1900-1901 . 

65,069 

21,468 

5,260 

10,403 

1,151 

75,  472 

27,879 

Of  91,288  students  whose  classification  according  to  the  courses  of 
study  pursued  was  reported,  63,843  are  reported  in  classical  and  other 
general  culture  courses,  9,081  in  general  science  courses,  3,843  in 
agriculture,  391  in  architecture,  and  14,130  in  the  various  branches  of 
engineering.  The  first  school  of  mines  in  the  United  States  was 
established  at  Columbia  College  (now  Columbia  University),  in  the 
City  of  Xew  York,  and  was  opened  to  students  in  1864.  At  the  pres¬ 
ent  time  the  institutions  offering  courses  of  study  in  mining  engineer¬ 
ing  number  37,  having  more  than  doubled  during  the  past  ten  years. 
This  does  not  include  institutions  in  which  a  limited  amount  of 
instruction  in  mining  engineering  is  included  in  civil  engineering 
courses.  Short  statements  concerning  the  mining  engineering  courses, 
with  a  description  of  the  special  mining  equipment  and  the  field  work 
required  during  the  course  of  study,  are  given  in  Chapter  XLV.  The 
degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  is  now  the  only  degree  conferrrd  by  137 
universities  and  colleges  for  the  completion  of  a  liberal  course  of 
study.  The  degrees  of  bachelor  of  philosophy,  bachelor  of  literature, 
and  bachelor  of  science  (except  for  technical  courses)  are  no  longer 
used  in  a  considerable  number  of  institutions,  and  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts  is  conferred  in  their  stead.  Table  28  of  this  chapter 
shows  the  institutions  conferring  the  several  degrees.  The  total 
number  of  degrees  conferred  for  work  done  (excluding  degrees  in 
law,  medicine,  and  theology)  was  16,513,  of  which  number  11,463 
were  conferred  on  men  and  5,050  on  women.  The  degree  of  doctor  of 
X>hilosophy  was  conferred  by  42  institutions  on  312  men  and  31  women 
on  examination,  and  by  14  institutions  on  35  persons  as  an  honorary 
degree.  The  total  value  of  all  property  held  by  institutions  for 
higher  education  amounts  to  $391,230,784,  a  gain  of  $30,636,189  over 
the  amount  for  the  preceding  year.  The  endowment  funds  amount 
to  $177,127,965,  and  the  remainder  represents  the  material  equip¬ 
ment  of  the  institutions.  The  total  income  was  $33,259,612,  and  the 


LVIIT 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


benefactions  received  by  the  several  institutions  during  the  year 
amounted  to  $18,040,413. 

Professional  schools  (Chapter  XXXYI). — The  number  of  students 
in  theology  in  1900-1901  was  7,567,  a  decrease  of  442  from  the  previous 
year,  and  of  804  from  the  number  in  1898.  This  continued  decrease 
in  the  number  of  theological  students  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the 
rapid  growth  in  the  numbers  studying  law,  medicine,  and  dentistiy. 
The  value  of  grounds  and  buildings  of  theological  schools  is  reported 
at  $15,217,164,  and  the  endowment  funds  aggregate  over  $21,000,000. 
Law  students  numbered  13,642,  an  increase  of  more  than  1,000  in  one 
year.  The  growth  in  the  number  of  law  students  can  be  appreciated 
more  fully  by  contrasting  the  number  in  1891  with  the  number  in  1901, 
namely,  5,252  with  13,642,  an  increase  of  160  per  cent  in  ten  years. 
Medical  students  numbered  26,757,  an  increase  over  the  previous  year 
of  1,544.  The  year  1901  was  unusually  favorable  to  medical  educa¬ 
tion,  in  view  of  the  gift  to  Harvard  Medical  School  of  over  $1,000,000 
by  Mr.  J.  P.  Morgan,  and  the  subsequent  announcement  of  the  gift, 
on  certain  conditions,  of  a  like  sum  to  the  same  institution  by  Mr. 
John  D.  Rockefeller.  Students  in  dentistry  now  number  7,308;  in 
pharmacy  4,429. 

Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges. — In  Chapter  XXXYII  are 
given  in  considerable  detail  the  statistics  concerning  the  institutions 
making  special  provision  for  instruction  in  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts,  endowed  by  the  acts  of  Congress  approved  July  2, 
1862,  and  August  30,  1890.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  presidents 
of  the  several  institutions  the  various  States  received  from  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Government  under  the  act  of  July  2,  1862,  an  aggregate  amount 
of  10,320,843  acres  of  land,  of  which  1,030,572  acres  remain  unsold. 
The  invested  funds  realized  from  the  sale  of  these  lands  amount  to 
$10,806,780,  yielding  an  income  of  6.3  per  cent.  The  total  income  of 
these  institutions  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1901,  excluding  appro¬ 
priations  for  experiment  stations,  was  $7,325,604.  Of  this  amount  the 
States  and  Territories  granted  $3,073,736,  the  income  from  Federal 
sources  was  $1,937,136,  from  students’  fees  $960,621,  from  endowment 
other  than  Federal  or  State  sources  $553,503,  and  from  miscellaneous 
sources  $800,608.  The  value  of  all  property  held  for  the  benefit  and 
use  of  the  institutions  amounts  to  $68,084,925,  the  value  of  additions 
to  the  equipment  during  the  year  having  been  $1,932,058.  The  total 
number  of  students  in  the  agricultural  and  mechanical  departments 
was  29,950.  The  establishment  of  short  practical  courses,  especially 
in  the  line  of  agriculture,  has  continued  during  the  year  and  is  doing 
much  toward  bringing  these  institutions  into  closer  touch  with  the 
people  in  the  agricultural  districts  of  the  several  States.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  students  in  the  technical  courses  shows  a  decided  increase  dur¬ 
ing  the  past  few  years.  Mention  is  made  in  this  chapter  of  the  changes 
in  the  courses  or  methods  of  instruction,  and  a  description  of  new 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LIX 


buildings  erected  during  the  year  is  given  so  far  as  reported.  A  con¬ 
siderable  amount  of  aid  is  granted  to  students  in  the  way  of  paid 
labor.  Ten  States  made  specific  appropriations  for  this  purpose, 
amounting  to  $27,500,  during  the  year.  The  total  amount  expended 
for  student  labor  was  $160,477.  The  average  amount  earned  by  4,868 
students  was  $32  per  annum.  The  highest  average  paid  by  any  insti¬ 
tution  was  $200  and  the  lowest  was  $1  per  student.  In  addition  to 
the  work  at  the  institutions  a  large  amount  of  time  is  given  to  outside 
work,  especially  at  farmers’  institutes.  Twenty-three  States  are 
reported  as  making  special  appropriations  for  farmers’  institutes, 
amounting  to  $103,112.  The  amount  of  time  given  to  this  work  dur¬ 
ing  the  year  by  officers  of  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  sta¬ 
tions  was  about  2,613  days.  The  number  of  institutes  held  was  1,497, 
with  an  estimated  attendance  of  445,144. 

The  organization  of  the  institutions  endowed  by  the  acts  of  July  2, 
1862,  and  August  30,  1890,  differs  very  greatly.  In  some  States,  as  in 
California,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  etc.,  instruction  is  offered  in  a  wide 
range  of  subjects,  comprising  the  studies  included  in  general  cul¬ 
ture,  technical,  and  graduate  courses,  as  well  as  in  the  professional 
courses  of  law,  medicine,  dentistry,  etc.,  while  in  other  States,  as  in 
Massachusetts,  Michigan,  etc.,  the  instruction  is  limited  to  technical 
subjects.  In  order  to  give  an  idea  as- to  the  scope  of  the  several  insti¬ 
tutions  a  brief  statement  of  the  courses  of  study  offered  is  included 
in  this  chapter.  There  is  given  also  the  announcement  of  the  first 
session  of  the  Graduate  School  of  Agriculture,  to  be  held  for  four 
weeks  from  July  7  to  August  1,  1902,  at  the  Ohio  State  University, 
under  the  auspices  of  that  institution  and  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations.  Instruc¬ 
tion  will  be  given  in  agronomy,  zootechny  and  dairying,  and  in  plant 
and  animal  breeding.  The  faculty  consists  of  24  instructors  and  offi¬ 
cers  from  16  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations  and  6 
officers  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  with  Director  A.  C.  True 
of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  as  dean. 

Statistics  of  normal  schools  (Chapter  XXXVIII) . ---It  is  estimated 
that  at  least  half  a  million  persons  are  engaged  in  teaching  in  the 
schools  of  the  United  States.  This  does  not  include  private  teachers 
and  tutors.  To  furnish  recruits  for  this  vast  army  of  teachers  the 
normal  schools  and  other  institutions  offering  professional  training 
for  teachers  are  sending  out  nearly  15,000  teacher  graduates  a  year. 
For  the  scholastic  year  1900-1901  there  were  enrolled  in  public  and 
private  normal  schools,  public  and  private  high  schools  and  academies, 
and  universities  and  colleges,  94,157  students  pursuing  training  courses 
for  teachers,  in  all  public  institutions  there  having  been  57,689  such 
students,  and  in  all  private  institutions  36,468.  The  170  public  nor¬ 
mal  schools  had  43,372  of  these  students,  the  118  private  normal 


LX 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


schools  20,030;  in  23  public  universities  and  colleges  there  were  3,019 
normal  students,  and  7,453  in  188  private  universities  and  colleges; 
494  public  high  schools  had  11,298  such  students,  while  326  private 
high  schools  and  academies  had  8,985.  Nothing  will  better  illustrate 
the  growth  of  normal  schools  in  this  country  than  the  following  table, 
which  shows  the  amount  of  public  appropriations  for  public  normal 
schools  each  year  since  1890: 


Public  appropriations  for  public  normal  schools  for  twelve  years. 


Year. 

For  sup¬ 
port. 

For  build¬ 
ings. 

Year. 

For  sup¬ 
port. 

For  build¬ 
ings. 

1889-90 . 

$1,312, 419 
1,285,700 
1,567,082 
1,452,914 
1,996,271 
1,917,375 

$900,533 

409,916 

394,635 

816,826 

1,583,399 

1,003,933 

1895-96  . 

$2  187,875 

$1,124,834 

743,333 

417,866 

560,896 

718,507 

709,217 

1890-91... 

1896-97  . 

2,426,185 

2,566,132 

2,510,934 

2,769,003 

3,068,485 

1891-92 . 

1897-98  . 

1892-98 . . 

1898-99  . 

1893-94. . 

1899-1900  . 

1894-95 . 

1900-1901  . 

Statistics  of  secondary  schools. — Chapter  XXXIX  is  devoted  to  the 
statistics  of  public  and  private  high  schools  and  academies,  with  an 
introduction  showing  the  number  of  secondary  students  in  other 
institutions.  The  total  number  of  secondary  students  reported  to 
this  office  for  the  year  1900-1901  was  736,000,  distributed  among  eight 
classes  of  institutions,  as  follows: 


Secondary  pupils  in  the  United  States. 


Institutions. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Public  high  schools. . . . . . . . 

224,584 

2,749 

7,287 

53,813 

4,408 

30,016 

317,146 
4,404 
2,570 
54,408 
2,809 
14, 785 
5, 614 
4,589 

541, 730 
7,153 
9,857 
108,221 
7,217 
44,801 
5,614 
11,407 

Public  normal  schools  .  .  . 

Public  universities  and  colleges . . . . . 

Private  high  schools . .  . . . . . . 

Private  normal  schools . . 

Private  universities  and  colleges 

Private  colleges  for  women  . 

Manual  training  schools . 

Total  . . . 

6,818 

329,675 

406,325 

736,000 

The  736,000  secondary  students  comprised  4.25  per  cent  of  the  entire 
school  enrollment  of  the  country,  which  was  17,299,230.  Almost  1 
per  cent  of  the  whole  population  was  receiving  secondary  instruction. 
In  the  last  ten  years  the  rate  of  increase  of  secondary  students  has 
been  more  rapid  than  the  rate  of  increase  in  population.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  secondary  students  in  private  institutions  has  very  nearly  kept 
pace  with  the  growth  of  population  from  year  to  year,  while  the 
number  of  such  students  in  public  institutions  has  increased  from 
about  3,500  to  the  million  in  1891  to  about  7,200  to  the  million  in 
1901.  In  1891  the  total  number  of  public  and  private  secondary 
students  was  about  5,800  to  the  million,  while  the  number  in  1901  was 
about  9,500  to  the  million. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  secondary  students  in  preparatory 
departments  of  colleges  and  in  other  institutions,  the  following  table 


THE  COMMISSIONER  S  INTRODUCTION, 


LXI 


will  illustrate  the  growth  of  public  and  private  high  schools  proper 
since  1890: 

Public  and  private  high  schools  since  1889-90. 


Year  re¬ 
ported. 

Public. 

Private. 

Total. 

Schools. 

Teach¬ 

ers. 

Students. 

Schools. 

Teach¬ 

ers. 

Students. 

Schools. 

Teach¬ 

ers. 

Students. 

1889-90 . 

2,528 

9,120 

202,983 

1,632 

7,209 

94,931 

4,158 

16,329 

297,894 

1880-91.. . 

2,771 

8,270 

211,596 

1,714 

6,231 

98,400 

4,485 

14,501 

309,996 

1891-92. . 

3,035 

9,584 

239,556 

1,550 

7,093 

100,739 

4,585 

16,657 

340, 295 

1882-93. . 

3,218 

10,141 

254,023 

1,575 

7,199 

102,375 

4,793 

17,340 

356,398 

1893-94. . 

3,964 

12,120 

289,274 

1,982 

8,009 

118, 645 

5,946 

20, 129 

407,919 

1894-95.. . 

4,712 

14,122 

350,089 

2, 180 

8,559 

118,347 

6,892 

22,681 

468, 446 

1895-96 . 

4,974 

15, 700 

380,493 

2, 106 

8,752 

1(}8, 654 

7,080 

24,452 

487,147 

1896-97 . 

5,109 

16,809 

409, 433 

2,100 

9,574 

107,633 

7,209 

26,383 

517,066 

1897-98 . 

5,315 

17,941 

449,600 

1,990 

9,357 

105, 225 

7,305 

27,298 

554,825 

1898-99.. . 

5,495 

18,718 

476,227 

1,957 

9,410 

103, 838 

7,452 

28,128 

580,065 

1899-1800 _ 

6,005 

20,372 

519,251 

1,978 

10, 117 

110,797 

7,983 

30, 489 

630,048 

1900-1901 . 

6,318 

21,778 

541, 730 

1,892 

9, 775 

108,221 

8,210 

31,553 

649,951 

In  the  last  dozen  years  there  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  high-school  students  in  certain  leading  secondary  studies. 
In  1890  less  than  34  per  cent  of  the  students  were  studying  Latin, 
while  in  1901  the  per  cent  was  about  50.  The  per  cent  studying  alge¬ 
bra  increased  from  nearly  43  in  1890  to  nearly  56  in  1901.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  synopsis  exhibits  these  percentages  for  each  of  the  twelve  years 
in  certain  studies: 


Per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  secondary  students  in  public  and  private  high 
schools  and  academies  in  certain  courses  and  studies ,  etc. 


Students  and  studies. 

1889- 

1890. 

1890- 

1891. 

1891- 

1892. 

1892- 

1893. 

1893- 

1894. 

1894- 

1895. 

1895- 

1898. 

1896- 

1897. 

1897- 

1898. 

1898- 

1899. 

1899- 1 
1900. 

1900- 

1901. 

Males . . 

45.03 

43. 67 

44.01 

43.62 

43.39 

43.00 

43.40 

43.84 

43.50 

42.93 

43. 16 

42.83 

Females . . 

54.97 

56. 33 

55.99 

56.38 

56. 61 

57.00 

58.60 

56. 16 

56.50 

57.07 

56.84 

j  57.17 

Preparing  for  college, 

classical  course. . . . 

10.61 

8.45 

9.18 

9.90 

10. 34 

10.00 

10.05 

8.94 

/  7.99 

7.87 

8.32 

8.30 

Preparing  for  college, 

I 

scientific  courses . 

8.05 

6.38 

7.59 

8.22 

7.33 

7. 11 

7.16 

6.57 

6.03 

6.18 

6.21 

6.54 

Total  preparing  for 

college . 

18.66 

14.83 

16. 77 

18. 12 

17.67 

17.11 

17.21 

15.51 

14.02 

14.05 

14.53 

14. 84 

Graduates . 

10.05 

10.51 

10.87 

11.46 

11.88 

11.60 

11.73 

11.95 

11.75 

11. 78 

11. 74 

11.95 

Graduates  prepared  for 

college  « . 

. 

35. 74 

39. 15 

36.62 

30.92 

32.44 

32.69 

32.60 

30.60 

31.61 

32.95 

33.48 

Studying— 

Latin . 

33.62 

39.80 

38.80 

41.94 

43.59 

43.76 

46.22 

48.01 

49.44 

50.29 

49.97 

49.93 

Greek . 

4.32 

4.65 

4.68 

4.92 

4.99 

4.73 

4.58 

4.60 

4. 50 

4.27 

3. 95 

3. 58 

French . . . 

9.41 

9.06 

8.59 

9.94 

10.31 

9. 77 

10. 13 

9.98 

10.48 

10. 68 

10. 43 

10. 75 

German . . 

11.48 

15. 68 

11.61 

13.00 

12.78 

12.68 

13.20 

13. 76 

14.24 

14.91 

15.06 

16.09 

Algebra . . 

42. 77 

49.89 

47.65 

49.92 

52. 71 

52.40 

53.46 

54. 22 

55.29 

58. 21 

55.08 

55.66 

Geometry . 

20.07 

23.04 

22.52 

24.36 

25.25 

24.51 

25. 71 

26.24 

26.59 

27.36 

28.75 

27.26 

Trigonometry . 

2. 96 

3.61 

3.80 

3.25 

3.15 

3. 08 

2. 83 

2. 58 

2.42 

2.54 

Physics _ 

2L36 

23.06 

22.04 

22.25 

24.02 

22. 15 

21.85 

20.89 

20.48 

19.97 

18. 88 

18.24 

Chemistry _ 

9.62 

10. 37 

10.08 

9.98 

10.31 

9.31 

9.15 

9. 18 

8.55 

8.64 

8.00 

7.86 

Physical  geography. . 

22. 44 

24.93 

24. 64 

24.33 

23. 75 

22. 88 

22.42 

Physiology . . 

28.03 

31.08 

29. 98 

29.38 

28.62 

26.96 

26.27 

Rhetoric  . . . 

31.31 

32. 27 

33. 78 

85. 30 

36.70 

37.70 

39. 69 

English  literature  .  _ . 

38.90 

40.60 

41.19 

43. 90 

History  (other  than 

U.S.) . 

27.83 

29. 77 

31.35 

33.46 

35. 78 

34.65 

85.73 

36. 08 

37.68 

38.32 

37.80 

38.41 

a  Per  cent  of  total  number  of  graduates. 


LX1I 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


A  recent  inquiry  sent  to  the  school  superintendents  in  160  of  the 
largest  cities,  those  having  over  25,000  population,  asking  for  the 
date  of  first  opening  of  a  public  high  school,  brought  142  responses. 
Of  the  142  cities  reporting,  it  appears  that  28  had  public  high  schools 
before  the  end  of  the  year  1850;  in  41  cities  such  schools  were  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  period  from  1851  to  1860,  inclusive;  in  32  cities  public 
high  schools  were  established  from  1861  to  1870,  inclusive;  and  subse¬ 
quent  to  1870  such  schools  have  been  established  in  the  41  remaining 
cities. 

Education  in  Porto  Pico. — The  report  of  the  commissioner  of  edu¬ 
cation  for  Porto  Rico  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is  naturally  largely 
taken  up  with  the  public  elementary  schools  of  the  island  as  reorgan¬ 
ized  since  the  American  occupancy.  The  year  1901  found  about 
34,000  children  in  school,  and  the  commissioner  estimates  that  next 
year  50,000  will  be  enrolled.  For  these  pupils  the  number  of  teachers 
will  need  to  be  increased  to  1,000.  The  summer  normal  school  at  San 
Juan  was  attended  by  over  800  teachers  in  1901.  A  large  building 
for  the  normal  school  was  under  construction  at  Rio  Piedras,  and 
was  to  have  been  opened  about  November  21,  1901.  There  were  39 
new  school  buildings  completed  and  in  use ;  the  teaching  corps  has  been 
reorganized ;  a  system  of  agricultural  schools  gives  practical  instruc¬ 
tion  to  about  1,000  students;  and  a  high  school  is  in  operation  at  San 
Juan.  The  annual  budget  has  been  increased  from  $400,000  to 
$500,000,  and  the  schools  are  now  equipped  with  all  necessary  books 
and  supplies,  while  the  school  term  extends  to  nine  months  in  the 
year.  There  are  100  American  teachers  now  in  the  island.  Free 
transportation  for  teachers  between  New  York  and  San  Juan  was 
discontinued  in  June,  1901.  The  salary  of  American  teachers  is 
fixed  at  $40  per  month  for  nine  months  in  cities  of  less  than  5,000 
population.  In  larger  cities  it  is  $50  per  month  for  the  same  time. 

Teachers’  institutes  were  held  in  15  places  in  the  island  during  the 
summer  of  1900,  and  summer  schools  were  open  in  16  districts. 

In  January,  1901,  the  sum  of  $200,000  was  transmitted  to  the 
treasurer  of  Porto  Rico  from  the  United  States  Treasury,  by  direction 
of  the  President,  to  be  used  for  school  buildings,  and  suitable  build¬ 
ings  are  in  course  of  construction  in  all  parts  of  the  island.  The 
school  maintenance  fund  of  $501,000  allotted  under  the  civil  govern¬ 
ment  is  25  per  cent  of  the  entire  insular  budget.  It  is  independent  of 
$235,000  destined  for  school  extension. 

The  free  public  library  in  San  Juan  has  7,400  volumes.  Provision 
has  been  made  by  the  legislature  of  the  island  to  send  a  limited  num¬ 
ber  of  young  men  and  women  to  complete  their  education  in  the 
United  States. 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LXIII 


The  following  is  a  statistical  summary  of  the  public-school  system 


of  Porto  Rico  from  October,  1900,  to  June,  1901,  inclusive: 

Total  population  of  the  island _ _  958, 248 

Total  school  population _ _ 322, 393 

Number  of  schools  open  at  end  of  year  (boys,  132;  girls,  71;  mixed,  528; 

night,  2) - 733 

Average  number  of  schools  open  each  month _  698 

Number  of  buildings  in  use  for  schools  (town,  120;  rural,  387) _  507 

Number  of  teachers  employed  at  end  of  year  (white  male,  461;  white 
female,  235;  colored  male,  41;  colored  female,  81;  total  males,  502;  total 

females,  266) _ 768 

Total  number  of  American  teachers  employed  during* year  _  _  _  104 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  at  end  of  year . . . .  33, 802 


(Of  these  15,542  were  white  boys  and  5,695  colored  boys,  and  8,768  were  white 
girls  and  3,802  colored  girls.  The  total  number  of  boys  was  21,237,  and  of  girls 
12,565.) 


Average  daily  attendance  during  the  year  _ _ _ _  23, 453 

Per  cent  of  total  population  enrolled  in  schools _ _ _  3.  5 

Estimated  value  of  all  school  property.  _  . . $213, 465. 97 


Hawaii. — The  Bureau  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Alatau  T.  Atkinson,  super¬ 
intendent  of  public  instruction  of  Hawaii,  for  the  following  figures 
and  information  relating  to  the  schools  of  Hawaii: 

Por  the  year  ending  July  1,  1901,  the  enrollment  was  as  follows: 
Enrolled  in  public  and  private  schools,  males  9,551,  females  7,967, 
total  17,518;  enrolled  in  public  schools,  males  7,233,  females  5,956, 
total  13,189. 

Average  daily  attendance  in  the  public  schools,  10,737. 

Average  number  of  days  the  public  schools  were  kept,  186. 

Number  of  buildings  used  as  schoolhouses,  184. 

Teachers’  cottages  supplied  by  the  board  of  education,  64. 

Estimated  value  of  all  public  school  property,  $500,000. 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  public  high  schools  or  studying  high 
school  branches,  160. 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  private  and  parochial  schools  giving 
primary  or  secondary  instruction  (including  academies  and  prepar¬ 
atory  schools),  4,329. 

Whole  number  of  different  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools: 
Males,  104;  females,  276;  total,  380. 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers  (there  is  no  distinction  for  sex, 
color,  or  race),  $62. 

The  appropriation  for  public  schools  from  state  taxes  for  two  years 
ending  June  30,  1903,  was  $855,387.50. 

Expenditure  for  the  same  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1902, 
$377,553.59. 

There  is  no  distinction  on  account  of  color  or  race  in  the  public 
schools.  American,  British,  German,  Norwegian,  Hawaiian,  Hawaiian 


LXIY 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


mixed  blood,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Porto  Rican,  and  South  Sea  Island 
children  all  attend  the  same  schools. 

From  the  last  printed  report  of  the  superintendent  for  the  year 
ending  December  31,  1900,  it  appears  that  the  number  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools  was  11,501,  showing  an  increase  of  enrollment  in  1901 
of  1,688. 

The  nationalities  of  the  pupils  are  interesting.  Thus  there  were, 
in  1900,  6,015  pupils  of  Hawaiian  and  Hawaiian  mixed  blood,  421 
American,  136  British,  171  German,  2,625  Portuguese,  92  Scandina¬ 
vian,  1,207  Japanese,  739  Chinese,  27  South  Sea  Islanders,  and  68 
of  other  unspecified  nationalities  in  the  public  schools. 

Cuba. — Volume  II  of  the  first  annual  report  of  the  commissioner  of 
public  schools  of  Cuba  lias  an  especial  value  from  an  historical  stand¬ 
point,  on  account  of  the  reports  of  the  provincial  superintendents  and 
investigating  committees,  which  present  a  candid  picture,  in  some 
respects  quite  curious,  of  the  earliest  workings  of  the  school  system 
which  was  inaugurated  under  the  American  administration.  The 
commissioner  remarks  that  “the  school  law  is  the  most  democratic 
order  that  has  been  published  during  the  military  occupation  of  the 
island  of  Cuba.  It  places  the  control  of  the  public  schools  of  the 
island  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  different  local  boards  of 
education,  only  leaving  to  the  higher  offices  the  supervision  of  the 
work  that  is  done  by  the  lower,  and  such  other  authority  and  control 
as  is  rendered  necessary  by  the  facts  that  all  expenditures  of  the  pub¬ 
lic  schools  are  paid  from  the  island  treasury,  and  that  the  grading  and 
instruction  throughout  the  island  should  be  uniform.”  These  boards 
are  elected  by  the  electors  of  the  municipalities.  They  were  supposed  to 
appoint  teachers  without  regard  to  politics  or  interest,  but  in  some 
cases  were  found  to  be  corrupt  or  negligent  and  the  teachers  were 
appointed  from  political  motives  or  through  favoritism.  Such  cases 
were  investigated  promptly  and  the  offending  members  of  the  board 
removed,  after  a  full  examination  of  witnesses  and  report  hy  a  board 
of  commissioners  appointed  for  this  purpose.  These  proceedings  must 
have  been  an  object  lesson  in  administration  to  the  voting  public. 

The  progress  during  the  year  1900-1901  is  given  in  the  following 
summary.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  there  were  a  few  more 
than  3,000  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools.  The  school 
accommodations  were  poor,  as  were  also  the  equipment  and  sup¬ 
plies.  The  boards  of  education  neglected  their  duties  of  supervi¬ 
sion.  The  attendance  was  poor  in  many  places,  the  methods  of  instruc¬ 
tion  were  often  defective,  and  many  of  the  teachers  had  had  but  little 
experience.  This  state  of  things  has  been  changed.  Supervision  and 
inspection  have  corrected  many  of  the  defects.  Over  264,000  different 
children  were  enrolled  in  the  schools  during  nine  months,  the  enroll¬ 
ment  for  one  month  reaching  nearly  180,000,  of  whom  an  average  of 
132,688  were  in  attendance  daily.  The  population  of  the  island  being 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LXV 


about  1,500,000,  an  average  of  nearly  one-eleventh  of  the  population 
was  in  the  public  schools  the  entire  school  year,  and  one-sixth  of  the 
population  attended  school  some  portion  of  the  year.  By  the  census 
of  1899  the  number  of  illiterate  Cubans  over  10  years  was  690,565,  out 
of  a  total  population  over  10  years  of  age  of  1,215,810,  or  57  per  cent. 
This  proportion  can  not  long  remain  if  one-sixth  of  the  entire  popula¬ 
tion  is  enrolled  in  school. 

The  number  of  schools  has  been  increased  by  several  hundreds,  and 
the  boards  of  education  are  becoming  better  acquainted  with  their 
duties,  powers,  and  limitations,  so  that  the  school  administration  has 
improved  greatly  in  the  various  districts.  The  schoolhouses  and 
equipments  have  been  greatly  improved  and  supplies  of  text-books 
and  other  material  have  been  abundant.  All  public  school  teachers 
hereafter  will  be  required  to  possess  a  regular  teacher’s  certificate. 
During  the  summer  vacation  summer  normal  schools  were  organized, 
which  were  attended  by  4,000  teachers.  One  hundred  teachers  were 
sent  to  the  summer  normal  school  of  Harvard  University  at  Cam¬ 
bridge,  Mass.,  and  60  young  women  are  attending  the  State  normal 
school  at  Hew  Paltz,  U.  Y.  A  table  is  given  of  the  number  of  private 
schools  in  the  island,  with  their  attendance  and  enrollment.  From 
this  it  appears  that  there  are  in  all  610  private  schools,  with  an  enroll¬ 
ment  of  24,333  and  an  average  attendance  of  20,592.  The  commis¬ 
sioner  remarks,  however,  that  he  believes  these  figures  to  be  very 
incorrect. 

Considerable  space  is  given  to  manual  training  and  to  the  •“  school 
city.” 

There  were  2,413  different  women  and  1,708  different  men  employed 
during  the  year  as  teachers,  of  which  numbers  1,911  women  and  1,207 
men,  or  79  per  cent  of  the  women  and  70  per  cent  of  the  men,  taught 
the  entire  year. 

The  total  enrollment  was  264,742,  or  47  per  cent  of  the  population 
of  school  age.  The  average  monthly  enrollment  in  the  public  schools 
was  168,303,  and  24,333  in  the  private  schools.  The  average  daily 
attendance  was  132,688,  or  50  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment.  This 
was  made  up  of  86,456  whites  and  46,232  colored,  of  whom  69,101  were 
boys  and  63,587  were  girls. 

The  expenditures  for  public  schools  for  1900-1901  were: 


Boards  of  edncation . . .  _  $2,848,866.01 

Office  of  commissioner  of  public  schools _  510,  705. 07 

Office  of  the  island  superintendent  of  public  schools _  55,  913. 85 

Office  of  the  provincial  superintendents  of  public  schools _  22, 488. 76 

School  buildings _ _  125, 908. 11 


Total _  3,563,831.80 

ED  1901 - ^V 


LXVI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


The  following  schedule,  showing  the  annual  expenditure  for  all 
grades  of  public  instruction  in  Cuba,  was  received  from  the  United 
States  minister  to  Cuba : 


Annual  cost  of  public  instruction. 

Higher  education: 

Office  of  secretary _  $14, 440. 00 

Habana  University _ _ _ _ _  274,  750. 00 

High  schools  [institutes?] ,  one  for  each  province _ _  228, 025. 86 

School  of  painting  and  sculpture . . . . .  11, 720. 00 

School  of  arts  and  trades _ _ _ _  25, 960. 00 

National  library . . . .  4,  500. 00 


559, 395. 36 

Primary  schools: 

Boards  of  education,  school-teachers,  school  rents,  etc _  2, 917, 742. 11 

Furniture  and  school  supplies,  text-books,  expenses  of  the  stu¬ 
dents  at  New  Paltz,  expenses  of  the  offices  of  school  superin¬ 
tendents,  construction  and  repair  of  schools,  etc _  419,433.  56 

Normal  Kindergarten  School . . . . .  8, 840. 00 


3,346,015.67 

Grand  total _ _ _ _ _ _  3,905,411.03 


The  department  of  public  instruction  is  informed  that  there  is  an 
estimate,  amounting  to  some  $260,000,  which  should  be  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  public  works.  The  expense  of  freights  and  furniture  for  the 
schools  is  also  not  included,  which  is  forwarded  on  bills  of  lading,  nor 
is  the  expense  of  public  journeys,  for  which  transportation  requests 
are  issued,  these  expenses  being  paid  directly  by  the  General  Treasury. 

Higher  education  in  Cuba. — The  Bureau  is  indebted  to  the  courtesy 
of  the  secretary  of  public  instruction  of  Cuba  for  the  annual  report  of 
the  University  of  Habana  for  the  scholastic  year  1900-1901.  From  the 
historical  introduction  to  this  report  it  appears  that  the  university 
was  opened  in  1734.  The  course  of  study  then  embraced  grammar, 
arts,  theology  and  the  Holy  Scriptures,  mathematics,  philosophy,  civil 
and  canon  law,  and  medicine.  This  plan  of  studies  was  followed 
until  1842,  when  the  “university,”  including  the  three  grades  of  pri¬ 
mary,  secondary,  and  higher  education,  was  secularized.  The  law  of 
1880  made  the  plan  of  studies  and  regulations  of  the  university  dis¬ 
trict  uniform  with  those  in  Spain.  The  rector  of  the  university  was 
ex  officio  the  head  of  education  in  Cuba.  Various  changes  in  the  plan 
of  studies  in  the  different  faculties  from  time  to  time  were  introduced 
by  royal  decrees,  the  dates  whereof  are  recorded  in  the  sketch  under 
consideration.  The  present  plan  includes  the  faculties  of  letters  and 
sciences,  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and  of  law. 

These  faculties  comprise  ‘  ‘schools”  with  different  titles, and  the  course 
or  plan  of  studies  is  classified  and  distributed  among  these  schools. 
An  idea  of  the  modernness  of  the  programme  may  be  derived  from 


THE  COMMISSIONER’S  INTRODUCTION. 


LXYII 


the  <c  schools”  under  the  faculty  of  letters  and  sciences.  This  faculty 
includes  the  school  of  letters  and  philosophy,  in  which  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  history,  psychology,  moral  philosophy,  and  soci¬ 
ology  are  taught;  the  school  of  pedagogy,  the  school  of  sciences  (phy¬ 
sical  and  biological,  including  anthropology)  with  laboratories  and 
museums;  the  engineering  school  (including  electrical  engineering), 
the  school  of  architecture,  with  laboratory  and  mechanical  and  elec¬ 
trical  workshops,  and  the  school  of  agronomy.  The  separate  subjects 
of  study,  forming  a  list  too  long  to  give  here,  appear  to  be  calculated 
to  meet  modern  requirements.  The  photographs  accompanying  the 
report  give  views  of  the  various  laboratories  with  students  at  work 
in  them.  The  great  extension  of  laboratory  work  is  an  innovation 
which  marks  a  radical  change  in  the  method  of  study,  even  of  purely 
objective  or  laboratory  subjects  proper.  In  1900-1901  there  were  638 
students  in  the  university,  of  whom  158  were  enrolled  in  the  faculty  of 
letters  and  sciences,  315  in  the  faculty  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and 
165  in  the  law  faculty. 

At  the  same  time  there  were  126  students  enumerated  in  the  “  insti¬ 
tutes”  of  secondary  instruction,  of  whom  61  were  enrolled  in  the  insti¬ 
tute  of  Habana,  11  in  that  of  the  province  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  18  in  that 
of  Matanzas,  11  in  that  of  Santa  Clara,  5  in  that  of  Puerto  Principe, 
and  2  in  the  Institute  of  Santiago  de  Cuba. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

Wm.  T.  Harris,  Commissioner. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


I.— STATISTICS  OF  STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

II.— EXPENDITURE  FOR  WHITE  AND  COLORED  SCHOOLS. 

III.— PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCA¬ 
TION. 


LXIX 


I.— STATISTICS  OF  STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 


Table  1. — The  total  population,  the  school  population,  and  the  adult  male  popu¬ 
lation. 


The  school  population .  I  Estimate  d 


State  or  Territory. 

Estimated 
total  popu¬ 
lation  in 

Estimated  number  of  children  5 
to  18  years  of  age  in  1901. 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
boys. 

numoer  oi 
male  per¬ 
sons  21 
years  and 
over  in 
1901. 

1901. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

United  States . 

77,262,743 

11,032,639 

10,865,039 

21,897,678 

50.38 

21,494,392 

North  Atlantic  Division . 

21,443,488 

2,621,566 

2,619,335 

5,240,901 

50.02 

6,382,937 

South  Atlantic  Division . 

10,540,535 

1,688,303 

1,667,726 

3,356,029 

50. 32 

2,517,830 

South  Central  Division . 

14,259,344 

2,371,146 

2,312,045 

4,683, 191 

50. 62 

3,421,301 

North  Central  Division . 

26,807,746 

3,817,828 

3,744,589 

7,562,417 

50. 48 

7,681,617 

Western  Division . 

4,211,630 

533, 796 

521,344 

1,055, 140 

50.59 

1,490,707 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine . _ . . . 

695,700 

81,465 

79,690 

161,155 

50.55 

218,050 

New  Hampshire  (1900)  ... 

411,588 

44,302 

44,504 

88,806 

49.89 

130,987 

Vermont . 

344,800 

41,000 

39,560 

80,560 

50.90 

108,700 

Massachusetts  . . 

2,856,000 

315,690 

318,820 

634,510 

49. 75 

858, 800 

Rhode  Island . . .  .. 

441, 900 

51,729 

52,081 

103,810 

49. 83 

131,100 

Connecticut . 

932,500 

106,790 

106,980 

213, 770 

49.96 

287,800 

New  York. _ _ 

7,410,000 

883,000 

889,570 

1,772,570 

49. 81 

2,227,000 

New  Jersey . . . 

1,934,000 

240,480 

242,950 

483,380 

49. 74 

570, 500 

Pennsylvania . . . 

6,417,000 

857,160 

845,180 

1,702,340 

50.35 

1,850,000 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware  (1900) . 

184,735 

24,877 

24,105 

48,982 

50.79 

54,018 

Maryland . . 

1,204,000 

168,240 

167,990 

336,230 

50.04 

326,100 

District  of  Columbia _ 

284, 100 

29,721 

32,005 

61,726 

48.15 

85,430 

Virginia  (1899)  . . 

1,833,300 

293,643 

290,657 

584, 300 

50.32 

440,912 

West  Virginia  (1900). . 

958,800 

150,794 

144,862 

295, 656 

51.00 

247,970 

North  Carolina . . 

1,914,000 

322,020 

314,870 

636,890 

50.56 

422,100 

South  Carolina  . . 

1,361,000 

237,210 

233,990 

471, 200 

50.34 

287,700 

Georgia . . 

2,256,000 

377,260 

375,260 

752,520 

50.13 

509,700 

Florida  . 

544,600 

84,538 

83,987 

168,525 

50. 16 

143,900 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky . . . 

2,178,000 

341, 445 

332,824 

674,269 

50.64 

551,900 

Tennessee  (1900) . 

2,020,616 

328,849 

317,619 

646,468 

50.87 

487,380 

Alabama  (1900) . 

1,828,697 

309, 188 

301,163 

610,351 

50. 66 

413,862 

Mississippi  (1899) . 

1,522,800 

263, 864 

257,936 

521, 800 

50.63 

341,368 

Louisiana . 

1,411,000 

230,800 

228,500 

459, 300 

50.25 

332,900 

Texas. . . . 

3,145,000 

531,980 

520,190 

1,052, 170 

50.56 

761,000 

Arkansas. . 

1,331,000 

227, 230 

222,306 

449,536 

50.55 

318,500 

Oklahoma  (1900) . . 

398,331 

03, 773 

61,015 

124,788 

51. 11 

109,191 

Indian  Territory . 

423,800 

74,017 

70,492 

144,509 

51.22 

105, 200 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio  . . . . 

4,198,000 

560,640 

549,610 

1,110,250 

50.50 

1,224,000 

Indiana. . 

2,551,000 

357,500 

348,570 

706,070 

50. 63 

730,200 

Illinois.  . . . 

4,985,000 

684,330 

680,030 

1,364,360 

50. 16 

1,449.000 

Michigan . . . 

2, 445, 500 

333,850 

327,600 

661,450 

50. 47 

726,800 

Wisconsin... . . 

2,103,000 

313,870 

310,040 

623,910 

50.31 

580,000 

Minnesota . . . 

1,804,000 

267, 680 

262,280 

529,960 

50.51 

522,000 

Iowa . . 

2,267,000 

326,780 

318,910 

645,690 

50.61 

645,200 

Missouri.. . 

3,153,000 

469,176 

459, 789 

928,965 

50.51 

869,500 

North  Dakota  (1900) . 

319, 146 

48,831 

46,766 

95,597 

51.08 

95,217 

South  Dakota . 

419,100 

66, 261 

63,484 

129,745 

51.07 

117,600 

Nebraska. . 

1,083,000 

165,560 

161,390 

326,950 

50. 64 

305, 700 

Kansas . 

1,480,000 

223,350 

216,120 

439,470 

50.82 

416, 400 

Western  Division: 

Montana . 

261,600 

29,520 

28,720 

58,240 

50.69 

109,600 

Wyoming  (1900) . 

92,531 

11,570 

10,530 

22,100 

52.35 

37,898 

Colorado. _ _ _ _ 

570,000 

70,610 

70,180 

140,790 

50.15 

196, 100 

New  Mexico  . . 

200,100 

31,188 

80,063 

61,251 

50.92 

56,410 

Arizona  (1900) . 

122,931 

16,236 

15,542 

31,778 

51.09 

44,081 

Utah . . 

284,800 

46,384 

46,392 

92,776 

50.00 

69,120 

Nevada . 

42,360 

4,642 

4,375 

9,017 

51.48 

17,720 

Idaho  (1900) . . 

161,772 

23,656 

22,653 

46,309 

51.08 

53,932 

Washington _ _ 

543,000 

69, 763 

67,557 

137,320 

^  50.80 

205,000 

Oregon  (1900)  . . . 

413,536 

55,357 

53,522 

108,879 

50. 84 

144,446 

California . . 

1,519,000 

174,870 

171,810 

346,680 

50. 44 

556,400 

LXXI 


LXXII 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901, 


Table  2. — Density  of  population ,  urban  population ,  nativity  and  race  classifi¬ 
cation,  value  of  manufactures,  illiteracy,  and  relations  of  the  adult  male  and  of 
the  school  population. 

[Note.— The  statistics  in  this  table,  except  those  in  column  12,  are  from  the  Census  of  1900.] 


State  or  Territory. 


United  States . 

North  Atlantic  Div. 
South  Atlantic  Div . 
South  Central  Div . . 
North  Central  Div,. 
Western  Div . 


North  Atlantic  Div. : 

Maine . . 

New  Hampshire 

V  ermont . . 

Massachusetts  .. 

Rhode  Island _ 

Connecticut . 

New  York.. . 

New  Jersey . 

Pennsylvania  ... 
South  Atlantic  Div.: 

Delaware.. . 

Maryland _ 

Dist.  Columbia.. 

Virginia _ 

W  est  V  irginia . . . 
North  Carolina  . 
South  Carolina.  . 

Georgia _ 

Florida . . . 

South  Central  Div.: 

Kentucky . . 

Tennessee _ 

Alabama _ 

Mississippi _ 

Louisiana _ 

Texas . . 

Arkansas . 

Oklahoma _ 

Indian  Territory 
North  Central  Div.: 

Ohio _ 

Indiana . 

Illinois . . . 

Michigan _ 

Wisconsin . 

Minnesota _ 

Iowa . . 

Missouri _ 

North  Dakota. . . 
South  Dakota . . . 

Nebraska _ 

Kansas . . . 

Western  Division: 

Montana  . . 

Wyoming . 

Colorado _ 

Mew  Mexico _ 

Arizona . 

Utah . 

Nevada . 

Idaho _ _ 

Washington . j 

Oregon  . 

California . 


The  total  population. 

Value  of  manufactured 

products  per  capita  of 

population.  ^ 

The  adult  male  popula¬ 
tion  (21  years  and  over). 

Number  of 
children  5 
to  18  years 
of  age  to 
every  100 
persons  of 
the  total 
population. 

Number  of  persons 
to  a  square  mile. 

Per  cent  in  incor¬ 
porated  places  of 
8,000  and  over. 

Per  cent  of  na¬ 
tive  and  foreign 
white  and  of 
colored. 

Number  to  every 

100  children  5  to 
18  years  of  age. 

Per  cent  of  illit¬ 
erates  (unable 
to  write)  among 
adult  males. 

Native 

white. 

6C(D 

I* 

® 

o 

O 

Native 

white. 

Foreign 

white. 

Colored.^ 

1870. 

1900. 

o 

CO 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

io  1 

11 

12 

13 

25.6 

32.5 

74.4 

13.4 

12.2 

$74. 43 

98.3 

4.9 

11.5 

46.8 

81. 3 

28.3 

129.8 

57. 0 

75. 6 

22. 5 

1.9 

140. 19 

121.8 

2.0 

15. 2  1 

16.7 

28.3 

24.4 

38.9 

17.0 

62.2 

2.0 

35. 8 

35.55 

75. 2 

11.5 

11.3 

51.0 

33.0 

31.8 

23.1 

11.1 

67.2 

2.5 

30.3 

20.45 

73.1 

11.1 

18.8 

52.3 

33.9 

32.8 

34.9 

30.6 

82.1 

15.8 

2.1 

68!  08 

101.6 

2.9 

7.9 

27.4 

32.4 

28.2 

3.5_ 

31.2 

76.1 

18.6 

5.3 

63. 97 

141.1 

2.4 

7. 7 

36.1 

25. 6 

25.1 

23.2 

23.7 

88.3 

13.4 

.3 

84.23 

135.3 

3.1 

21.4 

27.3 

28.0 

23.2 

45.7 

38.6 

78.  4 

21.4 

.2 

127. 12 

147.5 

2.0 

24.0 

19.8 

24.7 

21.6 

37.6 

11.2 

86.7 

13.0 

.3 

80. 79 

134.9 

4.1 

23.3 

19.8 

27.2 

23.4 

348.9 

67.0 

68.8 

29.9 

1.3 

171. 77 

135. 4 

.9 

13.8 

14.2 

25.5 

22.2 

407.0 

66.1 

66.6 

31.2 

2.2 

204.60 

126.3 

2.0 

18.2 

15. 6 

25.7 

23.5 

187.5 

52.0 

72.1 

26.1 

1.8 

184. 04 

134.6 

1.0 

15.6 

13.8 

25.9 

22.9 

152. 6 

68.5 

72. 5 

26.0 

1.5 

141. 97 

125.7 

1.8 

12.1 

14.5 

28.1 

23.9 

250.3 

61.2 

73.4 

22.8 

3.8 

138.46 

118.0 

2.3 

13.4 

19.0 

29.0 

25.0 

140.1 

45.5 

81.9 

15. 6 

2.5 

125. 76 

108.7 

2.5 

20.2 

18.2 

30.5 

26.5 

94.2 

41.4 

75.9 

7.5 

18.6 

101. 42 

110.3 

7.1 

17.6 

42.6 

31.8 

26.5 

120.5 

46.9 

72.3 

7.9 

19.8 

82.62 

97.0 

5. 1 

10.7 

40.5 

31.3 

27.9 

4, 645. 3 

100.0 

61.7 

7.0 

31.3 

101.53 

138.4 

.9 

5.0 

26.0 

27.0 

21.7 

46.2 

14.7 

63.3 

1.0 

35. 7 

31.33 

76.4 

12.2 

10.5 

52.5 

32.4 

31. 6 

38.9 

7.  7 

93.1 

2.4 

4.5 

33.20 

83.9 

10.7 

22.5 

37.7 

34. 1 

30.8 

39.0 

5. 1 

66.5 

.2 

33.3 

22.09 

66.3 

18.9 

5.7 

53.1 

33.6 

33.3 

44.4 

7.5 

41.2 

.4 

58.4 

18.44 

61.1 

12.3 

5.2 

54.7 

33.1 

34.6 

37.6 

11.0 

52.7 

.6 

46.7 

21.85 

67.7 

11.8 

5.6 

56.3 

34.4 

83.4 

9.7 

15.0 

52.6 

3.7 

43.7 

40.06 

85.4 

8.3 

9.2 

39.4 

34.0 

30.9 

53. 7 

16.9 

84.4 

2,3 

13.3 

33.45 

81.8 

14.3 

8.6 

49.5 

34.4 

30.9 

48.4 

13.4 

75.3 

.9 

23.8 

21. 80 

75. 4 

14.1 

7  7 

47.6 

34.1 

32.0 

35. 5 

7.3 

53.9 

.8 

45.3 

20.04 

67.8 

13.8 

8!o 

59.5 

34. 4 

33.3 

33.5 

2.6 

40.8 

.5 

58.7 

12. 08 

66.2 

8.1 

9.5 

53.2 

33.7 

84.0 

30.4 

22.8 

49.1 

3.7 

47.2 

28.14 

72.5 

16.9 

24.6 

61.2 

31.1 

32.5 

11.6 

11.3 

73.8 

5.8 

20.4 

17.16 

72.3 

5.8 

25.4 

45.0 

34.8 

33. 5 

24.7 

5. 4 

70.9 

1.1 

28.0 

16. 19 

70.8 

10.5 

6. 4 

44.8 

34.2 

33.8 

10.3 

5.0 

88.4 

3.9 

7.7 

6. 61 

87.5 

2.7 

6.3 

44.4 

31.3 

12.6 

0.0 

76.0 

1.2 

22.8 

4. 25 

72.8 

10.7 

16.8 

35.9 

34.1 

102.0 

38.5 

86.7 

11.0 

2.3 

92.58 

110.2 

3.2 

9.6 

21.9 

31.7 

26.4 

70.1 

24.2 

92  1 

5.6 

2.3 

64. 84 

103.5 

4.4 

9.6 

27.7 

33.7 

j  27.7 

86.1 

47.1 

78!  2 

20.0 

1.8 

107. 81 

108.2 

2.8 

7.8 

18.8 

32.2 

27.4 

42.2 

30.9 

76.8 

22  3 

.9 

65.01 

i  109.9 

2.4 

10.2 

23.8 

30.3 

27.0 

1  38.0 

30.7 

74.6 

24!  9 

.5 

73.  45 

93.0 

1.9 

9.3 

42.2 

33.6 

!  29.7 

I  22.1 

26.8 

[  70.4 

28.8 

.8 

50. 95 

98. 5 

1.0 

6. 4 

35.4 

32.4 

29.4 

40.2 

16.8 

85.7 

13.7 

.6 

28. 43 

99.9 

1.6 

5.2 

23.3 

33.1 

28.5 

45.2 

30.8 

87.9 

6.9 

5. 2 

54.88 

!  93.6 

5.4 

6. 8 

31.8 

as.  6 

29.5 

4. 5 

3.0 

62.4 

35.3 

2.3 

11.18 

j  99.6 

1.0 

6.3 

64.5 

loq  7 

/  29.9 

5.2 

2.6 

72.8 

22.0 

5.2 

10.97 

90.6 

.8 

4.9 

51.6 

j23. 1 

{  30.9 

13.9 

15.8 

82.5 

16.6 

.9 

39. 19 

93.5 

1.0 

5.1 

16.7 

28.1 

30.1 

18.0 

14.0 

87.7 

8.6 

3.7 

28.99 

94. 8 

1.7 

6.4 

28.7 

29.8 

29.7 

1.7 

27.0 

67. 4 

25.6 

7.0 

100. 16 

188.2 

.8 

6.7 

39.7 

10.2 

22  3 

.9 

24.1 

78.3 

17.9 

3.8 

28. 11 

171. 5 

.8 

7.8 

36.4 

9.4 

23!  9 

5.2 

38.1 

81.3 

16.7 

2.0 

66.60 

139.3 

2.4 

7.1 

20.6 

22.5 

24.7 

1.6 

0.0 

85.5 

6.8 

7.7 

13.78 

92.1 

23.6 

30.9 

72.3 

31.9 

30.6 

1.1 

0.0 

57.4 

18.2 

24.4 

104. 54 

138.7 

4. 5 

30.9 

62.8 

16.8 

25.8 

3.4 

25.2 

79.4 

19.1 

1.5 

30.00 

74.5 

1.2 

4.6 

43.3 

a5.o 

32.6 

.4 

0.0 

63.3 

20.3 

16.4 

19.31 

186.5 

.8 

7.0 

58.7 

12.6 

21.3 

1.9 

0.0 

82.0 

13.5 

4.5 

12. 15 

116. 4 

1.1 

5. 7 

49.1 

11.3 

28.6 

7.7 

31.9 

76.1 

19.7 

4.2 

72.76 

149.3 

.5 

3.9 

31.0 

27.0 

25.3 

4.4 

23.9 

82.4 

13.0 

4.6 

48.12 

132.7 

1.1 

3.4 

36. 5 

32.3 

26.3 

i  9.5 

43.7 

73.2 

21.3 

5. 5 

77. 27 

160.5 

1.1 

8.1 

28.1 

24.5 

22.8 

a  Including  Mongolians  and  Indians. 


b  Less  cost  of  raw  material. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


LXXIII 


Table  3. — School  ages  in  the  several  States — State  school  censuses. 


State  or  Territory. 

Age  for 
free  at¬ 
tendance 
at  the 
public 
schools. 

Age  for 
compul¬ 
sory  at¬ 
tend¬ 
ance. 

School  census. 

Date  of 
latest 
school 
census 
reported. 

Age  of 
children 

Number  of  children  enu- 
.  merated. 

enumer¬ 

ated. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

5-21 

a  7-14 

1901 

4-21 

211,864 

New  Hampshire  (1900)  ... 

Over  5. 

8-14 

1900 

5-16 

36,017 

35,527 

71,544 

Vermont . 

5-18 

8-14 

1901 

5-18 

40,381 

39, 135 

79,516 

Massachusetts . 

No  limit. 

7-14 

1901 

5-15 

233,853 

240,270 

474,223 

Rhode  Island . . 

(b) 

7-15 

1901 

a  5-15 

42,514 

42,570 

85,084 

No  limit. 

8-16 

1900 

4-16 

199, 026 

New  York . 

5-21 

8-16 

1901 

5-18 

812, 265 

808,022 

1,620,287 

4  20 

7-12 

(0) 

Pennsylvania . . . . 

6-21 

<*8-16 

1801 

6-21 

686, 996 

673,870 

1,360,866 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware  (1893)  . 

6-21 

(e) 

1893 

6-21 

15,827 

17,758 

33,585 

6-21 

/  8-16 

(S') 

6-17 

8-14 

(y) 

Virginia  (1899) . . . 

5-21 

(e) 

1895 

5-21 

339,725 

326,140 

665, £65 

West  Virginia  (1900) _ 

6-21 

8-14 

1900 

6-21 

159,375 

148,209 

307,584 

North  Carolina . . . 

6-21 

(<Q 

1901 

6-21 

341,221 

326,760 

ft  689, 833 

South  Carolina  .  . . 

6-21 

(e) 

(g) 

Georgia  . .  . . 

(«) 

'  1898 

6-18 

333,039 

327,831 

660, 870 

Florida . 

6-21 

-  (e) 

1900 

6-21 

81,712 

79,716 

161,428 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky . 

6-20 

7-14 

1901 

6-20 

370,684 

359,118 

729,802 

Tennessee  (1900) . 

6-21 

(e)  , 

1900 

6-21 

391,322 

377,521 

768,843 

Alabama  (1900) . . 

7-21 

(e) 

1899 

7-21 

290,000 

345,000 

635,000 

Mississippi  (1897) . 

5-21 

(e) 

1896 

5-21 

270, 789 

281,678 

552,487 

Louisiana  _ . 

8-18 

( « ) 

1899 

6-18 

209,154 

195, 603 

404, 757 

Texas .. . 

8-17 

(«) 

1901 

8-17 

372,081 

357,304 

729,365 

Arkansas . . 

6-21 

(e) 

1901 

6-21 

250,938 

240,808 

491,748 

Oklahoma  _  _ . _  _ 

Indian  Territory 

1901 

a  5-20 

79,915 

76,501 

153,416 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . . 

6-21 

8-14 

1901 

6-21 

624,300 

595,619 

1,219,919 

Indiana . . . 

6-21 

7-14 

1901 

6-21 

391,911 

365,773 

757,684 

Illinois . 

6-21 

7-14 

1901 

6-21 

808,330 

787,515 

1,535,845 

Michigan .  .  . 

5-20 

8-15 

1901 

5-20 

367,846 

362,255 

730,101 

Wisconsin  . . 

4-20 

7-14 

1901 

4-20 

375,622 

367,905 

743,527 

Minnesota  . . 

5-21 

8-18 

(S') 

Iowa . . . . 

5-21 

(<Q 

1901 

5-21 

373, 262 

361,897 

735, 159 

Missouri _  _ 

6-20 

(e) 

1901 

6-20 

501,575 

484,999 

986,574 

North  Dakota  (1900) . 

6-20 

8-14 

1900 

6-20 

47,846 

44,163 

92,009 

South  Dakota . . 

6-21 

8-14 

1901 

6-21 

65,763 

62, 490 

128,253 

Nebraska . . 

5-21 

7-14 

1901 

5-21 

191,631 

185,438 

377,069 

Kansas . . 

5-21 

8-14 

1901 

5-21 

257, 799 

250,212 

508,011 

Western  Division: 

Montana . 

6-21 

8-14 

1901 

6-21 

31,129 

30,60*7 

61,736 

Wyoming  (1900) . 

6-21 

7-16 

(S') 

Colorado . . 

6-21 

8-14 

1901 

6-21 

81,336 

80,842 

162,178 

New  Mexico. . .  ... 

5-21 

8-16 

1901 

5-21 

33,549 

29,315 

62,864 

Arizona  (1900)  _  _ 

1900 

6-18 

10,655 

10, 178 

20,833 

Utah _ _ 

6-18 

8-14 

1901 

6-18 

43,714 

43,475 

87,189 

Nevada. . . .  . 

6-18 

8-14 

1901 

6-18 

4,688 

4,442 

9,130 

Idaho  (1900) _ _ 

5-21 

8-14 

1900 

5-21 

28,234 

26,605 

54,839 

Washington . . 

6-21 

8-15 

1901 

5-21 

77,277 

75,264 

152,541 

Oregon  . 

4-20 

8-14 

1800 

U20 

67,490 

65,691 

133,181 

California . 

i  6-21 

8-14 

1901 

5-17 

189,055 

183,830 

372,145 

a  Inclusive. 

&Not  fixed  by  State  law. 

c  School  census  law  repealed;  funds  now  apportioned  on  basis  of  total  days’  attendance. 

With  certain  exceptions  in  the  case  of  children  over  18. 

«No  compulsory  attendance  law. 

/Law  of  1902;  applies  only  to  Baltimore  city  and  Allegany  County.  Children  12  to  16  years 
lawfully  employed  and  able  to  read  are  exempt. 

0X0  State  school  census. 

&  Including  1,852  Croaton  Indians. 
i  May  be  extended. 


LXXIV 


EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1901 


Table  4. — Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  common  schools  at  different  dates ,  and 
the  relation  of  the  enrollment  to  the  school  population. 


State  or  Territory. 

Number  of  different  pupils  of  all  ages  en¬ 
rolled  during  the  school  year  (excluding 
duplicate  enrollments) . 

Per  cent  of  school  population 
(i.  e.,  of  children  5  to  18 
years  of  age)  enrolled. 

1870-71. 

1879-80. 

1889-90. 

1899-1900. 

1 

1900-01. 

1870- 

71. 

1879- 

80. 

1889- 

90. 

1899-1 

1900. 

1900- 

1901. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

United  States . 

7,561,582 

9,867,505 

12,722,581 

15,465,010 

15,603,451 

61.45 

65.50 

68.61 

72. 25 

71.28 

1ST .  Atlantic  Division . 

2,743,344 

2,930,345 

3,112,622 

3,643,949 

3,697,221 

77.95 

75.17 

70.45 

70. 86 

70. 55 

S.  Atlantic  Division. 

603,619 

1,242,811 

1,785,486 

2,170,845 

2,219,517 

30. 51 

50. 74 

59.22 

65. 38166. 14 

S.  Central  Division  . 

767,839 

1,371,975 

2,293,579 

2,992,279 

3,022,905 

34.17 

46.43 

60. 14 

66.70 

64.55 

N.  Central  Division. 

3,300, 600 

4,033,828 

5,015,217 

5,842,569 

5,830,362 

76. 87 

75. 84 

76. 46 

78.65 

77.10 

Western  Division... 

148,120 

288,546 

515,677 

815,388 

833,446 

54.77 

64.96 

70.01 

79.51 

78.99 

N.  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine  . . 

a  152, 600 

149,827 

139,676 

130,918 

132,862 

a  87. 35 

89.80 

85. 88 

81.38 

82. 43 

New  Hampshire 

71,957 

64,341 

59, 813 

65,688 

b 65, 688 

91.31 

81.32 

71.28 

73.97 

73.97 

"V  ermont _ 

o 65, 384 

75, 238 

c 65, 608 

65,964 

65,465 

87.21 

82.15 

81.26 

Massachusetts  .. 

273,661 

308, 777 

371,492 

474,891 

468,188 

”72.' 34 

71.76 

’72.56 

76. 21 

73. 77 

"Rhode  Island _ 

a  34, 000 

40, 604 

52,774 

67,231 

69,067 

a  59. 24 

59.59 

62. 65 

66.79  66.54 

C  mnecticut . 

113,588 

119, 694 

126,505 

155,228 

155,579 

80.83 

76.97 

72.02 

74.54 

72. 78 

New  York. . . 

1,028,1101,031,593 

1,042,160 

1,209,574 

1,242,416 

82.98 

77. 10 

70.71 

69. 57 

70. 10 

New  Jersey . 

169,430 

204,961 

234,072 

322,575 

336,432 

63.20 

64.77 

62.21 

68.5269.60 

Pennsylvania . . . 

834,614 

937,310 

1,020,522 

1,151,880 

1,161,524 

76. 35 

74. 37 

69.53 

68. 90168. 22 

S.  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware . 

20,058 

27,823 

31,434 

38,895 

&  36, 895 

50.04 

65. 20 

66. 19 

75.33 

75.32 

Maryland  . . . 

115,683 

162,431 

184,251 

222,373 

224,004 

46.70 

58. 13 

00.37 

67.0066.62 

District  of  Col¬ 

umbia  . . . 

15,157 

26,439 

38,906 

46,519 

47, 431 

41.60 

55. 40 

63. 10 

76. 8176. 84 

Virginia _ 

131,088 

220,736 

342,269 

d 358, 825 

d 358, 825 

32.34 

45.00 

60.51 

57. 31  61.  41 

West  Virginia  .. 

76, 999 

;  142,850 

193,064 

232,343 

&  232, 343 

49. 47 

69. 21 

75. 27 

78.58 

!78. 59 

North  Carolina  . 

a  115, 000 

252,612 

322,533 

400,452 

431,358 

«31.23 

55.  87 

56.39 

63. 5567. 73 

South  Carolina . . 

66,056 

134,072 

201,260 

281,891 

285,206 

27.28 

40.56 

47.08 

60. 74160. 52 

Georgia . 

49,578 

236,533 

381,297 

482,673 

491,848 

11.89 

46.24 

58.45 

65. 30  65. 37 

Florida . 

14,000 

!  39, 315 

92,472 

108,874 

111,607 

21.21 

44. 16 

71.10 

66.57 

66.22 

S.  Central  Division: 

Kentucky . 

e 178, 457 

e  276, 000 

399, 660 

500,294 

497,859 

65.64 

75.27 

73. 82 

Tennessee ... _ 

a  140, 000 

300,217 

447, 950 

1  485,354 

b  485, 354 

'<*32. 00 

58.2i 

74.05 

75.09 

75.08 

Alabama . 

141,312 

179, 490 

301,615 

)  376, 423 

7>376, 423 

40.36 

42.60 

55.83 

61.67  61. 67 

Mississippi _ 

117,000 

236,654 

334,158 

]  d 360, 177 

d 360, 177 

40.60 

61.29 

70. 62 

64. 45  69. 03 

Louisiana . 

57,639 

77, 642 

120,253 

!  196,169 

198,896 

24.78 

25. 87 

31.58 

43. 62  43. 31 

Texas . . 

63,504 

a  220,000 

468,872 

659,598 

&  659, 598 

21.00 

<*42.40 

59.50 

64.67)64. 67 

Arkansas . 

69,927 

81,972 

223,071 

314,662 

323,859 

40.29 

30.81 

55.41 

71. 02  72. 04 

Oklahoma .  ... 

99,602 

b 99, 602 

79. 82  79. 82 

Indian  Territory 

21, 137 

14. 63 

N .  Central  Division: 

Ohio . 

719,372 

729,499 

797,439 

829,160 

829,857 

84.04 

76.69 

76.54 

75.40 

74. 75 

Indiana. . . 

450, 057 

511,283 

512,955 

564,807 

556, 731 

78.64 

82.39 

79.21 

81.10 

178. 87 

Illinois. ..  _ 

672, 787 

704,041 

778,319 

958,911 

963,634 

81.01 

74.61 

71.97 

72.68 

70.63 

Michigan . 

292, 466 

362,556 

427,032 

504, 985 

510,031 

79.66 

78.08 

73.45 

77.13 

77.11 

Wisconsin _ 

265, 285 

299, 457 

351, 723 

445, 142 

446,247 

73.92 

73.  78 

69. 77 

72.51 

71.52 

Minnesota . 

113,983 

180, 248 

280,960 

399,207 

403,041 

75. 92 

75. 87 

74.59 

77.59 

76.03 

Iowa . 

341,938 

426,057 

493.267 

566, 223 

562,662 

84. 44 

83.52 

85.51 

89.06 

87. 14 

Missouri.. . 

330,070 

482, 986 

620,314 

719,817 

711,720 

56. 03 

68. 85 

74.43 

78.63 

76. 61 

North  Dakota. . . 

l  n  1 

13, 718 

/  35,543 

77,686 

b 77,686 

i  \  r:  QQ  C>a 

171. 26 

81.26 

81.26 

South  Dakota . . . 

>  a  1,  ODU 

i\  78,043 

98,822 

100,590 

K'Od.  *co 

41.  Do 

\81. 04 

79.49 

77.53 

Nebraska . 

23,265 

92,549 

240,300 

288, 227 

285,415 

J  58.79 

68. 48 

75.35 

89.50 

87.30 

Kansas  . . . 

89, 777 

231,434 

399, 322 

389,582 

382, 748 

74.22 

73. 23 

88.56 

89.21)87.08 

W  estern  Division: 

Montana . . 

a  1,657 

4,270 

16, 980 

39,430 

a  42, 400 

70.24 

63. 77 

71.14 

72.80) 

72. 80 

Wyoming . 

«  450 

2,907 

7,052 

14,512 

b 14, 512 

a  45.  34 

77.44 

54.46 

65. 66  65. 67 

Colorado  . . 

4,357 

22,119 

65,490 

117,555 

120,110 

42.28 

60. 82 

72.20 

88. 19  85. 31 

New  Mexico  .... 

a  1,320 

4,755 

18,215 

36, 735 

35,227 

a  4.  42 

13.32 

42.25 

61.4357.50 

Arizona . 

0 

4,212 

7,989 

16,504 

b  16, 504 

0.00 

53. 16 

52. 72 

51. 94  51. 94 

Utah . . 

16,992 

24,326 

37, 279 

73,042 

76,531 

53.36 

50. 61 

55.26 

81.02  82.51 

Nevada . 

3, 106 

9,045 

7,387 

6,676 

6,688 

53.97 

79. 73 

73.  80 

74. 06]74. 18 

Idaho . . 

906 

5,834 

14,311 

36, 669 

b  86, 669 

46.06 

77. 85 

62.66 

79.18  79.18 

Washington . 

a  5.000 

14, 780 

55,964 

115, 104 

123,391 

0  69.60 

72.36 

70.58 

87. 86)89. 85 

Oregon . . 

21,000 

37,533 

63, 254 

89, 405 

b  89, 405 

67.73 

;  75.02 

74. 78 

82. 1382. 11 

California . 

91,332 

158, 765 

221, 756 

269,736 

272,009 

63.63 

73  37 

77.38 

79. 56| 

78.47 

a  Approximate.  c  Includes  pupils  of  legal  school  age  only.  <?  Highest  number  enrolled. 

b  In  1899-1900.  crin  1898-99. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


LXXV 


Table  5. — The  school  enrollment  of  1900-1901  classified  by  sex — Percentage  of  the 
total  population  enrolled  at  different  dates . 


State  or  Territory. 

Number  of  different  pupils  of 
all  ages  enrolled. 

Per  cent  of  the  total  population  en¬ 
rolled. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

1870-71. 

1879-80. 

1889-90. 

1899- 

1900. 

1900- 

1901. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

United  States...  . 

a  7, 841,570 

a  7, 761, 881 

15,603,451 

19.14 

19. 67 

20. 32 

20.46 

20.20 

North  Atlantic  Division 

a  1,860, 072 

a  1,837, 149 

3,697,221 

21.95 

20.20 

17.89 

17. 31 

17.24 

South  Atlantic  Division 

a  1,103, 988 

a  1,115, 529 

2,219,517 

10.05 

16.36 

20. 16 

20.79 

21. 06 

South  Central  Division . 

a  1,503, 291 

a  1,519, 614 

3,022,905 

11. 56 

15.38 

20.90 

21.86 

21.20 

North  Central  Division. 

a  2, 951, 912 

a  2, 878, 450 

5,830,382 

24.80 

23.23 

22.43 

22. 19 

21.75 

Western  D  i  vision . 

a  422, 307 

« 411, 139 

833,446 

13. 99 

16.32 

17.03 

19.92 

19. 79 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

132,862 

24. 25 

23.09 

21.13 

18. 85 

19.10 

New  Hampshire _ 

6  33, 420 

-  6  32,268 

6  65,688 

22.41 

18.54 

15.89 

15.96 

15.96 

Vermont . 

33,284 

32,181 

65,465 

c 19.77 

22.64 

c  19. 74 

19.20 

18.99 

468,188 

18.31 

17.20 

16.59 

16.93 

16.39 

Rhode  Island _ 

34,628 

34,439 

69,067 

15.11 

14.69 

15. 27 

15.69 

15.63 

155,579 

20. 83 

19.22 

16. 95 

17.09 

16.68 

New  York . 

626, 620 

615,796 

1,242,416 

23.18 

20.30 

17. 37 

16. 64 

16.77 

New  Jersey . . 

168,401 

188,031 

336, 432 

18.26 

18. 12 

16.20 

17.12 

17. 40 

Pennsylvania  ..  _ 

583,046 

578,478 

1,161,524 

23.24 

21.89 

19.41 

18.28 

18.10 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

6  36,895 

15. 79 

18.98 

18.66 

19.98 

b  19. 98 

Maryland  . . 

224, 004 

14.55 

17.37 

17.68 

18.72 

18.61 

District  of  Columbia 

22,112 

25,319 

47, 431 

11.23 

14.88 

16.02 

16.69 

16.70 

Virginia . . 

d 179, 199 

d 179, 626 

d 358,825 

10. 47 

14.59 

20. 67 

d  19.  58 

d  19. 58 

West  Virginia  ...... 

b 120, 436 

6111,907 

6  232,343 

16.85 

23. 10 

25.31 

24.23 

b  24.23 

North  Carolina . 

219,275 

212,083 

431, 358 

10.45 

18.05 

19. 93 

21.14 

22.54 

South  Carolina . . 

136,597 

148,609 

285,206 

9.05 

13.46 

17.49 

21.03 

20.96 

Georgia . . 

241,601 

250, 247 

491,848 

4.08 

15. 34 

20. 75 

21.78 

21.81 

Florida . . . 

54,987 

56,620 

111,607 

7.19 

14.59 

23. 63 

20.60 

20.49 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky . . 

251,556 

246,303 

497,859 

13.21 

16.74 

21.50 

23.30 

22. 86 

Tennessee . 

&  247, 317 

6238,037 

6485, 354 

10.90 

19.48 

25.34 

24.02 

624. 02 

Alabama . . . 

6171,000 

6205,423 

6376, 423 

13.85 

14.22 

19.93 

20.59 

620.59 

Mississippi  .... 

<2380, 177 

13. 70 

20. 91 

25. 92 

d23. 65 

d2 3  65 

Louisiana . 

96,958 

101,938 

198,896 

7. 73 

8.26 

10. 75 

14.20 

14.10 

Texas _  .... 

6333,591 

6326,007 

6659,598 

7.26 

13. 82 

20.88 

21. 64 

&21.64 

Arkansas _ _ 

161,929 

161,930 

323,859 

13.72 

10.21 

19. 77 

23.99 

24.33 

Oklahoma _ 

651,380 

648, 222 

699, 602 

25. 01 

&25.01 

Indian  Territory _ 

21,137 

4.99 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . 

423,698 

406,159 

829,857 

26.50 

22. 81 

21.72 

19.94 

19.76 

Indiana . 

283,323 

273,408 

558,731 

26. 34 

25. 85 

23.40 

22. 44 

21.82 

Illinois . . 

485,350 

478,284 

963,634 

25.99 

22.88 

20.34 

19.89 

19.33 

Michigan.. . 

255, 736 

254,295 

510,031 

23. 98 

22.15 

20.39 

20. 86 

20. 86 

Wisconsin . 

225,350 

220,897 

446,247 

24.60 

22.76 

20.85 

21.51 

21.22 

Minnesota 

403, 041 

24.47 

23.09 

21.58 

22  79 

22.34 

Iowa . . 

562, 662 

28.19 

26.23 

25. 80 

25.37 

24.82 

Missouri . . . 

357,210 

354,510 

711,720 

18.74 

22. 27 

23. 15 

23. 17 

22. 57 

North  Dakota . 

40,495 

37,191 

677,686 

l  Q  QA 

1A  1KJ 

19. 45 

24.34 

624.34 

South  Dakota.. . 

52,212 

48,378 

100,590 

IU,  ±0< 

23. 74 

24.60 

24.00 

Nebraska . 

145,655 

139, 760 

285,415 

}  16.61 

20. 46  ^ 

22.69 

27.03 

26.35 

Kansas  . . . 

194,147 

188,601 

382,748 

22.28 

23.23 

27.98 

26.49 

25. 86 

W  estern  Division: 

Montana  . . . . 

e  42, 400 

7. 54 

10.90 

12. 85 

16. 20 

«16  21 

Wyoming..... . 

67,359 

67,153 

614,512 

4.55 

13.98 

11. 62 

15.68 

615.68 

Colorado . 

59,406 

60,704 

120, 110 

9.33 

11.38 

15.89 

21.78 

21.07 

New  Mexico . . 

19,544 

15,883 

35,227 

1.40 

3. 98 

11.86 

18. 81 

17. 61 

Arizona  . . . . 

618,504 

0.00 

10.42 

13.40 

13.42 

613.42 

Utah . 

38,369 

38,162 

76,531 

18.61 

16. 90 

17. 93 

26.39 

26.88 

Nevada _ 

3,370 

3,318 

6,688 

7.04 

14. 53 

16.14 

15.77 

15.79 

Idaho . . 

618,156 

618,513 

638,669 

5.59 

17.89 

16.96 

22.67 

622.67 

Washington . . 

62,959 

60,432 

123,391 

18.62 

19.68 

16.02 

22. 22 

22.72 

Oregon. . . 

645,315 

644,080 

689,405 

21.63 

21.47 

20.16 

21.62 

621.62 

California . 

138,020 

133,989 

272,009 

15. 61 

18.36 

18.36 

18.16 

17.91 

a  Estimated  in  part. 

6 In  1899-1900. 

a  Includes  pupils  of  legal  school  age  only. 


din  1898-99. 
e  Approximate 


Diagram  1, — Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  common  schools  of  the  United  States  each  year  since  1870-71. 


LXXVI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Diagram  2. — Per  cent  of  the  population  enrolled  in  the  common  schools  each  year  since  1870-71. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 


LXXVXI 


LXXVIII 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


Table  6. — Per  cent  of  the  school  population  (i.  e.,  children  5  to  18  years  of  age) 
enrolled  in  the  public  schools ,  for  a  period  of  years. 


Year. 

United 

States. 

North 

Atlantic 

Division. 

South 

Atlantic 

Division. 

South  North 

1  Central  Central 
j  Division . !  Division . 

Western 

Division. 

1870-71 . "... 

61.45 

77.95 

30.51 

34.17 

76. 87 

54. 77 

1871-72  . 

62.20 

77.33 

32.27 

37.94 

77.04 

54.43 

1872-73. . . . 

62.36 

76. 79 

35.86 

38.67 

75.97 

57.52 

1873-74 . . . . . 

64.40 

77.77 

42.10 

40.82 

76.98 

61.04 

1874-75 . . . . . 

65. 54 

78.59 

44.61 

42. 47 

77.54 

64.39 

1875-76.  . . . .  . . 

64.70 

78.55 

46. 72 

37.36 

77.05 

66.37 

1876-77 . . . . 

63.92 

76.83 

47.02 

38.51 

75.60 

66.12 

1877-78.. . . . . . . 

65. 75 

77.09 

48.85 

43.50 

77.38 

66.26 

1878-79 . . . 

64. 64 

76. 18 

46.72 

44. 71 

75.28 

65.63 

1879-80 . . . 

65. 50 

75.17 

50. 74 

46.43 

75.84 

64.96 

1880-81  . . . . . 

65.03 

74.28 

51.49 

47.03 

74.59 

64. 82 

1881-82 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

65.03 

74.56 

51.90 

47.02 

74. 15 

65.93 

1882-83 . . . . . . . . . . . 

66. 39 

74. 15 

54.30 

50.68 

75. 13 

67.05 

1883-84 . . — . . 

66.96 

72.83 

56. 25 

53.59 

75.06 

68.01 

1884-85... . . . . . 

67.96 

73.23 

57.17 

56.57 

75. 46 

68.53 

1885-86 . . . . . . . . 

68. 14 

72.63 

57.68 

56.82 

76.08 

68.03 

1886-87 . . . . 

67.98 

72. 23 

58.98 

56. 21 

75. 77 

67.97 

1887-88 _ _ _ 

'  68.33 

71.60 

58.68 

58.67 

75.96 

68.53 

18-88-89.. _ _ _ 

68.20 

70.60 

58.40 

58.28 

76.63 

69.39 

1889-90 . . . . . . . 

68.61 

70.45 

59.22 

60.14 

78.46 

70.01 

1890-91 . . . . . 

69.40 

70.04 

60.15 

63. 01 

76.25 

75.49 

1891-92 _ _ _ _ - . . . 

69. 51 

69.78 

59.50 

63. 72 

76.30 

77.98 

1892-93 _ _ _ _ 

69.70 

68.99 

61.94 

63.92 

76.23 

77.16 

1893-94.. _ _ _ _ 

71.32 

70.45 

63.08 

66.00 

78.04 

77.45 

1894-95 . . . . . . 

71.54 

71.53 

62.21 

65.83 

78. 17 

79.32 

1895-96 . . . . . 

71.80 

71.57 

62.46 

66.75 

78.16 

79. 72 

1898-97 . . . 

72.36 

72. 12 

64.49 

67.75 

78.06 

78.27 

1897-98 . . . . 

72.68 

71.78 

66.25 

67.36 

78.66 

78.00 

1898-99 . . . 

71.96 

51.69 

64.93 

66.54 

77.75 

77.85 

1899-1900  «. . . . . . . 

72.25 

70.86 

65.38 

66.70 

78.65 

79.51 

1900-1901 « . 

71.26 

70.55 

66. 14 

64. 55 

77.10 

78.99 

a  Subject  to  correction. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 


LXXIX 


Table  7. — The  average  daily  attendance  at  various  periods,  and  its  relation  in 
1900-1901  to  the  enrollment. 


Average  number  of  pupils  actually  present  at  school 
each  day. 


Number 

attend¬ 


State  or  Territory. 

1870-71. 

1879-80. 

1889-90. 

1899-1900. 

1900-1901. 

mg  uany 
for  each 
ICO  en¬ 
rolled  in 
1900-1901. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

United  States . . 

4,545,317 

6,144,143 

1 

8,153,635 

10,596,511 

10,692,091 

68.52 

North  Atlantic  Division . 

1, 627, 208 

1,824,487 

2,036,459 

2,636,892 

2,669,503 

72.20 

South  Atlantic  Division . 

368,111 

776, 798 

1,126,683 

1,331,006 

1,398,788 

63. 02 

South  Central  Division . 

535,632 

902, 767 

1,467,649 

1,992,524 

2,008,060 

66.43 

North  Central  Division . 

1,911,720 

2,451,167 

3,188,732 

4,080,460 

4,046,812 

69.41 

W ester n  Division.  . . 

102,646 

188,924 

334, 112 

555,629 

568,928 

68.26 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine .  . . 

100,392 

103,115 

98,864 

97,697 

97,038 

73. 05 

N ew  Hampshire  . . . 

48,150 

48, 966 

41,526 

47,276 

5  47,276 

5  71. 97 

Vermont . . 

a  44, 100 

48,606 

45,887 

47,020 

47,964 

73.26 

Massachusetts . . 

201,750 

233,127 

273,910 

366,136 

371,048 

79.27 

"Rhode  Island _ _ 

22,485 

27,217 

33,905 

47, 124 

49,038 

70.99 

Connecticut . . 

62,683 

73,546 

83, 656 

111,564 

115,264 

74. 10 

New  York . . 

493,648 

573,089 

642,984 

857,488 

873,157 

70. 27 

New  Jersey . . 

86,812 

115, 194 

133,286 

207,947 

221,273 

65.77 

Pennsylvania  . . . 

567, 188 

601,627 

682,941 

854,640 

847,445 

72.96 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware . . . 

a  12, 700 

17,439 

19,649 

a  25, 300 

cib  25, 300 

c5  68. 57 

Maryland . 

56,435 

85,778 

102,351 

134, 400 

135,515 

60.51 

District  of  Columbia . 

10,261 

20,637 

28,184 

35,468 

36,672 

77. 32 

Virginia . . . 

77,402 

128*404 

198,290 

5  203,138 

c  203, 136 

o  58. 72 

W  est  Virginia . . . 

51,336 

91,604 

121,700= 

151,254 

5151,254 

5  65.10 

North  Carolina . 

« 73, 000 

170,100 

203,100 

206,918 

253,019 

58. 66 

South  Carolina.. . . 

a  44, 700 

«90, 600 

147, 799 

201,295 

208, 114 

72.98 

Georgia . 

31,377 

145,190 

240,791 

298, 237 

310,453 

63.31 

Florida . . 

a  10, 900 

27,046 

64,819 

75,003 

75,325 

67.48 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky  . . 

120,866 

178,000 

225,739 

310,339 

312,354 

62.73 

Tennessee . 

5  89,000 

208,528 

323,548 

338,566 

5  338,566 

5  69.76 

Alabama . . 

107,666 

117,978 

182,467 

297,805 

5  297,805 

5  79;  10 

Mississippi  . . 

a  90, 000 

156,761 

207, 704 

c  201,593 

c 201, 593 

c55.98 

Louisiana . 

a  40, 500 

a  54, 800 

87,536 

146,323 

140,242 

70.50 

Texas. . . . 

a  41, 000 

a  132, 000 

291,941 

438,779 

5438,779 

5  66.53 

Arkansas . . 

a  46, 600 

a  54, 700 

a  148, 714 

195,401 

202,837 

62.65 

Oklahoma . . . . 

63,718 

5  63, 718 

5  63. 96 

Indian  Territory _ 

12,166 

57.56 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . . . . 

432,452 

476,279 

549,269 

616, 365 

610,622 

73.57 

Indiana . . 

295,071 

321,659 

342,275 

429,566 

420,276 

75.47 

Illinois . . . 

341,686 

431,638 

538,310 

737,576 

758,558 

78.51 

Michigan . . . 

a  193, 000 

a  240, 000 

a  282, 000 

355,226 

a  358, 600 

a  70. 31 

Wisconsin . . . 

ol32, 000 

« 156, 000 

200,457 

a  309, 800 

278,803 

62.48 

Minnesota . . . . . 

50,694 

a  78, 400 

127,025 

•  243,224 

239,462 

59.42 

Iowa.. . . . . . 

211, 562 

259, 836 

306,309 

373,474 

373,547 

66.40 

Missouri . . . 

187,024 

a  281, 000 

384,627 

460,012 

458,986 

64.49 

North  Dakota . . 

1  rt  "1  A/fft 

Q  Ron 

/  20,694 

43,560 

5  43,560 

5  58.07 

South  Dakota . . . 

o,OoU 

{  48,327 

a  68, 000 

64,770 

64.39 

Nebraska . 

a  14,800 

60,156 

146,139 

181,874 

182,589 

63.97 

Kansas  _ _ _ 

52,891 

137,669 

243,300 

261,783 

259,039 

67.69 

Western  Division: 

Montana . . 

a  1,100 

a  3, 000 

10,596 

a  26, 300 

a  25, 900 

«  61. 08 

Wyoming  . . . . 

5  250 

1,920 

« 4, 700 

a  9, 650 

a  5  9, 650 

a  5  66. 50 

Colorado  . . . . 

2,611 

12,618 

38, 715 

73,291 

74,735 

62.22 

N e w  Mexico  . . . 

a  800 

3,150 

a  13, 000 

22,433 

23,412 

66. 45 

Arizona . . 

0 

2,847 

4,702 

10,177 

510,177 

561.66 

Utah  ...I . . . . 

12,819 

17,178 

20,967 

50,595 

53,560 

69.98 

Nevada . 

a 1,800 

5,401 

5,064 

4,698 

4,932 

73. 74 

Idaho . . 

5  600 

3,863 

a  9, 500 

21,962 

5  21,962 

559.88: 

Washington . 

a  3, 300 

10,546 

36,946 

74,717 

81,400 

65.96 

Oregon . . . 

a  15, 000 

27,435 

43,333 

64,411 

5  04,411 

5  72. 08 

California . 

64, 286 

100,966 

146,589 

197,395 

198,789 

73.08 

ee  Approximately . 


bln  1899-1900. 


cln  1898-99. 


LXXX 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1S00-1901. 


Method  of  ascertaining  average  attendance. — The  average  daily  attendance  dur¬ 
ing  a  year  ( which  is  the  average  number  of  pupils  actually  present  each  day  the 
schools  were  in  session)  may  be  computed  as  follows: 

First,  for  a  single  school:  Add  together  the  number  of  pupils  present  each  school 
day  during  the  year,  and  divide  the  sum  (which  is  the  ‘ ;  aggregate  attendance  in 
days  ”)  by  the  number  of  such  school  days. 

Second,  for  a  group  of  schools  having  the  same  number  of  school  days  in  the 
year  (as  the  schools  of  most  cities  have):  Divide  the  combined  aggregate  attend¬ 
ance  in  days  of  all  the  schools  by  the  number  of  school  days  in  the  year. 

Third,  for  a  system  of  schools  having  different  lengths  of  school  year  (as,  for 
instance,  those  of  a  county):  Add  together  the  average  attendance  of  the  com¬ 
ponent  schools  and  groups  of  the  system,  as  ascertained  by  the  foregoing  rule. 
For  larger  systems,  as  those  of  a  State  or  of  the  United  States,  the  summing-up 
process  is  continued  in  the  same  way. 

In  a  system  of  schools  such  as  is  specified  under  the  heading  “Third,”  the 
average  number  of  days  in  the  school  year  for  the  whole  system  is  found  by 
dividing  the  combined  aggregate  attendance  in  days  of  all  the  schools  of  the 
system  by  the  average  attendance  as  ascertained  by  the  method  given.  See  obser¬ 
vations  on  Table  8. 

Observations  on  ascertaining  the  average  school  term  (Table  8). — The  “aggre¬ 
gate  number  of  days’  schooling  given  ”  to  all  pupils  (see  column  7),  which  is  the 
same  thing  as  the  aggregate  number  of  days  attended  by  all  the  pupils,  has  been 
computed  for  those  States  which  do  not  make  an  explicit  report  of  this  item  by 
multiplying  the  average  daily  attendance  of  pupils  by  the  average  length  of  school 
term  in  days. 

Conversely,  the  average  length  of  school  term  (column  6)  for  the  United  States 
as  a  whole  and  for  each  of  its  geographical  divisions  has  been  obtained  by  dividing 
the  aggregate  number  of  days  attended  by  the  average  daily  attendance. 

By  this  method  the  school  term  of  each  State,  in  computing  the  average  term 
for  a  number  of  States,  is  in  fact  given  a  weight  proportioned  to  the  school 
attendance  of  the  State,  as  should  be  done  under  a  correct  interpretation  of  the 
expression  “Average  length  of  school  term.”  The  result  might  more  properly 
be  called  “Average  length  of  attendance,”  which  is  essentially  what  it  is  desired 
to  know. 

A  method  which  has  been  in  use  in  some  States  for  finding  the  average  school 
term  of  a  county,  for  instance,  is  to  weight  the  different  school  terms  of  the 
towns  or  districts  the  county  is  composed  of  by  the  number  of  schools  in  each. 
In  other  words,  the  total  number  of  days  (or  months)  all  the  schools  of  a  county 
were  kept  is  divided  by  the  total  number  of  schools  to  get  the  average  time  each 
one  was  kept.  So,  in  finding  the  average  term  for  the  State,  the  school  is  taken 
as  the  unit  instead  of  the  pupil.  When  the  schools  differ  much  in  size  (number 
of  pupils),  as  they  do  in  all  mixed  urban  and  rural  systems,  varying  from  some 
half  a  dozen  to  500  or  more  pupils  each,  the  average  term  obtained  by  this  method 
varies  considerably  from  that  obtained  by  the  Bureau's  method.  The  long  terms 
of  the  large  city  schools  not  being  given  their  proper  weight,  the  resulting  aver¬ 
age  is  too  small.  The  same  objection  applies  still  more  forcibly  to  weighting  the 
school  terms  of  the  different  counties  or  towns  by  the  number  of  school  districts 
in  each. 

Another  method  is  to  divide  the  total  number  of  months  or  days  taught  by  the 
number  of  teachers.  This  is  better  than  the  preceding  method,  as  it  takes  some 
account  of  the  size  of  the  schools — that  is,  an  eight-grade  school  with  eight 
teachers  has  eight  times  the  weight,  in  determining  the  average  term,  that  a  dis¬ 
trict  school  with  one  teacher  has.  This  is  manifestly  as  it  should  be.  If  ever^ 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 


LXXXI 


teacher  taught  the  same  number  of  pupils  the  result  would  be  the  same  as  by  the 
Bureau’s  method.  Care  must  be  taken  in  working  by  this  method  to  use  the 
number  of  teachers’  places  (or  number  of  teachers  necessary  to  supply  the 
schools)  for  the  divisor;  for  if  a  teacher  teaches  a  school  or  grade  part  of  the 
term,  and  is  replaced  by  another  for  the  rest  of  the  term,  the  two  should 
obviously  count  as  one  teacher  for  the  combined  period  of  service.  The  liability 
to  overlook  this  distinction  in  practice,  as  'well  as  the  inequality  in  the  number  of 
pupils  to  a  teacher,  makes  this  method  generally  objectionable. 

Still  another  and  most  faulty  method  is  to  add  together  the  school  terms  of 
the  different  counties  or  towns  and  divide  by  the  number  of  such  counties  or 
towns;  i.  e.,  the  simple  arithmetical  mean  is  taken.  An  example  of  this  occurs 
in  a  school  report,  where  it  is  stated  that  14,193  pupils  in  one  district  attended 
185  days  and  856  pupils  in  another  district  attended  160  days,  while  the  average 
time  the  whole  15,049  pupils  attended  is  computed  at  1724  days,  although  nearly 
all  (16  out  of  every  17)  attended  185  days.  This  method,  if  it  can  be  so  called, 
gives  altogether  too  short  an  average  term,  and  nothing  can  be  said  in  defense  of 
it.  It  is  as  if ,  wishing  to  get  the  population  per  square  mile  of  Minnesota  and 
Dakota  combined,  we  said,  population  per  square  mile  of  Minnesota,  9.86;  of 
Dakota,  0.92;  average  number  of  persons  per  square  mile  in  the  combined  terri¬ 
tory  (0.92  j- 9. 86) -4-2 =5. 39,  instead  of  dividing  the  total  population  of  the  two 
States  by  the  combined  area  in  square  miles. 

The  (i  aggregate  number  of  days’  attendance  ”  is  a  statistical  item  of  the  utmost 
simplicity  and  of  great  value,  about  the  meaning  of  which  there  can  be  little  or 
no  difference  of  opinion.  Every  teacher’s  register  that  records  the  number  of 
pupils  present  each  day  in  school,  as  they  all  presumably  do,  contains  the  data  for 
ascertaining  it  for  that  school  for  the  school  year  by  the  simple  process  of  addition 
or  summing  up. 

There  are  a  few  States  that  do  not  ascertain  at  all  how  long  their  schools  were 
taught,  and  others  that  use  methods  so  faulty  that  they  also  are  totally  in  the 
dark  in  the  matter.  Yet  this  is  one  of  the  most  necessary  and  fundamental  items 
of  information  in  determining  the  amount  of  school  instruction  given. 


ED  1901 


VI 


LXXXII 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


Table  8. — (1)  Average  length  of  school  term  at  various  periods;  (2)  aggregate 
number  of  days'  schooling  given  to  all  pupils;  (3)  the  same  compared  with  the 
school  popidation  and  the  enrollment  ( columns  8  and  9). 


State  or  Territory. 

Average  number  of  days  the  s 
were  kept  during  the  yeai 

1 

;chooIs  1 
\  a 

Aggregate 
number  of 
days’  school¬ 
ing  given  in 
1900-1901. 

Average 
number 
of  days’ 
school 
ing  given 
for  every 
child  5 
to  18  | 

years  of 
"age  in 
1900-1901. 

Average 
number 
of  days 
attended 
by  each 
pupil  en¬ 
rolled  in 
1900-1901. 

1870-71. 

1879-80. 

1889-90. 

1899- 

1900. 

1900- 

1901. 

1 

2 

o 

4 

5 

G 

7 

S 

9 

United  States _ 

132.1 

130. 3 

134.7 

144.5 

M 

144.2 

1,542,074,801 

70.4 

93. 8 

North  Atlantic  Division. 

152. 0 

159.2 

166. 6 

177. 5 

177.2  1 

473,055,482  j 

90.3 

128.0 

South  Atlantic  Division . 

97.4 

92.4 

99.9 

111.9 

112.1 

156,796,216 

46.7 

70.6 

South  Central  Division.. 

91.6 

79.2 

88.2 

100.2 

96.4  1 

193,664,750 

41.4 

64.1 

North  Central  Division.. 

133.9 

139.8 

148.0 

155.9 

157.5 

637,208,413  [ 

84.3 

109.3 

Western  Division _ 

119. 2 

129.2 

135.0 

141.5 

143.0 

81,349,940  j 

77.1 

97.6 

N orth  Atlantic  Division : 

Maine -  - - 

93 

109 

112  | 

141 

146  j 

14,187,54S 

87.9 

106.6 

New  Hampshire _ 

70 

105.3 

117.7 

147. 65 

&  147. 65! 

6  6,980,301 

6  78.6 

6106.3 

Vermont _ 

115.6 

125.5 

136 

156. 15 

156. 20 ; 

7,491,977 

93.0 

114.4 

Massachusetts  ..  _ 

169 

177 

177 

189 

185 

68,6-43,880 

108.2 

146. 6 

Rhode  Island _ 

170 

184 

188 

191 

191  I 

9,511,180 

91.6 

137.7 

Connecticut - - 

172.4 

179 

182.5 

189. 01 

189. 53 

21,845:986 

102.2 

140.4 

New  York.  .  ...  ... 

176 

178.5 

186..5 

175 

177 

162,536,978 

91.7 

130.8 

New  Jersey _  .. 

178 

192 

192 

186 

183 

41,540,740 

85.9 

123. 5 

Pennsylvania _ 

127.2 

133.4 

147.6 

166.6 

165.6 

140,336,892 

82.4 

120.8 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware.  ...  ...  .. 

132 

158 

166 

170.1 

&  170.1 

64,303.530 

687. 9 

6116.6 

Maryland _ _ 

183 

187 

184 

183 

190 

25,747,850 

76. 6 

114. 9 

District  of  Columbia . 

200 

193 

178 

179 

176 

6, 454;  272 

104.6 

136.1 

Virginia _ 

93.2 

112.8 

118.2 

<419. 4 

<?119.4 

<  24, 254. 438 

<41.5 

<67.5 

W  est  V  irginia _ 

76. 8 

90 

97 

106 

6106 

616,032,924 

654.2 

669.0 

North  Carolina _ 

<2  50 

50 

59. 25 

70.5 

76.1 

19,254,746 

30.2 

44.6 

South  Carolina _ 

!  <2100 

70 

69.6 

88.4 

86.6 

18,025,666 

38.3 

63.2 

Georgia _ 

59 

d65 

83. 3 

112.0 

<2112.0 

<234,770, 736 

<246.2 

<2  70.7 

Florida  _ 

120 

93 

96 

7,952,054 

47.2 

71.8 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky _ 

cl  U0 

102 

94 

117.5 

104.5 

32,596,045 

48.3 

65.5 

Tennessee . . 

1  cl  77 

68 

86 

96 

696 

6  32, 502, 336 

6  50.3 

6  67.0 

Alabama  .  . .  . 

66.5 

81.3 

73.5 

78.3 

6  78.3 

6  23,318,132 

638.2 

6  61.9 

Mississippi _ 

110 

74.5 

<2  86 

<405. 1 

c  105.1 

<  21, 187. 424 

c  40.6 

<58.8 

Louisiana _ 

1  d  65 

78.8 

100.6 

120 

6120 

d 16, 829, 040 

<2  38. 6 

<2  84.6 

Texas  . . 

d  140 

71.7 

100 

108.2 

110. 27 

42. 332, 738 

40.2 

64.2 

Arkansas _ 

<2  75 

77. 5 

84 

17,038,308 

37.9 

52.6 

Oklahoma 

1 

95. 3 

6  95.3 

6  6,072,325 

6  48  7 

6  61.0 

Indian  Territory 

147 

1,788,402 

12.4 

84.6 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . . 

165 

152 

166.5 

565 

163 

100,184,935 

90.2 

120.7 

Indiana  _ _ 

98.5 

136 

130 

152 

6152 

<2  63,881,952 

<2  90.5 

<2114.7 

Illinois . . . 

146.7 

150 

155. 4 

152 

159.6 

120, 769, 396 

88.5 

125.3 

Michigan. . . . 

140 

150 

156 

163.8 

163 

<2  58,451,800 

<2  88.4 

<2114.6 

Wisconsin . . 

155 

165 

158.6 

<460 

169 

47,119,014 

75. 5 

105.6 

Minnesota . . 

d  83 

94 

128 

169 

173. 25 

41,487,9:35 

78.3 

102.9 

Iowa . . . . 

130 

148 

156 

160 

160 

59,767,520 

92.6 

108.3 

Missouri. . . 

90 

<2104 

129.4 

144 

145 

66, 656, 866 

71.8 

93.7 

North  Dakota . . 

el 

f  113 

155. 7 

6155.7 

6  6,784,639 

6  71.0 

6  87.3 

South  Dakota .  . 

r'5 

a  h  o 

\  145 

/129.1 

144 

9,194. 445 

70.9 

91.4 

Nebraska . 

1  72 

82 

140 

135 

133 

29, 675, 207 

90.8 

103. 9 

Kansas  . . . 

116 

|  120 

135 

126.25 

128.3 

33,234,704 

75. 6 

86.8 

Western  Division: 

Montana . 

1  <2  89 

96 

142.7 

107 

6107 

6  3,151,814 

6  54.1 

6  74.3 

Wyoming . . 

d200 

|  119 

1  120 

<2110 

2*2110 

6<2 1,064, 000 

6<2  48. 1 

bd  73. 3 

Colorado _ 

!  92 

<2132 

144.4 

149.8 

148.5 

11.098,147 

78.8 

92.4 

New  Mexico _ 

d  111 

111 

<2  67 

/  96.6 

148 

3,464,976 

56.6 

98.4 

Arizona . 

0 

109 

126 

125 

6125 

61,272.125 

6  40.0 

6  77.1 

Utah _ 

152 

128 

133 

151 

152 

8,164.662 

88.0 

106.7 

Nevada . . 

142 

143 

140 

154 

155 

764,460 

84.8 

114.3 

Idaho _ _ _ _ 

<2  45 

94 

<2  69.8 

106 

6106 

6  2,327,972 

6  50.3 

6  63.5 

Washington _ _ 

<2  80 

<2  91 

97.2 

127.6 

119.5 

9, 727, 300 

70.8 

78.8 

Oregon . .  . . 

<2  90 

90 

118. 2 

116.6 

6 116. 6 

6  7,510,323 

6  69.0 

6  84.0 

California . 

123 

146.6 

157. 6 

166. 2 

165.02 

32,804,161 

94.7 

121.0 

a  Certain  States  report  their  school  term  in  months;  these  months 
have  been  reduced  to  days  by  multiplying  by  20  in  each  case. 

6 In  1899-1900. 

< In  1898-99. 


cl  Approximately. 
< In  1893-94. 

/In  1S97-98. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


LXXXIII 


Diagram  3. — Average  number  of  days  the  schools  were  kept  each  year  since  1870-71 . 


LXXXIY  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1801. 

Table  9. — Number  and  sex  of  teachers — Percentage  of  male  teachers. 


State  or  Territory. 


■J  Whole  number  of  different 
teachers  employed. 


United  States . 


North  Atlantic  Division 
South  Atlantic  Division . 
South  Central  Division . . 
North  Central  Division.. 
Western  Division . . 


North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine . . 

New  Hampshire _ 

Vermont . . 

Massachusetts  . . . 

Rhode  Island _ 

Connecticut _ 

New  York _ 

New  Jersey _ _ 

Pennsylvania _ 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware _ _ 

Maryland _ 

District  of  Columbia. 

Virginia _ 

W  est  V  ir  ginia . . . 

N  orth  Carolina _ 

South  Carolina _ 

Georgia . 

Florida _ 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky . 

Tennessee . 

Alabama  . . . 

Mississippi _ 

Louisiana . . . 

Texas . . . 

Arkansas _ _ _ 

Oklahoma _ _ 

Indian  Territory _ 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . 

Indiana _ _ 

Illinois . . . 

Michigan _ 

Wisconsin . 

Minnesota . . 

Iowa . . 

Missouri . 

North  Dakota _ 

South  Dakota _ 

Nebraska . 

Kansas . . 

Western  Division: 

Montana . 

Wyoming _ 

Colorado  . . 

New  Mexico . 

Arizona . 

Utah . 

Nevada . 

Idaho . . 

Washington . 

Oregon  . 

California . 


Percentage  of  male  teachers. 


Male. 

Female: 

Total. 

1870-71. 

1879-80.  1889-90. 

00 

cS 

0 

p 

1900-01. 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

133,941 

306,063 

430,004 

41.0 

42.8 

34. 5 

29.9 

28.8 

18, 897 

87,303 

106,200 

26.2 

28.8 

20.0 

18.4 

17.8 

19,979 

29,948 

49, 927 

63.8 

62.5 

49.1 

41.0 

40.0 

28,713 

35,845 

64, 558 

67.5 

67.2 

57.5 

46.8 

44.5 

50, 240 

133, 767 

184,007 

43.2 

41.7 

32.4 

28.3 

27.3 

6,112 

19,200 

25,312 

45.0 

40.3 

31.1 

24.7 

24.1 

a  1,042 

«  5, 545 

6,587 

a  24.  4 

a  27  2 

a  16.0 

a  16. 4 

ol5.8 

6  244 

6  2,496 

6  2,740 

15.0 

16.8 

9.8 

8.9 

68.9 

498 

3,357 

3,855 

16.5 

16.8 

12.0 

13.6 

12.9 

1,214 

12,408 

13,622 

12.7 

13.2 

9.8 

8.8 

8.9 

178 

1,782 

1,960 

a  20. 4 

20.2 

12.6 

9.5 

9.1 

a  382 

o3,858 

4,240 

a  22. 1 

a  22. 8 

a  13. 4 

«9. 0 

09.O 

5,147 

30, 444 

85,591 

22  9 

26.0 

16.9 

14.9 

14.5 

998 

6,563 

7,561 

32.’ 5 

28.5 

18.4 

12.9 

13.2 

9,194 

20,850 

30,044 

42.8 

45. 5 

34.2 

32.0 

30. 6 

6  210 

6  621 

6  831 

a  29.  9 

a  46. 6 

a  31.0 

25.3 

6  25.3 

1,071 

3,965 

5,036 

45. 0 

42.6 

27.8 

21.7 

21.3 

164 

1,119 

1,283 

8.2 

7.8 

13.0 

13. 1 

12.8 

c2, 909 

o  5, 927 

c 8, 836 

64.5 

61.8 

41.5 

c32.9 

o32.9 

6  4,095 

6  2, 972 

6  7,067 

79.0 

75.2 

63.4 

57.9 

b  57.9 

3,808 

4,179 

7,987 

a  73. 2 

a  71. 3 

59.1 

49.4 

47.7 

«  2, 536 

o3,278 

5,814 

62.4 

59.5 

49.6 

o43.5 

o43.6 

o4,249 

a  6, 051 

10,300 

71.4 

«  65. 2 

53.3 

44.0 

0  41.3 

937 

1,836 

2! 773  1 

i  o  65. 7 

61.6 

48.0 

36.9 

33.8 

4, 711 

5,802 

10.513 

a  66.0 

64.6 

49.8 

45.5 

44.8 

6  4, 860 

|  6  4,235 

69,195 

a  75. 0 

74.4 

61.8 

a54.0 

b  53.9 

61.977 

6  4, 601 

6  6,578 

66.8 

63.8 

62.9 

30.1 

b  30. 1 

c  3, 216 

c  4. 940 

08, 156 

a  60. 8 

61.2 

49.6 

o39.4 

c39. 4 

L346 

2,'  925 

4,271 

50.9 

46.1 

44.7 

47.9 

31.5 

7,135 

8,239 

15, 374 

a  77. 3 

«  75. 0 

61.1 

48.9 

46.  4 

4,038 

3, 374 

7,472 

a  75.  6 

78.4 

68. 5 

59.7 

54.8 

61,004 

61,339 

6  2,343 
656 

42.8 

642.8 

266 

390 

40.5 

10, 297 

15,993 

26,290 

43.2 

47.8 

43.1 

40.4 

39.2 

7,179 

8,800 

15, 979 

60.5 

57. 5 

51.1 

46.  2 

44.9 

6,897 

19, 632 

26,529 

43.5 

39.7 

32.5 

26.4 

26.0 

3,040 

13,014 

16,054 

26.3 

29.2 

22.3 

20.3 

18.9 

2, 243 

10,913 

13, 156 

«28.8 

28.9 

19.8 

18.4 

17.0 

2, 207 

9,025 

11,232 

33.7 

85. 9 

23.9 

19.4 

19.7 

4,757 

24,088 

28,845 

39. 0 

33.6 

20.6 

17.2 

16.5 

.  5,892 

10,268 

16, 160 

65.3 

58.1 

44.4 

37.6 

36.5 

61,178 

1,050 

6  2,905 
3,390 

6  4,083 
4, 440 

|  «  24.  7 

«  40. 8 

/  28.3 
t  29.0 

28.8 

24.4 

828.8 

23.6 

1,840 

7,645 

9, 485 

51.9 

40.7 

27.1 

21.8 

19.4 

3,660 

8,094 

11,754 

47.2 

45.1 

40.8 

32.7 

31.1 

191 

1,030 

1, 221 

0  60. 3 

38.5 

22.9 

16.6 

15.6 

689 

6481 

6570 

a  28. 6 

44.3 

22.4 

15.6 

615.6 

781 

2,963 

3, 744 

48.8 

36.4 

26.2 

20.9 

20.9 

564 

482 

1,046 

a  91.  7 

78.0 

n  62. 2 

o55.2 

53.9 

6109 

6290 

6  399 

47.5 

38.8 

27.3 

6  27.3 

537 

994 

1,531 

55.0 

54.5 

46.6 

36.5 

35.1 

42 

288 

310 

32.4 

46.7 

16.3 

11.1 

13.5 

6  331 

6  729 

61,060 

a  64. 3 

57. 4 

«33. 4 

31.2 

631.2 

1,073 

2, 796 

3,869 

«46.5 

37.4 

40.6 

28.9 

27.7 

61,064 

6  2, 678 

63, 742 

a  51.  7 

48.3 

43.3 

28.4 

6  28.4 

1,331 

6,489 

7,820 

40.0 

33.6 

1 

21.4 

17.8 

17.0 

a  Approximately. 


6  In  1899-1900. 


o In  1898-99. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


LXXXV 


Table  10. — Teachers'  wages — Number  of  schoolhouses — Value  of  school  property — 
Private  school  enrollment. 


Average  monthly 
salaries  of 
teachers. 

Number 
of  build¬ 
ings  used 

Estimated 
value  of  all 
public  school 
property. 

Private  schools. & 

State  or  Territory. 

Number 
of  pupils  . 
enrolled.  fe^enT 

Per  cent 
of  pu¬ 
pils  in 
private 
schools. 

Males. 

Females. 

asschool- 

houses.a 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

.  United  States  . 

c$47.55 

c$39. 17 

249,969 

$576,963,089 

1,381,300 

16,984,751 

8.13 

North  Atlantic  Division. 

c  57. 75 

c41.66 

43,510 

236,086,962 

575,000 

4,272,221 

13.45 

South  Atlantic  Division. 

c  29. 62 

c28.39 

36,945 

23,524,568 

132, 100 

2,351,617 

5.61 

South  Central  Division. . 

c42.36 

c34.47 

50,529 

27,004,428 

182,500 

3,205,405 

5.47 

North  Central  Division . . 

49.32 

38.80 

105,026 

241,366,344 

427,000 

6,257,362 

6. 82 

Western  Division . 

c62.38 

c  51. 93 

13,859 

49,000,787 

64,700 

898, 146 

7.20 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

35. 66 

26.88 

4,018 

4,538,018 

New  Hampshire 

(1899-1800) . . 

54. 11 

28. 60 

1,862 

4,524,480 

10,315 

76,003 

13.57 

Vermont _ _ 

36.00 

25.00 

2,239 

d 1,800, 000 

e  7,019 

e 72, 983 

e  9. 62 

Massachusetts . . . 

140.94 

52. 75 

c/4,508 

48,979,719 

82,321 

550, 509 

14.95 

Rhode  Island _ 

115. 32 

51.14 

538 

5,462,209 

17,869 

86,936 

20.55 

Connecticut _ 

96.12 

45.32 

1,592 

11,852,881 

28,592 

184,171 

15.53 

New  York _ 

11,916 

87, 292, 414 

178, 028 

1, 420, 444 

12.53 

New  Jersey _ 

91.87 

52. 88 

1,893 

17,494,842 

e 47, 453 

e 370, 028 

c  12. 83 

44.14 

38.23 

14, 944 

54,122,399 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

j 

Delaware _ _ 

•A36.G0 

gh  34. 08 

c550 

el,  043, 997 

Maryland _ 

2,535 

i  4, 790, 000 

District  of  Columbia 

d  94, 48 

d  64. 31 

138 

4, 352, 531 

15,000 

j  47, 464 

3 10. 54 

Virginia  (1898-99).... 

32.09 

26.39 

7,218 

3,336,166 

25,  (XX) 

383,825 

6. 51 

West  Virginia . 

e5,816 

e 3, 966, 601 

k  1, 894 

k 220, 709 

A;  0.  86 

North  Carolina _ 

24.92 

22. 53 

7,082 

1,335,658 

Z  26,198 

l  361,556 

1  7.25 

South  Carolina . . 

d  25. 96 

d  23. 20 

4,918 

i  990, 000 

Georgia  _ 

6,246 

to  2,738,800 

n 27,285 

n  442, 932 

n  6. 16 

Florida _  _ 

38.27  | 

33. 66 

2,342 

970,815 

d  2, 487 

d 110, 942 

d  2.  24 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky _ _ 

j  44. 03 

137. 18 

8,302 

5,810,745 

18,974 

516,833 

3.67 

Tennessee _ 

c7,185 

e  3, 063, 568 

)  45, 428 

l  532, 935 

l  8.53 

Alabama  _ 

c  31.  00 

c  27. 00 

c  7, 058 

cl,  500, 000 

o  26, 722 

o388,722 

06. 88 

Mississippi _ 

P  32. 18 

^26.69 

o6,687 

ol,636,055 

P 14, 021 

P  381, 600 

i^3.67 

Louisiana  . . . 

34.25 

28.00 

c/3,302 

i  2, 450, 000 

c 14, 647 

e 210, 816 

e6.95 

Texas _ _ 

53.95 

44.80 

10, 811 

9,166,550 

Arkansas  _ _ _ 

39.00 

35.00 

5,254 

e 2, 616, 537 

9,659 

333,518 

2.90 

Oklahoma  _  _ 

o31.93 

o  26.20 

cl,  930 

e 760, 973 

Indian  Territory _ 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . 

40.00 

35.00 

13, 174 

46,182,062 

32,521 

862,378 

3. 77 

Indiana  . . . 

63.40 

42.40 

10,003 

25,000,000 

4,500 

561,231 

.80 

.  Illinois . . . 

61.69 

53. 51 

12, 852 

50,839,941 

142,076 

1,105,710 

12. 85 

Michigan _  _ 

48.60 

36. 54 

8,066 

20,404,388 

53, 046 

563,077 

9. 42 

Wisconsin  _  . . 

53.33 

39. 52 

7,179 

16,574,795 

55,789 

502,036 

11.11 

Minnesota  _  _ 

44.80 

36. 45 

7,248 

18,094,872 

9 20, 073 

9  372,165 

9  5.39 

Iowa _ _ 

41.53 

30.68 

13,922 

18,223,749 

o37,779 

o592,771 

o6.37 

Missouri  . .  .  _  ... 

d  49. 50 

d  42. 50 

10,299 

20,328,279. 

19,517 

731,237 

2. 67 

North  Dakota  (1899- 

1900) _ _ _ 

41.  72 

36.80 

2,601 

2, 587. 866 

South  Dakota...  _ 

34.70 

31.17 

3,735 

2,086,315 

k 1,888 

A;  89, 914 

k  2.10 

Nebraska . . 

47.54 

38.23 

6,773 

9, 870, 684 

Kansas _ 

42. 90 

35.85 

9, 174 

11,173,393 

Western  Division: 

Montana  .  . . . 

73. 86 

50.11 

712 

7,400,250 

1,816 

44, 216 

4.11 

Wyoming . 

e  73. 68 

e  43. 36 

c  524 

c  453, 607 

9175 

911,428 

91.53 

Colorado _ 

e50. 60 

e46.29 

1,803 

6,779,094 

3,664 

123, 744 

2.96 

New  Mexico . . 

726 

1 , 239, 153 

6,822 

42,049 

16.22 

Arizona  (1899-1800)  .. 

76.90 

63.40 

257 

529, 024 

1,212 

17,716 

6.84 

Utah _ 

65.65 

45.10 

715 

3, 000,  OCX) 

2,814 

79,345 

3.55 

Nevada . .  .,. 

99.65 

59.72 

248 

c 284, 563 

e  356 

c  7,032 

c5. 06 

Idaho  _ 

d56. 11 

d  44.  83 

c756 

e  855, 702 

Washington _  _ 

54.  79 

45.86 

2,148 

5,979,557 

10,588 

133,979 

7.90 

Oregon _ 

c  44.  46 

e  35. 53 

e  2, 070 

3, 440, 670 

10,649 

100, 054 

10.65 

California . 

85.10 

65. 81 

i  4,000 

19,039, 167 

e  23, 304 

c  293, 040 

c  7. 95 

a  Including  buildings  rented. 

&The  reports  of  private  schools  are 
more  or  less  incomplete,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  as  given  may  be 
taken  to  represent  the  minimum 
number  of  private  pupils  in  the 
States  furnishing  this  item.  In 
forming  the  totals  the  States  not 
reporting  are  estimated. 


c  Average  for  those  States 
reporting  salaries, 
din  1897-98. 
eln  1899-1900. 

/Number  of  schools. 

<7  In  1889-90. 
h  Approximately 
i  Estimated, 
iln  1895-96. 


fcln  1893-94. 
l In  1891-93. 

to  Does  not  include  furni¬ 
ture  and  apparatus. 

«In  1892-93. 
o In  1898-99. 

P In  1896-97. 

9  In  1894-95. 


L  XX  XVI 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

Average  salaries. — In  computing  (for  Table  10)  the  average  monthly  wages  of 
all  the  male  (or  female)  teachers  in  the  several  groups  of  States,  the  average 
wages  of  each  of  the  States  in  question  is  multiplied  by  the  corresponding  number 
of  teachers.  The  sum  of  the  resulting  products  is  then  divided  by  the  sum  of  the 
teachers,  and  the  quotient  is  the  average  wages  of  all.  Each  rate  of  wages  thus 
receives  its  due  weight. 

To  illustrate  the  principle:  If  48  teachers  receive  an  average  of  $72.20  per  month, 
they  all  receive  in  a  month  $3,488;  if  473  other  teachers  receive  an  average  of 
$48.60  per  month,  these  together  receive  in  a  month  $22,988;  the  521  teachers  com¬ 
bined,  therefore,  receive  per  month  $26,454,  or  an  average  of  $50.77, 

Attention  is  called  to  this  subject  for  the  reason  that  the  practice  of  taking  the 
arithmetical  mean  of  a  number  of  rates  of  wages  (the  mean  is  $80.40  in  the  above 
case)  in  order  to  get  the  average  of  all  is  so  common  as  to  vitiate,  to  a  consider¬ 
able  extent,  the  published  statistics  of  average  wages. 

Table  11. — (1)  Length  of  school  term.  (2)  The  aggregate  number  of  days ’  school¬ 
ing  given  compared  with  the  school  population. 


Year, 

Avera 

ge  length  of  school  term,  in  days. 

Average  number  of  days1  schooling  given 
for  every  child  5  to  18  years  of  age. 

l 

The  United  States. 

North  Atlantic  Di¬ 
vision. 

South  Atlantic  Di¬ 
vision. 

South  Central  Di¬ 
vision. 

North  Central  Di¬ 
vision. 

Western  Division.  1 

The  United  States. 

North  Atlantic  Di¬ 
vision. 

South  Atlantic  Di¬ 
vision. 

South  Central  Di¬ 

vision. 

North  Central  Di¬ 
vision. 

Western  Division. 

1870-71  _ 

132.1 

152.0 

97.4 

91.6 

133.9 

119.2 

48.7 

70.2 

18.1 

21.8 

59.6 

45.9 

1871-72  _ 

133. 4 

151.9 

103. 4 

97.7 

136.1 

121.8 

49.5 

68.9 

20.3 

25.8 

59. 8 

46.0 

1872-73  _ 

129. 1 

154.6 

97.4 

89.1 

129.6 

118.3 

47.8 

67.9 

21.7 

23.4 

56. 8 

45.0 

1873-74  _ 

128.8 

154. 8 

95. 6 

81.1 

132.6 

119.0 

49.6 

70.4 

24.5 

21.9 

59.8 

46.1 

1874-75  _ 

130.4 

158.7 

95.2 

81.0 

134.6 

132. 5 

51.0 

72.9 

26.1 

23.5 

60.2 

53. 6 

1875-76  _ 

133.1 

158.0 

95.6 

82.5 

139. 1 

130.3 

51.4 

73.7 

26.8 

20.1 

62.2 

54.4 

1876-77  . . 

132.1 

157.2 

91.4 

80.3 

139.8 

130.1 

51.1 

73.6 

26.3 

19.8 

62.3 

54.3 

1877-78  _ 

132.0 

157. 6 

89.7 

86.7 

140.1 

129.9 

53.2 

75.6 

26.8 

24.3 

64.3  1 

54. 5 

1878-79 . . 

130.2 

160.1 

88.6 

81.9 

136.4 

132. 0 

52.0 

75.0 

25.7 

23.9 

62.3 

56.7 

1879-80  _ 

130.3 

159.2 

92.4 

79.2 

139.8 

129.2 

53.1 

74.5 

29.3 

24.2 

64.4 

54.9 

1880-81  _ 

130.1 

158.7 

92.4 

82.1 

138.8 

133.8 

52.0 

72  2 

28.5 

25.0 

62.7 

56.9 

1881-82  _ 

131.2 

160.6 

95.9 

82.5 

137.1 

136.2 

52.9 

7a  3 

30.6 

25.6 

63.2 

58.0 

1882-83  . 

129.8 

161.0 

95.9 

82.5 

137.1 

132.6 

53.8 

74.4 

32.0 

26.8 

63.9 

57.3 

1883-84... . 

129.1 

158.0 

95.6 

85.9 

138.6 

iaas 

55.5 

72.5 

32.7 

30.0 

67.  7 

61.6 

1884-85  _ 

130.7 

163. 1 

93.4 

87.5 

139.1 

131.8 

56.8 

77.2 

33.7 

31.4 

67.3 

58.3 

1885-86... . 

130.4 

161.6 

93.4 

86.9 

140.4 

130. 8 

57.3 

76.7 

33.7 

a?.o 

68.7 

59.6 

1886-87  _ 

131.3 

165.9 

95.3 

87.5 

139.5 

131.6 

57.7 

77.8. 

34.8 

32.1 

68.7 

59.1 

1887-88  _ 

132.3 

164.4 

95.7 

87.6 

144.0 

130.7 

58.7 

76.8 

35.5 

33.6 

71.3 

57. 3 

1888-89 . . 

133.7 

164.1 

95.0 

88.9 

147.5 

135. 7 

58.9 

76.7 

SoA 

34.0 

71.6 

61.7 

1889-90  _ 

134.7 

166. 6 

99.9 

88.2 

148.0 

135.0 

59.2 

76.8 

37.3 

33.9 

71.9 

61.2 

1890-91  . 

135. 7 

168.1 

103.8 

92.0 

145.8 

136.9 

60.7 

78.1 

38.1 

a5.8 

73.2 

65.9 

1891-92  _ 

136.9 

169.1 

105.3 

94.1 

146.8 

139. 1 

61.5 

78.3 

38.2 

37.7 

73.6 

71.1 

1892-93  _ 

136. 3 

169.6 

103.4 

93.0 

146.6 

138.8 

62.3 

78.7 

39.2 

37.5 

75.1 

70.8 

1893-94  . . 

139.5 

172.3 

108. 3 

97.5 

150. 2 

137.1 

65. 9 

82.2 

42.4 

41.3 

79.1 

72.4 

1894-95  _ 

139. 5 

172.8 

106.5 

92.8 

150. 8 

142.4 

66.9 

84.8 

42.0 

39.0 

81.0 

77.6 

1895-96  . 

140.5 

175. 5 

107.8 

92.2 

151.9 

142.0 

68.1 

1  86.8 

42.1 

39.8 

82.3 

78.7 

1896-97  . . 

142.0 

173.3 

110.9 

96.3 

152.8 

148.6 

69.7 

88.9 

43.0 

42.3 

83.1 

82.5 

1897-98  . 

143.0 

174.3 

113. 8 

97.4 

152. 8 

151.7 

71.2 

90.4 

46.9 

42.5 

84.8 

82.1 

1898-99  _ 

143.0 

174.0 

112.3 

98.4 

154. 5 

141.6 

70.0 

90.0 

43.6 

43.3 

83.3 

76.3 

1899-1900  a _ 

144. 5 

177.5 

111.  9 

100.2 

!  155.9 

141.5 

70.2 

91.0 

45.1 

42.4 

83.8 

76.7 

1900-1901  a . 

144.2 

177.2 

112.1 

96.4 

157.5 

143.0 

70.4 

90.3 

46.7 

41.4 

84.3 

77.1 

1 

«  Subject  to  correction. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


LXXXVXI 


Table  12. — School  moneys  received l. 


Income  of 

From  taxation. 

Total 

State  or  Territory. 

perma¬ 
nent 
school 
funds  and 
rent  of 
school 
lands. 

From 

State 

taxes. 

From  local 
taxes. 

Total  from 
taxation. 

From 
other 
sources, 
State  and 
local. 

revenue 
(exclud¬ 
ing  bal¬ 
ances  on 
hand  and 
proceeds 
of  bond 
sales). 

1 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

United  States _ 

$9,823,482 

$38,476,250 

$161,245,764 

$199,722,014 

$25,422,423 

$234,967,919 

North  Atlantic  Division. 

907,236 

12,394,888 

66,536,447 

78,931, 335 

14,122,074 

93,960,645 

South  Atlantic  Division . 

515, 286 

4,898,811 

7,015,222 

11,914,033 

1,050,599 

13,479,918 

South  Central  Division  . . 

1,733,564 

8,000,592 

4, 879,136 

12,879,728 

1,312,162 

15,925,454 

North  Central  Division.. 

5,692, 687 

7,453,234 

72, 734, 206 

80, 187,440 

6,826,672 

92,708,799 

W estern  Division . . . 

974,709 

5,728,725 

10,080,753 

15,809,478 

2,110,916 

18,895,103 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine - - 

04,748 

534,538 

1,179,480 

1,714,048 

0 

1,748,798 

New  Hampshire 
(1899-1300)  _ 

15,707 

55,519 

997,667 

1,053,186 

51,326 

1,120,219 

Vermont  (1899-1900)  . 

51,835 

87, 637 

661,981 

749, 618 

86, 171 

887, 624 

Massachusetts _ 

180,546 

« 108, 750 

13, 800, 359 

13, 909, 109 

123, 105 

14,192.760 

Rhode  Island. .  - 

15,115 

132, 113 

1,3,20,699 

1,452,812 

71,649 

1,539,576 

Connecticut . . . . 

156, 808 

326, 577 

2,562,055 

2,888,632 

78, 990 

3,124,430 

New  York.  _ 

272, 477 

3,500,000 

28, 451, 363 

29,951,363 

8,245,437 

38,469,277 

New  Jersey _ 

200, 000 

2,339,724 

4,079,945 

6, 479, 669 

38, 520 

6,718,189 

Pennsylvania _ 

0 

5,250,000 

15,482,898 

20,732,898 

5,426,876 

26, 159, 774 

South  Atlantic  Division: 
Delaware  (1899-1900) . 

&  117, 379 

89,432 

175,735 

265,167 

25, 030 

407,576 

Maryland _ 

53, 357 

716, 243 

1,665,523 

2,381,766 

170,156 

2,605,279 

District  of  Columbia. 

0 

0 

cl,  516, 411 

1,516,411 

0 

1,518, 411 

Virginia  (1898-1899)  .. 

47,533 

364, 282 

943,346 

1,907,628 

55,463 

2,010,624 

West  Virginia  (1899- 
1900) _ _ _ 

51,214 

360, 652 

1,560, 846 

1,921,498 

134,633 

2,107,345 

North  Carolina _ 

0 

953, 661 

15,949 

969, 610 

150,136 

1,119,746 

South  Carolina _ 

0 

678,522 

142, 459 

820,981 

147,056 

988, 037 

Georgia . .  . 

212,053 

1,038,515 

423,288 

1,461,803 

337,898 

2,011,753 

Florida _  _ 

33, 751 

97,504 

571, 665 

669,169 

30,227 

733, 147 

South  Central  Division: 
Kentucky _ 

(<*) 

1,857,719 

932, 886 

2,790,585 

225,589 

3,016,174 

Tennessee  (1899-1900). 

129, 413 

1,529,445 

(e) 

1,529,445 

150, 388 

1,809,246 

Alabama  (1899-1900).. 

150, 000 

757,000 

(*) 

757,000 

195,000 

1.102,000 

Mississippi  (1898-99) . . 

133, 701 

676, 966 

508, 418 

1, 185, 384 

45, 353 

1,384,438 

Louisiana . . 

61,000 

322, 413 

742,945 

1,085,358 

105, 373 

1,231,731 

Texas.. _ _  _ 

1,259,450 

2,304,331 

1,055,514 

3,359,845 

216,330 

4,835,625 

Arkansas _ _  _ 

0 

423, 065 

836, 181 

1,259,246 

226,039 

1,485,285 

Oklahoma _ _ 

0 

129,653 

1  442,773 

572,426 

/ 144, 647 

717,073 

Indian  Territory _ 

0 

0 

360,439 

360,439 

3,443 

363,882 

North  Central  Division: 
Ohio . . . . 

242, 257 

1,783,258 

11,351,987 

13,135,245 

860,250 

14,237,752 

Indiana _ _ 

609,906 

1,592,390 

5,813,603 

7,405,993 

45,289 

8,081,188 

Illinois... .  . 

837,121 

1,000,000 

17,627,936 

18,627,936 

70S,  122 

20,171,179 

Michigan . . 

1,436,422 

0 

5,932, 794 

5,932, 794 

879, 418 

8,248,634 

Wisconsin. . . . 

167,391 

630,000 

4,714,298 

5,344,298 

652,882 

6,164,571 

Minnesota _ _ _ 

(3) 

h  1,462, 066 

4,436,918 

5,898,984 

i  970, 710 

6, 869, 694 

Iowa _ _ 

108, 943 

0 

8,410,034 

8,410,034 

1,057,079 

9,576,056 

Missouri _  _ 

674, 426 

802,808 

5,761,751 

6, 564, 557 

409,152 

7,648,135 

North  Dakota  (1899- 
1200 _ ..... 

j 446, 626 

0 

926, 764 

926, 764 

83,106 

1,458,496 

South  Dakota _ 

307,105 

0 

1,343,842 

1,343, 842 

78,674 

1,729,621 

Nebraska  _  _ 

474,929 

182,714 

2,563,722 

2,748,436 

925 , 881 

4,147,248 

Kansas  . . 

387,561 

0 

3,850,557 

3,850,557 

158,109 

4,386,227 

Western  Division: 

Montana _ 

35, 153 

747,050 

86,085 

833,135 

235,528 

1,103,816 

Wyoming  (1899-1900). 

43, 265 

0 

223,266 

223,266 

25,223 

291,754 

Colorado  .  . . 

fc 117, 548 

0 

1 2, 661, 587 

2,661,587 

391,301 

3,170,436 

New  Mexico  (1899- 
1900) . . . 

0 

402,698 

37,245 

439,943 

o 

m 439, 943 

Arizona . . ... 

( « ) 

11,100 

218,580 

229,680 

48,849 

278,529 

Utah.. . 

28,496 

330, 728 

147,062 

477,790 

884,806 

!  1,391,092 

Nevada _ _ 

125, 646 

0 

84,343 

84,343 

0 

209,989 

Idaho  (1899-1900) _ 

37,183 

168,146 

240, 249 

408,395 

62,712 

508,290 

Washington . . 

143,812 

872,649 

1,153,652 

2,026,301 

177,812 

2,347,925 

Oregon . . .... 

208,048 

0 

1,002,475 

1,002.475 

163,407 

1,373,930 

California . 

235,558 

3,196,354 

4,226,209 

7,422,583 

121,278  j 

|  7,779,399 

a  Reimbursement  for  superintend¬ 
ents’  and  teachers’  salaries,  etc. 
&May  include  some  State  taxes, 
c Includes  United  States  appropria¬ 
tion. 

dNot  reported  separately. 


eNot  reported. 

/Includes  some  unclassi¬ 
fied  items. 

o  Included  in  column  3. 
it  Includes  income  from 
permanent  fund. 


i  Includes  proceeds  of  bond 
sales. 

3  State  apportionment. 

A- In  1899-1900. 
i  Approx  i  mately . 
m  $838,019  in  1S00-1901. 


LXXXVIII 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901 


Table  13. — The  school  revenue  compared  with  the  school  population  and  the  adult 
male  population  {21  years  and  upward) ;  percentage  analysis  of  the  school  revenue. 


Amount 
each 
adult 
male 
must 
contrib¬ 
ute  to 
provide 
'$1  for 
each  per¬ 
son  5-18 
years. 

|  Per  cent  of  the  whole  revenue  de¬ 
rived  from— 

State  or  Territory. 

Amount 
raised 
for  each 
person 

5  to  18 
years  of 
age. 

Amount 
raised 
per  adult 
male. 

Perma¬ 

nent 

funds 

and 

rents. 

State 

taxes. 

Local 

taxes. 

Other 

sources. 

1 

3 

3 

4 

L_5 _ 

6 

7 

8 

United  States.  . . 

$10. 73 

$10. 93 

$1.02 

4.2 

16.4 

6S.  8 

10.8 

North  Atlantic  Division _ 

17.93 

14.72 

.82 

1.0 

13.2 

70.8 

15.0 

South  Atlantic  Division _ 

4.02 

5.35 

1.33 

3.8 

36.3 

52.1 

7.8 

South  Central  Division _ 

3.40 

4. 65 

1.37 

10.9 

50.2 

30.7 

8.2 

North  Central  Division _ 

12.26 

12. 07 

.98 

6.1 

8.0 

78.5 

7.4 

Western  Division . 

17. 91 

12.68 

.71 

5.2 

30.3 

53.3 

11.2 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine .... _  ... 

10.85 

8.02 

1 

.74 

2.0 

SO.  6 

67.4 

0.0 

New  Hampshire  (1899- 

1900) _ 

12.61 

8.55 

.68 

1.4 

5.0 

89.0 

4.6 

V er  mont  ^ 1899-1900 ) _ 

11.02 

8.16 

.74 

5. 8 

9.9 

74.6 

9.7 

Massachusetts  _ 

22. 37 

16.53 

.74 

1.1 

a.8 

97. 2 

0.9 

Rhode  Island _ 

14. 83 

11.74 

.79 

1.0 

8.6 

85.8 

4.6 

Connecticut  _  _____ 

14. 62 

10.86 

.74 

5.0 

10.5 

82.0 

2.5 

New  York _ 

21.  70 

17. 27 

.80 

0.7 

9.1 

68. 8 

21.4 

New  Jersey  _ 

13.90 

11.78 

.85' 

3.0 

&5.7 

60. 7 

0.6 

Pennsylvania _ 

15. 36 

14.14 

.92 

0.0 

20.1 

59.2 

20.7 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware  (1899-1800) ..... 

8.32 

7. 55 

.91 

&  28. 8 

22.0 

43.1 

6.1 

Maryland.  _ 

7.75 

7.99 

1.03 

2.1 

27.5 

63.9 

6.5 

District  of  Columbia ..... 

24.56 

17. 75 

.72 

0.0 

0.0 

c 100. 0 

0.0 

Virginia  ( 1898-99 ) . . . 

3. 44 

4.58 

1.31 

2.4 

48.0 

46.9 

2.7 

W est  V ir ginia  ( 1899-1900) . 

7.13 

8.50 

1.19 

2.4 

17.1 

74.1 

6.4 

North  Carolina _ 

1.76 

2.65 

1.51 

0.0 

85. 2 

1.4 

13.4 

South  Carolina _ ... 

2. 05 

3.37 

1.64 

0.0 

70.1 

14.7 

15.2 

Georgia - - 

2.67 

3.95 

1.48 

10.5 

51.6 

21.1 

16.8 

Florida _ _ _ 

4.35 

5.10 

1. 17 

4.6 

13. 3 

78.0 

4.1 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky _ 

4. 47 

5. 47 

1.22 

(■ d ) 

61.6 

30.9 

7.5 

Tennessee  (1889-1900) _ 

2. 80 

3. 71 

1.33 

7.2 

84. 5 

(e) 

8.3 

Alabama  (1899-1900) _ 

1.81 

2.66 

1.47 

13.6 

68.7 

(«) 

17.7 

Mississipni  (1898-99) . 

2.61 

4.00 

1.51 

9.8 

49.6 

37.3 

3.3 

Louisiana . . 

2.68 

3.  70 

1.38 

4.9 

26.2 

60.3 

8.6 

Texas . . 

4.60 

6.  35 

1.38 

26.0 

47.7 

21.8 

4.5 

Arkansas . . 

3.30 

4. 66 

1.41 

0.0 

28.5 

56.3 

15.2 

Oklahoma . .  . 

5. 75 

6. 57 

1.14 

0.0 

18.1 

61.8 

/20.1 

Indian  Territory . . 

2. 52 

3. 46 

1.37 

0.0 

0.0 

99.0 

1.0 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio  . . . 

12. 82 

11.63 

.91 

1.7 

12.5 

79.8 

6.0 

Indiana  . .  _ _ _ 

11.42 

11.04 

.91 

7.6 

19.7 

72.1 

0.6 

Illinois  ...  ..  . . 

14.79 

13. 93 

.94 

4.1 

5.0 

87.4 

3.5 

Michigan _  _ 

12. 47 

11.35 

.91 

17.4 

0.0 

71.9 

10.7 

Wisconsin _ _ 

9.88 

10. 63 

1.03 

2  7 

10.2 

76.5 

10.6 

Minnesota  ...  .  ...  ... 

12.96 

13.16 

1.02 

0) ' 

h  21.3 

64.6 

*  14. 1 

Iowa _ 

14.83 

14.84 

1.00 

1.1 

0.0 

87.8 

11.1 

Missouri  _  _ 

8.23 

8.80 

1.07 

8.8 

10.5 

75.3 

5.4 

North  Dakota  (1899-1900 ) . 

15.24 

15.30 

1.00 

i30. 7 

0.0 

63.6 

5. 7 

South  Dakota . . . 

13. 33 

14. 71 

1.10 

17.7 

0.0 

77.7 

4.6 

Nebraska _ 

12. 68 

13. 57 

1.07 

11.5 

4.4  j 

61.8 

22.3 

Kansas _ _ 

10. 00 

10.56 

1.06 

8.8 

0.0 

87.6 

3.6 

Western  Division: 

21.3 

Montana _ 

18. 85 

10.07 

.53 

3.2 

67.7 

7.8 

W v oming  (1899-1900) 

13.20 

7.70 

.58 

14.8 

0.0 

76.5 

8.7 

Colorado . .  . 

22.52 

16.17 

.72 

*<3.7 

0.0 

*84.0 

12.3 

New  Mexico  (.1899-1900)  .. 

7.18 

7.80 

1.09 

0.0 

91.5 

8.5 

0.0 

Arizona . .  . 

8. 76 

6.32 

.72 

( « ) 

4.0 

78.5 

17.5 

Utah . . . 

14. 99 

20. 12 

1.34 

2.0 

23.8 

10.6 

63.6 

Nevada . . . . 

23.29 

11.85 

.51 

59.8 

0.0 

40.2 

0.0 

Idaho  (1899-19*30) . 

10.98 

9.42 

.86 

7.3 

33.1 

47.3 

12.3 

■Washington . . 

17.10 

11.46 

.67 

6.1 

37.2 

49.1 

7.6 

Oregon. . 

12.28 

9.25 

.75 

15.1 

0.0 

73.0 

11.9 

California . 

22.44 

13.98 

.62 

3.0 

41.1 

54.3 

1.6 

a  Reimbursement  for  superintend¬ 
ents’  and  teachers’  salaries,  etc. 
6  May  include  some  State  taxes. 
c  Includes  United  States  appropri¬ 
ation. 

<*Not  reported  separately. 


e  Not  reported. 

/  Includes  some  unclassified 
items. 

a  Included  in  State  taxes. 
h  Includes  income  from  perma¬ 
nent  fund. 


i  Includes  proceeds  of  bond 
sales. 

3  State  apportionment, 
fc In  1899-1900. 
l  Approximately. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 


LXXX1X 


Table  14.—  Progress  of  school  expenditure. 


State  or  Terri¬ 
tory. 


United  States 

N.  Atlantic  Div. 
S.  Atlantic  Div_ 
S.  Central  Div.. 
N.  Central  Div . 
Western  Div ... 

N.  Atlantic  Div.: 

Me . 

N.  H . . 

Vt _ 

Mass _ 

R. I  . . 

Conn . . 

1ST.  Y . . 

N.  J _ 

Pa 

S.  Atlantic  Div.: 

Del _ 

Md. . 

Dist.  Col . 

Va. . 

W.  Va . . 

N.C _ 

S. C _ 

Gra _ 

Fla. _ _ 

S.  Central  Div.: 

Ky - 

Tenn  . . . . 

Ala  . . 

Miss _ 

La _ 

Tex _ _ 

Ark _ 

Okla _ 

Ind.  T _ 

N.  Central  Div.: 

Ohio _ 

Ind _ .'. 

Ill _ -.. 

Mich _ 

Wis. . . 

Minn _ 

Iowa . . 

Mo . . 

N.  Dak _ 

S.  Dak _ 

Nebr . 

Kans _ 

Western  Div.: 

Mont _ _ 

Wyo . 

Colo . 

FT.  Mex _ 

Ariz . . 

Utah . 

Nev . 

Idaho _ 

Wash . 

Oreg . . . 

Cal _ 


Total  amount  expended  for  schools. 


Expended  per  capita  of 
total  population. 


1870-71 


3,781,581 
4, 854, 834 
28, 430, 033 
2, 244, 32S 


950, 662 
418, 515 
499,861 
5,579,363 
461, 160 
1,496, 981 
9, 607,804 
2, 302, 341 
8, 479, 918 

153,509 
1,214, 729 
373,535 
587, 472 
577, 719 
177, 498 
275, 688 
292,000 
128, 431 


531, 834 
b  650,  GOO 
b 520, 000 


6,831,035 
b  2, 897, 537 
6, 656, 542 
2,840,740 
1,932,539 
960,558 
3, 269, 190 
1 - 


.749,049 
b  23, 000 

365, 520 
904, 323 


b  7,000 
67,395 
&4,800 
0 

b 117, 000 
6  85,000 
19,003 
6  35,000 
6160,000 
1,713,431 


1879-80. 

1889-90. 

1899-1900. 

1900-1901. 

1870- 

7L 

1879- 

80. 

1889- 1899- ' 
90.  1900. 

1800- 

1901. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

1  7 

8 

9 

10 

!  ii 

$'78, 094, 687  $140, 506, 715 

$214, 867,718 

$226, 043, 236  $1.75 

$1. 56 

1  ”| 

$2. 24,$2. 84  $2. 93 

28,538,058 
5, 130, 492 
4,872,829 
35, 285, 635 
4,267,673 

48,023,492 
8, 767, 165 
10, 678,680 
62, 823,563 
10, 213, 815 

83,910,564 
12, 903, 823 
14,674,890 
86, 165, 827 
17, 212, 614 

89, 485, 645 
13,439,344 
15, 149, 371 
90, 073, 228 
17,895,648 

•2.38 
!  0.63 
|  0.73 

2.14 

2.15 

|  | 
HOCKOi  1 

2. 76 
0. 99 
j  0.97 
2.81 
3.37 

!  3.99 
i  1.24 
1.07 
!  3.27 
4,21 

j  4.17 
!  1.28 
1.06 
3. 36 
4.25 

1.067,991 

1,327,553 

1,712, 795 

1,727,175 

1.51 

1. 65 

!  2.01 

!  2.47 

2. 48 

565,339 

844, 333; 

1,052,202 

« 1,052, 202 

1.30 

1.63 

|  2.24 

j  2.5G 

«2.  56 

446, 217 

711, 072 

1,074, 222 

1,106, 099 

1.51 

1. 34 

2. 14 

3.13 

3.  28 

4,983,900 

8, 286, 062 

13, 826, 243 

14, 179, 947 

3. 73 

2.80 

3.  70 

4.93 

4.96 

526, 112 

884,966 

1, 548, 675 

1,629,959 

2.05 

1.90 

2. 56 

|  3.61 

3.69 

1, 408, 375 

2, 157,014 

3, 189, 249 

3,391,886 

2. 74 

2.26 

2. 89 

3.51 

3.64 

10, 296, 977 

17,543,880 

33, 421, 491 

36, 395, 270 

2. 17 

2.03 

2. 92 

4.60 

4.  91 

1, 873, 465 

3, 340. 190 

6, 608, 692 

7, 189, 712 

2.  48 

1.66 

2.31 

3. 51 

:  3.  72 

7,389,682 

12,928,422 

2i;  476, 995 

22, 813, 395 

2.36 

1.72 

2. 46 

3. 41 

3. 55 

207,281 

6  275,000 

453, 670 

ci  453, 670 

1.21 

1.41 

61.63 

2.46 

a2.  46 

1.544,367 

1,910,663 

2, 803,032 

2,549,497 

1.53 

1.65 

1.83 

2.361  2.12 

438, 567 

905, 777 

1,076,620 

1,485,671 

2. 77 

2.47 

3.93 

3.  86 

5. 23 

946, 109 

1, 604, 509 

cl,  971, 264 

cl,  971, 264 

0. 47 

0.63 

0. 97 

cl.  08 

cl.  08 

707,553 

1,198,493 

2,009,123 

«2,009, 123 

1.26 

1.14 

1.57; 

2.10 

«2. 10 

376, 062 

714,900 

950, 317 

1, 152, 920 

0. 16 

0.27 

0.  44 

0. 50 

0.60 

324,629 

450, 936 

894, 004 

961, 897 

0. 38 

0. 33 

0.39 

0. 67 

0.71 

471,029 

1,190,354 

1,980,016 

2.083, 366 

0. 24 

0.31 

0.65 

0. 89 

0.92 

114, 895 

516, 533 

765, 777 

771, 936 

0.  (‘>8 

0. 43 

1.32 

1. 45 

1.41 

1,069,030 

I  2,140,678 

3,037,908 

2,851,651 

6.80 

0.65 

1.15 

1.41 

1.30 

744, 180 

1, 526, 241 

1,751,047 

a  1,751, 047 

6. 59 

0.48 

0. 86 

0. 87 

a.  87 

6  500,000 

6  890, 000 

923, 464 

a  923, 464 

6.36 

6.  40 

6.59 

0. 50 

a.  50 

830, 705 

1, 109. 575 

cl,  306, 186 

c  1, 306, 186 

1.11 

0.73 

0. 86 

c.  86 

c.  86 

411, 858 

1  817, 110 

l  1,135,125 

1, 236, 647 

0. 71 

0.44 

0. 73 

0. 82 

0. 88 

61,030,000 

|  3, 178, 300 

4, 465, 255 

4, 640, 470 

6.74 

6.65 

1.42 

1.46 

1. 47 

287,056' 

1,016,776 

1,369,810 

1,396, 594  &1. 02 

0.36 

0. 90 

1.04 

1.05 

686,095 

a  686  (195 

1.72 

ol.  72 

357, 217 

0.84 

7, 166,963 

10,602,238 

13,335,211 

14,245, 886 

2. 52 

2.24 

2.89 

3. 21 

3.39 

4, 491, 850 

5, 245, 218 

8,182,526 

8,032,534 

61.70 

2.27 

2.39 

3.  25 

3.15 

7,014,092 

11, 645, 126 

17, 757, 145 

19,031,463 

2.57 

2.28 

3. 04 

3. 68 

3. 82 

2, 775, 917 

5,349,366 

7, 297, 691 

7,965,700 

2.33 

1.70 

2.55 

3. 01 

3.26 

2,177,023 

3, 801, 212 

5,493,370 

5,881,473 

1.70 

1. 65 

2.25 

2.65 

2.80 

1,328,429 

4,187,310 

5, 630, 013 

6,247,273 

2.06 

1.70 

3. 22 

3. 21 

3. 46 

4, 484, 043 

6,382,953 

8,496,522 

8, 835, 048 

2.70 

2. 76 

3.34 

3. 81 

3.90 

2, 675,364 

5, 434, 262 

7,816,050 

7,860,158 

0.99 

1.23 

2.03 

2.52 

2. 49 

f  626, 949 

1, 526, 090 

a  1,526, 090 

7*1  OQ 

1  Q1 

/3. 43 

4.78 

«4. 78 

tO,  UOU 

\  1,199,630 

1,605,623 

1,611,338 

1.  ol 

13. 65 

4.00 

3. 84 

1,108,617 

3,376,332 

4,403,222 

4, 170,050 

2.61 

2.45 

3.19 

4.13 

3. 85 

1,818,337 

4,972, 967 

4, 622, 364 

4,666,210 

2.24 

1.83 

3. 48! 

3.14 

3. 15 

78,730 

364, 084 

923,310 

879,882 

61.62 

2.01 

2.76 

3. 79 

3.36 

28,504 

'  6225,000 

253,551 

a  253, 551 

6.71 

1.37 

63.71 

2. 74 

a2.  74 

395,227 

1,681, 379 

2, 793, 648 

2,861,358 

1.44 

2.03 

4.08 

5. 18 

5.02 

28, 973 

6  85, 000 

343, 429 

723,048 

6.05 

0.24 

6. 55 

1. 76 

3. 61 

61, 172 

181,914 

299, 730 

«299, 730 

0.00 

1.51 

3.05 

2.  44: 

«2. 44 

132, 194 

394,685 

1,094,757 

1, 342, 858 

61.28 

0. 92 

1.90 

3. 96 

4.  72 

220, 245 

161, 481 

224, 622 

195,802 

61.93 

3. 54 

3.53 

5.30 

4.62 

38,411 

169,020 

400, 043 

o400,043 

1.17 

1.18 

2.00 

2. 47 

a2. 47 

112, 615 

958, 111 

2,375,753 

2,299,313 

61.30 

1.50 

2.  74 

4.59 

4.23 

307,031 

805, 979 

1,594,420 

1,350,820 

61  65 

1.76 

2.57 

3. 86 

3.18 

2,864,571 

5,187,162 

6,909,351 

7,289.243 

2.93 

3.31 

4. 29 

4.65 

4. 80 

a  In  1899-1900. 


6  Approximately . 


c In  1898-99. 


Diagram  4. — Amount  expended  for  common  schools  per  capita  of  population  each  year  since  1870-71. 


XC 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


*3.00 

$2  50 

* 2.00 

* 150 

$].00 

* 050 

C\i 

2.62 

2.63 

N 

to 

tv 

Ri 

evil 

* 

$ 

fe 

8 

cv 

£ 

«v 

Si 

«vi 

<T> 

<\i 

X- 

cv; 

t\j 

£ 

N 

5 

3 

CO 

§ 

CO 

s 

§ 

$ 

*^r 

<o 

R 

§ 

Si 

5 

§ 

r 

K( 

0* 

1  ^ 
i 

' 

r" 

i 

R 

R 

£ 

R 

5 

§ 

$ 

Jo 

tjo 

s 

s 

i 

\J 889-90 

§ 

1 

$ 

i 

17 900-01 

Subject  to  correction. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS 


XCI 


Table  15. — The  school  expenditure  of  1900-1901  classified. 


State  or  Territory. 

Paid  for 
sites,  build¬ 
ings,  furni¬ 
ture,  libra¬ 
ries,  and 
apparatus. 

Paid  for 
teachers’ 
and  superin- ! 
tendents’ 
salaries. 

Paid  for  all 
other  pur¬ 
poses,  prin¬ 
cipally  main¬ 
tenance. 

Total 

expenditure, 
excluding 
payment  of 
bonds. 

1 

2 

O 

4 

5 

United  States . .  . 

$40,361,964 

$142, 776,168 

$42,905,104 

$226,043,236 

North  Atlantic  Division . 

19,618,277 

51,191,503 

18,675,865 

89,485,645 

South  Atlantic  Division _ 

1,378,792 

•  9,995,584 

2.084,968 

13,439,344 

South  Central  Division _ _ _ 

1,113,805 

12, 669, 509 

1,866,057 

15, 149, 371 

North  Central  Division _  _ 

15,505,426 

57,290,202 

17,277,600 

90,073,228 

Western  Division . 

2, 745,664 

11,629,370 

3,520,614 

17,895,648 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine _ _ ... 

273,456 

1,193,422 

260,297 

1, 727,175 

New  Hampshire  (1899-1901) _ 

60, 889 

695, 873 

a  295, 440 

1,052,202 

Vermont  . .  - - - 

202, 031 

671,236 

232, 832 

1,108,099 

Massachusetts  . . .  . . :  _ _ 

3,045,013 

8,516,296 

2,618,638 

14,179,947 

Rhode  Island _ * 

263,629 

1,040,870 

325, 480 

1,629,959 

Connecticut _ _ _  _ _ 

532,930 

2,078,266 

780, 690 

3, 391, 886 

New  York _ ... _ _ _ _ 

8, 386, 359 

21,504,620 

6,504,291 

36,395,270 

New  Jersey  . . .. . . 

1,871,877 

4,135,586 

1,182,249 

7,189,712 

Pennsylvania . . _ 

4,982,093 

11,355,334 

6,475,968 

22,813,395 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware  (1899-1900) . . 

79,306 

279,556 

94,808 

453,670 

Maryland . . . . .. . 

127,546 

2,044,144 

377,807 

2,549,497 

District  of  Columbia _  . _ ... 

349, 663 

877,103 

258,905 

1,485,671 

Virginia  (1898-99) . . . 

254, 332 

1,504,397 

212,535 

1,971,264 

W est  Virginia  (1899-1900) _ _ _ _ 

259, 291 

1,229,191 

520,641 

2,009,123 

North  Carolina, _ . . . . . 

61,689 

867,082 

224, 149 

1,152,920 

South  Carolina _ _ _  _ 

62, 895 

833,797 

65, 205 

981,897 

Georgia.. . . . . . 

6  87,952 

1,770,030 

c  225, 384 

2,083,366 

Florida . . . . . 

96, 118 

590, 284 

85,534 

771,936 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky .  . . . 

252,964 

2,362,129 

236,558 

2,851,651 

Tennessee  (1899-1900) . . . . 

117,096 

1,403, 848 

230,103 

1,751,047 

Alabama  (1899-1900) . . . . 

(Cl) 

923, 464 

(cl) 

923, 484 

Mississippi  (1898-99)  . . . . . . 

35,401 

1,125,920 

144,865 

1,306,186 

Louisiana. . .  . . . 

60, 036 

1,011,376 

165,235 

1, 236, 647 

Texas .  . . . . .  . 

342, 684 

4,087,340 

210,436 

4,640, 470 

Arkansas _  _ 

171,326 

1,189,472 

35,796 

1,396,594 

Oklahoma  (1899-1900) . . . . 

134,288 

385,856 

« 165,-951 

686,095 

Indian  Territory  . . . . 

(d) 

/ 180, 104 

177,113 

357,217 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . .  . . . 

1,721,853 

9,322,948 

3,201,085 

14,245,888 

Indiana .  . . . . . 

886,044 

4,930,293 

2,216,197 

8,032,534 

Illinois . . . . . . . . ------ 

3,455,229 

12,004,285 

3,571,949 

19,031,463 

7,985,700 

Michigan .  . . . . . . 

1,515,303 

4,735,192 

1,715,205 

Wisconsin.  . . . . . . 

854. 240 

3,909,534 

1,117,699 

5,881,473 

Minnesota . . . .  . .  ... 

1,747; 462 

3,918,778 

581,038 

6,247.278 

Iowa _ _ _  _  _ 

g 1,001, 668 

5,747,339 

2,086,041 

h  8, 835, 048 

Missouri _  _  _ 

1,589, 849 

4,907,411 

1,382,898 

7,860,158 

North  Dakota  (1899-1800) _ _ 

303,619 

817,491 

404, 980 

1,526,090 

South  Dakota  . . . 

207,201 

1,037,522 

366,615 

1,611,338 

Nebraska _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1,043,883 

2,740,355 

385,812 

4,170,050 

Kansas  ..  . . 

1,199,075 

3,219,054 

248,081 

4,666,210 

Western  Division: 

Montana . . . . . 

217,080 

548,662 

114,130 

879,882 

Wyoming  (1899-1900).. - 

27, 597 

180,386 

45,568 

253,551 

Colorado.. . . . . . 

400,379 

1,710,071 

750,908 

2, 861 , 358 

New  Mexico _ _  _ _  _ _ 

(C 

412,340 

310, 708 

723,048 

Arizona  (1899-1900) _  .  ..  _ 

64,588 

189,189 

45,953 

299,730 

Utah.. _ _ _ _ 

307,186 

657,930 

377, 742 

1,342,858 

Nevada .  . . . . 

6, 458 

163, 280 

26,064 

195,802 

Idaho  (1899-1900). _ _ _ _ 

75,190 

271,990 

52,863 

400,043 

W  ashington . . . . . 

705,449 

1,298,358 

295,506 

2,299,313 

Oregon  . . . ... . . 

164, 323 

918,940 

267,557 

1,350,820 

California . . . 

777,404 

5,278,224 

1,233,615 

7,289,243 

a  Includes  bond  payments. 

&  Cities  not  included. 

c Includes  expenditure  for  sites,  buildings,  etc.,  in  cities. 
dNot  reported. 

c  Includes  some  unclassified  items. 

/Includes  some  miscellaneous  expenditure. 

S' Expended  from  “schoolbouse  fund.” 
h  Interest  on  bonded  debt  not  included. 
i  Included  in  column  4. 


XCI1 


EDUCATION  EEPOKT,  1900-1901. 

Table  10. — (1)  Expenditure  per  pupil  ( based  on  average  attendance);  ( 2 )  average 
daily  expenditure  per  pupil ;  ( 3 )  percentage  analysis  of  school  expenditure. 


Average  expenditure  per  pu¬ 
pil  (for  the  whole  school 
year). 

Average  daily 
expenditure 
per  pupil. 

Per  cent  of  total  ex¬ 
penditure  devoted 
to— 

State  or  Territory. 

For 

sites, 

build¬ 

ings, 

etc. 

For 

sala¬ 

ries. 

For  all 
other 
pur¬ 
poses. 

Total 

per 

pupil. 

For 

sala¬ 

ries 

only. 

Total. 

Sites, 

build¬ 

ings, 

etc. 

Sala¬ 

ries. 

All 

other 

pur¬ 

poses. 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

T 

8 

9 

10 

United  States . 

$3. 77 

$13. 35 

$4.01 

$21. 14 

Cents. 

9.3 

Cents. 

14.7 

17.8 

63.2 

19.0 

North  Atlantic  Division .. 

7. 35 

19. 18 

7.00 

33.52 

10.8 

18.9 

21.9 

57.2 

20.9 

South  Atlantic  Division... 

.99 

7.15 

1.48 

9.61 

6.4 

8.6 

10.2 

74.4 

15.4 

South  Central  Division  . . . 

.55 

6.30 

.68 

7.54 

6. 5 

7.8 

7.4 

83.6 

9.0 

North  Central  Division... 

3.83 

14.16 

4.27 

22.26 

9.0 

14.1 

17.2 

63.6 

19.2 

Western  Division . 

4.88 

20.44 

6.19 

31.46 

14.3 

22.0 

15.3 

65.0 

19.7 

North  Atlantic  Division : 

Maine  . . 

2.83 

12,  SO 

2.68 

17.80 

8.4 

12.2 

15.8 

69.1 

15.1 

New  Hampshire . 

1.29 

14.72 

«  8.  25 

22.26 

10.0 

15.1 

5.8 

66.1 

a  28.1 

Vermont  . . 

4.21 

14.00 

4.85 

23.06 

9.0 

14.8 

18.3 

60.7 

21.0 

Massachusetts _ 

8.21 

22.94 

7.06 

38.21 

12.4 

20.7 

21.5 

60.0 

18.5 

Rhode  Island _ 

5.38 

21.22 

6.64 

33.24 

10.9 

17.1 

16.2 

63.8 

20.0 

-  Connecticut .  _ 

4.62 

18.03 

6.77 

29.42 

9.5 

15. 5 

15. 7 

61.3 

23.0 

New  York _  _ 

9.60 

24.63 

7. 45 

41.68 

13.2 

22.4 

23.0 

59.1 

17.9 

New  Jersey _ _ 

8.46 

18. 69 

5.34 

32.49 

10.0 

17.3 

26. 0 

57.5 

16.5 

Pennsylvania _ _ 

5.88 

13. 40 

7.64 

26.92 

8.1 

16.2 

21.8 

49.8 

28.4 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware  (1899-1900) 

3. 13 

11.05 

3. 75 

17. 93 

6.5 

10.5 

17.5 

61.6 

20.9 

Maryland _ 

.94 

15.08 

2. 79 

18. 81 

7.9 

9.9 

5.0 

80.2 

14.8 

District  of  Columbia . . 

9. 54 

23. 90 

7.06 

40.50 

13.6 

23.0 

23.5 

59.1 

17.4 

Virginia  (1898-99) _ 

1.25 

7.40 

1. 05 

9. 70 

6.2 

8.2 

12.9 

76. 3 

10.8 

W.  Virginia  (1899-1900) 

1.  71 

8. 13 

3. 44 

13. 28 

7.7 

12.5 

12.9 

61.2 

25.9 

N orth  Carolina . . 

.24 

3. 43 

.89 

4.56 

4.5 

6.0 

5. 4 

75.2 

19.4 

South  Carolina _ 1 . . . 

.30 

4.01 

.31 

4.62 

4.6 

5.3 

6. 5 

86.7 

6.8 

Georgia  _ _ 

b.2  8 

5. 68 

C.  72 

6.68 

5.1 

6.0 

b  4.2 

85.0 

cl0.8 

Florida _ 

1. 27 

7. 84 

1.14 

10.25 

7.4 

9.7 

12.4 

78. 5 

11.1 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky _ 

.81 

7. 56 

.76 

9. 13 

7.2 

8.7 

8.9 

82.8 

8.3 

Tennessee  (1899-1900).. 

.35 

4.15 

.67 

5. 17 

4.3 

5.4 

6.7 

80.2 

13.1 

Alabama  (1899-1900) _ 

(cl) 

3. 10 

(d) 

3.10 

4.0 

4.0 

Mississippi  (1898-99) ... 

.18 

5.58 

\72 

6.48 

5.3 

6.2 

2.7 

88.2 

11.1 

Louisiana _ 

.42 

7. 21 

3.19 

8. 82 

6.0 

7.3 

4.9 

81.8 

13.3 

Texas . .  . 

.41 

9. 10 

.67 

10. 18 

9.7 

10.0 

7.4 

88.1 

4.5 

Arkansas _ 

.84 

5.86 

.18 

6.88 

7.0 

8.2 

12.3 

85.1 

2.6 

Oklahoma  (1899-1900)  .. 

.50 

6.19 

e.32 

7. 01 

8.0 

9.0 

7.1 

88.2 

e4.7 

Indian  Territory _ 

0 d ) 

/14. 80 

14.57 

29.37 

mi 

20.0 

(d) 

/50.4 

49.6 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio _ _ 

2. 82 

15. 27 

5.24 

23.33 

9.3 

14.2 

12.1 

65. 4 

22.5 

Indiana _ 

2. 11 

11.73 

5. 28 

19.12 

7.7 

12.6 

11.0 

61.4 

27.6 

Illinois _ 

4. 57 

15. 87 

4.72 

25. 16 

9.9 

15.8 

18.1 

63.1 

18.8 

Michigan . . 

4.23 

13.20 

4. 78 

22. 21 

8.1 

13.6 

19.0 

59.5 

21.5 

Wisconsin _ _ 

3.06 

14.02 

4. 01 

21.10 

8.3 

12.5 

14.5 

66.5 

19.0 

Minnesota . . . 

7.30 

16.37 

2. 42 

26.09 

9.4 

15.1 

28.0 

62.7 

9.3 

Iowa . . . . 

a2. 68 

15.38 

5.59 

A  23. 65 

9.6 

h  14. 8 

{7 11. 3 

65. 1 

23.6 

Missouri . . 

a  3. 42 

10.69 

3.01 

17.12 

7.4 

11.8 

a20.0 

62.4 

17.6 

North  Dakota  . . . 

6.97 

18.77 

9.30 

35.03 

12.0 

22.5 

19.9 

53.6 

26.5 

South  Dakota  .  _ 

3.20 

16.02 

5.66 

24.88 

11.3 

17.5 

12.9 

64.4 

22.7 

Nebraska _ _ 

5.72 

15. 01 

2.11 

22.84 

9.2 

14.1 

25.0 

65.7 

9.3 

Kansas . . 

4.63 

12.43 

.95 

18.01 

9.7 

14,0 

25.7 

69.0 

5.3 

W estern  Division: 

Montana _ 

8. 38 

21.18 

4.41 

33.97 

17.4 

27.9 

24.7 

62.3 

13.0 

W yoming  (1899-1900) . . 

2. 72 

17.74 

4.49 

24.85 

16.1 

22.7 

10.9 

71.1 

18.0 

Colorado . . . . . 

5.36 

22. 88 

10.05 

38.29 

15.4 

25.8 

14.0 

59.8 

28.2 

New  Mexico . . 

(0 

17.  61 

13. 27 

30.88 

11.9 

20.9 

(() 

57.0 

43.0 

Arizona  (1899-1900) _ 

6. 35 

18.59 

4.51 

29.45 

14.9 

23.6 

21.5 

63.1 

15.4 

Utah . 

5.73 

12.28 

7. 06 

25.07 

8.1 

16.4 

22.9 

49.0 

28.1 

Nevada . . . 

1.31 

33. 11 

5.28 

39.70 

21.4 

25.6 

3.3 

83.4 

13.3 

Idaho  (1899-1900) . . . 

3. 42 

12.39 

2. 41 

18. 22 

11.7 

17.2 

18.8 

68.0 

13.2 

Washington  . . . . 

8. 67 

15. 95 

3. 63 

28.25 

13.3 

23.6 

30.7 

56.5 

12.8 

Oregon . . 

3.25 

13.94 

7.58 

24. 75 

12.0 

21.2 

12.2 

68.0 

19.8 

California . . 

3.90 

26.55 

6.22 

38. 67 

16.1 

22.2 

10.7 

72.4 

16.9 

a  Includes  bond  payments.  e  Includes  some  unclassified  items. 

6  Cities  not  included.  / Includes  some  miscellaneous  expenditure. 

c  Includes  expenditure  for  sites,  buildings,  etc.,  a  Expended  from  “  schoolhouse  fund.” 
in  cities.  ^  Interest  on  bonded  debt  not  included. 

dNot  reported.  i Included  in  “All  other  purpose?  " 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


XCIII 


Table  17. — (1)  School  expenditure  per  capita  of  population;  (2)  same  per  capita 

of  oxer  age  attendance. 


Expended  per  capita  of  population,  j  Expended  per  pupil. 


Year. 

United  States. 

North  Atlantic 
Division. 

South  Atlantic 
Division. 

South  Central 

Division. 

North  Central 
Division. 

Western  Divi¬ 
sion. 

United  States. 

North  Atlantic 
Division. 

South  Atlantic 
Division. 

South  Central 
Division. 

North  Central 
Division. 

Western  Divi¬ 

sion. 

1 

1870-71  . - 

SI.  75 

$2. 38 

$0,631 

$0. 73 

$2.14 

$2.15 

$15. 20 

$18.31 

$10.27 

$9. 06 

$14. 87 

$21. 87 

1871-72  _ 

1.83 

2.40 

.68 

.81 

2.31 

2.27 

15. 93 

18.86 

10.46 

9.08 

16. 36 

23.57 

1872-73  _ 

1.84 

2. 44 

.68 

.74 

2.31 

2. 42 

16. 06 

19.89 

9.25 

8.39 

16.53 

25. 04 

1873-74  _ 

1.88 

2. 51 

.76 

.68 

2.38 

2.40 

15. 85 

19. 89 

9.01 

7. 55 

16. 57 

24.36 

1874-75  _ 

1.91 

2.55 

.80 

.73 

2.36 

2. 76 

15.91 

20.17 

8.98 

7.51 

16. 69 

28. 85 

1875-76  . 

1.85 

2.45 

.79 

.55 

2.37 

2. 78 

15. 70 

19. 14 

8.65 

6. 70 

16.91 

28.35 

1876-77  _ 

1.72 

2.29 

.72 

.51 

2.21 

2. 61 

14.64 

17.89 

7. 68 

6. 25 

15. 93 

24.69 

1877-78  _ 

1.67 

2.15 

.70 

.58 

2. 14 

2. 73 

13.67 

16.55 

7.21 

5. 98 

15.08 

25.82 

1878-79  _ 

1. 56 

2.03 

.63 

.55 

2.00 

2.53 

12. 97 

16.05 

6. 76 

5. 65 

14.22 

23. 39 

1879-80  _ 

1. 56 

1.97 

.68 

.  55 

2. 03 

2.41 

12. 71 

15.64 

6.60 

5.40 

14.39 

22.59 

1880-81  . . 

1.63 

2.08 

.72 

.58 ' 

2.09 

2. 54 

13. 61 

17. 14 

7.22 

5. 72 

15. 19 

23. 81 

1881  82  _ 

1.70 

2.11 

.78 

.64 

2. 19 

2.59 

14.05 

17.35 

7. 63 

6.25 

15. 79 

24. 32 

1882-83. . . 

1.80 

2.22 

.82 

.68 

2.34 

2. 74 

14.55 

18.17 

7.46 

6.17 

16.69 

25.39 

1883-84 . . 

1.88 

2.25 

.84 

.74 

2.48 

2. 83 

14.63 

18.37 

7. 44 

6.28 

16.90 

24.69 

1884-85  . 

1.96 

2.38 

.88 

.82 

2. 53 

2.90 

15. 12 

19. 19 

7.32 

6. 74 

17.53 

26.31 

1885-86  _ 

1.97 

2.36 

.88 

.87 

2.54 

2. 88 

15. 06 

19. 11 

7. 33 

6. 93 

17. 45 

25. 52 

1886-87 . . 

1.97 

2.35 

.90 

.87 

2.55 

2. 76 

15. 07 

19.38 

7.33 

6. 88 

17. 45 

24.85 

1887-88  . . 

2.07 

2.48 

.95 

.87 

2.68 

2.96 

15. 71 

20.60 

7.61 

6.60 

18.29 

27. 38 

1888-89 _ 

2. 17 

2.59 

.98 

.94 

2. 76 

3.28 

16.55 

21.64 

7.77 

7.12' 

19.30 

29. 37 

1889-90  _ 

2. 24 

2. 76 

.99 

.97 

2. 81 

3. 37 

17.23 

23. 58 

7.78 

7.28 

19.70 

30. 57 

1890-91  _ 

2.31 

2. 78 

1.08 

1.04 

2.85 

3.91 

17.54 

23. 66 

8.52 

7.78 

19.42 

33.42 

1891-92  . 

2.40 

2.90 

1.06 

1.07 

2. 94 

4.20 

18.20 

24. 89 

8.74 

7.82 

20.13 

33.55 

1892-93........ 

2. 48 

3.02 

1.09 

1.06 

3.08 

4.20 

18. 58 

25.01 

8.65 

7. 72 

20. 62 

33. 57 

1893-94  . . 

2. 55 

3. 13 

1.12 

1.09 

3.23 

3. 77 

18.62 

26. 21 

8.61 

7.58 

21.29 

29. 06 

1894-95  _ 

2.55 

3.28 

1.11 

1.09 

3.13 

3. 67 

18.41 

28. 84 

8.58 

7. 69 

20.26 

27. 32 

1895-96........ 

2. 62 

3.49 

1. 13 

1.10 

3.12 

3.73 

18.76 

28.45 

8.87 

7.60 

.20.09 

27.16 

1896-97........ 

2.63 

3.65 

1.17 

1.04 

3.06 

3.56 

18.67 

28. 77 

9.32 

7. 09 

19.75 

25.86 

1897-98........ 

2. 67 

3.75 

1.19 

1.03 

3.07 

3.81 

18. 76 

29.34 

8. 97 

7.09 

19. 47 

28.29 

1898-99  . 

2.70 

3.71 

1.24 

1.04 

3. 15 

3.84 

19.38 

29.28 

9. 98 

7. 17 

20.62 

28.50 

1899-1900  a _ 

2. 84 

3.99 

1.24 

1.07 

3.27 

4.21 

20.28 

31.82 

9.69 

7.37 

21.12 

30.98 

1900-1901  a . 

2.93 

4. 17 

1.28 

1.06 

3. 36 

4.25 

21.14 

33.52 

9. 61 

7.54 

22. 26 

31.46 

a  Subject  to  correction. 


XC1V 


EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1901. 

Table  18. — Wealth  o,nd  school  expenditure,  1880  and  1890. 


True  valuation  of  real  and 
personal  property. « 

Expenditure  for  public 
schools  (excluding 
debt  paid) . 

Expended  for 
public  schools 
on  each  $100 
of  true  valua¬ 
tion  of  all  real 
and  personal 
property. 

1860. 

1890. 

1880. 

1890. 

18S0. 

1890. 

United  States _ 

North  Atlantic  Division.. 

South  Atlantic  Division . . 

South  Central  Division... 

North  Central  Division  .. 

W estern  Division . . . 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine _ 

New  Hampshire _ 

Vermont . . . 

Massachusetts . 

Rhode  Island _ 

Connecticut _ 

New  York _ 

New  Jersey _ 

Pennsylvania _ ... 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware  _ _ _ 

Maryland  .  _ 

District  of  Columbia  _ . 

Virginia _  ... 

“West  Virginia _ 

North  Carolina _ 

South  Carolina _ 

Georgia . . 

Florida _ 

South  Central  Division : 

.  Kentucky _ _ 

Tennessee . .  _ 

Alabama _  _ 

Mississippi _  _ 

Louisiana _  _ 

Texas _  _ _ 

Arkansas _ _ _ 

Oklahoma . 

$43,642,000,000 

$64,829,040,611 

$78,094,687 

$140,506,715 

Cents. 

17.9 

Cents. 

21.7 

17,533,000,000 
3,759,000,000 
3,883,000,000 
16, 186,000,000 
2,282,000,000 

21, 435, 491, 864 
5,132,980,666 
6;  193, 230,433 
25,255,915,549 
6,811,422,099 

28,538,058 
5,1:30,492 
4,872,829 
35, 285, 635 
4,267,673 

48,023,492 

8,767,165 

10,678,6.80 

62,823,563 

10,213,815 

16.3 

13.6 

12.6 
21.8 
18.7 

22.4 

17.1 

17.2 
24.9 
15.0 

511,000,000 
368,000,000 
302,000,000 
2,623,000,000 
400,000,000 
779, 000. 000 
6,308,000,000 
1,305,000,000 
4,942,000,000 

136,000,000 
837,000,000 
220,000,000 
707,000,000 
350, 000, 000 
461,000,000 
322, 000, 000 
606, 000, 000 
120,000,000 

902,000,000 

705,000,000 

428,000,000 

a54,000,C€0 

382,000,000 

825,000,000 

286,000,000 

489,134,128 
325,128,740 
265, 567, 323 
2, 803, 645, 447 
504,162,352 
835, 120, 219 
8,576,701,991 
1.445,285, 114 
6,190, 746,550 

175,678,785 
1,085,473,048 
343,596,733 
862,318,070 
438,954,881 
584, 148,999 
400,911,303 
852, 409, 449 
389,489,388 

1.172,232,313 
887. 956, 143 
622,773,504 
454, 242, 688 
495,301.597 
2,105,576,766 
455,147,422 

1,067,991 
565, 339 
446, 217 
4,983,900 
526,112 
1, 408, 375 
10, 296,977 
1,873,465 
7,369,682 

207,281 
1,544,367 
438, 567 
946, 109 
707, 553 
376,062 
324. 629 
471,029 
114,895 

1,069,030 
744,180 
500,000 
830, 705 
411,858 
1,030.000 
287,056 

1,327,553 
k 844, 333 
711,072 
8,286,062 
884, 966 
2, 157, 014 
17,543,880 
e  3, 340, 190 
12,928,422 

275,000 
1, 910, 663 
905, 777 
1,604, 509 
1,198,493 
714, 9C0 
450, 986 
1,190,354 
516,533 

2,140,678 
1, 526, 241 
890,000 
1,109,575 
817,110 
3, 178. 300 
1,016,776 

20.9 
15. 6 

14.8 

18.9 

13.2 
18.1 

16.3 

14.4 

14.9 

15.2 

18.5  1 

19.9 

13.4 

20.2 
8.2 

10.1 

7.8 

9.6 

11.9 

10.6 

11.7 

23.5 

10.8 

12.5 
10.0 

27.1 
26.0 
26.8 

29.6 

17.6 

25.8 

20.5 

23.1 

20.9 

15  l 

17.6 
26.4 

18.6 
27  3 
12^2 

11.2 
14.0 

13.3 

18.3 

17.2 

14.3 

24.4 

16.5 
15.1 
22.3 

Indian  Territory . 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . . . 

Indiana, _ _ 

Illinois _ 

Michigan _ _ 

Wisconsin _ 

Minnesota..  _ 

Iowa . . . 

Missouri.  _ 

North  Dakota . . 

South  Dakota . . 

Nebraska _ 

Kansas  . . 

Western  Division: 

Montana _ 

Wyoming _ 

Colorado . . . . . 

New  Mexico . 

Arizona  . . . 

Utah  . . . 

Nevada . . 

Idaho . . . 

Washington . 

Oregon  . 

California . 

3,238,000,000 
1,681,000,000 
3, 210, 000, 000 
1,580,000,000 
1,139.000,000 

792;  010,000 

1,721,000,000 

1,582,000,000 

}  118,000,000 
385,000,000 
760,000,000 

40, 000, 000 
54,000,000 
240,000,000 
49,000,000 
41,000,000 
114,000,000 
156, 000, 000 
29,000,000 
62,000,000 
154, 000. 0C0 
1,343,000,000 

3, 951, 382, 384 
2,095,176,626 
5,066,751,719 
2,095,016,272 
1,833,308,523 
1,691,851,927 
2, 287,348,333 

I  2,397,902,945 
/  337,006,506 

\  425,141,299 

1,275,685, 514 
1,799,343,501 

453, 135, 209 
169, 773, 710 
1,145,712,267 
231,459,897 
188,880,976 
349,411,234 
180,323.668 
207,896,591 
760, 698, 726 
590,396, 194 
2,533,733,627 

7, 166, 963 
4,491,850 
7, 014; 092 
2,775,917 
2,177,023 
1,328,429 
4,484,043 
2, 675, 364 

}  245,000 

J  1,108,617 
1,818,337 

78,730 
28,505 
395, 227 
28, 973 
61,172 
132,194 
220,245 
38,411 
112,615 
307,031 
2,864,571 

10,602,238 
5,245,218 
11,645,126 
5,349,306 
3,801,212 
4. 187, 310 
6,382,953 
5,434,262 
/  626,949 

t  1,199,630 
3,376,332 
4,972,967 

364,084 
.225,000 
1,681,379 
85,000 
181,914 
394, 685 
181,481 
169, 020 
958, 111 
805,979 
5,187,162 

22  1 
26!  7 

21.9 

17.6 

19.1 
16.8 

26.1 

17.1 

}  20.8 

J  28.8 

23.9 

19.7 
5.3 

16.5 
5.9 

14.9 

11.6 

14.1 

13.2 

18.2 

19.9 
21.3 

26.8 

25.0 

23.0 

25. 5 

20.7 

24.7 
27.9 

22.7 
j  18.6 
1  28. 2 

26.5 

27.6 

8.0 

13.3 

14.7 
3.7 
9.6 

11.3 
9.0 
8.1 

12.6 

13.7 
20.5 

a  From  United  States  census  reports. 


b  Includes  debt  paid,  if  any. 


c  Amount  of  revenue. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


XCV 


i 

Number  of  secondary  students  in  public  and  private  high  schools. 


Secondary  students. 


Year. 

In  public 
high 
schools. 

Per  cent 
of  popu¬ 
lation. 

In  private ! 
high 
schools. 

Per  cent 
of  popu¬ 
lation. 

In  both  | 
classes  of 
schools. 

Per  cent 
of  popu¬ 
lation. 

1871 _ _ .... 

a  38, 280 

0.097 

1872 _  ....  . . . 

a  48, 660 

.120 

1873 _ _ 

a  56, 640 

.137 

1874  _ _  _ 

a  61, 860 

.145 

1875 _ 

ci  68, 580 

.157 

1876 _ 

22,982 

0. 051 

ci  73, 740 

.164 

95,722 

0.215 

1877  _ _ _ 

24,925 

.054 

a  73, 560 

.160 

98,485 

.214 

1878  _ _ 

-  28,124 

.059 

a  73, 620 

.155 

101,744 

.214 

1879 _ 

27,163 

.056 

a  74, 160 

.152 

101,323 

.208 

1880. _ _ 

28,609 

.053 

a  75, 840 

.151 

102, 449 

.204 

1881 _ _ 

36, 594 

.071 

ci  80, 160 

.  156 

116, 754 

.227 

1882-83 _ ..... 

39,581 

.074 

« 88, 920 

.166 

128,501 

.240 

1883-84 _ _ _ 

34,672 

.063 

« 85,  280 

.174 

129, 952 

.237 

1884-85 _ _ _ 

35,307 

.063 

ci  97, 020 

.173 

132, 327 

.236 

1885-86 _ _ 

70,241 

.122 

a  86, 400 

.150 

156, 641 

.272 

1888-87 _ _ _ 

80,004 

.136 

a  83, 160 

.142 

163, 164 

.278 

1887-88  _ : _ 

116,009 

.194 

a  69, 600 

.116 

185,609 

.310 

1888-89 _ _ _ 

125,542 

.205 

a  79, 440 

.130 

204,982 

.835 

1889-90  _ 

&  202, 963 

l> .  324 

94, 931 

.152 

297, 894 

.476 

1890-91 _ _ 

211, 596 

.331 

98,400 

.154 

309, 996 

.  485 

1891  92  _ 

239,556 

.369 

100, 739 

.155 

*  340,295 

.524 

1892-93  _ 

254,023 

.383 

102, 375 

.154 

856, 398 

.537 

1893-94 _ _ _ 

289, 274 

.425 

118,645 

.174 

407,919 

.599 

1894-95  _ 

350,099 

.509 

118, 347 

.172 

468, 446 

.681 

1895-96  _ 

380, 493 

.539 

106, 654 

.151 

487,147 

.690 

1896-97  _ 

409, 4a3 

.574 

107,633 

.151 

517, 066 

.725 

1897-98 _ _ _ 

449, 600 

.618 

105, 225 

.145 

554, 825 

.763 

1898-99 _ _ _ _ 

476,227 

.642 

103, 838 

.140 

580,065 

.782 

1899-1900  _ 

519,251 

.  687 

110, 797 

.147 

630, 048 

.834 

1980-1901.... _ _ 

541,730 

.701 

108,221 

.140 

649,951 

.841 

c«  From  1871  to  1887  this  Bureau  did  not  ask  principals  of  private  high  schools  and  academies  to 
report  the  number  of  students  pursuing  each  secondary  study.  Prior  to  1890  the  number  of  stu¬ 
dents  reported  by  a  large  number  of  these  private  schools  included  the  total  number  in  attend¬ 
ance,  the  elementary  pupils  as  well  as  the  secondary  students.  For  the  past  nine  years  the  two 
classes  of  students  have  been  reported  separately.  Taking  the  reports  from  1890  to  1895  as  a 
basis,  the  number  of  secondary  students  in  private  high  schools  from  1871  to  1889  has  been  care¬ 
fully  estimated  for  each  year. 

fc  Previous  to  1880  only  the  pupils  in  public  city  high  schools  are  given.  From  1890  onward  all 
public  high  schools  are  included. 


XCVI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900 ’1901. 


Diagram  5. — Number  of  secondary  students  in  public  and,  private  secondary 

schools. 


STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS, 


XCVII 


Diagram  6. — Percentage  of  the  population  enrolled  as  secondary  students  in 
public  and  private  secondary  schools. 


ED  1901- 


■VII 


II.— TABLES  OF  SCHOOL  EXPENDITURE  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES, 
CLASSIFIED  BY  RACE. 


Table  A  gives  the  school  expenditure,  classified  by  race,  in  each  Southern  State 
that  reports  the  expenditure  so  classified,  as  far  back  as  the  record  goes  in  each. 
In  Maryland  the  expenditure  for  negro  schools  for  the  first  three  or  four  years  is 
mainly  in  the  city  of  Baltimore.  The  totals  include  only  the  States  tabulated. 

Table  B  gives  the  white  and  colored  school  population  (children  5  to  18  years  of 
age)  in  each  case  where  the  school  expenditure  is  given  in  Table  A. 

Table  C  gives  the  expenditure  for  white  schools  per  capita  of  white  school  popu¬ 
lation,  and  the  corresponding  per  capita  for  the  negro  schools.  The  averages 
include  only  the  States  recorded  each  year. 

In  making  an  estimate  of  the  white  and  colored  school  expenditure  of  the 
remaining  Southern  States  the  most  obvious  assumption  to  make  in  the  absence 
of  any  positive  information  is  to  consider  that  their  white  and  colored  school  per 
capita  expenditures  bear  the  same  ratio  to  each  other  each  year  as  that  of  the 
average  per  capitas  given  in  Table  C.  It  is  upon  this  basis  that  the  classifications 
by  race  have  been  made  that  are  given  in  Table  D,  except  for  the  years  1870-71  and 
1871-72,  in  which  the  ratio  of  white  to  colored  per  capita  was  taken  at  about  6. 


xcvm 


■Expenditure  for  white  and  colored  schools. 


SCHOOL  EXPENDITURE  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES.  XCIX 


Total. 

Colored. 

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Table  B. — Estimated  number  of  children  5  to  18  years  of  age. 


EDUCATION  EEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


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Table  C. — Expenditure  per  capita  of  school  population  (5  to  18  years  of  age). 


SCHOOL  EXPENDITURE  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 


Cl 


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«  Excluding  certain  sums  not  classified  by  race.  e  For  teachers’  salaries  only  (or  cost  of  tuition). 

b  Amount  paid  teachers  from  public  funds.  /  Approximately. 

c  Does  not  include  permanent  improvements  in  Baltimore  city.  a  Does  not  include  school  buildings  and  sites. 

d  Does  not  include  permanent  improvements  outside  of  Baltimore  city.  h  For  8  months. 


CII 


EDUCATION  EEPOKT,  1900-1901 


Table  D. — Estimated  ivhite  and  colored,  school  expenditure  for  all  the  former 

slave  States. 


Year. 

Total  ex¬ 
penditure 
for  both 
races. 

Estimated  expenditure 
for  each  race. 

Estimated  school 
population  (i.  e., 
children  5  to  18 
years  of  age). 

Expenditure  per 
capita  of  school 
population. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

I  Colored. 

1869-70 . 

a  3, 164, 729 

a  1,528. 381 

I 

1870-71.. . . 

§10, 385, 464 

§9,605,158 

§780, 306 

3, 236, 630 

1,578,170 

§2.97 

§9.49 

1871  72 _ 

11,623,238 

10,742,316 

880,922 

3,310,920 

1,629,880 

3.24 

.54 

1872-78 _ 

11,176,048 

10,271,448 

904,600 

3,387,360 

1.683,040 

3.03 

.54 

1873-74 _ 

11,823,775 

10,636,792 

1,186,983 

3,466,120 

1,737,980 

3.07 

.68 

1874-75 _ 

13,021,514 

11.297,560 

1,723,954 

3,547,430 

1,794,870 

3.18 

.96 

1875-76 _ 

12, 031, 855 

10,308,360 

1,725,505 

3,631.400 

1,853,400 

2.84 

.93 

1876-77 _ 

11,231,073 

9,389,620 

1,841,453 

3,717,920 

1,914,080 

2.53 

.96 

1877-78 _ 

12,093,091 

9,931,260 

2,161,831 

3,807,290 

1,976,910 

2.61 

1.09 

1878-79 _ 

12,174,141 

10,123,542 

2,050,599 

3,900,250 

2,042,150 

2.60 

1.00 

1879-80 _ 

12,678,685 

10,558,200 

2,120,485 

a  3, 998, 806 

« 2, 109. 050 

2  64 

1.01 

1880-81.. . . 

13,656,814 

11,312,573 

2,344,241 

4,098,800 

2, 145,990 

2. 76 

1.09 

1881-82... . J 

15,241,740 

12,532,246 

2,709,494 

4,199,900 

2,183,660 

2.98 

1.24 

1882-83 _ 

16,363,471 

12,730,938 

3,632,533 

4,306,000 

2,221,930 

2.96 

1.63 

1883-84 _ 

17,884,558 

13,967,752 

3,916,806 

4,414,900 

2,261,040 

3. 16 

1.73 

1884^85 _ 

19,253,874 

14,969,261 

4,284,613 

4,527,300 

2,301,270 

3.31 

1.86 

1885-86 _ 

20,208,113 

15,924,766 

4,283,347 

4,641,500 

2, 341,520 

3.43 

1.83 

1886-87 _ 

20,821,969 

16,392,646 

4,429,323 

4,759,100 

2,382,570 

3.44 

1.86 

1887-88 _ 

21,810,158 

16,864,157 

4,946,001 

4,880, 100 

2,424,330 

3.46 

2. 04 

1888-89 _ 

23,171,878 

18,158,290 

5,013,588 

5,004,900 

2.467,040 

3. 63 

2.03 

1889-90 _ 

24,880,107 

19,461,742 

5,418,365 

a  5. 132, 948 

a  2, 510, 847 

3.79 

2. 16 

1890-91 _ 

26,690,310 

21,209.516 

5,480,794 

5;  204, 500 

2,530.380 

4. 07 

2. 17 

1891-92 _ 

27,691,488 

21,301,185 

6,390,303 

5,277,530 

2,549,790 

4.04 

2. 51 

1892-93 _ 

28,535,738 

22,318,421 

6,217,317 

5,351,500 

2,569,480 

4. 17 

2. 42 

1893-94.... . 

29,223,546 

23,046,842 

6,176,704 

5,428,970 

2,589,160 

4.25 

2.39 

1894-95 _ 

29, 443, 584 

24, 207, 647 

5,235,937 

5,503,700 

2,609,090 

4.40 

2.01 

1895-96 _ 

31,149,724 

25,366,470 

5,783,254 

5,578,770 

2,628,030 

4.55 

2.20 

1898-97 _ 

31,288,883 

25,351,765 

5,935,118 

5, 655,040 

2,647,220 

4. 48 

2.24 

1897-98 _ 

31,247,218 

25,394,118 

5,853,100 

5,732,830 

2, 666. 440 

4.43 

2.20 

1898-99 

33,110,581 

27,314,375 

5,798,206 

5,811,980 

2,685,700 

4.70 

2. 16 

1899-1900  b _ 

34, 708, 668 

28,783,332 

5,925, 336 

a  5, 892, 392 

a  2, 705. 142 

4. 88 

2.19 

1900-1901 b  _ 

35,405,581 

29,370,011 

6,035,550 

5, 964, 665 

2,734,223 

4.92 

2.21 

Totals . . . 

650,026,877 

528,842,209 

121,184,568 

a  United  States  Census.  b  Approximately. 


It  will  be  observed  that  according  te  the  foregoing  table  the  estimated  expendi¬ 
ture  for  colored  schools  at  times  varies  abruptly;  there  was  a  large  increase  in 
1891-92,  and  a  falling  off:  equally  as  large  in  1894-95.  This  irregularity  did  not  of 
necessity  actually  exist,  but  results  from  the  way  in  which  the  estimates  were 
made,  as  explained  on  page  xcvm.  In  1891-92  Texas,  which  had  a  large  per  capita 
expenditure  for  colored  schools,  entered  into  the  average,  and  in  1894-95  South 
Carolina,  with  its  correspondingly  small  expenditure.  The  estimate  for  1899-1900 
is  based  upon  the  classified  race  expenditure  of  six  States,  and  probably  gives  a 
sufficiently  close  approximation. 


III.— PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCA¬ 
TION. 

[From  1367  to  1902.] 

1.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1887-68.  Barnard.  8°.  pp.  xl+858.  Out 

of  print. 

2.  Special  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  on  the  condition  and  improvement  of  public 

schools  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Barnard.  8°.  pp.  912.  Washington,  1871.  (Reprinted 
as  Barnard’s  Am.  Jour,  of  Education,  voi.  19.)  Out  of  print. 

8.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  1870.  Eaton.  8°.  pp.  579. 
Washington,  1870.  Out  of  print. 


4. 

- 1871. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  715.  Washington,  1872.  Out  of  print. 

5. 

- 1872. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  lxxxviii+1018.  Washington,  1873.  Out  of  print. 

6. 

1873. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  clxxviii+870.  Washington,' 1874. 

7. 

1874. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  clii+935.  Washington,  1875.  Out  of  print. 

8. 

- - 1875. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  clxxiii+1016.  Washington,  1876.  Out  of  print. 

9. 

- 1876. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  ccxiii+942.  Washington,  1878.  Out  of  print. 

10. 

-  1877. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  ccvi+641.  Washington,  1879.  Out  of  print. 

11. 

1878. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  cei+730.  Washington,  1880. 

12. 

- - 1879. 

Eaton. 

.8°. 

pp.  ccxxx-l-757.  Washington,  1881.  Out  of  print. 

13. 

- 1880. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  cclxii+914.  Washington,  1882.  Out  of  print. 

14. 

-  1881. 

Eaton. 

8°. 

pp.  cclxzvii-i-840.  Washington,  1883.  Out  of  print. 

15.  - 1882-83.  Eaton.  8°.  pp.  ccxciii+872.  Washington,  1884.  Out  of  print. 

16.  - 1883-84.  Eaton.  8°.  pp.  cclxxi+943.  Washington,  1885.  Out  of  print. 

17.  -  1884-85.  Eaton-Dawson.  8°.  pp.  cccxvii+848.  Washington,  1888.  Out  of  print. 

18.  - -  1&30-86.  Dawson.  8°.  pp.  xxi+792.  Washington,  1887.  Out  of  print. 

19.  - -1886-87.  Dawson.  '  8°.  pp.  1170.  Washington,  1888.  Out  of  print. 

20.  - 1387-88.  Dawson.  8°.  pp.  1209.  Washington,  1888.  Out  of  print. 

21.  Illiteracy,  derived  from  census  tables  of  1880;  Educational  statistics,  translation  of  article  by 

Dr.  A.  Richer;  Virchow  on  schoolroom  diseases;  Education  of  Frenchand  Prussian  conscripts. 
School  organization,  etc.  pp.  70.  (Circ.  inf.  August,  1870.)  Out  of  print. 

22.  Public  instruction  in  Sweden  and  Norway;  The  “  folkehoiskoler  ”  of  Denmark.  By  C.  C. 

Andrews,  pp.  48.  (Circ.  inf.  July,  1871.)  Out  of  print. 

23.  Methods  of  school  discipline.  By  Hiram  Orcutt.  pp.  14.  (Circ.  inf.  November,  1871.)  Out 

of  print. 

24.  Compulsory  education.  By  L.  Van  Bokkelen.  pp.17.  (Circ.  inf.  December,  1871.)  Out  of 

print. 

25.  German  and  other  foreign  universities.  By  Herman  Jacobson,  pp.  43.  (Circ.  inf.  January, 

1872.)  Out  of  print. 

26.  Public  instruction  in  Greece,  the  Argentine  Republic,  Chile,  and  Ecuador;  Statistics  respect¬ 

ing  Portugal  and  Japan;  Technical  education  in  Italy.  By  John  M.  Francis,  George  John 
Ryan,  F.  M.  Tanaka,  pp.  77.  (Circ.  inf.  February,  1882.)  Out  of  print. 

27.  Vital  statistics  of  college  graduates;  Distribution  of  college  students  in  1870-71;  Vital  statis¬ 

tics  in  the  United  States,  with  diagrams.  By  Charles  Warren,  pp.  93.  (Circ.  inf.  March, 
1872.)  Out  of  print. 

28.  Relation  of  education  to  labor.  By  Richard  J.  Hinton,  pp.  125.  (Circ.  inf.  April,  1872.)  Out 

of  print. 

29.  Education  in  the  British  W est  Indies.  By  Thomas  H.  Pearne.  pp.  22.  (Circ.  inf.  June,  1872. ) 

Out  of  print. 

30.  The  Kindergarten.  By  Baroness  Marenholtz-Biilow,  tr.  by  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody,  pp.  C2. 

(Circ.  inf.  July,  1872.)  Out  of  print. 

31.  American  education  at  the  Vienna  Exposition  of  1873.  pp.  79.  (Circ.  inf.  November,  1872.) 

Out  of  print. 

32.  Historial  summary  and  reports  on  the  systems  of  public  instruction  in  Spain,  Bolivia,  Uru¬ 

guay,  and  Portugal,  pp.  66.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1873.)  Out  of  print. 

33.  Schools  in  British  India.  By  Joseph  Warren,  pp.  30.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1873.) 

34.  College  commencements  for  the  summer  of  1873,  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa¬ 

chusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  pp.  118. 
(Circ.  inf.  3, 1873.)  Out  of  print. 

35.  List  of  publications  by  members  of  certain  college  faculties  and  learned  societies  in  the 

United  States,  1867-1872.  pp.  72.  (Circ.  inf.  4,  1873.)  Out  of  print. 

38.  College  commencements  during  1873  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  pp.  155.  (Circ. 
inf.  5, 1873.)  Out  of  print. 


cm 


CIV 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


37.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.  (1874).  pp.  77.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1874.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Uniform  plan  and  form  for  publishing  the  principal  statistical  tables 
on  education,  by  G-eorge  J.  Lucky;  Scientific  and  industrial  education  and  the  true 
policy  of  the  National  and  State  governments  in  regard  to  it,  by  Hon.  A.  D.  White;  The 
International  Centennial  Exposition  as  a  world-wide  educator,  by  W.  D.  Kelley;  Report 
by  the  committee  on  the  relations  of  the  General  Government  to  education  in  the 
District  of  Columbia. 

38.  Drawing  in  public  schools;  present  relation  of  art  to  education  in  the  United  States.  By 

Isaac  Edwards  Clarke,  pp.  56.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1874.)  Out  of  print. 

39.  History  of  secondary  instruction  in  Germany.  By  Herman  Jacobson,  pp.  87.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 

1874. )  Out  of  print. 

40.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.  (1875).  pp.  114.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1875.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  The  legal  prevention  of  illiteracy,  by  B.  G.  Northrop;  Brain  culture  in 
relation  to  the  schoolroom,  by  A.  N.  Bell;  The  origin  of  the  alphabet,  by  Prof.  J. 
Enthofier;  American  education  at  the  Centennial  Exposition,  by  J.  P.  Wickersham; 
Can  the  elements  of  industrial  education  be  introduced  into  our  common  schools?  by 
John  D.  Philbrick;  Industrial  drawing  in  public  schools,  by  Prof.  Walter  Smith. 

41.  Education  in  Japan.  By  William  E.  Griffis,  pp.  54.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1875.)  Out  of  print. 

42.  Public  instruction  in  Belgium,  Russia,  Turkey,  Servia,  and  Egypt.  By  Emile  de  Laveleye, 

M.  de  Salve,  V.  E.  Dor.  pp.  108.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1875.)  Out  of  print. 

43.  Waste  of  labor  in  the  work  of  education.  By  Paul  A.  Chadburne.  pp.  16.  (Circ.  inf.  4,1875). 

Out  of  print. 

44.  Educational  exhibit  at  the  International  Centennial  Exhibition,  1878.  pp.  26.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 

1875. ) 

45.  Reformatory,  charitable,  and  industrial  schools  for  the  young.  By  Julia  A.  Holmes  and  S.  A. 

Martha  Canfield,  pp.  208.  (Circ.  inf.  6,1875.)  Out  of  print. 

48.  Constitutional  provisions  in  regard  to  education  in  the  several  States.  By  Franklin  Plough, 
pp.  130.  (Circ.  inf.  7,1875.)  Out  of  print. 

47.  Schedule  for  the  preparation  of  students’  work  for  the  Centennial  Exhibition.  By  A.  J.  Rick- 

off,  J.  L.  Pickard,  James  H.  Smart  (committee),  pp.  15.  (Circ.  inf.  8,1875.) 

48.  Education  in  China.  By  William  A.  P.  Martin,  pp.28.  (Circ.  inf.  1,1877.)  Out  of  print. 

49.  Public  instruction  in  Finland,  the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Wurtemberg,  and  Portugal;  the 

University  of  Leipzig.  By  Felix  Heikel,  C.  H.  Plugge,  and  J.  L.  Corning,  pp.77.  (Circ. 
inf.  2,1877.)  Out  of  print. 

50.  Training  of  teachers  in  Germany,  pp.36.  (Circ.  inf.  1,1878.)  Out  of  print. 

51.  Elementary  education  in  London,  with  address  of  Sir  Charles  Reed.  pp.  24.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 

1878.) 

52.  Training  schools  for  nurses.  By  S.  A.  Martha  Canfield,  pp.21.  (Circ.  inf.  1,1879.)  Out  of 

print. 

53.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

1877  and  1879,  Washington,  D.  C.;  Proceedings  of  the  conference  of  college  presidents  and 
delegates,  Columbus,  Ohio,  December,  1877.  pp.192.  (Circ.  inf.  2,1879.)  Out  of  print. 
Partial  con  tents:  iProceedings  of  1877:  The  school  organization  of  a  State;  National  aid  to 
education;  What  has  been  done  by  the  General  Government  in  aid  of  education,  by 
John  Eaton;  General  appropriation  of  public  lands;  Proceeds  of  sales  of  public  lands; 
Disposition  of  surplus  revenue  by  States;  American  education,  by  George  B.  Loving; 
The  high-school  question,  by  James  H.  Smart. 

Partial  contents:  Proceedings  of  1879:  Popular  education  in  Switzerland,  by  John  Hitz; 
Popular  education  in  France,  by  E.  C.  Wines;  Technical  education,  by  E.  A.  Apgar; 
Kindergarten  training,  by  Louise  Pollock;  Education  in  the  South,  by  G.  J.  Orr; 
The  needs  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education;  Instruction  in  governmental 
ideas,  by  Wm.  Strong;  Technical  education  and  industrial  drawing,  by  Walter  Smith; 
Education  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  by  John  D.  Philbrick;  What  has  been  done  by  the 
National  C-overnment  in  aid  of  education,  by  John  Eaton;  American  education,  by 
George  B.  Loving;  The  high-school  question,  by  James  H.  Smart;  Collegiate  degrees, 
by  John  M.  Gregory. 

Partial  contents:  Proceedings  of  the  conference  of  the  presidents  and  other  delegates  of 
the  State  universities  and  State  colleges  of  Ohio  for  1877;  Collegiate  degrees,  by  J.  M. 
Gregory;  Scientific  studies  and  courses  of  study;  Report  on  the  military  system  in 
State  colleges,  by  Edward  Orton. 

54.  Value  of  common  school  education  to  common  labor.  (Reprinted  from  Annual  Report,  1872.) 

pp.  37.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1879.)  Out  of  print. 

55.  Training  schools  for  cookery.  By  S.  A.  Martha  Canfield,  pp.  49.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1879.)  Out 

of  print. 

56.  American  education  as  described  by  the  French  commission  to  the  International  Exhibition 

of  1876.  By  Ferdinand  Buisson  and  others,  pp.  37.  (Circ.  inf.  5,  1879.)  Out  of  print. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  BUEEAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


CY 


57.  College  libraries  as  aids  to  instruction.  By  Justin  Winsor  and  Otis  H.  Robinson,  pp.  27. 

(Circ.  inf.  1, 1880. )  Out  of  print. 

58.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  1880.  pp.  112.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1880.) 

Partial  contents:  Bell’s  system  of  visible  speech,  by  L.  A.  Butterfield;  Education  of  de¬ 
pendent  children,  by  C.  D.  Randall;  Best  system  of  schools  for  a  State,  by  J.  H.  Smart; 
University  education,  by  David  C.  Gilman;  Technical  education  in  its  relations  to  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  by  J.  D.  Philbrick;  Technological  museums,  by  J.  D.  Philbrick;  The 
Tenth  Census  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  by  W.  T.  Harris;  Discussion  of  the 
high-school  question,  by  J.  W.  Dickinson,  W.  T.  Harris,  J.  P.  Wickersham;  Congress 
and  the  education  of  the  people,  by  W.  H.  Ruffner;  Laws  relating  to  the  State  public 
school  for  dependent  children  at  Coldwater,  Michigan.  Outline  of  the  school  systems 
of  the  various  States. 

59.  Legal  rights  of  children.  By  S.  M.  Wilcox,  pp.  98.  (Circ.  inf.  3,  1880.)  Out  of  print. 

60.  Rural  school  architecture.  By  T.  M.  Clark,  pp.  106.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1880.)  Out  of  print. 

Gl.  English  rural  schools.  By  Henry  W.  Hulbert.  pp.  28.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 1880.)  Out  of  print. 

62.  Instruction  in  chemistry  and  physics  in  the  United  States.  By  F.  W.  Clarke,  pp.  219.  (Circ. 

inf.  6, 1880.)  Out  of  print. 

63.  The  spelling  reform.  By  Francis  A.  March,  pp.  38.  (Circ.  inf.  7, 1880.)  Out  of  print. 

64.  Construction  of  library  buildings.  By  William  F.  Poole,  pp.  26.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1881.) 

65.  Relation  of  education  to  industry  and  technical  training  in  American  schools.  By  E.  E. 

White,  pp.  22.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1881.)  Out  of  print. 

66.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

New  York,  1881,  pp.  79.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1881.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Uniformity  of  school  statistics,  by  Andrew  McMillan;  The  conservation 
of  pedagogic  energy,  by  C.  O.  Thompson;  Our  schools  and  our  forests,  by  Franklin  B. 
Hough;  Museums  illustrative  of  education,  by  John  Eaton;  Education  and  the  State,  by 
J.  W.  Patterson. 

67.  Education  in  France,  pp.  144.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1881.)  Out  of  print. 

68.  Causes  of  deafness  among  school  children,  and  the  instruction  of  children  with  impaired 

hearing.  By  Samuel  Sexton,  pp.  47.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 1881.)  Out  of  print. 

68.  Effects  of  student  life  on  the  eyesight.  By  A.  W.  Calhoun,  pp.  29.  (Circ.  inf.  6, 1881.)  Out  of 

print. 

70.  Inception,  organization,  and  management  of  training  schools  for  nurses.  By  S.  A.  Martha 

Canfield,  pp.  28.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1882.)  Out  of  print. 

71.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  1882.  pp.  112.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1882.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Information  necessary  to  determine  the  merits  of  the  heating  and  venti¬ 
lation  of  a  school  building,  by  John  S.  Billings,  U.  S.  A.;  The  chemical  examination  of 
air  as  applied  to  questions  of  ventilation,  by  Dr.  Charles  Smart,  U.  S.  A.;  Obstacles 
in  the  way  of  better  primary  education,  by  H.  Jones;  Chairs  of  pedagogy  in  our  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  by  G.  Stanley  Hall;  National  aid  to  education,  from  a  northern 
standpoint,  by  Dexter  H.  Hawkins;  Education  in  Alaska,  by  Sheldon  Jackson;  Resolu¬ 
tion  respecting  a  national  appropriation  for  education  in  Alaska;  Some  fundamental 
inquiries  concerning  the  common-school  studies,  by  John  M.  Gregory;  How  to  improve 
the  qualifications  of  teachers,  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

72.  University  of  Bonn.  By  Edmond  Dreyfus-Brissac.  pp.  67.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1882.)  Out  of  print. 

73.  Industrial  art  in  schools.  By  Charles  G.  Leland.  pp.  37.  (Circ.  inf.  4,  1882.)  Out  of  print. 

74.  Maternal  schools  in  France,  pp.  14.  (Circ.  inf.  5,  1882.)  Out  of  print. 

75.  Technical  instruction  in  France,  pp.  63.  (Circ.  inf.  6, 1882.)  Out  of  print. 

76.  Legal  provisions  respecting  the  examination  and  licensing  of  teachers,  pp.  48.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 

18S3.)  Out  of  print. 

77.  Coeducation  of  the  sexes  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States,  pp.  30.  Circ.  inf.  2, 

1883.) 

78.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  1883.  pp.81.  (Circ.  inf.  3,  18S3.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Natural  history  in  public  schools,  its  utility  and  practicability  as  illus¬ 
trated  by  the  methods  adopted  in  New  York  City,  by  Albert  S.  Bickmore;  Communica¬ 
tion  respecting  industrial  education,  by  Chas.  G.  Leland;  The  educational  lessons  of  the 
census,  by  Wm.  T.  Harris;  If  universal  suffrage,  then  universal  education,  by  Atticus 
G.  Haygood;  Constitutionality  of  national  aid  to  education,  by  Wm,  Lawrence;  Indian 
education,  by  B.  G.  Northrup,  S.  C.  Armstrong,  Alice  C.  Fletcher;  School  supervision: 
How  and  by  whom  the  fitness  of  pupils  for  promotion  is  determined,  by  C.  G.  Edwards 
and  others. 

79.  Recent  school-law  decisions.  By  Lyndon  A.  Smith,  pp.  82.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1883.)  Out  of  print. 

80.  Meeting  of  the  International  Prison  Congress  at  Rome.  pp.  11.  (Circ.  inf.  1,1884.)  Outofprint. 

81.  The  teaching,  practice,  and  literature  of  shorthand.  (Second  and  enlarged  edition.)  By 

Julius  E.  Rockwell,  pp.  184.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1884.)  Outofprint. 


CVI 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


82.  Illiteracy  in  the  United  States.  With  appendix  on  national  aid  to  education.  By  Charles 

Warren  and  J,  L.  M.  Curry,  pp.  89.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1884.)  Out  of  print. 

83.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  1884.  pp.  176.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1884.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Supervision  of  public  schools,  by  John  W.  Holcombe;  Indian  education, 
by  J.  M.  Haworth;  Indian  education,  by  R.  H.  Pratt;  Indian  education,  by  S.  C.  Arm¬ 
strong;  Arbor  day  in  the  public  schools,  by  J.  B.  Peaslee;  Arbor  day  in  the  public 
schools,  by  B.  G.  Northrop;  Recess,  by  W.  T.  Harris;  No  recess,  by  S.  A.  Ellis;  How  a 
State  superintendent  can  best  advance  popular  education,  by  E.  E.  Higbee;  National 
aid  for  the  support  of  public  schools,  by  J.  W.  Dickinson;  The  educational  status  and 
needs  of  the  South,  by  Robert  Bingham;  Legislation  respecting  national  aid  to  educa¬ 
tion,  proposed  by  the  interstate  educational  convention,  with  remarks  and  tables;  The 
new  bill  for  national  aid  to  public  schools,  by  B.  G.  Northrop;  Industrial  education,  by 
John  M.  Ordway;  Public  instruction  in  industrial  pursuits,  by  A.  P.  Marble;  Education 
at  the  World’s  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition;  The  new  order  of  Mercy, 
or  Crime  and  its  prevention,  by  George  T.-  Angell;  Education  of  the  normal  color  sense, 
by  B.  Joy  Jeffries;  Supplementary  reading,  by  George  J.  Luckey;  Reading,  by  Chas. 
G.  Edwards;  Reading,  by  J.  O.  Wilson. 

84.  Suggestions  respecting  the  educational  exhibit  at  the  New  Orleans  Exposition.  1884-85.  pp. 

28.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 18S4.)  Out  of  print. 

£5.  Rural  schools.  Progress  in  the  past;  means  of  improvement  in  the  future.  By  Annie  Tol- 

man  Smith,  pp.  90.  (Circ.  inf.  6,  1S84.)  Out  of  print. 

86.  Aims  and  methods  of  the  teaching  of  physics.  By  Charles  K.  Wead.  pp.  158.  (Circ.  inf.  7, 

1884.) 

87.  City  school  systems  in  the  United  States.  By  John  D.  Philbrick.  pp.  207.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1S85.) 

Out  of  print. 

88.  Teachers’ institutes.  By  James  H.  Smart,  pp.  206.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1885.)  Out  of  print. 

89.  Review  of  the  reports  of  the  British  royal  commissioner  on  technical  instruction,  with  notes. 

By  Chas.  O.  Thompson,  pp.  55.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1885.) 

90.  Education  in  Japan,  pp.  56.  (Circ.  inf.  4,  1885.)  Out  of  print. 

91.  Physical  training  in  American  colleges  and  universities.  By  Edward  Mussey  Hartwell,  pp. 

183.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 1885.)  Out  of  print. 

82.  Study  of  music  in  public  schools.  By  Charles  Warren,  pp.  78.  (Circ.  inf.  1,  1886.)  Out  of 

print. 

93.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  1888.  pp.  91.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1886.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  School  superintendence'll  profession,  by  M.  A.  Newell;  Duties  of  county 
superintendents,  by  D.  L.  Kiehle;  Reading  circles  for  teachers,  by  Jerome  Allen;  The 
coeducation  of  the  races,  by  Chas.  S.  Young;  National  aid  to  education,  by  J.  A.  Lovett; 
The  education  and  religious  interests  of  the  colored  people  in  the  South,  by  S.  M.  Finger; 
Forestry  in  education,  by  Warren  Higley ;  Language  work,  by  N.  C.  Dougherty;  Growth 
and  benefits  of  reading  circles,  by  Herbert  M.  Skinner;  City  superintendence,  by  J.  W. 
Akers;  On  the  substitution  of  “Intermediate”  for  “Grammar”  as  a  designation  in  the 
nomenclature  of  graded  schools. 

94.  The  college  of  William  and  Mary.  By  Herbert  B.  Adams,  pp.  89.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1887.) 

95.  Study  of  history  in  American  colleges  and  universities.  By  Herbert  B.  Adams,  pp.  299. 

(Circ.  inf.  2. 1887.)  *  Out  of  print. 

96.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  1887.  pp.  200.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1887.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Public  education  on  the  Pacific  coast,  by  F.  M.  Campbell;  The  examina¬ 
tion  and  certification  of  teachers,  by  Andrew  J.  Rickoff,  and  report  of  committee  on; 
Civil  service  and  public  schools:  I,  by  Le  Roy  D.  Brown,  II,  by  Thomas  P.  Ballard; 
Powers  and  duties  of  school  officers  and  teachers:  I,  by  A.  P.  Marble,  II,  by  J.  M.  Green; 
The  best  system  of  county  and  city  supervision,  by  E.  E.  Highbee;  Industrial  education 
in  our  public  schools:  I,  by  F.  W.  Parker,  II,  by  W.  B.  Powell;  The  province  of  the 
public  school,  by  J.  W.  Dickinson;  What  a  small  city  is  doing  in  industrial  education, 
by  H.  W.  Compton;  A  system  of  grading  for  country  schools,  by  J.  W.  Holcombe;  The 
best  system  of  State  school  supervision,  by  Warren  Easton;  State  text-books,  by  F.  M. 
Campbell;  The  nation  and  the  public  schools,  by  H.  W.  Blair;  Education  in  Alaska,  by 
Sheldon  Jackson. 

97.  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia.  By  Herbert  B.  Adams,  pp.  308.  (Circ. 

inf.  1, 1888.)  Out  of  print. 

98.  History  of  education  in  North  Carolina.  By  Charles  Lee  Smith,  pp.  180.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1888.) 

Out  of  print. 

99.  History  of  higher  education  in  South  Carolina.  By  C.  Meriwether,  pp.  247.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 

1888.)  Out  of  print. 

100.  Education  in  Georgia.  By  Chas.  Edgeworth  Jones,  pp.  154.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1888.) 

101.  Industrial  education  in  the  South.  By  A.  D.  Mayo.  pp.  66.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 1888.)  Out  of  print. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


CYII 


102.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  1888.  pp.  165.  (Oirc.  inf.  6,  1888.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  How  and  to  what  extent  can  manual  training  be  ingrafted  in  our  sys¬ 
tem  of  public  schools?  by  Chas.  H.  Ham.  Discussed  by  A.  P.  Marble,  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler,  H.  H.  Belfield,  M.  A.  Newell,  Chas.  H.  Ham;  What  is  the  purpose  of  county 
institutes,  and  how  is  it  best  secured?  by  Jessie  B.  Thayer;  Elocution:  Its  place  in  edu¬ 
cation,  by  Martha  Fleming;  How  shall  the  qualifications  of  teachers  be  determined?  by 
A.  S.  Draper;  Are  the  normal  schools  as  they  exist  in  our  several  States  adequate  to 
accomplish  the  work  for  which  they  were  established?  by  J.  P.  Wickersham.  Discussed 
by  J.  W.  Dickinson,  Jerome  Allen,  Edward  Brooks,  and  A.  G.  Boyden;  Moral  education 
in  the  common  schools,  by  William  T.  Harris;  Can  school  programmes  be  shortened  and 
enriched?  by  Charles  W.  Eliot;  Alaska,  by  N.  H.  E.  Dawson;  The  relation  of  the  super¬ 
intendent  and  the  teacher  to  the  school,  by  A.  E.  Winship;  National  aid  to  education. 

108.  History  of  education  in  Florida.  By  G-eorge  Gary  Bush.  pp.  54.  (Circ.  inf.  7, 1888.) 

104.  Eeport  on  school  architecture  and  plans  for  graded  schools,  pp.  138.  (Eeprinted  from 

Annual  Report,  1868.) 

105.  Suggestions  for  a  free-school  policy  for  United  States  land  grantees,  pp.  6.  1872.  Out  of 

print. 

106.  Statement  of  the  theory  of  education  in  the  United  States,  approved  by  many  leading  edu¬ 

cators.  pp.  22.  1874.  Out  of  print. 

107.  National  Bureau  of  Education;  its  history,  work,  and  limitations.  By  Alexander  Shiras. 

pp.  16.  1875.  Out  of  print. 

108.  Educational  conventions  and  anniversaries,  1876.  pp.  187.  Out  of  print. 

109.  International  conference  on  education,  held  in  Philadelphia  in  connection  with  the  Inter¬ 

national  Exhibition  of  1876.  pp.  92.  1879.  Out  of  print. 

110.  List  of  public-school  officials  in  the  States  and  Territories  of  the  United  States,  1875.  pp.  62. 

1875.  Out  of  print. 

111.  Manual  of  common  native  trees  of  the  Northern  United  States,  pp.  23.  1877.  Out  of  print. 

112.  Are  the  Indians  dying  out?  By  S.  N.  Clark,  pp.  36.  1877.  Out  of  print. 

113.  International  educational  congress  to  be  held  at  Brussels,  Belgium,  August,  1S80.  pp.  10. 

1880.  Out  of  print. 

114.  Indian  school  at  Carlisle  barracks,  pp.  5.  1880. 

115.  Industrial  education  in  Europe,  pp.  9.  1880. 

116.  Vacation  colonies  for  sickly  school  children,  pp.  4.  1880. 

117.  Progress  of  western  education  in  China  and  Siam.  pp.  13.  1880. 

118.  Educational  tours  in  France,  pp.  4.  1880. 

119.  Medical  colleges  in  the  United  States,  pp.  3.  1881.  Out  of  print. 

120.  Comparative  statistics  of  elementary  education  in  50  principal  countries.  (Folding  sheet.) 

1881.  Out  of  print. 

121.  Fifty  years  of  freedom  in  Belgium;  Education  in  Malta;  Third  international  geographical 

congress  at  Venice,  1881;  Illiteracy  and  crime  in  France;  School  savings  banks;  Education 
in  Sheffield,  pp.  8.  1881. 

122.  Organization  and  management  of  public  libraries.  By  William  F.  Poole.  (Reprint  from 

Pub.  Librs.  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  1876.) 

123.  Library  aids.  By  Samuel  Green,  pp.  10.  1881.  Out  of  print. 

124.  Recognized  medical  colleges  in  the  United  States,  pp.  4.  1881.  Out  of  print. 

125.  Discipline  of  the  school.  By  Hiram  Orcutt.  pp.  15.  1881.  (Reprint  of  Circ.  of  information. 

November,  1871.)  Out  of  print. 

126.  Education  and  crime.  By  J.  P.  Wickersham.  pp.  10.  1881.  Out  of  print. 

127.  Instruction  in  morals  and  civil  government.  By  A.  Vessiot.  pp.  4.  1882. 

128.  Comparative  statistics  of  elementary,  secondary,  and  superior  education  in  60  principal 

countries.  1880.  (Folding  sheet.)  Out  of  print. 

129.  National  pedagogic  congress  of  Spain,  pp.  4.  1882.  Out  of  print. 

130.  Natural  science  in  secondary  schools.  By  F.  Muhlberg.  pp,  9.  1882. 

131.  High  schools  for  girls  in  Sweden,  pp.  6.  1882.  Out  of  print. 

132.  Buffalini  prize,  pp.  5.  1883.  Out  of  print. 

133.  Education  in  Italy  and  Greece,  pp.  8.  1883. 

134.  Answers  to  inquiries  about  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  By  Charles  Warren. 

pp.  29.  1883.  Out  of  print. 

135.  Planting  trees  in  school  grounds.  By  Franklin  B.  Hough,  pp.  8.  1883.  Out  of  print. 

136.  Southern  Exposition  of  1883-84,  Louisville,  Ky.  (Two  pamphlets  relating  to  the  exhibit  of 

the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.)  pp.  17.  1883.  pp.  7.  1884.  Out  of  print. 

137.  Preliminary  circular  respecting  the  exhibition  of  education  at  the  World’s  Industrial  and 

Cotton  Centennial  Exposition,  pp.  11.  1884.  Out  of  print. 

138.  Report  of  the  director  of  the  American  School  of  Classical  'Studies  at  Athens  for  the  year 

1882-83.  By  Wm.  W.  Goodwin,  pp.  13.  1884.  Out  of  print. 

139.  Building  for  the  children  of  the  South.  By  A.  D.  Mayo.  pp.  18.  1884.  Out  of  print. 

140.  Statistics  regarding  national  aid  to  education,  pp.  3.  1885. 


CVIII 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


141.  Planting  trees  in  school  grounds,  and  celebration  of  Arbor  Day.  By  Franklin  B.  Hough 

and  John  P.  Peaslee.  pp.  8  +  64.  1885.  Out  of  print. 

142.  International  educational  congress  at  Havre,  pp.  6.  1885.  Out  of  print. 

143.  Statistics  of  public  libraries  in  the  United  States,  pp.  98.  1886.  (Reprinted  from  Annual 

Report  1884-85.)  Out  of  print. 

144.  Technical  instruction.  Special  report,  1869.  pp.  33  +  784.  8°.  Washington  (1870). 

Note. — First  edition  incomplete,  printed  pursuant  to  a  call  of  House  of  Representatives, 
January  19,  1870.  Second  edition  published  as  Volume  XXI  of  Barnard’s  Journal  of 
Education,  pp.  807.  Out  of  print. 

145.  Contributions  to  the  annals  of  medical  progress  and  medical  education  in  the  United  States 

before  and  during  the  War  of  Independence.  By  Joseph  M.  Toner,  pp.  118.  8°.  Wash¬ 
ington,  1874.  Out  of  print. 

146.  Historical  sketch  of  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary.  By  Mary  O.  Nutting.  Edited  by  F.  B. 

Hough,  pp.  24.  12°.  Washington,  1876.  Out  of  print. 

147.  Historical  sketch  of  Union  College.  By  F.  B.  Hough,  pp.  81.  8°.  Washington,  1876.  Out 

of  print. 

148.  Public  libraries  in  the  United  States  of  America,  their  history,  condition,  and  management. 

Part  I.  Edited  by  S.  R.  Warren  and  S.  N.  Clark,  pp.  xxxv  +  1187.  Rules  for  a  printed 
dictionary  catalogue;  Part  II.  By  C.  A.  Cutter,  pp.  80.  8°.  Washington,  1876.  Out  of 
print. 

149.  Contribution  to  the  history  of  medical  education  and  medical  institutions  in  the  United 

States  of  America,  1776-1876.  By  S.N.  Davis,  pp.  60.  8°.  Washington,  1877.  Out  of  print. 

150.  Sketch  of  the  Philadelphia  Normal  School  for  Girls,  pp.  30.  8°.  Washington,  1882.  Out  of 

print. 

151.  Historical  sketches  of  the  universities  and  colleges  of  the  United  States.  Edited  by  F.  B. 

Hough.  (History  of  the  University  of  Missouri.)  pp.  72.  8°.  Washington,  1883.  Out  of 
print. 

152.  Industrial  education  in  the  United  States,  pp.  319.  8°.  Washington,  1883.  Out  of  print. 

153.  Art  and  industry— Industrial  and  high  art  education  in  the  United  States.  By  I.  Edwards 

Clarke.  Part  I.  Drawing  in  the  public  schools,  pp.  cclix  +  842.  Washington,  1885.  Out 
of  print. 

Note. — There  are  two  other  editions,  with  slightly  varying  titles;  one  ordered  by  the 
Senate,  the  other  by  Congress. 

154.  Outlines  for  a  museum  of  anatomy.  By  R.  W.  Shufeldt.  pp.  65.  8°.  Washington,  1885. 

Out  of  print. 

155.  Educational  exhibits  and  conventions  at  the  World’s  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  Expo¬ 

sition,  New  Orleans,  1884-85.  pp.  962.  Foot  pagination.  8°.  Washington,  1886.  Out  of 
print. 

Contents:  Pt.  I.  Catalogue  of  exhibits,  pp.  240.  Pt.  II.  Proceedings  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Educators,  pp.  575.  Pt.  III.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superin¬ 
tendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  and  addresses  delivered  on  Education 
Days.  pp.  148.  New  Orleans,  1885. 

156.  Indian  education  and  civilization.  Prepared  in  answer  to  Senate  resolution  of  February  23, 

1885.  By  Alice  C.  Fletcher,  under  direction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  pp.  693. 
Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  95,  Forty-eighth  Congress,  second  session.)  Out  of  print. 

157.  Higher  education  in  Wisconsin.  By  William  F.  Allen  and  David  E.  Spencer,  pp.  168.  (Circ. 

inf.  1,  1889.)  Out  of  print. 

158.  Rules  for  a  dictionary  catalogue.  By  C.  A.  Cutter,  pp.  33.  1st  ed.,  Pt.  II  of  public  libraries 

in  the  United  States,  with  corrections  and  additions.  (Spec,  rep.,  1876.)  Out  of  print. 

159.  Indian  education.  By  T.  J.  Morgan,  pp.  28.  (Bulletin  1, 1889.) 

160.  Proceedings  of  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 

Washington,  March,  1889.  pp.  300.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1880.)  Out  of  print. 

Partial  contents:  Training  of  teachers:  Psychology  in  its  relation  to  pedagogy,  by  Nich¬ 
olas  Murray  Butler;  City  training  and  practice  schools,  by  W.  S.  Jackman;  Purpose 
and  means  of  city  training  schools,  by  S.  S.  Parr;  County  institutes,  by  Albert  G.  Lane; 
State  teachers’  institutes,  by  John  W.  Dickinson;  Manual  training,  its  relation  to  body 
and  mind,  by  C.  M.  Woodward;  The  psychology  of  manual  training,  by  W.  T.  Harris; 
Educational  value  of  manual  training,  by  Geo.  P.  Brown;  The  work  of  the  city  super¬ 
intendent,  by  T.  M.  Balliet;  The  school  principal,  by  George  Holland;  Teachers’  exam¬ 
inations,  by  M.  A.  Newell;  The  State  and  higher  education,  by  Fred.  M.  Campbell, 
Herbert  B.  Adams;  Education  in  the  South,  by  W.  R.  Garrett;  National  aid  to  educa¬ 
tion,  by  H.  W.  Blair. 

161 .  History  of  Federal  and  State  aid  to  higher  education  in  the  United  States.  By  Frank  W. 

Blackmar.  pp.  343.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1890.)  Out  of  print. 

162.  Rules  for  a  dictionary  catalog.  By  C.  A.  Cutter.  2d  ed.  of  Pt.  II  of  pub.  libs,  in  the  U.  S., 

with  corrections,  pp.  133.  2d  ed.  (Spec,  rep.,  1889.)  Out  of  print. 

163.  History  of  education  in  Alabama,  1702-1889.  By  Willis  G.  Clark,  pp.  281.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 18S9.) 

Out  of  print. 

164.  Honorary  degrees  as  conferred  in  American  colleges.  By  Charles  Foster  Smith.  No.  1, 

1890.  pp.  12.  (Misc.  pub.  or  bulletin.) 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


CIX 


165.  Ehglish-Eskimo  and  Eskimo-Englirsh  vocabularies.  Compiled  by  Roger  Wells,  jr.,  and  John 

W.  Kelly,  pp.  72.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1890.)  Out  of  print. 

166.  Rules  and  regulations  for  tbe  conduct  of  schools  and  education  in  the  Dist.  of  Alaska,  pp.  7. 

(Misc.  pub.  1890.)  Out  of  print. 

167.  Teaching  and  history  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States.  By  Elorian  Cajori.  pp.  400. 

(Circ.  inf.  3, 1890.)  Out  of  print. 

168.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  1890. 

pp.  17.  (Misc.  pub.  1390.)  Out  of  print. 

169.  Preliminary  report  of  the  general  agent  of  education  for  Alaska  to  the  Commissioner  of 

Education.— Introduction  of  Reindeer  into  Alaska.  By  Sheldon  Jackson,  pp.  15.  (Misc. 
pub.  1890.)  Out  of  print. 

170.  Higher  education  in  Indiana.  By  James  Albert  Wcodburn.  pp.  200.  (Circ.  inf.  1,  1891.) 

Out  of  print. 

171.  Fourth  International  Prison  Congress,  St.  Petersburg,  Russia.  By  C.  D.  Randall,  pp.  253. 

(Circ.  inf.  2,  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

172.  Rules  for  a  dictionary  catalog.  By  C.  A.  Cutter.  3d.  ed.,  Pt.  II  of  pub.  libs,  in  the  United 

States,  with  corrections  and  additions,  and  an  alphabetical  index,  pp.  140.  (Spec.  rep. 
1891.) 

173.  Sanitary  conditions  of  schoolhouses.  By  Albert  P.  Marble,  pp.  123.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1891.)  Out 

of  print. 

174.  History  of  higher  education  in  Michigan.  By  Andrew  C.  McLaughlin,  pp.  179.  (Circ.  inf. 

4,  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

175.  History  of  higher  education  in  Ohio.  By  Geo.  W.  Knight  and  John  R.  Commons,  pp.  258. 

(Circ.  inf.  5,  1891.)  Out  offprint. 

176.  History  of  higher  education  in  Massachusetts.  By  Geo.  Gary  Bush.  pp.  445.  (Circ.  inf.  6, 

1891.)  Out  of  print. 

177.  Promotions  and  examinations  in  graded  schools.  By  Emerson  E.  White,  pp.  64.  (Circ.  inf. 

7, 1891.)  Out  of  print. 

178.  Rise  and  growth  of  the  normal  school  idea  in  the  United  States.  By  J.  P.  Gordy.  pp.  145. 

(Circ.  inf.  8,  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

179.  Biological  teachings  in  the  colleges  of  the  United  States.  By  John  P.  Campbell,  pp.  183. 

(Circ.  inf.  9,  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

180.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1891. 

pp.  21.  (Misc.  pub.  1891.) 

181.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1888-89.  Yol.l.  pp.  lix+669.  Out  of  print. 

182.  Same.  Yol.  2.  pp.  vi+671-1669.  Out  of  print. 

183.  Part  I  of  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  1888-89,  with  the  Com¬ 

missioner’s  introduction,  and  table  of  contents  of  Parts  I,  II,  and  III.  Special  edition. 
pp.274.  (Spec.  rep.  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

184.  Report  of  the  general  agent  of  education  in  Alaska  for  the  year  1888-89.  (Reprint  from  An. 

Rep.  1888-89.  pp.  753-764.)  (Mis.  pub.  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

185.  Publications  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  from  1867-1890,  with  subject  index.  (Reprint 

from  An.  Rep.  1888-89.  pp.  1453-1551.)  (Mis.  pub.  1891.)  Out  of  print. 

186.  Southern  women  in  the  recent-educational  movement  in  the  South.  By  A.  D.  Mayo.  pp.  300. 

(Circ.  inf.  1,  1892.)  Out  of  print. 

187.  Analytical  index  to  Barnard’s  American  Journal  of  Education  (31  vols.  ).  1855-1881.  (Spec. 

rep.  1892.) 

188.  Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  By  Franklin  Newton  Thorpe,  pp. 

450.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1892.)  Out  of  print. 

189.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1892. 

pp.  21.  (Mis.  pub.  1892.)  Out  of  print. 

180.  Report  on  legal  education.  Prepared  by  committee  of  the  American  Bar  Association  and 
the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  pp.  207.  (Spec.  rep.  1893.) 

191.  Education  in  Alaska,  1889-90.  By  Sheldon  Jackson.  (Reprint  of  chapter  17  An.  Rep.  1889-90. 

pp.  1245-1300.)  ,(Mis.  pub.  1893.)  Out  of  print. 

192.  Shorthand  instruction  and  practice.  By  Julius  E.  Rockwell,  pp.  206.  (Circ.  inf.  1,  1893.) 

Out  of  print. 

193.  History  of  education  in  Connecticut.  By  Bernard  C.  Steiner.  Contributions  to  American 

educational  history,  No.  14.  pp.  300.  (Circ.  inf.  2,  1893.)  Out  of  print. 

194.  History  of  education  in  Delaware.  By  Lyman  P.  Powell,  pp.  186.  (Circ.  inf.  3,  1893.)  Out 

of  print. 

195.  Abnormal  man;  being  essays  on  education  and  crime  and  related  subjects,  with  digest  of 

literature  and  a  bibliography.  By  Arthur  MacDonald,  pp.  445.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1893.)  Out  of 
print. 

198.  Higher  education  in  Tennessee.  By  Lucius  Salisbury  Merriam.  Contributions  to  American 
educational  history,  No.  16.  pp.  287.  (Circ.  inf.  5, 1893.)  Out  of  print. 

197.  Higher  education  in  Iowa.  By  Leonard  F.  Parker.  Contributions  to  American  educational 

history,  No.  17.  pp.  190.  (Circ.  inf.  6, 1893.)  Out  of  print. 

198.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1889-90.  Vol.  1.  xxvii+601.  Out  of  print. 

199.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  vii+ 603-1724.  Out  of  print. 


CX  EDUCATION  KEPORT,  1900-1901. 

200.  Catalog  of  A.  L.  A.  Library;  5,000  volumes  for  a  popular  library,  pp.  592.  (Spec.  rep.  1893.) 

201.  Statistics  of  public  libraries  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  By  Weston  Flint,  pp.  213. 

(Circ.  inf.  7, 1893.)  Out  of  print. 

202.  Spelling  reform.  By  Francis  A.  March.  A  revision  and  enlargement  of  the  author’s  pam¬ 

phlet,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  in  1881.  pp.  86.  (Circ.  inf.  8, 1893.) 

203.  Education  in  Alaska,  1890-91.  By  Sheldon  Jackson,  pp.  923-960.  (From  An.  Rep.  1890-91.) 

(Misc.  pub.  1893.)  Out  of  print. 

204.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1893.  By 

W.  T.  Harris,  pp.  25.  Out  of  print. 

205.  Report  of  the  committee  on  secondary  school  studies,  appointed  at  the  meeting  of  Nat.  Ed. 

Assoc.  July  9,  1892,  with  the  reports  of  the  conferences  arranged  by  this  committee,  and 
held  Dec.  28-30, 1892.  pp.  249.  (Spec.  rep.  1893.)  Out  of  print. 

206.  Education  in  southwestern  Virginia.  By  A.  D.  Mayo.  (Reprint  of  chapter  24  An.  Rep. 

1890-91.  pp.  881-921.) 

207.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1890-91.  Vol.  1.  pp.  xxx+654.  Out  of 

print. 

208.  Same.  Vo].  2.  pp.  v+ 605-1549.  Out  of  print. 

209.  History  of  education  in  Rhode  Island.  By  William  Howe  Tolman.  pp.  210.  Contributions 

to  American  Educational  History,  No.  18.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1894.) 

210.  History  of  higher  education  in  Maryland.  By  Bernard  C.  Steiner,  pp.  331.  Contributions 

to  American  Educational  History,  No.  19.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1894.) 

211.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1891-92.  Vol.  1.  pp.  xxviii+636. 

212.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  v+637-1294. 

213.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1894. 

By  W.  T.  Harris,  pp.  29.  (Misc.  pub.  1894.)  Out  of  print. 

214.  Education  in  Alaska.  By  Sheldon  Jackson,  pp.  873-892.  (Reprint  from  An.  Rep.  1891-92.) 

(Misc.  pub.  1894.)  Out  of  print. 

215.  Introduction  of  domesticated  reindeer  into  Alaska,  with  maps  and  illustrations.  By  Sheldon 

Jackson,  pp.  187.  (Reprint  of  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  70,  53d  Congress,  second 
session.)  (Misc.  pub.  1894.)  Out  of  print. 

216.  Art  and  industry.  Education  in  the  industrial  and  fine  arts  in  the  United  States.  By  Isaac 

Edwards  Clarke.  Part  II.  Industrial  and  manual  training  in  public  schools,  pp.  cxlviii-f 
1338.  8°.  Washington,  1892.  Out  of  print. 

217.  Annual  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1892-93.  Vol.  1.  pp.  ix+1224.  Out  of  print. 

218.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  v+1225-2153.  Out  of  print. 

219.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1895. 

pp.  27.  Out  of  print. 

220.  Education  in  Alaska,  1892-93.  By.  Sheldon  Jackson.  (From  An.  Rep.  1892-93.  pp.  1705-1795.) 

Out  of  print. 

221.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1893-94.  Vol.  1.  pp.  xlvii+1061. 

222.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  1063-2290. 

223.  Education  at  the  World’s  Columbian  Exposition  (1893),  including  reports  and  comments  by 

American  and  foreign  educators  and  delegates.  (Reprint  from  An.  Rep.  1892-93.  pp.  423- 
690.)  1896. 

224.  Papers  prepared  for  the  World’s  Library  Congress  held  at  the  Columbian  Exposition.  Ed. 

by  Melvil  Dewey,  pp.  691-1014.  (Reprint  from  An.  Rep.  1892-93.  Chapter  9.)  Out  of  print. 

225.  Notes  on  education  at  the  Columbian  Exposition.  By  John  Eaton.  (Reprint  from  An.  Rep. 

1892-93.  pp.  1015-1224.)  Out  of  print. 

226.  Education  and  Patho-Social  Studies.  (Reprint  from  An.  Rep.  1893-94,  chapters  14  and  15;  and 

from  An.  Rep.  1889-90,  chapter  18.)  Out  of  print. 

227.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1894-95.  Vol.  1.  pp.  lvii+1152. 

228.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  v+1153-2314. 

229.  Education  in  Alaska,  1893-94.  (Misc.  pub.  1894.) 

230.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  1893. 

231.  Education  in  Alaska,  1894-95.  (Reprint  of  chapter  28  An.  Rep.  1894-95.) 

232.  Public,  society,  and  school  libraries  in  the  U.  S.,  with  statistics  and  legislation.  (Reprint  of 

chapter  8,  An.  Rep.  1895-96.  pp.  339-599.)  (Misc.  pub.  1897.) 

233.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1895-93.  Vol.  1.  pp.  lxxv+965. 

234.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  vii +967-2173. 

235.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1897. 

pp.  35.  (Misc.  pub.  1897.). 

236.  Education  in  Alaska,  1895-98.  By  Sheldon  Jackson.  (Reprint  of  chapter  34,  An.  Rep. 

1895-96.)  (Misc.  pub.  1897.) 

237.  Digest  of  the  laws  regulating  the  administration,  character,  and  finances  of  the  public 

school  systems  of  the  States  of  the  Union.  By  Welford  Addis.  (An.  Rep.  1893-94,  chapter 
9,  vol.  2.)  (Reprinted  as  Misc.  pub.  1898.) 

238.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1896-97.  Vol.  1.  pp.  lxxx+1136. 

239.  Same.  Vol.  2.  pp.  vii +1137-2390. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


CXI 


240.  Classification  in  graded  schools.  (Reprint  of  chapter  4  of  An.  Rep.  1891-92.)  (Misc.  pub.  1892.) 

Out  of  print. 

241.  Sunday  schools.  By  James  H.  Blodgett.  (Reprint  of  chapter  9  of  An.  Rep.  1896-97.)  (Misc. 

pub.  1897.) 

242.  History  of  education  in  Louisiana.  By  Edwin  Whitfield  Fay.  pp.  264.  Contributions  to 

American  educational  history,  No.  20.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1898.) 

243.  Higher  education  in  Missouri.  By  Marshall  S.  Snow.  pp.  164.  Contributions  to  American 

educational  history,  No.  21.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1898.) 

244.  History  of  education  in  New  Hampshire.  By  Geo.  Gary  Bush.  pp.  170.  Contributions  to 

American  educational  history,  No.  22.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1898.) 

245.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for 

1898.  pp.  32.  (Misc.  pub.  1898.) 

246.  Education  in  Alaska,  1896-97.  By  Sheldon  Jackson.  (Reprint  of  chapter  35,  An.  Rep.  1898-97.) 

(Misc.  pub.  1897.)  Out  of  print. 

247.  Education  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines.  By  R.  L.  Packard.  (Reprint  of  chap¬ 

ter  20,  An.  Rep.  1897-98.)  (Misc.  pub.  1899.) 

248.  Experimental  study  of  children,  including  anthropometrical  and  psycho-physical  measure¬ 

ments  of  W ashington  school  children  and  bibliography.  By  Arthur  MacDonald.  Chapters 
21  and  25  of  An.  Rep.  1897-98.  (Reprinted  as  Misc.  pub.  1899.) 

249.  Education  in  Alaska,  1897-98.  By  Sheldon  Jackson.  Chapters  40  and  41,  An.  Rep.  1897-98. 

(Reprinted  as  Misc.  pub.  1899.) 

250.  Educational  values.  By  W.  T.  Harris.  Chapter  15,  An.  Rep.  1893-94.  (Reprinted  as  Misc. 

pub.  1899.)  Out  of  print. 

251.  Physical  training.  By  Edw.  Mussey  Hartwell.  Chapter  12,  An.  Rep.  1897-98.  (Reprinted  as 

Misc.  pub.  1899.) 

252.  History  of  education  in  New  Jersey.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No. 

23.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1899.) 

253.  Art  and  Industry.  Part  III.  Industrial  and  technical  training  in  voluntary  associations  and 

endowed  institutions.  By  I.  Edwards  Clarke,  pp.  1,145.  1897.  * 

254.  Art  and  Industry.  Part  IY.  Industrial  and  technical  training  in  schools  of  technology  and 

in  United  States  land-grant  colleges.  By  I.  Edwards  Clarke,  pp.  1,020.  1898. 

255.  History  of  education  in  Mississippi.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No.  24. 

(Circ.. inf.  2,  1899.) 

256.  History  of  higher  education  in  Kentucky.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history, 

No.  25.  (Circ.  inf.  3, 1899.) 

257.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1897-98.  Yol.  1.  pp.  cxx+1280. 

258.  Same.  Yol.  2.  pp.  vii +1281-2460. 

259.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for 

1899.  (Misc.  pub.  1889.) 

260.  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1898-99.  Yol.  1.  pp.  xcii+1248. 

261.  Same.  Yol.  2.  pp.  viii +1249-2518. 

282.  History  of  education  in  Arkansas.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No.  26. 
(Circ.  inf.  1, 1900.) 

263.  Higher  education  in  Kansas.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No.  27.  (Circ. 

inf.  2,  1900.) 

264.  University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No. 

28.  (Circ.  inf.  3,  1900.) 

265.  History  of  education  in  Yermont.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No.  29. 

(Circ.  inf.  4, 1800.) 

266.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education.  June  30, 1900.  • 

267.  Alaska.  (Reprint  of  chapters  31  and  32,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

268.  Classification  and  promotion  of  pupils.  (Reprint  of  chapter  7,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

269.  Miscellaneous  educational  topics.  (Reprint  of  chapter  11,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

270.  Railway  service.  (Reprint  of  chapter  17,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

271.  Arithmetic.  (Reprint  of  chapter  17,  An.  Rep.  1897-98,  and  chapter  15,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

272.  Manual  training.  (Reprint  of  three  chapters  from  Art  and  Industry.) 

273.  Professional  education.  (Reprint  of  chapter  33,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

274.  Education  and  crime.  (Reprint  of  chapter  28,  An.  Rep.  1898-99.) 

275.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1899-1900.  Yol.  1.  pp.  lxxx+1280. 

276.  Same.  Yol.  2.  pp.  vii +1281-2648. 

277.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for 

1901.  (Misc.  pub.  1901.) 

278.  Public,  society,  and  school  libraries.  (Reprint  of  chapter  17,  An.  Rep.  1899-1900.)  (Misc. 

pub.  1901.) 

279.  Education  and  reindeer  in  Alaska,  1899-1800.  (Reprint  of  chapters  32  and  33  of  An.  Rep.  1899- 

1900. )  (Misc.  pub.) 

280.  History  of  education  in  West  Virginia.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No. 

30.  (Circ.  inf.  1, 1902.) 


CXII  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

281.  History  of  education  in  Minnesota.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  Ho.  31. 

(Circ.  inf.  2, 1902.) 

282.  Education  in  Nebraska.  Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  No.  32.  (Circ.  inf. 

3, 1902.) 

283.  History  of  higher  education  in  Pennsylvania.  Contributions  to  American  educational  his¬ 

tory,  No.  33.  (Circ.  inf.  4, 1902.) 

284.  Professional  education.  (Reprint  of  chapter  36,  An.  Rep.  1899-1900.)  (Misc.  pub.  1901.) 

285.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  1902. 

286.  Synopses  of  the  courses  of  study  of  eighteen  manual-training  high  schools.  (Spec.  pub.  1902. ) 

287.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1900-1901.  Yol.  1. 

288.  Same.  Yol.  2. 

300.  Our  schools  and  our  forests.  By  Franklin  H.  Hough.  Address  before  Dept,  of  Superintend¬ 

ence  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1881.  pp.  18.  (Reprint  from  Circ.  inf.  3, 1881.)  (Misc.  pub.  1881.) 
Out  of  print. 

301.  Manual  training.  By  C.  M.  Woodward.  (Circ.  inf.  2, 1889.)  Out  of  print. 

302.  Class  intervals  in  city  public  schools.  By  James  C.  Boykin,  pp.  3.  (Misc.  pub.  1893.)  Out 

of  print. 

303.  What  is  education?  Opinions  of  eminent  men.  pp.  16.  (Misc.  pub.  1870.)  Out  of  print. 

304.  Proceedings  of  the  Dept,  of  Superintendence’  of  the  National  Educational  Association 

respecting  State  and  city  school  reports,  pp.  26.  (Misc.  pub.  1874.)  Out  of  print. 

305.  Industrial  status  and  needs  of  the  New  South.  By  Robert  Bingham,  pp.  21.  Delivered 

before  the  Dept,  of  Superintendence  of  the  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  February,  1884.  (Misc.  pub. 
1884.)  Out  of  print. 

306.  Needs  of  education  in  the  South.  By  Gustavus  G.  Orr.  pp.  13.  Delivered  before  the  Dept. 

of  Superintendence  of  the  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1879.  (Misc.  pub.  1879.)  Out  of  print. 

307.  National  aid  to  education.  By  John  Eaton.  Delivered  before  the  Dept,  of  Superintend¬ 

ence  of  the  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1877.  pp.  37.  (Misc.  pub.  1879.)  Out  of  print. 

808.  Needs  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  By  John  Eaton.  Delivered  before  Dept,  of  Superin¬ 

tendence  of  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1881.  pp.  12.  (Misc.  pub.  1881.)  Out  of  print. 

809.  Museums  illustrative  of  education.  By  John  Eaton.  Delivered  before  Dept,  of  Superin¬ 

tendence  of  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1881.  pp.  12.  (Misc.  pub.  1881.) 

310.  The  World’s  Columbian  Exposition,  department  of  liberal  arts.  Circular  No.  2.  The  edu¬ 

cational  exhibit  at  the  World’s  Columbian  Exposition,  pp.  10.  (Misc.  pub.) 

311.  World’s  Columbian  Exposition,  department  of  liberal  arts.  Circ.  No.  4.  The  educational 

exhibit  No.  2.  Statistics  by  graphic  methods.  Wing  frames;  State  maps.  Display  of 
school  statistics,  pp.  17.  (Misc.  pub.) 

312.  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  an  office  in  the  Interior  Department,  1867-1888.  Com¬ 

missioners:  Henry  Barnard,  1867-1870;  John  Eaton,  1870-1886;  Nathaniel  II.  R.  Dawson, 
1886-1889 .  (  Misc .  pub . ) 

313.  Technical  education  and  industrial  drawing.  By  Prof.  Walter  Smith.  Delivered  before  the 

Dept,  of  Superintendence  of  Nat.  Ed.  Assoc.,  1879.  pp.  24.  (Misc.  pub.  1879.) 

314.  National  schools  of  science,  report  on,  by  D.  C.  Gilman,  pp.  20.  (Reprint  from  An.  Rep.  1871, 

pp.  427-444.)  (Misc.  pub.  1872.)  Out  of  print. 

315.  Colleges  and  collegiate  institutions  in  the  United  States.  Statistics,  pp.  11.  (1871.)  Out  of 

print. 

316.  International  Exhibition,  Philadelphia,  1879.  Collections  to  illustrate  the  history  of  colleges, 

universities,  professional  schools,  and  schools  of  science.  (1875.)  Out  of  print. 

317.  Prospectus  of  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1875.  p.  1.  1875.  Out  of  print. 

318.  Chilean  International  Exposition  of  1875,  to  be  held  at  Santiago  (educational  programme). 

pp.  9.  1875.  Out  of  print. 

319.  Synopsis  of  proposed  centennial;  history  of  American  education,  1776  to  1876.  pp.  18.  1875. 

Out  of  print. 

320.  Study  of  Anglo-Saxon.  By  F.  A.  March,  pp.  10.  (From  An.  Rep.  1876.) 

821.  Latin  pronunciation.  By  W.  G.  Richardson,  pp.  484-497.  (From  An.  Rep.  1876.)  Out  of 
print. 

322.  Pronunciation  of  Greek  in  this  country.  By  James  R.  Boise,  pp.  480-483.  (From  An.  Rep. 

1876.)  Out  of  print. 

323.  Education  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  1879.  pp.  9.  (From  Circ.  inf.  2,  1879.)  Out  of  print. 

324.  Sale  of  diplomas,  pp.  4.  1880.  Out  of  print. 

325.  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  with  maps  and  illustrations.  By  Sheldon  Jackson,  pp.  89. 

1886.  Out  of  print. 

326.  Bureau  of  Education.  Ohio  Yalley  and  Central  States  Centennial  Exposition,  July  4to  Octo¬ 

ber  28, 1888.  Exhibit  of  the  Bureau.  Compiled  by  John  W.  Holcombe.  (Folding  sheet.) 
pp.  8.  16°.  Out  of  print. 

327.  Annual  statement  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior;  being 

introductory  chapter  of  the  Education  Report  1888-89.  By  N.  H.  R.  Dawson,  pp.  28.  Out 
of  print. 

328.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  1887.  pp.  26.  1887. 

Out  of  print. 


CHAPTER  I. 


EDUCATION  IN  CENTRAL  EUROPE. 


Contents. 

Page. 


I.  Educational  movements  in  Germany ... _ _ _  3 

II.  Necessity  of  technological  education _ _ _ _  8 

III.  Art  education  in  Germany . . . . .  14 

IY.  Commercial  schools  and  commercial  universities  . . .  21 

Y .  School  supervision  in  Germany _ _ _ _ _  33 

VI.  Institutions  for  the  defective  in  Germany . . .  . .  40 

VII.  Reformatory  education  in  Prussia _ _ _  48 

VIII.  Child  labor  in  Germany  outside  of  factories.  _ _  54 

IX.  The  German  library  system _ _ _ _ 80 

X.  Higher  education  of  women  in  Austria  _ _ _ _ _  84 

XL  Agricultural  and  forestry  schools  in  Austria _ _ _ _  88 

XII.  Noire's  Logos  Theory _ _ _ _ _ _  102 

XIII.  G-oethe  and  the  great  thinkers _ _ _  110 

XIV.  Appropriations  for  education  in  Europe _  115 

XV.  Miscellaneous  topics  of  education. _ _ _  119 


Articles  on  education  in  central  Europe  published  in  previous  Reports  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education. 


Title  of  article. 

Report 

of— 

Page. 

Comparison  of  the  schools  of  Germany,  France,  and  the  United  States,  with 

diagrams . . . . 

1888-89 

33 

Courses  of  study  in  graphic  representation . . . 

1888-89 

53 

Bird’s-eye  view  of  the  schools  in  central  Europe . . . 

1888-89 

150 

Middle  and  intermediate  schools  in  Prussia . 

1889-90 

181 

Promoting  public  play  of  school  children . 

1889-90 

293 

Education  of  neglected  and  depraved  children . . . . 

1889-90 

295 

Juvenile  wage  workers . . 

1889-90 

297 

J  1889-90 

299 

The  schools  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony . . . 

1  1898-99 

203 

Economic  development  of  Saxony . . . . . . 

1889-90 

306 

f  1888-89 

75 

School  population  in  the  civilized  world.  Charts . . . 

|  1889-90 

549 

The  December  conference  on  secondary  schools . 

1889-90 

313 

Brief  view  of  the  schools  of  Austria-Hungary . 

1889-90 

419 

Brief  statement  of  the  school  system  in  Prussia . . . __ . 

1889-90 

455 

Proportion  of  population  in  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  institutions. .. 

1889-90 

451 

Industrial  and  technical  education  in  central  Europe . . 

1890-91 

105 

ED  1901  1 

1 

2 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


Articles  on  education  in  central  Europe  published  in  previous  Reports  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education — Continued. 


Title  of  article. 


Statistical  summary  of  school  population,  teachers,  and  expenditures  for  schools 

in  the  civilized  world . . . . . . . 

Legal  education  in  Europe  and  America. . . . . . 

Public  kindergartens  in  European  and  American  States  . . . . 

The  training  of  teachers  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland . 

The  Swiss  school  system... . •. . . . 

School  museums  and  educational  exhibitions . . . . . 

German  universities,  history  and  present  status . . . 

Schools  for  recruiting  the  civil  service  in  Prance  and  Prussia . . 

Recent  developments  in  the  teaching  of  geography . . . 

The  schools  of  Bavaria . . . . . 

Child  study  and  experimental  psychology,  with  bibliography . . 

Bibliography  of  Herbartianism . . . . 

German  criticism  of  American  education . 

Criticism  of  educational  exhibitions . 

German  view  of  American  technological  schools . . . 

Results  of  Prussian  common  school  statistics  discussed . . . 

Common-school  teachers  of  Prussia... . . . . . . . . 

Development  of  the  common  school  system  of  Berlin . 

Attendance  in  secondary  schools  for  boys  in  Germany  . . 

Courses  of  study  in  history  found  in  vogue  in  Europe . 

Bibliography  of  the  history  of  education . . . . . . 

Statistics  of  university  libraries  in  Europe . . . . 

German  bibliography  of  arithmetic  . . . . 

The  new  education  in  Germany.. . . 

Is  German  pedagogy  in  a  state  of  decomposition. . 

Supplementary  and  industrial  schools  in  Germany . 

Ungraded  schools  in  Germany . . . 

German  opinions  on  monitorial  instruction . . 

Comparative  review  of  courses  of  study  in  sixteen  German  cities . 

N ormal  schools  in  Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . 

Mental  fatigue  in  school . . . 

National  features  of  female  education . . . . . 

Public  instruction  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg . 


Pensions  for  teachers . 


Public  industrial  education  in  Berlin . . . 

Salaries  of  elementary  teachers  in  Germany . 

Salaries  of  elementary  teachers  in  Austria . . . 

Statistics  of  higher  education  in  central  Europe . . 

Foreigners  in  central  European  universities . 

Music  in  German  schools . 

Reform  schools  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden . 

How  agriculture  is  taught  in  Prussia  and  France . 

Industrial  schools  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland 

Foreign  universities . 


Review  of  educational  currents  of  thought . 

Special  schools  for  children  of  limited  mental  capacity. 


Report 

of— 

Page. 

1890-91 

369 

1890-91 

377 

1890-91 

676 

1891-92 

139 

1891-92 

197 

1891-92 

239 

1891-92 

247 

1891-92 

369 

1892-93 

279 

1892-93 

323 

1896-97 

172 

1892-93 

357 

1892-93 

CO 

OS 

CO 

1892-93 

521 

1892-93 

548 

1892-93 

657 

1893-94 

206 

1893-94 

225 

1893-94 

245 

1893-94 

298 

1893-94 

302 

1893-94 

306 

1893-94 

308 

1893-94 

i-H 

CO 

1894-95 

322 

1894-95 

329 

189tL95 

345 

1898-99 

189 

1891-95 

380 

1894-95 

403 

1894-95 

406 

1894-95 

426 

1894-95 

449 

1895-96 

1175 

1894-95 

460 

1894-95 

471 

1S94-95 

f  1079 

1  1343 

1898-99 

164 

1895-96 

138 

1895-96 

147 

1895-96 

156 

1895-96 

165 

1895-96 

180 

1895-96 

187 

1895-96 

158 

1895-96 

1199 

1895-96 

1215 

1895-96 

1413 

1889-90 

561 

1896-97 

1365 

1896-97 

126 

1896-97 

141 

EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  IN  GERMANY 


3 


Articles  on  education  in  central  Europe  published  in  previous  Reports  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education — Continued. 


Title  of  article. 


School  savings  banks  in  Europe  . . . . . . . . 

Attendance  in  boys’  high  schools  in  Prussia . . 

German  view  of  educational  movements  in  America . 

German  view  of  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission . . 

Manual  training  in  Germany . . . .  _ . . . 

Recent  German  educational  literature . . . . . 

Comparative  statistics  of  education . . . . . . . 

Commercial  education  in  Europe . . . . . . . 

Teaching  civics  in  Switzerland,  France,  and  England. . . . . 

History  of  the  German  school  system . 

The  objects  of  polytechnics.... . . . 

Technological,  agricultural,  forestry,  mining,  and  veterinary  schools  in  Europe. 

School  gardens  in  Europe  . . . . . . . . . 

Salaries  of  elementary  teachers  in  Switzerland . . 

Higher  education  of  women  in  Prussia . . . . . 

Illiteracy  in  Europe . . . . . . . 

Examinations,  definition, and  classification . . . . . . . . 

Philosophy  as  a  school  study . . . . . . . 

Means  for  spreading  hygienic  knowledge . 

Textile  schools  in  Europe . . . . . . . . 

Progress  of  elementary  schools  of  Prussia  in  ten  years  . . 

School  attendance  and  compulsory  education  in  Europe - - - - - 

Preparation  of  normal-school  teachers  in  Prussia . . . . 

Federal  aid  for  elementary  schools  in  Switzerland . . . 

History  of  secondary  schools  in  Hungary . . 

Seventy  years’  attendance  in  German  universities . 

Popular  education  and  national  economic  development . . . . 

Statistics  of  education  in  central  Europe.— Comparisons  with  other  countries.. 

Appropriations  for  education  in  Europe . 

The  schools  of  Berlin . . . . . . 

Expenditures  for  higher  education  in  the  civilized  world... . . 

Children’s  claim  upon  childhood . . . . . . 

Medical  inspection  of  schools . . 

Secondary  education  as  viewed  by  scientists . 

The  German  commercial  clerk . . . . . 

Statistics  of  the  Swiss  school  system . 

Defective  children  of  school  age _ i . . . . 

German  schools  in  foreign  countries . . . 

Attendance  in  higher  institutions  of  foreign  countries . 

Industrial  and  commercial  schools  in  Hungary . . . . . . 

Corporal  punishment  in  Prussian  schools . . . . 

Baroness  von  Billow  and  her  work  in  behalf  of  kindergartens . 


Report 
of — 

Page. 

1896-97 

160 

1896-97 

164 

1896-97 

178 

1896-97 

185 

'  1896-97 

193 

.  1898-99 

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197 

1896-97 

200 

1896-97 

207 

1896-97 

233 

1897-98 

3 

1897-98 

216 

1897-98 

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[■  1889-90 

303 

1897-98 

224 

[  1898-99 

1067 

1897-98 

230 

1897-98 

234 

1897-98 

236 

1897-98 

237 

1897-98 

248 

1897-98 

257 

1897-98 

269 

1898-99 

125 

1898-99 

147 

1898-99 

201 

1898-99 

211 

1898-99 

220 

1898-99 

228 

1899-1900 

723 

1899-1900 

761 

1899-1900 

7S8 

1899-1900 

791 

1899-1900 

797 

1899-1900 

810 

1899-1900 

825 

1899-1900 

828 

1899-1900 

835 

1899-1900 

846 

1899-1900 

855 

1899-1900 

859 

1899-1900 

861 

1899-1900 

865 

1899-1900 

878 

1899-1900 

883 

I.  EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  IN  GERMANY. 

The  problems  of  the  age,  varied  and  intricate  as  they  are,  are  all,  more  or  less, 
educational  problems.  They  certainly  are  reflected  in  popular  education.  School, 
like  a  vessel  in  harbor,  is  safe  from  the  storm  that  rages  on  the  social  and  political 
ocean,  but  it  feels  its  effect  in  the  slight  commotion  of  the  waves,  and  is  rocked  by 
the  ripples  in  which  the  huge  waves  of  the  ocean  terminate.  This  is  found  to  be  so 


4 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


in  every  country  where  school  education  has  become  a  concern  of  the  State. 
Everywhere  the  schools  are  benefited  or  disturbed  by  changes  in  movement, 
new  ideas,  conflicting  tendencies,  or  counter-currents. 

In  Germany,  particularly,  the  demands  of  the  time  for  educational  reform 1 
have  become  loud  and  urgent.  The  desired  and  partly  effected  changes  in  the 
elementary  schools  were  clearly  set  forth  in  the  last  Annual  Report.  (See 
chapter  entitled  “Education  in  Central  Europe.”)  Recently  the  secondary  and 
higher  institutions  have  become  the  subject  of  discussion,  partly  through  the 
initiative  of  the  Emperor,  chiefly,  however,  in  consequence  of  the  enormous  expan¬ 
sion  of  industry  and  commerce.  A  Berlin  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Post  sketches  the  commotion  going  on  in  school  affairs  in  Germany  by  pointing  out 
the  irrepressible  conflict  between  classical  and  technological  schools.  The  article, 
signed  W.  v.  S.,  is  here  inserted,  with  some  omissions  and  verbal  changes: 

In  the  German  conception  of  public  school  and  higher  education,  and  in  the 
efforts  to  bring  the  concrete  facts  more  closely  in  harmony  with  this  conception, 
there  has  recently  been  remarkable  progress,  or  at  least  change.  And  if  one 
accepts  the  theory  held  by  many  educators  the  world  over,  i.  e.,  that  the  needed 
and  thorough  reform  of  the  present  system  of  education  must  come  in  Germany 
and  through  German  pedagogues,  it  may  be  truthfully  said  that  the  present  time 
is  rife  with  problems  and  bright  prospects  for  their  solution.  After  the  truce  which 
came  on  the  heels  of  the  Emperor's  brief  effort  to  effect  a  radical  reform  of  the  gym¬ 
nasium  (classical  high  school)  curriculum  and  of  the  methods  employed  by  the 
teachers  there,  the  battle  is  now  on  once  more,  and  the  arena  is  already  filled  with 
the  noise  of  the  belligerents;  the  advocates  of  both  technical  and  classical  educa¬ 
tion  are  up  in  arms  in  behalf  of  their  contentions. 

One  of  the  matters  which  Emperor  Wilhelm,  shortly  after  ascending  the  throne, . 
first  tried  to  arrange  and  reshape  was  this  one  of  the  old-fashioned  German  gym-  ’ 
nasium  education.  That  this  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction  was  admitted  then 
by  the  majority  of  educated  men,  but  that  the  manner  in  making  the  attempt 
was  not  very  successful  also  admits  of  small  doubt.  The  result  of  the  confer¬ 
ence  held  in  1891  was  to  “  ease  up  ”  the  school  task  of  the  student,  especially  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  seriously  interfere  with  the  young 
student's  proficiency  in  both  classical  languages,  in  introducing  a  spirit  of  unrest 
into  the  mind3  of  both  teachers  and  pupils,  and  in  setting  an  agitation  going  which 
has  never  since  stopped.  This  last  achievement  was.  perhaps,  good  in  itself.  One 
other  thing  accomplished,  and  also  to  be  commended,  was  the  taking  up  of  manly 
sports  by  the  “  gymnasiasts  ”  and  university  students  as  a  body,  of  rowing,  foot¬ 
ball,  lawn  tennis,  etc.  The  radical  reform,  however,  that  had  been  intended,  has 
not  been  brought  about. 

Since  then  nearly  ten  years  have  elapsed.  During  that  time  technical  and 
applied  science  has  achieved  triumph  after  triumph,  and  one  important  new  inven¬ 
tion  after  another  has  been  introduced  here  and  elsewhere.  It  is  also  well  known 
what  a  strong  interest  the  Emperor  has  taken  in  some  of  these;  how,  for  instance, 
he  received  men  like  Roentgen,  Marconi,  Slaby,  etc.,  and  witnessed  their  demon¬ 
strations,  and  how  he  did  everything  in  his  power  to  further  the  standing  and  the 
interests  of  technologists.  All  this,  of  course,  with  the  hearty  disapprobation  of 
the  men  of  the  old  school  in  Germany,  who  continued  to  look  upon  chemists,  engi¬ 
neers,  electricians,  etc. ,  as  a  higher  sort  of  mechanics,  but  not  as  men  of  science — 
certainly  not  as  belonging  to  the  “  Ritter  vom  Geist” — not  as  their  fellows  in  the 
aristocracy  of  intellect.  That  the  average  German  “Gelehrter”  has  gone  a  good 
deal  too  far  in  this  respect  can  hardly  be  doubted.  Even  such  a  prince  of  applied 
science  as  the  late  Siemens  was,  though  he  had  attained  wealth  and  recognition, 
suffered  all  his  life  from  the  thinly  veiled  disdain  of  the  German  university  savant. 
And  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  Germany  the  university-bred  man  thus  far  is 
the  only  one  for  whom  the  public  service  of  the  country  is  open;  that  he  is  the 
paramount  power  in  German  literature,  journalism,  almost  every  form  of  public 
opinion,  and  that,  therefore,  nonrecognition  from  that  quarter  has  meant  all  along 
the  shutting  up  of  all  the  avenues  through  which  men  attain  to  glory,  emoluments, 
popular  esteem,  orders,  decorations,  preferment,  influence. 

The  battle  cry  was  “Technical  against  classical  education”  throughout  Ger¬ 
many  for  years,  and  the  practical  men  with  the  technical  education  had  generally 


See  also  notes  under  the  head  of  Miscellaneous  Items  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 


EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  IN  GERMANY. 


5 


the  worst  of  it,  as  they  do  not  belong,  as  a  rule,  to  the  writers,  and  were  too  busy 
to  reply  to  much  that  was  said.  One  of  the  main  objects  the  men  of  technics 
fought  for  all  along  wTas  the  title  of  44  doctor,”  as  conferred  by  the  universities  on 
their  highest  and  ablest  graduates.  In  a  country  like  Germany,  where  the  desire 
for  titles  and  visible  decorations  is  strong,  and  where  not  to  bear  a  title  of  some 
kind  or  other  seems  to  the  average  man  one  of  the  most  serious  misfortunes,  and 
where  people  in  their  judgment  of  others  are  very  largely  governed  by  such  titles, 
it  meant,  of  course,  a  great  deal  more  than  in  other  countries  that  the  young 
engineer,  analytical  chemist,  architect,  etc.,  no  matter  how  thoroughly  educated 
and  how  efficient  and  well-deserving,  was  under  all  circumstances  debarred  from 
the  enjoyment  of  a  title  denoting  academic  degree  and  conferring  social  distinc¬ 
tion  as  well. 

It  was  here  where  the  Emperor  in  his  capacity  as  King  of  Prussia  again  inter¬ 
fered  in  behalf  of  the  technical  men.  To  the  displeasure  of  the  whole  Prussian 
official  world  and  of  the  vast  and  influential  body  of  university-bred  men  outside 
of  it,  he  conferred  on  the  three  Prussian  institutions  of  technology  in  Berlin, 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  Hanover  the  right  of  conferring  academic  degrees,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  ‘ 4  doctor-ingenieur  ”  must  be  -written  and  printed  in 
German  letters  instead  of  Roman  ones,  so  as  to  avoid  misleading  the  public.1  The 
Emperor  did  this,  too,  in  a  way  to  make  this  gift  doubly  valuable,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  German  press  has  since  been  bemoaning  the  fact  and  expressing  the  direst 
fears  for  the  future  of  the  country.  Nearly  every  university-bred  editor  or  writer 
has  flung  Goethe’s  bitter  sarcasm  about  the  uses  to  which  science  is  put,  viz,  “  To 
the  one  she  is  the  exalted,  divine  goddess;  to  another  she  is  merely  a  good  cow  that 
provides  him  with  butter,” into  the  faces  of  these  men  of  applied  science,  now  his 
actual  competitors  in  the  race  for  honors,  and  the  abuse  heaped  on  the  heads  of 
the  latter  is  still  flowing  undiminished. 

New  fuel  was  added  to  the  flame  when  Professor  Riedel,  the  rector  of  the  Tech¬ 
nological  Institute  of  Berlin,  delivered  an  address  (see  translation  of  portions  of 
this  address  following  this  article)  wherein  he  used  the  substance  of  a  talk  the 
Emperor  had  had  with  him  and  the  other  two  rectors,  and  in  which  the  present 
educational  system  of  Germany,  so  far  as  it  prepares  for  the  universities,  was 
severely  taken  to  task,  and  the  opinion  expressed  that  a  large  share  of  what  the 
pupils  of  the  higher  and  secondary  schools  learns  is,  as  a  rule,  useless,  and  that  not 
enough  regard  is  paid  by  the  teachers  and  professors  to  the  practical  needs  of  life. 
The  address  went,  of  course,  into  details  and  furnished  illustrations,  but  it  was  so 
powerful  and  well-reasoned  as  to  produce  a  strong  and  lasting  effect,  all  the  more 
so  when,  in  answer  to  the  unceasing  abuse  showered  on  him,  Professor  Riedel 
publicly  stated,  probably  with  the  Emperor's  permission,  that  the  phrases  most 
found  fault  with  had  been  used  by  the  Emperor  himself  in  the  course  of  the  con¬ 
versation  referred  to. 

In  one  of  the  leading  German  periodicals,  the  Deutsche  Revue,  Professor  Kaibel 
makes  a  strong  argument  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  university  man  against 
the  Emperor's  attempt  to  put  the  graduates  of  the  universities  on  a  par  with  those 
of  the  technical  institutions,  arguing  that  this  will  aid  greatly  in  destroying  the 
last  fragment  of  that  idealism  in  the  German  character  which  has  made  the 
German  people  great  in  science,  poetry,  the  arts,  and  which  has  already  been  sadly 
curtailed  by  a  growing  desire  for  merely  material  good.  He,  too,  furnishes  illus¬ 
trations  and  examples,  and  there  is  undoubtedly  a  kernel  of  truth  in  what  he  says. 
But  Kaibel  commits  the  mistake  of  simply  ignoring  the  undeniable  shortcomings 
of  the  present  German  educational  system,  and  of  joining  in  the  vulgar  abuse  of 
his  opponents.  Nevertheless,  his  article  has  caused  a  sensation,  and  all  the  con¬ 
servative  papers  of  Germany  are  reprinting  it,  many  of  them  because  in  doing  so 
they  can  take  issue  with  the  reform  movement. 

Even  such  a  strong  Government  paper  as  the  Kreuzzeitung  takes  delight  in 
thus  intimating  to  the  monarch  that  he  had  better  retrace  his  steps  again,  as  he 
did  once  before.  But  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  prospect  of  his  doing  so  this 
time.  *,  *  *  The  Emperor  has  gone  in  earnest  at  the  task  of  carrying  through 
this  reform.  He  met  with  strong  and  determined  opposition,  the  strength  of 
which  can  be  measured  by  the  virulence  of  the  press  campaign  against  the  techno¬ 
logical  institutions.  *  *  *  Meanwhile  the  sovereigns  of  Saxony,  Wurttemberg, 
Hessia,  and  Baden  have  imitated  him  in  conferring  similar  rights  on  the 
technological  institutions  of  Carlsruhe,  Dresden,  Stuttgart,  and  Darmstadt. 

That,  however,  the  movement  within  the  nation  itself  for  a  thorough  modification 
of  Germany’s  secondary  and  higher  school  system  is  gathering  strong  momentum 
despite  the  enormous  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  conservative  leaders  of  public 


1  See  next  article  on  44  Necessity  of  technological  education.” 


6 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


opinion  here,  there  are  many  proofs.  One  is,  that  among  the  German  pedagogues 
themselves  the  number  of  those  insisting  on  a  change  is  rapidly  growing. 

The  idea  among  them  finds  more  and  more  favor  that  it  would  strengthen  Ger¬ 
man  educational  school  methods  materially  if  some  of  the  English  and  American 
educational  features  were  to  be  adopted,  with  a  view  particularly  of  arousing  in 
the  German  boy  and  youth  more  of  that  indomitable  energy,  that  self-reliance,  and 
that  practical  sense  in  meeting  and  overcoming  difficulties  which  have  ever  dis¬ 
tinguished  those  two  nations,  and  which  are  in  large  measure  due  to  early  inculca¬ 
tion  at  school,  where  the  “try,  try  again  ”  is  taught  even  to  the  youngest.  *  *  * 
No  less  a  paper  than  the  Cologne  Yolkszeitung,  the  leading  Catholic  organ  in  Ger¬ 
many,  published  a  well-reasoned  article  by  a  German  bishop  wherein  this  was  set 
forth  at  length  and  with  irresistible  logic.  It  is  certainly  strange  to  see  such  an 
article  appear  in  the  main  organ  of  the  Ultramontane  party,  but  the  fact  does  not 
detract  from  its  significance.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the  Emperor’s  programme 
will  also  make  toward  this  same  end,  and  there  is,  whether  one  may  regret  it  or 
rejoice  at  it,  a  strong  current  within  the  German  people  of  to-day  trjdng  to  rid  it 
of  the  national  failings  that  have  told  against  political  and  financial  success  in  the 
past,  such  failings  as  indecision,  procrastination,  lack  of  practical  sense  and  ruth¬ 
less  energy  in  the  battle  of  life,  and  there  is  a  growing  conviction  that  these  old 
failings  are  due  in  large  measure  to  the  dreamy,  impractical  German  schoolmaster 
of  yore.  W.  v.  S. 

A  conference  of  distinguished  Prussian  school  men,  called  together  by  the  min¬ 
ister  of  public  instruction,  resulted  in  the  rejection  of  the  plan  submitted  to  it, 
namely,  of  arranging  for  a  common  course  of  study  for  all  secondary  schools  up 
to  the  fifth  grade,  and  a  trifurcation  into  classical,  technological,  and  commercial 
courses  from  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  grade.  The  conference  also  rejected  the  plan 
of  making  English  a  compulsory  branch,  except  in  the  two  highest  grades.  The 
“technologists*’  throughout  the  Kingdom  deplore  the  result  of  this  second  educa¬ 
tional  conference  as  not  in  line  with  modern  thought. 

Since  then  the  Emperor,  perhaps  impatient  with  the  slowness  with  which  the 
teachers  and  other  school  authorities  moved  in  the  matter  so  dear  to  his  heart,  has 
issued  a  new  order,  which  is  so  significant  that  a  translation  is  deemed  desirable. 
The  order  reads: 

After  examining  the  report  concerning  the  reforms  instigated  by  me  in  1892  in 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  Kingdom,  I  desire  to  see  the  efforts  continued  along 
the  following  lines: 

1.  With  reference  to  the  privilege  of  students  of  abridging  their  military  service 
to  one  year,  the  three  kinds  of  schools — the  Gymnasia  (classical  high  schools), 
Realschulen  of  the  first  order  (realistic  schools) ,  and  Realgymnasia  (schools  repre¬ 
senting  both  tendencies) — shall  be  considered  of  equal  value  in  general  education, 
and  only  with  reference  to  the  fact  that  some  higher  professions  require  special 
preparatory  education,  which  not  all  three  kinds  of  schools  can  give  equally  well, 
shall  a  distinction  be  maintained  in  favor  of  Gymnasia.  The  extension  of  the 
privilege  mentioned  to  the  realistic  institutions  is  intended  to  raise  their  impor¬ 
tance  among  the  people  and  to  extend  the  amount  of  realistic  and  scientific 
knowledge. 

2.  The  recognition  of  the  principle  of  equality  of  the  various  kinds  of  secondary 
schools  will  enable  each  to  develop  its  own  characteristics  better.  In  pursuance  of 
this  principle  I  do  not  object  to  an  adequate  increase  in  the  number  of  hours  per 
week  devoted  to  Latin  in  Gymnasia  and  Realgymnasia,  but  I  lay  especial  weight 
upon  the  importance  which  knowledge  of  the  English  language  has  gained  of 
late,  and  desire,  therefore,  that  English  be  introduced  as  an  optional  study  every¬ 
where  of  equal  rank  with  Greek.  Where  local  needs  would  suggest,  English  may 
replace  French  as  a  regular  study  and  French  be  taught  as  an  optional  study,  It 
seems  to  me,  also,  very  desirable  to  pay  more  attention  in  Realschulen  to  the  study 
of  geography. 

3.  Since  1892  the  secondary  schools  have  made  unmistakable  progress  in  various 
directions,  but  more  must  be  done.  I  therefore  urge  upon  the  principals  to 
remember  “multum,  non  multa,”  and  see  to  it  that  in  the  course  of  study  not  all 
branches  be  treated  alike  in  importance,  but  that  the  essential  be  treated  with  due 
consideration  and  be  taught  more  thoroughly.  For  the  study  of  Greek  it  would 
seem  desirable  to  abandon  useless  philological  forms  and  pay  more  attention, 
besides  the  esthetic  conception,  to  the  causal  nexus  between  the  antique  world  and 
modern  culture.  In  teaching  modern  languages  especial  stress  should  be  laid  on 


EDUCATIONAL  MOVEMENTS  IN  GERMANY. 


7 


facility  to  speak  them,  and  securing  comprehension  of  their  classic  writers.  In  the 
study  of  history  there  are  still  observable  two  faults:  (a)  The  neglect  with  which 
important  sections  of  ancient  history  are  treated,  and  (b)  the  want  of  adequate  les¬ 
sons  in  German  history  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with  its  elevating  accounts  of 
great  achievements  for  the  fatherland.  With  reference  to  geography  it  seems  best 
to  intrust  this  branch  to  the  hands  of  specially  well-qualified  teachers.  In  the 
study  of  natural  sciences  object  teaching  and  experiments  should  claim  more  space 
and  attention,  and  excursions  should  be  resorted  to  to  enliven  the  instruction;  in 
physics  and  chemistry  application  and  technique  in  daily  life  is  to  be  more  empha¬ 
sized.  With  regard  to  drawing  I  desire  that  the  ability  of  sketching  objects  rap¬ 
idly  be  valued  higher  than  heretofore,  and  in  classical  high  schools  it  is  urged  that 
students  who  intend  to  devote  themselves  to  technology,  natural  sciences,  mathe¬ 
matics,  or  medicine  make  diligent  use  of  facilities  offered  in  drawing  lessons. 
Aside  from  gymnastic  exercises,  the  arrangement  of  the  time-table  should  consider 
more  than  heretofore  the  health  of  students,  especially  by  giving  longer  intermis¬ 
sions  between  lessons. 

4.  Since  the  institution  known  as  “Abschlussprlifung”  [an  examination  con-  - 
ducted  after  six  years’  attendance  to  enable  students  to  abridge  their  military 
service. — Ti\]  has  not  proved  a  relief,  and  especially  has  not  relieved  the  throng 
to  the  universities,  on  the  contrary,  has  rather  increased  the  number  of  candidates 
for  higher  seats  of  learning,  it  is  desirable  to  abandon  the  examination. 

5.  The  establishment  of.  secondary  schools  according  to  the  plans  adopted  in 
Altona  and  Frankfurt  has  generally  proved  a  success.  [These  schools  begin  with 
modern  instead  of  with  ancient  languages. — Tr.]  Their  common  foundation,  which 
embraces  the  Realschulen,  forms  a  social  advantage  not  to  be  underestimated.  I 
therefore  desire  that  such  attempts  be  not  only  continued  where  they  have  been 
tried,  but  that  they  be  made  in  other  localities  also. 

I  entertain  the  hope  that  the  measures  instituted  to  realize  the  ideas  expressed 
in  the  foregoing  will  find  no  obstacles  among  the  teachers,  in  whose  ever  acute 
sense  of  duty  and  faithful  devotion  I  trust,  so  that  our  secondary  schools  may 
benefit  thereby,  and  the  contrasts  between  representatives  of  the  humanistic  and 
realistic  tendencies  be  lessened  and  terminate  in  a  conciliatory  spirit. 

The  educational  press  of  Germany  has  not  published  much  with  reference  to  the 
Emperor’s  utterance,  but  the  foreign  press  considers  it  as  a  very  important  state 
action  and  treats  it  accordingly.  Inasmuch  as  French  alone  among  the  modern 
languages  has  been  obligatory  in  former  days  in  the  classical  schools  of  Germany, 
some  journals  in  France  have  seen  in  the  Emperor’s  advice  a  thrust  at  France. 

The  Journal  des  Debats  (Paris)  nevertheless  says  that  the  Emperor  merely 
gives  to  English  that  increased  importance  which  naturally  belongs  to  ifc.  This 
is  also  the  opinion  of  the  Gaulois  (Paris),  from  which  the  Literary  Digest  takes 
the  following: 

At  one  time  French  was  predominant  as  the  language  of  diplomacy,  of  litera¬ 
ture,  of  society.  Perhaps  it  still  holds  its  own  in  these  respects.  It  is  still  the  best 
medium  for  lively,  graceful  conversation;  still  the  best  means  to  express  clearly 
all  international  agreements.  But  that  only  proves  the  value  of  French  as  an 
international  means  of  communication  in  the  aristocratic  world.  As  long  as  the 
study  of  languages  was  the  privilege  of  exclusive  circles,  nothing  could  disturb  the 
supremacy  of  French.  To-day  the  French  language  only  shares  in  the  deprecia¬ 
tion  of  everything  aristocratic.  The  business  man  rules  the  world,  and  the  busi¬ 
ness  man  cares  but  little  about  the  beauty  of  a  language.  It  is  the  young  merchant 
who  tours  the  world  nowadays,  instead  of  the  young  gentleman  ’who  used  to  fre¬ 
quent  courts  and  universities;  and  the  merchant  prefers  the  language  of  the  people 
to  whom  he  would  sell  his  goods.  We  are  not  the  most  prominent  nation  in 
trade  and  colonization,  hence  the  study  of  our  language  is  less  important  than  that 
of  others.  The  crisis  of  the  French  language  is  not  due  to  our  social  or  literary 
decadence,  but  to  our  economic  inferiority. 

At  present  the  business  impulse  is  undoubtedly  strongest  in  Germany.  But  the 
German  has  encountered  the  Englishman  everywhere  as  a  competitor.  Germany 
finds  England  as  England  found  Holland.  The  English  learned  the  secret  of 
trade  from  the  Dutch,  the  Germans  have  learned  it  from  the  English.  In  this 
kind  of  struggle  the  nations  at  first  combat  each  other,  but  they  soon  come  to 
terms,  especially  if  they  are  similar  in  race  and  language.  The  period  of  violent 
competition  and  enmity  between  Germany  and  England  has  been  but  short,  nor 
has  it  been  very  critical.  Its  most  prominent  feature  is  the  English  regulation  to 


8 


EDUCATION  EEPQET,  1900-1901. 


stamp  German  manufactures  as  “  made  in  Germany,”  a  measure  which  has  not 
hurt  the  Germans,  and  is  not  nearly  so  full  of  animosity  as  Cromwell’s  navigation 
act.  To-day  the  English  and  Germans  have  settled  down  to  friendly  competition. 
That,  then,  is  the  reason  why  the  young  men  of  the  German  middle  classes,  who 
are  not  intended  to  become  cavaliers  nor  men  of  the  world,  but  business  men  and 
industrials,  are  advised  by  their  Emperor  to  learn  English  rather  than  French. 


II.  THE  NECESSITY  OF  TECHNOLOGICAL  EDUCATION. 

[Extracts  from  an  address  of  Prof.  A.  Riedler,  rector  of  the  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Berlin.1] 

The  demands  made  by  present  conditions  of  life  upon  education  are  different 
from  those  of  former  times,  and  they  are  determinative.  Powerful  forces  and 
influences  have  changed  conditions  of  life,  and  education,  to  be  correct,  must  be 
in  harmony  with  these  conditions.  Public  education  is  not  meant  only  to  serve 
certain  classes  of  society,  but  must  promote  national  and  political  interests  by 
stimulating  productive  activity.  The  causes,  phenomena,  and  characteristics  of 
recent  demands  upon  modern  education,  in  so  far  as  they  proceed  from  changed 
conditions  of  life,  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  The}7  make  the  conclusion  a 
natural  consequence. 

Present  conditions  of  existence  in  connection  with  the  great  educational  ques¬ 
tions  are,  in  the  first  place,  characterized  by  an  endless  diversity  in  the  growth  of 
the  sciences,  which  are,  nevertheless,  only  at  the  beginning  of  an  incalculable 
development.  Whoever  sees  nothing  more  in  this  uninterrupted  progress  than  an 
increase  of  scientific  matter  can  demand  nothing  more  than  that  every  new  scien¬ 
tific  branch  receive  a  new  professor  and  new  classes  of  students.  Man  will  hardly 
live  long  enough,  however,  to  be  able  to  acquire  all  scientific  knowledge;  that  is 
out  of  the  question.  As  it  is  improper  to  develop  specialism  in  school,  so  incon¬ 
ceivable  is  the  thought  of  learning  all  that  science  offers. 

There  is  but  one  way  of  meeting  the  constant  development  of  science,  using  the 
term  in  its  broadest  sense,  namely,  by  division  of  labor  and  an  education  calcu¬ 
lated  to  effect  self-reliance,  utmost  simplicity,  comprehension  of  essentials,  and  a 
final  absorption  in  or  devotion  to  one  branch  of  science.  But  that  way  is  impos¬ 
sible  unless  the  command  of  scientific  principles  is  combined  with  their  applica¬ 
tion.  The  thought  of  accomplishing  anything  at  all  by  mere  theoretical  speculation 
is  undeserving  of  the  least  attention. 

As  a  further  result  of  recent  conditions  of  existence,  I  may  say  that  the  means 
of  education  at  our  command  are  much  more  varied  than  those  of  former  times. 
Formerly,  all  known  wisdom  was  contained  in  a  book  of  written  notes,  and  could 
be  taught  only  from  the  teacher’s  chair.  This  point  of  view,  though  long  since 
overruled,  is  still  adopted  in  instruction  and  for  educational  means.  About  four 
hundred  years  ago  Melanchthon  taught  theology,  philosophy,  natural  sciences, 
and  mathematics.  In  his  time,  however,  theology  and  philosophy  were  identical; 
natural  sciences  meant  a  translation  of  Aristotle,  and  mathematics  that  of  Euclid. 
Whoever  had  a  knowledge  of  the  dead  languages  was  able  to  teach  these  studies. 

In  our  own  day  much  is  proclaimed  from  the  professor’s  chair  as  wisdom  which 
is  nothing  beyond  a  knowledge  of  methods  and  scientific  expedients,  and  neglects 
any  consideration  of  modern  educational  means  or  the  present  status  of  science, 
i.  e.,  the  matter  of  education. 

Modern  educational  matter  and  means2 *  have  become  infinitely  more  varied 
than  would  be  supposed  from  the  scholastic  method  still  in  use.  It  is  astonish¬ 
ing  how  ancient  and  antiquated  forms  are  preserved  and  continue  in  vogue,  as 

1  This  is  the  paper  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  correspondence. 

2  It  must  he  borne  in  mind  that  the  author  refers  to  secondary  and  higher  institutions  of 

learning.  Whenever  he  uses  the  word  school  it  is  always  in  that  sense. 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  TECHNOLOGICAL  EDUCATION. 


9 


though  printing  had  never  been  invented,  and  wisdom  emanated  only  from  cer¬ 
tain  rostra. 

An  immense  overvaluation  of  erudition  at  present  predominates  in  place  of 
applied  knowledge,  to  which  no  special  significance  seems  to  attach.  The  mania 
still  prevails  to  treat  all  subjects  historically,  though  history  is  often  only  a  history 
of  errors,  and  the  young  are  tortured  by  these  errors  instead  of  being  trained  to 
clear  judgments. 

Technological  methods  in  all  departments  of  study  are  still  too  much  underrated. 
These  methods  aim  to  give  every  branch  of  knowledge  the  simplest  and  most 
easily  applied  form  of  expression,  together  with  the  greatest  clearness  and  most 
distinct  arrangement.  I  beg  leave  to  mention  that  university  men  are  just 
beginning  to  reap  laurels  by  applying  technological  methods  which  are  familiar 
to  us,  but  have  until  recently  been  ignored  by  the  learned  profession. 

Another  characteristic  of  altered  conditions  of  life  is  the  demand  upon  educa¬ 
tion  for  a  different  content  (Inhalt).  In  former  times  efforts  toward  the  highest 
education  tended  in  one  direction  alone;  they  aimed  at  discovering  an  all- 
comprehending  discipline  (branch  of  study)  for  thought.  This  led  to  the  most 
startling  errors,  especially  in  philosophical  specnlation. 

To-day  representatives  of  the  flatural  sciences  occupy  the  same  chairs  from 
which  the  infallibility  of  speculation  was  once  preached.  In  juxtaposition  to  this 
there  is  the  fact  that  true  education  must  at  the  present  day  he  inseparably  con¬ 
nected  with  the  consciousness  that  so  called  general  education,  as  well  as  individ¬ 
ual  or  special  education,  is  defective  (Stiickwerk) .  He  who  fails  to  hold  this 
view  can  not  have  an  extended  intellectual  horizon.  True  education  at  present 
does  not  consist  in  the  knowledge  of  many  things,  or  in  knowing  what  has  been 
transmitted  by  learned  authority,  hut  in  understanding  the  connection  between 
different  branches  of  knowledge  and  in  a  certain  veracity  of  thought  that  appre¬ 
ciates  the  coniines  of  cognition  and  judgment.  By  no  means  does  it  consist  in  a 
presumptuous  belief  in  the  infallibility  of  any  single  branch  of  knowledge. 

For  true  education  there  is  no  other  foundation  than  that  of  reality.  The 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  development  of  a  correct  mode  of  thought  is  the  prevailing 
false  training,  mostly  supported  by  dogmas  which  admit  of  nothing  except  blind 
acceptation.  Take  these  dogmas  away  and  the  whole  educational  structure  will 
fall.  I  merely  refer,  as  an  example,  to  the  enormous  overvaluation  of  language, 
or,  more  properly  speaking,  grammatical  instruction. 

A  false  professional  preparation  of  the  teachers  for  secondary  schools  also  needs 
mention.  Every  candidate  is  trained  in  only  one  special  branch.  Instruction  is 
but  a  reiteration  of  information,  and  a  dead  weight  of  facts  instead  of  the  recog¬ 
nition  of  truth  is  implanted  in  the  minds  of  students — a  school  philosophy  which 
it  is  well  to  forget  as  soon  as  possible. 

Another  great  obstacle  is  the  study  for  qualification,1  in  view  of  which  many 
school  .plans  are  formed,  as  well  as  the  acquisition  of  certificates  of  qualification, 
in  the  belief  that  their  possession  implies  qualification  and  competency  to  govern 
and  criticise,  a  belief  that  is  fast  gaining  ground  with  modern  youth.  Study  for 
qualification,  remunerative  support,  or  salaried  position  are  cynosures  for  many. 

Greater  obstacles  still  are  living  examples;  they  exercise  a  stronger  influence 
than  words  spoken  or  written.  The  worst  example  is  the  power  of  those  who  have 
no  practical  education  and  not  the  least  notion  of  productive  energy,  and  who 
exert  their  power  to  the  greatest  detriment  of  tlie  ambition  and  love  for  work  of 
those  who  really  labor.  In  this  respect  a  comparison  with  foreign  countries, 
especially  the  United  States,  forces  itself  into  notice. 


1  The  author  here  refers  to  the  examination  which  entitles  the  student  to  an  abbreviation  of 
his  term  of  service  in  the  army,  and  to  otner  examinations  which  open  the  door  to  promotion 
and  State  service. 


10 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


So  far  as  the  national  spirit  is  concerned,  Germany  need  not  dread  a  comparison 
with  America  on  many  points.  The  Germans,  the  nation  of  visionaries,  as  they 
were  called,  were,  in  fact,  an  agricultural  people  until  very  recent  times.  With 
the  development  of  technology  they  awoke  to  the  consciousness  of  their  latent 
power.  The  German  nation  has  had  reason  to  rejoice  in  a  Christmas  gift  not 
granted  by  many  centuries — the  Thoughts  and  Reminiscences  of  Prince  Bismarck. 
In  this  work  a  gianj;  mind  speaks  to  his  nation,  and  his  words  contain  an  instruct¬ 
ive  force  that  will  be  felt  in  centuries  to  come.  In  these  reminiscences  we  read 
that  the  progress  of  a  nation  is  inseparable  from  a  certain  healthy  egotism,  to  be 
controlled  by  necessity  and  never  to  degenerate  into  a  spirit  of  domination  or 
power.  It  is  deplorable  that  we  have  no  other  word  for  egotism.  It  is  a  law  of 
nature,  like  the  struggle  for  existence,  and  has  other  than  a  derogatory  significance. 
In  the  life  of  nations  there  is  a  necessary  and  commendable  selfishness  upon  which 
their  greatness  is  dependent. 

All  effort  indispensable  to  the  growth  of  a  nation  and  to  creative  energy  must 
proceed  from  a  healthy  egotism.  It  is  necessary  for  national  interests,  as  self- 
reliance  and  self-help  can  thrive  on  no  other  soil.  God  helps  those  who  help  them¬ 
selves,  and  first  in  order  come  governments.  At  times  demands  are  made  upon 
governments  which  they  can  not  meet,  even  with  the  best  will  and  greatest 
resources  at  command.  A  healthy  development  is  possible  only  through  self- 
reliance  and  self-help. 

The  most  significant  part  is  played  by  the  power  of  adaptability.  Individuals 
as  well  as  nations  grow  old  and  decrepit  as  soon  as  they  cease  to  fit  themselves  to 
changed  relations  and  conditions.  No  State  can  desire  that.  Every  effort  must  be 
made  to  cultivate  this  most  important  faculty.  The  power  of  adaptability,  con¬ 
nected  with  right  knowledge,  meets  the  probabilities  of  life.  In  life  there  is  very 
little  absolutely  certain.  Mere  jnobability  is  a  general  rule,  and  it  is  self-evident 
that  certain  conditions  can  not  be  recognized  at  all,  or  only  at  improper  times.  In 
all  practical  problems  the  multiplicity  of  conditions  acts  as  a  restraint.  The  diffi¬ 
culty  of  the  problems  consists  in  managing  the  complexity  of  given  conditions, 
together  with  their  contradictions  and  opposing  forces,  that  must  be  overcome 
and  can  be  set  aside  by  a  corresponding  power  of  adaptability. 

Considering  whom  I  am  addressing,  I  need  place  no  special  stress  on  the 
fact  that  engineers  find  their  chief  difficulty  and  greatest  problem  in  the  afore¬ 
mentioned  peculiarity.  In  no  deed  of  engineering  can  calculations  be  made  as 
exactly  as  in  a  mathematical  problem.  Every  such  act  deals  with  a  multiplicity 
of  conditions,  a  whole  series  of  probabilities.  A  proper  consideration  of  proba¬ 
bilities  and  their  valuation  in  the  face ,  of  definite  conditions  is  generally  called 
speculation.  This  does  not  concern  industry  alone,  but  all  creative  activities,  and 
most  of  all  those  that  intend  to  govern,  whether  at  the  top  or  modestly  in  the 
ranks.  To  govern  means  to  anticipate,  not  to  decree.  Whoever  wants  to  foresee 
must  know  how  to  deal  with  the  whole  sum  of  probabilities  that  entangle  practical 
life  in  intricate  perplexity. 

The  further  division  of  labor  progresses,  the  greater  the  dependence  of  separate 
branches  of  knowledge  one  upon  the  other.  That  is  an  unavoidable  consequence. 
One  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a  correct  comprehension  of  given  conditions  is  the 
overestimation  of  knowledge,  even  technical. 

Every  creative  agency  has  not  its  own  end  in  view,  but  is  a  means  toward  defi¬ 
nite  economic  purposes.  Technical  activity  is  only  a  part  of  all  creative  agency. 
Whoever  understands  building  or  other  construction  to  be  its  own  end  makes  a 
mistake.  Professional  narrow-mindedness  that  ignores  the  dependence  of  one 
branch  upon  others  leads  to  wrong  results. 

The  education  of  engineers  of  the  future  must  therefore  not  be  one  partially 
false,  but  it  must  be  an  economic  technological  training.  Every  engineer  who 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  TECHNOLOGICAL  EDUCATION. 


11 


wishes  to  be  a  creative  agent  must  realize  that  he  is  a  link  in  the  chain  of  creative 
labor.  The  whole  future,  as  a  matter  of  course,  depends  upon  this  connection 
between  technological  creative  agency  and  economic  development.  All  instruc¬ 
tion,  especially  that  in  universities,  must  conform  to  this  tendency.  The  time  has 
passed  when  purely  scientific  education  meets  all  demands. 

The  present  situation  is  still  very  unsatisfactory.  All  preparatory  education 
excludes  technological  views  and  fails  to  meet  demands.  In  the  universities,  even, 
the  opinion  prevails  that  purely  abstract  scientific  qualification  is  all  that  is  neces¬ 
sary.  There  are  numbers  of  scientific  specialists  teaching  in  universities  who  have 
never  gained  any  experience  on  their  own  responsibility,  who  have  never  them¬ 
selves  worked,  and  have  no  insight  into  the  relations  of  present  community  life. 
Equipped  with  superficial  (oberflachlich)  knowledge,  they  are  capable  only  to 
exercise  criticism,  and,  in  turn,  only  educate  critics.  I  maintain  that  all  school 
organization  upon  which  men  of  technological  education  have  no  influence  is  very 
unsatisfactory.  Even  in  technological  institutions  representatives  of  abstract  or 
alien  studies  have  the  deciding  voice,  instead  of  professors  in  the  appropriate  line. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  x>resent  is  the  decadence  of  authority.  The  influ¬ 
ence  of  authority  in  every  direction  is  weakening  fast;  not  only  the  authority  of 
the  past,  together  with  everything  based  upon  it,  but  also  that  of  the  present, 
especially  in  social  and  political  affairs.  What  was  formerly  solved  in  the  simplest 
way  by  belief  in  authority  is  at  present  impossible.  The  result  is  irrepressible. 
It  is  the  progressing  democratization  of  all  educational  institutions,  and  this  is 
accelerated  by  modern  technical  institutions.  What  was  formerly  exclusive  has 
become  common  property.  In  education  this  fact  is  perceptible  in  the  comparison 
of  jmesent  public  instruction  with  that  of  the  old  monastic  or  convent  schools. 
Despite  modernism  and  its  numerous  educational  agencies,  many  efforts  are  still 
made  to  preserve  untenable,  outgrown  institutions.  There  is  much  historical 
tradition  in  education,  especially  in  classical  schools,  and  generally  in  linguistic 
education.  The  contention  concerning  the  course  of  study  in  secondary  or  pre¬ 
paratory  schools  is  frequently  based  on  false  grounds. 

If  only  the  superiority  of  one  or  the  other  educational  plan  were  to  be  proved, 
discussion  on  many  points  would  long  since  have  been  decided;  but  the  case  is 
different.  The  old  institution  (the  classical  school  or  gymnasium)  of  verbal  trans¬ 
mission  of  classic  lore  is  defended,  not  in  the  interests  of  the  subject,  but  for  the 
sake  of  prerogatives  or  privileges  connected  with  it.  Other  institutions  would  be 
considered  equally  good  if  they  could  only  be  imbued  with  the  flavor  of  aristoc¬ 
racy;  if  they  could  grant  privileges  of  qualification  and  were  not  within  reach  of 
all,  and  if  they  assured  an  exclusiveness  favoring  a  growth  of  separate  interests. 
Therefore  I  do  not  believe  that  the  discussion  which  so  often  provokes  heated 
argument  'will  ever  cease  so  long  as  it  is  based  on  the  subject-matter.  It  is  the 
struggle  for  privileges  (private  rights)  that  is  carried  on  with  such  bitterness. 

The  ruling  system  of  education  favors  language  instruction,  merely  the  forms 
of  thought,  too  much;  contents  seem  to  be  of  secondary  importance.  This  leads 
to  verbality,  shallow  interpretation,  and  fruitless  criticism.  A  consequence  of  the 
present  educational  code  is  that  young  men  are  not  conscious  of  the  importance 
of  correctness  of  thought  above  mere  form.  He  who  masters  the  forms  passes 
the  examinations  in  school;  he  who  fails  in  that  is  considered  incompetent. 

Unfortunately,  instruction  in  mathematics  is  not  much  different  from  that  of 
language.  It  is  too  independent  of  application.  The  unavoidable  consequence  is 
that  young  men  attempt  to  solve  all  problems  like  mathematical  tasks  at  school, 
and  whatever  can  not  be  solved  in  this  manner  is  simply  neglected.  Thus  a  belief 
is  developed  that  everything  can  be  solved  with  exactness.  Mathematical  for¬ 
mulas  are  applied,  and  real  difficulties  not  to  be  dealt  with  mathematically,  are 
evaded.  The  belief  is  strengthened  that  all  scientific  questions  can  be  solved  by 


12 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


mathematics,  and  that  everything  we  desire  can  be  determined  like  the  value 
of  x  in  an  equation.  If  conditions  are  to  improve,  the  whole  educational  system 
must  be  permeated  with  a  right  technological  view  and  mind,  which  is  the  spirit 
of  responsibility  and  proper  application.  Teachers  must  not  only  possess  more 
than  a  purely  abstract  education,  but  must  be  able  to  apply  their  knowledge; 
they  must  themselves  have  a  mind  for  the  treatment  of  probabilities  and  of  errors; 
they  mu  t  awaken  the  consciousness  of  errors.  That  will  result  in  the  conscious¬ 
ness  of  creative  activity  and  the  multiplicity  of  practical  conditions;  that  mere 
power  of  criticism  will  lose  in  the  game  may  be  a  great  gain. 

Furthermore,  an  instruction  and  a  method  are  required  that  will  develop  quali¬ 
ties  which  a  nation  does  not  possess,  and  not  those  alone  which  are  inborn  in  the 
people.  That  is  our  vulnerable  point.  Subtlety  of  thought  and  speculation  are 
encouraged  with  us,  while  that  which  distinguishes  other  nations  plays  a  very 
insignificant  part  in  our  education.  Finally,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  fulfillment 
of  these  claims  must  make  it  possible  to  train  pupils  to  a  greater  self-reliance  in 
their  work. 

On  account  of  privileges  and  prejudices,  reforms  always  lead  a  fierce  strife. 
History  furnishes  many  examples  to  prove  that  institutions  on  the  decline  have 
been  defended  to  the  bitterest  end.  The  struggle  is  always  one  in  defense  of 
privileges.  Whoever  attempts  to  inaugurate  reforms  for  the  development  of 
suitable  education  by  changing  existing  systems  will  always  meet  the  strongest 
opposition,  and  especially  the  resistance  of  intellectual  inertia.  It  is  a  law  of 
nature  like  the  passiveness  of  the  masses;  the  resistance  of  the  narrow-minded 
and  the  privileged  leads  to  a  hard  struggle.  This  should  not  be  fought  for  its 
own  ends;  it  must  have  a  well-defined  purpose,  which  should  be  the  right  educa¬ 
tion  necessary  for  national  progress.  I  may  here  add  that  school  reform  is  not 
the  only  thing  to  be  accomplished. 

Presupposing,  however,  the  most  far-reaching  success,  that  purpose  can  only 
be  attained  by  the  cooperation  of  all  factors,  and  engineers  and  other  men  of 
technological  education  must  make  every  exertion  to  obtain  recognition  for  their 
work  and  through  their  work.  I  regret  to  admit  that  this  factor  stands  in  need 
of  much  reform.  The  technical  professional  spirit  leaves  much  to  be  desired 
when  compared  with  that  of  law  and  medicine.  Professional  ambition  is  still  too 
prevalent.  Criticism  is  exercised  on  engineering  feats  by  those  who  are  not 
engineers.  There  has  developed  in  recent  years  a  mode  of  expert  criticism  in 
form  of  commissions,  the  members  of  which  are  anything  but  experts.  It  would 
do  much  good  if  we  had  such  representatives  as  chambers  of  engineering,  as  mer¬ 
chants  and  financiers  have  in  their  chambers  of  commerce,  physicians  in  their 
medical  boards,  etc.  Engineers  have  no  similar  institutions;  a  mere  association 
will  not  do. 

There  should  also  be  an  institution  of  the  highest  order  and  authority  for  tech¬ 
nology.  Universities  do  not  answer  the  purpose;  only  an  “Academy  of  tech¬ 
nological  sciences”  would  satisfy  the  want.  The  Prussian  Academy  of  Architec¬ 
ture  is  no  such  institution,  being  only  an  auxiliary  board,  consulted  by  the  min¬ 
ister  of  public  works  when  it  suits  his  purpose. 

The  defense  of  the  profession  of  engineering  also  deserves  mention  here. 
Efforts  toward  that  end  are  most  significant,  but  have  not  always  been  well 
directed.  The  title  “engineer”  has  been  brought  into  such  discredit  that  I  do  not 
think  it  can  be  generally  raised  at  once;  some  time  will  be  required  for  this  end. 

The  drawback  is  that  State  secondary  schools  educate  “  engineers.”  The  sec¬ 
ondary,  like  all  other,  schools  in  Germany  are  managed  by  State  governments, 
and  I  do  not  think  all  will  relinquish  the  title  without  opposition.  The  Prussian 
ministry  of  public  works  has  done  much  to  bring  the  title  of  engineer  into  dis¬ 
repute  by  granting  it  to  those  who  have  no  academic  higher  education. 


THE  NECESSITY  OF  TECHNOLOGICAL  EDUCATION. 


13 


I  believe,  therefore,  that  the  only  practical  means  of  defense  for  the  profession 
is  the  degree  of  doctor.  This  degree  has  social  value,  is  distinguished  by  tradi¬ 
tion,  and  is  an  important  and  powerful  weapon  for  equalization  of  the  professions. 
At  one  time  theologians  alone  held  the  degree,  lawyers  relieved  them,  and  their 
successors  in  turn,  down  to  chemists,  encountered  the  distrust  and  opposition  of 
the  old  holders  of  the  privilege.  I  see  no  reason  for  engineers  to  follow  a  different 
course.  They  should  conform  to  tradition,  for  in  this  case  tradition  bears  the 
valuable  testimony  of  a  definite  course  of  education,  and  attests  the  value  of  any 
new  as  well  as  the  old  accustomed  courses.  If  the  degree  of  doctor  is  granted  to 
engineers,  I  consider  the  safety  of  the  engineer’s  title  guaranteed.  It  is  hardly 
possible  in  any  other  way. 

Confronted  by  the  unavoidable  contest,  our  question  is,  What  practical  and 
strategical  means  can  be  employed  in  the  struggle?  One  way  is  to  begin  at  the 
bottom  and  end  at  the  top;  to  begin  with  schools  and  preparatory  education,  with 
the  training  of  teachers,  and  subsequently  give  attention  to  the  highest  seats  of 
learning.  This  way  will  arouse  much  opposition  from  people  who  have  no  com¬ 
prehension  for  technological  work,  and  it  requires  many  decades  of  painful  labor. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  right  way  is  to  begin  the  reform  at  the  very  top. 
We  who  possess  a  technological  education  must  exert  ourselves  to  make  influen¬ 
tial  men  understand  our  work  and  the  necessity  of  promoting  technological  edu¬ 
cation.  It  is  our  duty  to  lead  them  to  this  conviction. 

The  greatest  hindrance  is  found  in  the  want  of  sympathy  among  our  prominent 
colleagues,  who,  in  the  midst  of  their  professional  success,  do  not  care  to  take  the 
time  or  the  trouble  to  interrupt  their  own  great  efforts  in  order  to  consider  the 
difficulties  of  professional  movements  or  to  interest  themselves  in  the  mental 
grasp  of  the  young. 

Technological  pursuits  are  already  beginning  to  receive  earnest  attention. 
Technological  universities  are  gaining  recognition  where  they  were  formerly 
unknown.  Even  the  old  universities  that  made  no  effort  to  hide  their  contempt 
are  beginning  to  grow  thoughtful.  Several  of  the  erstwhile  nonbelieving  are,  in 
fact,  ranged  on  our  side.  One  instance  of  great  success  is  the  establishment  of 
laboratories  on  a  large  scale.  One  and  a  half  million  marks  ($357,000)  have  been 
appropriated  for  the  department  of  machine  construction  in  the  Polytechnicum 
of  Berlin.  The  South  German  States  have  followed  this  example.  Wurttemberg 
has  appropriated  1,000,000,  Baden  almost  as  many,  marks  for  machine  construc¬ 
tion  and  electro-technological  shops  alone.  The  beginning  has  thus  been  made. 
Other  institutions  of  technology  will  follow  the  example  given.  That  the  instruc¬ 
tion  is  thereby  based  upon  an  entirely  different  foundation  from  that  of  former 
times  is  self-evident. 

Another  instance  of  success  is  the  establishment  of  new  technological  institu¬ 
tions  in  different  cities,  as,  for  instance,  Dantzic.  The  establishment  of  that 
school  has  been  officially  announced  at  the  last  session  of  the  House  of  Deputies, 
and  all  political  parties  in  the  House  voted  for  the  necessary  appropriation;  the 
vote  was  virtually  unanimous.  The  conditions  in  Dantzic  present  many  difficul¬ 
ties.  Education  does  not  rank  in  the  eastern  provinces  as  it  does  in  the  western. 
The  Government  knows  perfectly  well  that  attendance  in  Dantzic  will  at  first  be 
poor;  nevertheless,  the  institution  will  be  established  on  a  large  scale  as  a  full- 
fledged  technological  university.  About  the  same  number  of  teachers  will  be 
employed  as  at  the  polytechnic  in  Vienna;  but  there  will  be  four  professors  alone 
for  shipbuilding,  and  for  machine  construction  there  will  be  three  more  than  in 
Vienna.1 

The  establishment  of  a  technological  university  in  Breslau  (Province  of  Silesia, 

1  This  comparison  with  Vienna,  Austria,  is  made  by  the  author  because  he  delivered  this 
address  to  a  congress  of  technologists  in  Vienna.— Translator. 


14 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Prussia,)  has  been  much  discussed,  but  as  yet  there  is  no  prospect  of  its  becoming 
a  reality,  though  conditions  are  favorable.  Despite  its  necessity  for  the  Province 
of  Silesia,  the  representatives  of  technological  institutions  were  called  upon  to 
oppose  its  foundation  because  of  the  movement  to  affiliate  different  technological 
departments  with  the  old-established  university.  Such  an  action  would  be  detri¬ 
mental  rather  than  encouraging  to  the  development  of  technological  sciences. 
Our  professional  studies  would  decline  within  the  confines  of  a  university.  The 
necessity  for  technological  institutions  is  so  great  that  some  more  must  be  called 
into  existence  independent  of  universities. 

Every  German  engineer  will  think  of  the  Emperor  with  a  feeling  of  intense 
gratification  and  sincere  gratitude.  He  has  shown  the  most  astonishing  interest  in 
technology  and  has  supported  the  interests  of  technologists  with  surprising  sym¬ 
pathy.  This  has  not  manifested  itself  only  toward  marine  engineering,  but  is 
also  combined  with  a  true  understanding  of  technological  sciences  and  a  judg¬ 
ment  truly  remarkable.  On  different  occasions  technological  institutions  have 
been  honored  by  visits  from  the  Emperor.  I  do  not  know  that  any  other  higher 
institution  has  been  similarly  favored.  The  personal  initiative  of  the  Emperor  in 
inviting  three  Prussian  representatives  of  technological  institutions  to  the  Imperial 
palace  is  well  known. 

I  also  remind  you  of  a  powerful,  though  unsuccessful,  initiative  taken  by  the 
Emperor  toward  reform  in  the  preparatory  schools.  The  thoughts  expressed  at 
that  time  alone  have  the  characteristic  of  truth.  I  refer  to  the  fundamental  idea 
of  beginning  with  the  study  of  the  present  time  and  its  conditions  and  ending 
with  the  past.  That  idea  should  have  been  carried  into  effect  in  the  schools.  The 
first  measures  toward  the  foundation  of  a  polytechnic  in  Dantzic  is  likewise 
attributable  to  the  Emperor’s  initiative. 

It  is  too  late  for  us  to  enter  into  further  details.  I  shall  only  acknowledge,  with 
great  satisfaction,  that  a  strong,  refreshing  current  is  felt  at  present.  He  who 
maintains  that  the  world  has  been  divided,  and  that  engineers,  like  poets,  have 
fallen  short,  is  unjust  to  us.  The  reverse  is  true.  Engineers  are  indispensable 
to  a  new  world  and  its  new  conditions,  and  I  am  convinced  that  engineers  of 
the  twentieth  century  will  hold  a  more  important  position  than  lawyers  of  the 
nineteenth. 

I  shall  close  with  Hutten’s  1  familiar  words:  “Century  and  science!  It  is  a 
pleasure  to  live,  though  we  must  not  grow  weary.  Sciences  and  talents  are  flour¬ 
ishing  now.  Ancient  barbarism,  take  the  warning  and  seek  another  place  of 
refuge.”  Barbarism,  however,  continues  to  exist.  It  is  recognized  in  ancient 
formalities  that  must  be  overcome.  Struggle  there  must  be,  but  its  issue  will  be 
a  glorious  future. 


III.  ART  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 

[On  the  subject  of  education  in  art,  Mr.  W.  von  Seidlitz  publishes  in  the 
Deutsche  Revue  of  November,  1900,  an  article  which  deserves  attention  owing  to 
its  compact  review  of  recent  efforts  in  this  direction  in  Germany.  He  uses  the 
term  art  not  in  any  restricted,  but  ih  the  widest,  sense,  as  embracing  poetry,  or 
rather  literature,  painting,  and  sculpture,  the  drama  and  music;  he  includes  even 
industrial  art.  The  essay  is  here  reproduced  in  English,  because  it  contains  some 
valuable  suggestions  of  what  the  German  teachers  do  to  foster  art  education.] 

It  is  one  of  the  signs  of  a  new  era  when  we  hear  of  art  education  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  general  intellectual  education  and  special  professional  training.  Georg 
Hirsch,  of  Munich,  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  who  brought  this  distinction  promi- 


1  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  1488-1523. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 


15 


nently  before  the  German  nation.  In  his  Ideas  Concerning  the  Teaching  of  Draw¬ 
ing  and  Professional  Art  Education  (1887)  he  enlisted  the  attention  of  his  readers 
chiefly  to  the  education  of  artists.  But  in  the  same  year  Prof.  A.  Lichtwark 
read  an  excellent  paper  on  “Art  in  school”  before  the  Society  for  the  Advance¬ 
ment  of  Pedagogical  Science  in  Hamburg.  In  1893  Konrad  Lange,  formerly  pro¬ 
fessor  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg,  now  in  Tubingen,  published  his  book  on 
Art  Education  for  German  Youth,  which  book  served  its  purpose  well,  owing  to 
its  valuable  suggestions.  From  that  time  on  energetic  efforts  in  behalf  of  educa¬ 
tion  in  art  in  German  schools  were  made  under  the  leadership  of  the  teachers  of 
Hamburg. 

The  question  of  art  education  does  not,  as  a  matter  of  course,  refer  alone  to  the 
education  of  children,  but  to  that  of  adults  as  well.  It  concerns  the  great  uncul¬ 
tured  mass  as  well  as  educated  people.  The  general  object  is  to  train  the  artistic 
sense,  chiefly  the  eyes,  of  the  whole  nation,  and  this  object  is  quite  as  important 
as  the  development  of  the  power  of  thinking,  which  has  been  so  exclusively 
emphasized  heretofore.  But  though  in  the  end  the  whole  nation  is  to  be  bene¬ 
fited,  it  follows  that  a  beginning  has  to  be  made  in  training  the  young.  This 
latter,  however,  is  possible  only  when  the  teachers  are  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
Only  through  a  proper  training  of  teachers  in  art  can  the  necessary  conditions 
for  successful  art  work  among  children  be  met.  And  this  has  been  the  German 
policy  all  along:  For  whatever  new  branch  was  introduced  into  the  schools  the 
teachers  were  prepared  a  long  way  ahead. 

The  movement  in  behalf  of  art  education  in  schools  did  not  originate  in  Ger¬ 
many,  but  may  be  traced  to  France  and  England,  two  countries  which  most 
energetically  promoted  art  education  of  all  kinds.  In  France,  as  early  as  1880, 
the  minister  of  public  instruction  appointed  a  commission  to  prepare  the  neces¬ 
sary  measures  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  art  into  the  schools.  In  England, 
several  years  earlier,  the  Manchester  Art  Museum  had  undertaken  to  provide 
elementary  schools  with  good  pictures,  and  since  1883  the  Art  for  School  Asso¬ 
ciation  is  active  for  the  same  purpose.  Now  that  Germany  has  joined  the  move¬ 
ment,  it  is  confidently  hoped  that  a  strong  impulse  for  the  acceleration  of  the 
movement  will  be  the  result,  for  however  much  a  so-called  practical  education 
is  advocated  during  the  last  two  decades,  Germany  is  ever  ready  to  stand  in  the 
front  rank  where  the  solution  of  ideal  questions  is  sought.  And  such  a  question 
is  under  discussion. 

Several  points  come  under  consideration:  (1)  The  selection  of  juvenile  litera¬ 
ture;  (2)  the  artistic  preparation  of  picture  books;  (3)  the  artistic  decoration  of 
schoolrooms;  (4)  the  reform  of  drawing  instruction;  (5)  manual  training;  (6) 
the  utilization  of  art  museums  for  the  education  of  the  young;  (7)  theater  per¬ 
formances,  and  (8)  concerts  for  children.  The  teachers  of  the  city  of  Hamburg 
so  far  have  been  the  most  active  in  all  these  directions,  hence  the  results  of  their 
work  and  their  publications  deserve  to  be  mentioned  first  of  all,  as  pioneer  work, 
so  to  speak. 

Since  the  year  1893  the  teachers’  committee  for  the  examination  of  juvenile 
literature  has  published  a  monthly,  edited  by  Heinrich  Wolgast,  which  paper 
has  become  a  guide  and  adviser  for  German  authors  who  are  engaged  in  writing 
for  children.  The  paper  appears  as  a  supplement  to  many  educational  journals 
of  national  reputation.  Annually,  in  November,  this  periodical  ( Jugendschriften- 
Warte)  publishes  a  list  of  books  for  Christmas  presents  which  can  be  recom¬ 
mended  by  the  committee,  a  body  that  has  secured  the  utmost  confidence  through 
its  thoroughly  impartial  work.  In  1899  this  list  contained  168  titles,  grouped  for 
five  different  ages.  The  standpoint  from  which  new  juvenile  literature  is  judged 
has  been  minutely  explained  by  the  editor  in  a  book  entitled  “  The  Misery  of  Our 
Juvenile  Literature”  (second  edition,  1899).  He  says,  among  other  very  pertinent 


16 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


things,  that  hooks  specially  prepared  for  youth  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
Generally  speaking,  they  made  their  appearance  at  about  the  middle  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century.  Books  which  are  intended  to  express  and  represent  an  outspoken 
ethical,  or  at  least  an  instructive  tendency,  promote  hypocrisy  and  artificiality. 
Books  which  offer  amusement  in  form  of  poetry  and  fiction  without  genuinely 
poetic  contents  destroy  the  sense  of  poetry  and  foster  coarse  “  reading  hunger.  ” 
Among  parents  such  juvenile  literature  is  treated  with  indifference  and  utter  want 
of  judgment,  and,  moreover,  such  literature  receives  authoritative  promotion 
through  the  existence  of  school  libraries.  Such  consequences  can  be  counteracted 
by  the  teachers  only  by  energetically  rejecting  unfit  books  and  by  careful  selec¬ 
tion  of  what  children  read  privately  at  home.  The  new  school  editions  of  selected 
works  of  the  great  poets;  the  works  of  such  classic  authors  of  juvenile  books  as 
Schmid,  Horn,  Nieritz,  Hoffmann,  and  others;  translations  of  American  Indian 
stories  and  the  numerous  books  of  women  writers  who  write  for  girls  are  care¬ 
fully  reviewed,  and  the  latter  with  especial  severity.  Of  Klementine  Helm’s 
Backfisch’s  Leiden  und  Freuden  the  editor  says:  “That  which  is  the  moral 
curse  of  middle-class  people,  the  ever-recurring  consideration  of  ‘  what  will  people 
say  of  it?  ’  has  been  raised  to  a  principle  of  life  in  this  book.”  And  of  Emmy  von 
Rhoden’s  Trotzkopf  he  says:  “There  is  in  the  whole  book  not  one  full  tone  coming 
from  the  depth  of  conviction  or  emotion;  all  is  shallow  twaddle  and  superficial 
action.”  Of  all  recent  German  maiden  writers  the  severe  critics  of  the  committee 
find  only  two  who  pass  muster:  Elise  Averdieckand  Johanna  Spvri,  except  that 
at  times  even  they  indulge  in  moralizing  and  obtrusive  piety. 

It  is  claimed  that  youth  should  be  trained  in  the  enjoyment  of  literature,  hence 
books  must  be  given  them  which  will  be  read  for  the  enjoyment  they  offer.  Such 
books  are  stories  of  life,  fairy  tales,  sagas,  poetry;  in  short,  books  of  poetic  form 
and  contents.  Therefore  Wolgast’s  review  bears  the  motto  of  the  poet  Storm: 
“If  you  would  write  for  the  young,  you  must  not  attempt  to  write  for  the  young.” 
A  juvenile  book  of  poetic  form  and  contents  must  be  a  masterpiece;  but  literary 
masterpieces  belong  to  general  literature,  and  hence  specific  juvenile  literature 
has  no  right  to  exist.  Prof.  A.  Lichtwar'k  says:  “Adults  should  be  able  to  read 
juvenile  books  with  the  same,  nay, even  greater,  interest  than  children.”  Educa¬ 
tion  is  deeply  concerned  in  a  common  literary  source  for  both  adults  and  children. 
Though  a  poetic  masterpiece  may  not  be  intended  to  instruct,  yet  it  will  always 
add  to  the  capacity  of  understanding. 

That  the  efforts  to  thus  prune  the  literature  offered  to  children  do  not  find  uni¬ 
versal  approval  is  plain,  if  we  consider  the  unscrupulous  manner  in  which  such 
vital  questions  are  still  viewed  by  many  careless  parents  and  the  thoughtlessness 
with  which  the  science  of  pedagogy  used  to  view  them.  As  long  as  the  majority 
of  adults,  educated  people  not  excepted,  are  satisfied  with  the  tasteless  menu 
dished  up  by  daily  newspapers  and  family  journals,  they  can  not  possibly  evince 
either  interest  or  comprehension  of  the  efforts  of  the  Hamburg  teachers  and  will 
be  satisfied  when  their  children  are  brought  up  on  a  diet  of  Indian  stories  and 
“daughter  albums  and  anthologies.”  Children  who  are  thus  fed  intellectually 
will,  of  course,  when  grown  up  sink  back  into  mere  newspaper  twaddle  and  read 
fiction  indiscriminately.  Thus  the  chain  of  cause  and  effect  is  made  complete. 
Writers  of  juvenile  books  and  contributors  to  superficial  family  magazines, 
spurred  by  a  common  interest,  work  into  each  other’s  hands. 

The  principle  that  juvenile  literature  should  be  selections  from  real  literature 
deserves  hearty  approval.  Did  not  Goethe,  who  for  us  is  the  representative  of  the 
entire  culture  of  the  past,  collect  his  reading  matter  in  that  way?  He  plainly 
states  that  in  his  Wahrheit  und  Dichtung.  Although  the  circumference  of  the 
literature  from  which  juvenile  reading  matter  can  be  chosen  is  small,  owing  to 
considerations  of  the  field  of  children’s  interest,  and  morality  as  well  as  religious 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 


17 


feelings,  yet  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  in  time  a  long  list  of  books,  or  parts  of  books,, 
will  be  selected  which  have  been  overlooked  heretofore,  because  the  adult’s  inter¬ 
est  alone  was  consulted.  Various  Hamburg  family  chronicles,  printed  for  the* 
Hamburg  amateur  library  by  Professor  Lichtwark,  offer  distinct  proof  of  the- 
foregoing  assertion.  A  particular  difficulty  for  the  commission  appointed  to 
examine  juvenile  literature  arises  from  the  adoption  of  the  principle  that  all  books 
having  a  purpose  in  view  are  to  be  rejected,  let  their  object  be  patriotism  or 
religion,  however  well  they  may  be  meant.  Such  severity  easily  awakens  the  sus¬ 
picion  that  the  efforts  of  the  commission  are  directed  against  government  and 
church.  To  awaken  and  justify  confidence  in  this  respect  will  require  much, 
patience  and  fine  tact,  but  the  ultimate  success  is  sure  to  come.  Things  objec¬ 
tionably  sectarian  occur  very  seldom  and  must  be  rejected,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  demand  of  the  clergy  to  reject  all  expressions  of  liberal  views,  whether  they 
refer  to  politics,  religion,  or  ethics,  can  not  well  be  granted  without  subjecting- 
juvenile  books,  for  adults  as  well  as  for  children,  to  the  Procrustean  bed  off 
religious  dogmata. 

That  the  efforts  thus  sketched,  namely,  the  conscientious  regulation  of  a  definite* 
field  of  education,  meets  certain  dangers;  that  it  must  avoid  extremes  and  narrow¬ 
mindedness  is  plainly  seen  from  allusions  in  Wolgast's  book.  Thus  it  is  of  doubt¬ 
ful  effect  when  art  education  is  placed  too  prominently  in  the  foreground  as  a 
specific  part  of  instruction,  while  it  should  he  the  free  growth  of  a  natural  but 
varied  innate  power,  for  which  all  that  is  required  is  proper  opportunities,  just  as- 
physical  education  is  best  fostered  by  offering  opportunities  for  healthful  exercise,. 
Any  specific  influence  for  a  purpose  must  be  limited  to  a  small  number  of  occa¬ 
sions.  Another  Utopian  idea  is  attempting  to  solve  the  problem  of  uniform  peo¬ 
ple’s  education.  It  is  admitted  that  “the  kind  of  social  struggle  and  the  tempo  off 
the  development  of  civilization  ”  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  literary  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  struggling  parties,  but  any  endeavor  “to  make  the  masses  uniformly 
capable  of  consuming  literature  ”  will  find  its  limits  in  the  varied  needs  of  the- 
separate  layers  of  society  and  in  their  differing  modes  and  conditions  of  life.  . 
Among  intellectually  advanced  families  and  groups,  which  will  never  cease  to 
exist,  a  literary  culture  will  develop  that  will  reach  far  above  the  average. 

By  causing  the  publication  of  cheap  editions  of  Storm’s  Pole  Poppenspaler  and 
Liliencrons  War  Novels,  the  Hamburg  committee  has  performed  a  most  meritori¬ 
ous  service. 

Professor  Wolgasfc,  in  1894,  published  another  work  in  pamphlet  form  entitled 
“  Concerning  Picture  Books  and  Illustrations.  ”  In  it  he  points  to  the  fundamental 
importance  for  intellectual  development  of  impressions  made  upon  the  eye  and 
mind  during  the  first  six  years  of  life.  He  shows  in  examples  of  English  and 
French  artists,  such  as  IV alter  Crane,  Cal  decot,  Kate  Greenaway,  Boutet  do 
Monval,  that  the  simple  and  clear  principles  of  the  Japanese  color  print  may  he 
safely  adopted.  In  G  ermany  the  classic  illustrations  of  juvenile  books  by  Ludwig 
Richter  and  by  Pletsch,  also  the  illustrations  of  Thumann  in  Mother  and  Child,, 
deserve  mention.  But  in  this  second  work  of  Wolgast  a  few  principal  considera¬ 
tions  seem  to  be  doubtful.  While  he  claims  it  to  be  the  task  of  education  “  to- 
introduce  the  child  into  the  realm  of  thought  and  emotion  of  adults,  i.  e.,  of  cul¬ 
tured  people,”  we  think  it  sufficient  if  for  the  healthy  development  of  the  child’s 
own  world  of  thought  and  emotion  the  necessary  conditions  are  supplied.  While 
he  claims  that  the  child  is  to  be  “  systematically  educated  in  the  enjoyment  of 
art,”  it  would  seem  fully  sufficient  to  restrict  the  teacher  to  causing  enjoyment 
and  suggestion  by  means  of  the  mere  contemplation  of  pictures. 

In  May,  1896,  a  historical  exhibition  of  picture  books  and  illustrated  juvenile 
books  was  arranged  in  the  art  hall  at  Hamburg  as  a  supplement  to  the  meeting 
of  the  national  teachers’  association,  for  which  a  catalogue  with  preface  was- 
o 


ED  1901 


18 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1801. 


printed.  With  this  exhibition  another  was  connected,  that  of  pictures  for  the 
decoration  of  schoolrooms.  Mr.  M.  Spanier  published  for  this  occasion  a  work 
entitled  “Artistic  Picture  Decorations  for  the  Schoolroom  ”  (second  edition  appeared 
in  1900).  In  this  work  some  historical  allusions  are  made,  from  which  we  see 
that  the  first  who  advocated  the  aesthetic  appearance  of  schoolrooms  was 
Comenius,  who  said,  in  1630:  “  The  room  should  be  bright  and  clean,  and  deco¬ 
rated  with  paintings.”  Though  the  exhibition  was  chiefly  filled  with  charts,  it 
may  be  of  interest  to  quote  a  few  opinions  advanced  by  artists  and  collected  in 
the  second  edition  of  the  work  mentioned  : 

Hans  Thoma  says,  among  other  things:  “  Above  all,  I  think  it  more  important 
to  suspend  pictures  in  the  schoolrooms  than  to  be  much  concerned  as  to  the 
selection  of  the  pictures.”  He  then  goes  on  to  say  that  he  regrets  “  the  disappear¬ 
ance  of  the  coarse,  but  honestly  good  and  original,  mural  paintings  of  former  times 
and  the  substitution  of  common  wood  graining,  stencil  frescoing,  or  4  dead  wall¬ 
paper.’”  He  argues  “  that  it  would  be  good  for  children  if  free-hand  original  col¬ 
ored  frescoes  would  appear  on  the  walls.  Perhaps  it  might  be  well  to  oblige  every 
artist  who  enjoys  a  State  or  other  public  stipend  to  furnish  some  work  of  his 
genius  to  be  hung  up  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  And  what  place  could  be  bet¬ 
ter  fitted  for  it  than  the  schoolrooms  of  the  people?  However,”  he  adds,  “  no  jury 
of  art  professors  should  be  allowed  to  spoil  his  joy  in  creating.  *  *  *  The  sub¬ 
jects  need  not  be  sentimental  ones,  nor  any  that  are  intended  to  moralize  or  influ¬ 
ence  the  mind.  I  should  prefer  simple  presentation,  £  painting  as  such,’’  for 
schools.  Let  us  never  forget  that  the  paintings  are  to  be  merely  wall  decorations.” 
It  is  obvious  that  the  same  principle  that  was  followed  in  judging  literature  for 
children  is  here  applied  and  advocated. 

Max  Liebermann  writes:  £  ‘  Merely  suspending  reproductions  of  artistic  paint¬ 
ings  on  the  walls  does  not  seem  to  me  to  solve  the  question.  First,  because  a  person 
who  constantly  sees  the  same  reproduction  for  a  whole  or  a  half  a  year  does  not 
look  at  them  any  more;  second,  reproductions  rarely  ever  produce  a  pleasing 
impression.  But  a  pleasing  impression  should  be  given  to  the  schoolroom,  so  that 
the  pupils  are  unconsciously  accustomed  to  require  pleasing  surroundings  in  their 
own  houses  in  after  life.  Such  a  schoolroom  might  be  made  pleasing,  aside  from 
good,  bright,  cheerful  light,  by  giving  the  walls  a  coat  of  paint  of  decided  color. 
A  simple  straight  line  enlivens  the  whole  wall;  below  it  should  be  a  deeper  color 
(for  reasons  of  cleanliness  this  may  be  of  oil  color);  above  it  a  brighter,  but  still 
decided  tone,  of  color.”  The  Hamburg  teachers’  association  had  the  satisfaction, 
when  this  opinion  was  received  from  the  artist,  of  referring  to  its  own  petition  to 
the  city  building  commission,  some  years  previous,  in  which  they  had  asked  that 
the  schoolrooms  be  painted  with  harmonious  colors,  in  order  that  the  aesthetic 
sense  of  the  children  be  fostered.  In  that  petition  the  sentence  occurred:  4-  The 
presentation  of  the  beautiful  demands  no  greater  outlay  than  the  presentation  of 
the  ugly.” 

Hans  Christiansen  (formerly  of  Paris,  now  of  Darmstadt)  writes:  “It  would 
seem  advisable  to  arrange  for  a  competition  among  German  artists  to  furnish 
simple  colored  pictures  for  the  walls  of  schoolrooms.  I  believe  many  good  artists 
would  enter  such  a  competition,  if  for  nothing  else  than  for  the  good  cause.” 

As  was  said  before,  France  and  England  preceded  Germany  in  the  laudable 
movement  of  decorating  schoolrooms.  The  Art  for  School  Association,  of  London, 
founded  in  1883,  publishes  annually  several  pictures,  grouped  in  (1)  historical 
pictures,  (2)  nature-study  pictures,  and  (8)  reproductions  of  master  works.  In 
1897  the  number  of  its  published  works  had  reached  460.  This  association  annu¬ 
ally  lends  or  presents  some  of  its  pictures  to  schools  unable  to  buy  them.  Many 
of  the  subscribers  place  their  share  of  pictures  for  that  purpose  at  the  disposal  of 
the  executive  board.  The  Manchester  Art  Museum  possesses  240  collections  of  12 


AST  EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY, 


19 


pictures  each  (some  -of  which  are  framed),  which  are  loaned  to  schools.  Well 
known  are  the  colored  Fitzroy  pictures  (the  best  of  which  are  prepared  by  Hey- 
wood  Sumner),  which  are  used  for  decorating  not  only  schools,  but  mission  houses, 
hospitals,  and  similar  institutions.  . 

In  France  the  normal  schools  are  provided  with  paintings  or  reproductions  for 
wall  decoration.  Among  them  are  found  German  masterpieces,  such  as  Durer’s 
Melancholy,  Holbein’s  Madonna.  Among  the  German  pictures  selected  for  French 
lyeees  three  are  engravings  of  Schongauer,  four  of  Biirer,  some  paintings  of  Yon 
Memling,  Lucas  van  Leyden,  six  of  Holbein.  The  artist  Spanier  may  be  right 
when  he  says:  “I  believe  that  there  are  still  German  normal  schools  which  lack 
the  funds  to  convince  young  candidates  of  the  profession,  by  appeal  to  the  senses, 
of  the  grandeur  and  splendor  of  our  old  German  masterpieces.” 

In  Antwerp,  Belgium,  a  member  of  the  city  council  moved  an  annual  appro¬ 
priation  of  from  3,000  to  5,000  francs  from  the  city  treasury  to  intrust  talented 
young  artists  who  have  finished  their  studies  at  the  art  academy  to  decorate  each 
artistically  one  or  two  rooms  of  the  city  schools,  and  thus  make  architect  and 
painter  work  hand  in  hand  to  produce  a  harmonious  whole.  In  Austria  the  large, 
efceetfnl  advertisement  pictures  of  the  various  State  railroads,  illustrating  the 
picturesque  scenery  of  the  Empire,  are  distributed  among  the  schools  for  school¬ 
room  decoration. 

The  Society  of  Hamburg  Art  Friends,  which  issues  a  yearbook  (since  1895) 
and  numerous  reproductions,  has  recently  undertaken  a  new  issue  of  Holbein’s 
paintings  at  20  pfennigs  (5  cents)  each,  and  of  Diirer’s  paintings  at  1  mark  (25 
cents)  each,  for  use  in  schools.  At  the  aforementioned  exhibition  in  Hamburg 
the  large  colored  representations  of  English  and  French  schools  were  highly 
appreciated;  likewise  T noma’s  lithographies  and  Seemann’s  reproductions  of 
mural  paintings  (at  present  more  than  100).  Attention  was  also  called  to  the 
pictures  of  The  Nineteenth  Century  in  Painting,  Spemann’s  Museum  Collection, 
and  the  Copperplate  Cabinet.  A  list  of  suitable  reproductions  for  school  decora¬ 
tion  prepared  by  Mr.  Spanier  for  the  exhibition  contains  no  less  than  210  numbers. 
This  list  is  very  serviceable  for  schools.  At  Easter,  >898,  a  second  exhibition  of 
that  kind  was  opened  in  Bremen. 

From  all  this  it  is  obvious  that  the  subject  of  artistic  decoration  of  schools  is  a 
field  which  opens  opportunities  for  action,  both  for  the  parental  care  of  the  state 
and  communal  efforts.  It  is  quite  right  what  Spanier  says:  4 4  When  industrial 
people  lack  art  education,  i.  e. ,  taste  for  high  art,  the  trades  will  suffer.”  Equally 
important  is  the  point  of  view  that  “  art  should  be  introduced  into  the  schools, 
hut  not  the  history  of  art,”  Here  the  influence  of  Lichtwark,  who  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  the  movement  in  Hamburg  and  has  since  guided  it,  is  plainly  notice¬ 
able;  in  his  Exercises  in  Contemplating  Masterpieces  (1897,  2d  ed.  in  1898)  he  gave 
the  practical  example  for  the  method  in  which  the  sense  for  art  may  he  awakened. 
When  in  some  of  the  books  on  the  subject  such  pedantic  ideas  are  reiterated  as 
“Every  one  has  to  be  educated  for  the  enjoyment  of  art,”  it  is  well  to  take  them 
“cum  grano  sails,”  since  nature  has  provided  for  it  that  the  trees  will  not  grow 
into  the  sky. 

An  especially  weighty  question  is  raised  by  a  book  by  C.  Gotze,  entitled  “  The 
Reform  of  Instruction  in  Drawing,”  which  was  published,  through  the  aid  of  the 
Hamburg  City  Teachers’  Association  in  1897.  In  this  book  it  is  set  forth  that 
drawing  is  a  kind  of  play  from  which,  if  conducted  well,  the  child  derives  a  par¬ 
ticular  enjoyment;  that  the  development  of  the  power  of  observation  is  the  main 
object  and  that  technical  skill  is  of  secondary  importance;  that  observation  is  the 
firmest  and  broadest  bridge  between  nature  and  man;  hence  that  instruction  in 
drawing  should  be  based  upon  observation  of  objects  and  their  reproduction. 
Hitherto  geometrical  and  ornamental  forms  have  been  drawn  for  years,  and  the 


20 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


pupil  did  not  reach  the  stage  of  reproducing  natural  objects  until  almost  at  the 
close  of  his  school  course,  if  at  all.  Now  he  advocates  that  the  child  should  begin 
with  it;  for  he  claims  that  lessons  in  drawing  and  geometry  aiding  and  supple¬ 
menting  each  other  are  dangerous  for  the  development  of  the  aesthetic  sense. 
It  was  Konrad  Lange  who  recognized  that  the  excessive  emphasis  given  to  the 
mathematical  side  of  the  work  implied  a  pressing  into  the  background  of  the 
artistic  side,  and  that  this  was  of  great  danger  for  instruction  in  drawing.  Hence 
he  concluded  that  the  ornament  resting  upon  geometrical  forms  should  be  ban¬ 
ished  as  an  object  of  drawing  in  the  lower  grades;  likewise,  all  printed  models  for 
copying.  Experience  tells  us  that  the  geometrical  and  ornamental  schemes  are 
never  found  in  original  drawings  of  young  children,  say,  under  10  years,  while 
man  and  animal  form  the  chief  objects  of  their  reproduction  in  drawing.  The 
Englishman  E.  L.  Burk  quite  agrees  with  this,  saying  that  drawing  is  for  the 
child  a  language  for  the  expression  of  his  ideas;  the  form,  though  simple  and 
clear,  enlisted  only  a  small  part  of  his  interest.  And  H.  T.  Lukens  says,  “We 
may  assume  that  it  is  easier  for  a  child  to  draw  with  a  few  lines  a  characteristic 
sketch  from  memory  than  to  draw  after  a  visible  object.  Perhaps  by  requiring 
the  child  to  draw  from  objects  we  make  it  difficult  for  him  to  produce  the  pre¬ 
liminary  end,  which  is  simplicity  in  outline.”  To  judge  from  the  foregoing  it 
may  be  assumed  that  lessons  in  drawing  should  not  begin  before  the  tenth  year  of 
age.  An  apparently  contradictory  observation  is  that  the  pleasure  in  drawing 
diminishes  between  the  tenth  and  twelfth  years  of  life,  but  that  may  be  owing  to 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  imagination  at  that  age. 

If,  concerning  the  decadence  of  the  power  of  observation,  experiences  of  men 
who  have  a  warm  heart  for  aesthetic  education  are  considered,  the  foregoing 
reasoning  is  deserving  approval.  Richard  Schone  said  (1878)  in  a  lecture  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  Prussian  Yearbooks:  “When  we  see  what  it  is  that  most  persons 
among  the  well-educated  class  observe  of  objects,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  this 
observation  is  restricted,  as  a  rule,  to  that  which  is  necessary  to  recognize  things 
as  such,  or,  in  other  words,  to  name  them.”  And  Alfred  Lichtwark  remarked  in 
1887:  “The  power  of  observation  seems  to  be  lost  entirely.  The  main  point  in 
education  with  us  lies  in  knowing.  That  lack  is  the  breach  through  which  alien 
things  enter  victoriously.  Lowest  of  all  is  the  state  of  education  in  the  fine  arts. 
For  every  hundred  children  chained  to  the  piano  at  the  age  of  7,  not  one  receives 
private  lessons  in  drawing.”  In  so  far  as  instruction  in  drawing  is  considered  an 
effective  means  for  art  education,  Gotze’s  dictum  may  be  accepted,  namely,  that 
there  need  not  be  an  essential  difference  between  the  work  in  drawing  in  elemen¬ 
tary  and  in  secondary  schools.  Drawing  from  nature,  which  was  even  advocated 
by  Rousseau,  will  have  the  desired  effect.  In  the  course  of  study  of  the  Hamburg 
schools  the  aim  of  drawing  is  expressed  in  these  words:  “The  pupil  is  to  be  ena¬ 
bled  to  reproduce  simple  natural  objects  without  coarse  errors.”  This  seems  fully 
to  meet  the  demands  at  the  beginning,  if  we  agree  with  Herbert  Spencer  that  it 
is  not  a  question  whether  the  child  furnishes  good  drawings,  but  whether  it 
develops  its  inborn  powers.  How  instruction  in  drawing  is  to  be  arranged  only 
experience  can  teach  us;  the  teacher’s  individuality  will  have  to  play  its  part,  as 
heretofore.  Whether  the  systematic  study  of  child  nature  will  lead  to  essen¬ 
tial  results  in  regard  to  the  study  of  drawing  is  hard  to  tell,  for  from  the  samples 
of  juvenile  work  exhibited  in  Hamburg  nothing  new  could  be  learned. 

A  new  field  of  activity  was  opened  by  the  Teachers’  Association  of  Hamburg  in 
1898,  when  it  undertook  to  take  about  8,000  pupils  of  the  elementary  schools  to 
see  theatrical  performances.  A  pamplet  entitled  “Our  Elementary  Pupils  in  the 
Theater,”  containing  a  number  of  contributions  (one  especially  instructive  from 
the  pen  of  the  indefatigable  W olgast) ,  reports  upon  the  manner  in  which  admission 
to  performances  was  managed  and  how  the  pupils  were  selected.  At  the  begin- 


COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  IN'  GERMANY. 


21 


ning  of  1899  four  concerts  were  arranged  for  school  children  of  Hamburg,  which 
were  attended  by  2,222  children.  A  pamphlet  issued  by  the  association  reports 
upon  these  occasions,  which  have  been  duplicated  since,  in  1900. 

The  foregoing  review  shows  in  how  many  directions  the  promotion  of  art  educa¬ 
tion  in  school  is  possible.  Most  important  of  all  seems  to  be  the  decoration  of 
schoolrooms.  Since  a  beginning  in  this  matter  will  naturally  be  made  in  large 
cities,  the  question  may  be  taken  into  consideration  how  the  treasures  of  art 
museums  might  be  utilized  for  such  purposes.  At  present  the  teachers  of  classi¬ 
cal  high  schools  take  their  students  on  vacation  trips  to  renowned  collections  of 
sculpture.  Why  should  not  the  students  be  taken  to  art  galleries  as  well,  to 
awaken  the  sense  for  the  enjoyment  of  art,  though  not  knowledge  of  the  history 
of  art?  Above  all,  it  is  necessary  to  create  a  comprehension  of  the  great  impor¬ 
tance  of  the  question  at  issue,  so  that  it  may  spread  and  be  transformed  into  active 
and  energetic  enthusiasm,  as  is  done  in  Hamburg,  the  pioneer  city  of  this  benefi¬ 
cial  movement  in  Germany. 


XY. — COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  AND  COMMERCIAL  UNIVERSITIES  IN 

GERMANY. 

[A  review  of  recent  movements  in  commercial  education.1  By  Wilhelm  Stieda.] 

A  period  of  most  active  competition  has  made  success  in  mercantile  business  more 
difficult  than  ever  before.  It  is  therefore  easily  understood  that  merchants  desire 
to  acquire  all  the  knowledge  relating  to  their  occupation.  Twenty  years  ago  an 
expert  as  well  posted  as  Gustav  Cohn  could  write:  “Affairs  will  be  as  they  were  in 
the  times  of  the  Ruggers  and  Rothschilds;  we  can  make  money  and  be  shining 
lights  in  the  world  of  wealth  with  no  other  learning  than  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic.”2  These  words  can  not  be  truthfully  applied  to  the  present.  Since 
the  systems  of  correspondence  and  transportation  have  so  rapidly  developed  and 
economics  are  beyond  their  infancy,  and  advancing  day  by  day,  the  conditions 
that  govern  trade  are  not  so  simple  as  they  used  to  be.  Many  more  possibilities 
and  probabilities  must  be  taken  into  account  and  judgment  pronounced  on  many 
more  suppositions.  If  the  science  of  economics  has  afforded  a  clearer  insight  into 
economic  movements  difficult  to  understand,  and  if  it  can  illustrate  them  more 
plainly,  it  becomes  a  necessity  for  anyone  who  stands  in  the  midst  of  economic 
factors  to  learn  their  doctrines  and  test  their  application  in  business.  In  his 
address  at  the  opening  of  the  commercial  university  in  Leipzig,  Privy  Councilor# 
Carl  Roscher  said  that  the  spirit  of  enterprise  in  mercantile  business  rests  upon  a 
peculiar  combination  of  caution  and  venture,  of  comprehension  of  the  whole  and 
observation  of  detail,  of  versatility  and  perseverance,  of  adaptability  to  strange 
conditions  and  preservation  of  individuality.  These  conspicuous  qualities,  how¬ 
ever,  are  not  acquired  exclusively  by  the  practical  teaching  of  business  methods, 
but  must  be  attained  through  scientific  study. 

When  Prince  Henry  left  for  China,  December  28,  1897,  the  Emperor  emphatic¬ 
ally  declared  that  under  the  jjrotection  of  the  German  flag  German  merchants 
and  German  science  were  to  receive  the  recognition  which  Germany  has  a  right 
to  claim  among  the  nations.  In  consequence,  however,  merchants  must  be  pre¬ 
pared  to  cope  with  the  puzzling  questions  of  their  calling  and  to  maintain  the 
prestige  of  German  reputation  and  German  education.  The  mercantile  class 
itself  is  evidently  most  benefited  by  a  thorough  systematic  education,  including 
both  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge.  Such  an  education  is  one  of  the  most 
effectual  means  to  prevent  the  growth  of  a  mercantile  proletariat  dangerous  to 


1  Published  in  Jahrbucher  fur  Nationalokonomie  und  Statistik,  vol.  19,  Heft  5,  May,  1900. 

2  Essays  on  Political  Economy,  1882. 


22 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  interests  of  society  and  economies.  The  easy  accessibility  to  mercantile  busi¬ 
ness  makes  a  too  numerous  class  a  ready  possibility.1 

It  is  unfortunately  true  that  other  countries  have  for  some  time  been  ahead  of 
Germany  in  technically  commercial  education.  Though,  as  Bruno  Zieger  proves, 
a  German,  Paul  Jacob  Marperger,  of  Dresden,  court  councilor  and  counselor  of 
commerce,  drew  the  attention  of  the  Saxon  Government  to  this  subject  in  a  peti¬ 
tion,  1715,  and  though  in  1772  the  idea  was  carried  out  in  Leipzig  by  adding  a 
commercial  annex  to  the  Nicolai  High  School,  no  even  progress  was  maintained. 
For  a  long  time  the  Commercial  Academy  of  Hamburg,  of  world- wide  reputation, 
was  the  only  institution  of  its  kind  in  Germany.  While  this  institution  remained 
a  private  enterprise,  that  declined  after  the  death  of  its  founder,  Professor  Busch, 
foreign  governments  were  more  alive  to  the  question  and  tried  to  gain  an  influence 
over  the  mercantile  class  by  founding  higher  schools  for  them.  France,  for 
instance,  succeeded  in  establishing  a  network  of  excellently  organized  commer¬ 
cial  institutions  with  elementary,  high,  and  continuation  courses.  In  Austria, 
through  Zehden's  efforts,  commercial  education  received  a  firm  foundation  by  the 
establishment  of  the  commercial  academies  of  Prague,  1858,  and  Vienna.  1857.  At 
present  commercial  schools  of  that  country  are  divided  into  elementary  continu¬ 
ation  schools,  high  schools  of  two  years’  courses  with  a  preparatory  department, 
high  schools  of  three  years’  courses,  and  a  so-called  university  (Trieste,  Revoltella 
Institut).  In  1391,  in  Switzerland,  a,  federal  decree  went  into  effect  defining  the 
relations  between  the  Federal  Government  and  existing  commercial  institutions 
and  appropriating  60,000  francs  to  be  used  by  the  Government  for  the  benefit  of 
commercial  education.2 

England  has  by  no  means  so  neglected  theoretical  education  in  commercial 
science  as  that  country’s  pronounced  preference  for  practical  measures  misleads 
many  to  believe.  Commercial  science,  of  course,  has  not  received  the  same 
attention  that  is  given  to  it  now.  Besides  seven  high  and  elementary  schools 
in  London,  there  are  a  larger  number  of  so-called  technical  schools  in  which  com¬ 
mercial  sciences  are  included  in  the  curriculum.  Apart  from  a  three  years’ 
commercial  department  of  the  polytechnic  institute  in  Riga,  opened  in  1888,  the 
Russian  Government  has  shown  its  interest  in  commercial  institutes  by  a  new 
ministerial  order  of  1896. 

In  Germany  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  alone,  moved  by  the  modern  commercial 
spirit,  has  been  actively  and  characteristically  interested  in  commercial  schools 
for  the  last  half  of  the  present  century.  The  royal  authority,  the  minister  of  the 
interior,  has  shown  a  deep  interest  in  them,  and  as  merchants  themselves  have 
spared  no  sacrifice,  64  of  such  schools  are  now  flourishing  in  Saxony.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  there  are  1.67  schools  to  every  100,000  inhabitants.  In  the  adjoining 
Thuringian  States,  where  there  are  24  schools,  the  proportion  is  somewhat  greater, 
being  1.80  institutions  to  every  100,000  inhabitants.  According  to  late  reports, 
the  number  of  students  in  Saxony  is  1,921,  or  12.2  per  1,000;  in  Thuringia,  304,  or 
8.3  per  1,000  persons  engaged  in  commercial  study.  In  Saxony  state  support  is 
proportionately  greater  than  in  other  countries.  During  the  fiscal  year  1895-96 
the  Government  gave  a  subsidy  of  15,000  marks  for  the  support  of  commercial 
schools.  The  fact  must  not  be  left  out  of  account,  however,  that  commercial 
instruction  is  given  in  continuation  or  supplementary  and  in  technological  schools, 
which  likewise  receive  abundant  state  support. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  forming  of  an  association  for  commercial  edu¬ 
cation  is  to  be  hailed  with  special  satisfaction.  Not  fewer  than  191  representatives 
of  boards  of  trade,  mercantile  corporations,  cities,  and  continuation  schools  met 
on  October  4, 1895,  in  Brunswick  to  discuss  the  question  of  commercial  education. 


1  Carl  Roscher. 

2  See  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  1893-97,  Part  I,  Chapter  VI,  p.  218. 


COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  OESMAHY. 


23 


That  this  congress  was  so  well  attended  may  he  accepted  as  a  proof  of  the  uni¬ 
versally  recognized  necessity  for  a  change  in  mercantile  education.  At  the  same 
time  the  board  of  trade  of  Brunswick  prepared  a  paper  on  commercial  continua¬ 
tion  schools,  which  was  presented  to  the  committees  of  the  association  and  was 
later  published  as  the  second  volume  of  the  proceedings. 

During  the  meeting  in  Brunswick,  which  was  most  interesting  to  all  present, 
the  desire  was  manifested  that  this  first  meeting  should  not  be  the  only  one.  The 
resolution  was  passed  to  establish  a  union  of  commercial  and  continuation  schools 
for  entire  Germany  that  should  publish  a  professional  paper.  A  committee  was 
appointed  to  carry  out  the  plan  proposed.  Dr.  Stegemann  was  elected  chairman, 
and  the  effect  of  the  committees  work  is  the  above-mentioned  association,  which 
has  the  purpose  of  developing  an  interest  in  and  a  comprehension  of  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  systematic  commercial  education  among  the  mercantile  class,  as  well  as 
among  governmental  authorities.  Its  two  meetings,  held  in  Leipzig,  1397,  and  in 
Hanover,  1899,  showed  a  marked  increase  in  public  sympathy.  A  fresh  current 
of  thought  is  pervading  mercantile  education,  and  the  movement  is  felt  in  con¬ 
stantly  broadening  circles.  The  subsequent  foundation  of  a  German  Institute  for 
the  Education  of  Merchants,  under  the  patronage  of  King-  Albert  of  Saxony,  is 
another  encouraging  sign.  The  institute,  which  has  an  annual  state  subsidy  of 
25,000  marks,  is  designated  to  afford  poor  merchants  an  opportunity  of  gaining  a 
more  complete  education.  The  high  patronage  which  it  enjoys  insures  the  full 
development  of  the  national  idea  it  represents. 

A  tendency  to  be  encouraged  in  commercial  education  is  the  attention  given  to 
(elementary)  commercial  continuation  schools  and  high  schools.  According  to  a 
statement  of  Mr.  Sehlossmacher,  60  to  70  per  cent  of  those  entering  upon  a  busi¬ 
ness  career  annually  are  pupils  of  elementary  schools;  scarcely  15  per  cent  have 
attended  high  schools  and  hold  certificates  for  one  year's  military  service.  This 
manifests  the  necessity  of  a  continued  course  of  commercial  instruction  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  that  given  in  the  lower  schools.  The  disproportionately  short  term  of 
study  in  commercial  schools  at  present  makes  it  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  be  informed  on  all  branches  of  trade.  A  theoretical  education  must  supplement 
the  practical.  A  two  or  three  years’  course  with  six  to  eight  hours  a  week  seems 
to  meet  present  exigencies  best.  Professor  Silbermann  proposes  the  following 
course  of  study: 

First  year:  Mother  tongue,  combined  with  commercial  history,  penmanship, 
commercial  arithmetic. 

Second  year:  Mother  tongue,  combined  with  commercial  and  banking  knowl¬ 
edge;  penmanship,  combined  with  bookkeeping;  arithmetic,  combined  with 
accounts. 

Third  year:  Mother  tongue,  combined  with  economics;  arithmetic,  with  double¬ 
entry  bookkeeeping;  law  and  civil  rights  and  duties,  especially  in  their  commer¬ 
cial  relations. 

French  and  English  may  be  omitted  in  these  purely  elementary  schools.  Dif¬ 
ferent  opinions,  however,  prevail  concerning  the  limits  of  this  course.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  William  Vortmann,  principal  of  a  commercial  school  in  Muhihausen, 
Alsace,  the  study  of  merchandise  (Waar-en-Kunde)  and  commercial  geography 
should  not  be  omitted.  When  it  is  considered  that  the  knowledge  of  merchandise 
is  of  the  greatest  significance  to  the  merchant,  and  that  commercial  geography 
extends  the  intellectual  horizon  and  helps  “  to  make  the  mercantile  office  man  a 
man  of  broad  views,”  these  studies  claim  a  place  of  importance  in  the  commercial 
continuation  schools. 

The  question  of  compulsory  attendance  at-  commercial  continuation  schools  is 
still  an  open  one.  The  president  of  the  chamber  of  commerce  in  Hildesheim, 
Director  Schock,  advised  against  compulsory  attendance  by  general  law,  because 


24 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  make  a  school  system  uniform  might  perhaps  be  possible  for  a  small  state,  but 
not  for  a  whole  empire.  He  recommended  compulsory  attendance  by  order  of 
communal  school  authorities,  on  the  ground  that  commercial  education  will  not 
greatly  advance  so  long  as  attendance  depends  upon  the  voluntary  action  of 
employers  and  apprentices.  As  paragraph  120  of  the  imperial  commercial  code 
gives  communities  the  privilege  of  regulating  attendance  the  proposition  seems 
perfectly  in  order.  This  is  the  best  way  to  surmount  the  difficulty  of  all  theo¬ 
retical  discussion  as  to  whether  anyone  may  be  compelled,  beyond  the  elementary 
schools,  to  acquire  an  education  which  he  himself  does  not  consider  necessary,  or 
which  he  believes  he  can  obtain  in  a  different  way.  In  all  cases  where  com¬ 
pulsory  attendance  would  imply  coercion  Jby  means  of  the  police  force,  students 
of  advanced  years,  say  beyond  the  elementary  school  age,  should  be  left  free  to 
choose. 

Commercial  high  schools  and  academies  (called  commercial  colleges  in  the 
United  Slates)  have  been  proposed  as  a  higher  division  of  continuation  schools  in 
which  young  men,  already  actively  engaged  in  business,  may  receive  the  proper 
education  to  meet  their  special  needs.  Even  if  the  highest  possible  general  educa¬ 
tion  must  be  considered  for  those  of  the  mercantile  class,  the  same  model  is  not 
equally  appropriate.  A  shopkeeper,  or  any  other  retailer,  does  not  need  the  same 
education  as  the  merchant  engaged  in  an  extensive  business  or  a  great  industrial 
plant,  or  as  one  who  intends  to  travel  in  foreign  countries.  It  is  therefore 
advisable  to  give  attention  to  the  different  needs  of  young  merchants  of  unequal 
preparatory  education  and  even  to  take  local  conditions  into  account— namely, 
in  smaller  cities  a  commercial  school  with  an  elementary  course  suffices  for  local 
merchants;  in  larger  cities  it  would  not  be  inappropriate  to  establish  schools  of  a 
higher  order  that  could  afford  young  men 1  advanced  instruction  in  single  branches. 
The  professional  high  schools— the  title  is  of  minor  importance;  any  other  may  be 
chosen — should  he  open  to  practical  merchants  apart  from  their  occupation  in 
office  or  store.  They  are  designed  for  those  who  have  sufficient  preparatory  edu¬ 
cation  to  advance  under  direction,  or  for  those  who  from  any  cause  whatever  have 
been  prevented  from  benefiting  by  systematic  instruction  after  leaving  the  elemen¬ 
tary  or  secondary  schools.  For  instance,  a  young  man  may  have  been  obliged  to 
leave  the  classical  school  on  account  of  insufficient  means  or  loss  of  health,  and 
may  enter  upon  a  business  career.  An  elementary  commercial  (continuation) 
school  is  inappropriate  for  him,  and  his  means  do  not  justify  his  attending  a  com¬ 
mercial  college.  Simple  high  schools  that  give  the  special  instruction  are  just 
what  such  a  case  demands. 

However,  the  preparatory  education  of  a  merchant  is  more  important  than  his 
subsequent  professional  education.  As  was  said  before,  practice  in  many  cases  is 
not  sufficient  to  give  a  future  merchant  an  adequate  training.  Employers  are  not 
always  qualified  and  willing  teachers  and  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  inclination, 
to  initiate  beginners.  Night  schools,  and  especially  for  those  who  have  exhausted 
their  best  energies  in  business  during  the  day,  do  not  effect  the  desired  result. 
When  there  is  no  solid  foundation  the  kindest  and  most  intelligent  direction  on 
the  part  of  the  employer  will  not  supply  all  deficiencies,  and  even  the  most  zealous 
beginner  can  not  appreciate  and  assimilate  ail  that  comes  within  his  reach. 

Consequently,  previous  attendance  at  commercial  high  schools  is  to  be  recom¬ 
mended.  They  afford  daily  instruction  in  all  commercial  studies  and  in  foreign 
languages.  The  curriculum  includes  all  the  branches  mentioned  in  connection 
with  elementary  commercial  (continuation)  schools.  Bookkeeping,  correspond¬ 
ence,  commercial  arithmetic,  study  of  merchandise,  etc.,  all  are  thoroughly 
explained  in  their  dependence  upon  one  another.  In  this  way  students  learn  how 
to  apply  the  suggestions  given  by  their  future  employers  and  adapt  themselves 

1  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  wants  of  young  women  are  not  considered  in  this  line  in  Germany. 


COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY. 


9.E 


better  and  more  quickly  to  the  practical  demands  of  business.  Such  schools  may 
have  a  two  or  a  three  years’  course.  The  conditions  for  admission  should  not  be  so 
low  as  to  prevent  their  steady  development.  The  same  standard  could  be  accepted 
as  that  which  is  set  up  for  the  higher  grades  of  other  secondary  schools.  As  models 
for  such  secondary  commercial  schools  may  serve  the  public  commercial  institute 
of  the  merchants  of  Dresden,  established  in  1855,  and  the  commercial  institute  of 
Leipzig,  founded  by  a  corporation  of  merchants  in  1881,  and  maintained  by  the 
chamber  of  commerce  since  1887.  As  soon  as  the  elementary  commercial  schools 
become  professional  by  introducing  foreign  languages  and  technical  commercial 
branches,  the  commercial  high  schools  become  commercial  universities. 

An  educational  medium  between  the  two  schools  and  of  great  practical  value, 
though  not  as  yet  generally  recognized,  is  the  model  counting  house.  It  is  gen¬ 
erally  believed  now  that  in  commercial  schools  there  is  danger  of  losing  the  nec¬ 
essary  touch  with  the  requirements  of  practical  business.  The  study  of  sciences 
alone  does  not  develop  the  ability  to  enter  upon  actual  business  life.  No  knowl¬ 
edge  of  its  inner  relations  is  acquired,  and  commercial  branches,  if  taught  in  a 
general  way,  are  supposed  to  be  no  more  than  an  incomplete  equivalent,  which 
gives  no  thorough  preparation  for  a  business  career. 

The  model  counting  house  meets  these  objections.  As  the  chemist  supports  his 
studies  with  experiments  in  the  laboratory,  so  the  model  counting  house  affords 
the  commercial  student  the  possibility  of  concluding  scientific  study  in  a  business¬ 
like  manner  with  a  course  of  practical  experience.  Director  Ahrens,  of  Prague, 
is  the  father  of  this  idea  on  the  Continent.  Prof.  Joseph  Odenthal,  of  the 
same  city,  adapted  and  developed  it  and  recorded  his  views  and  experiences  in  a 
book.1  According  to  Richter,  the  course  is  so  planned  as  to  devote  the  first  year 
to  scientific  preparation  and  the  second  to  practical  occupation.  One  hour  a  week 
is  given  to  commercial  study,  another  to  correspondence,  and  a  third  to  the  work 
in  the  counting  house. 

In  Romanic  countries  this  arrangement  is  considered  very  practical.  The  inter¬ 
national  commercial  congress,  held  in  Venice  in  May,  1899,  called  forth  a  num¬ 
ber  of  opinions  on  the  subject.  The  model  counting  houses  at  the  commercial 
colleges  at  Genoa,  Venice,  Lyons,  and  others  are  reported  to  be  quite  successful. 
The  gentleman  reporting  about  the  Lyons  school  stated  that  students  of  the 
model  counting  house  were  never  embarrassed  in  any  case  of  actual  experience. 
Quick  in  understanding  the  work  assigned  to  them,  they  have  been  able  to  pass 
from  one  occupation  to  another  without  the  least  hesitation.  In  Germany,  how¬ 
ever,  this  innovation  has  met  but  little  approval.  Only  a  few  commercial  private 
institutions  have  followed  this  practical  device  in  their  p7an  of  study.  There  are 
many  reasons  for  this  evident  caution,  and  the  opinion  of  Professor  Adler2  is  no 
doubt  very  much  to  the  point. 

He  maintains  that  elementary  schools,  though  they  be  continuation  schools,  are 
not  designed  to  turn  out  men  perfect  in  practice  and  to  prepare  them  by  mechan¬ 
ical  training  for  different  technical  branches.  The  purpose  of  such  schools  is  to 
give  pupils  the  best  possible  comprehension  of  the  principles  of  their  future  call¬ 
ing,  in  general  and  in  particular.  Adaptability  in  actual  practice  is  a  natural  out¬ 
come  of  an  adequate  technical  preparation.  Any  imitation  of  practical  experience 
in  schools  presupposes  a  certain  restriction,  while  the  very  multiplicity  of  business 
relations  is  an  important  consideration;  every  business  has  its  own  peculiarities 
that  can  be  learned  in  no  way  other  than  by  actual  experience.  We  do  not  mean 
to  imply  that  the  educational  device  in  question  has  no  value  whatever;  if  it  were 
annexed  to  a  higher  grade  of  schools  it  could  be  of  great  significance.  In  connec¬ 
tion  with  commercial  colleges  and  universities  its  importance  can  not  be  denied. 


1  The  Model  Counting  House  in  Commercial  Colleges,  Leipzig. 

2  Atti  del  congresso  internazionale,  p.  557,  ££. 


26 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Students  of  these  are  not  as  young  as  pupils  of  simple  commercial  schools,  and 
having  had  a  thorough  preparation  in  mercantile  affairs,  they  can  benefit  by  the 
model  counting  house.  Hence,  in  universities,  especially,  there  is  hope  of  realiz¬ 
ing  the  idea  with  success.  Weight  attaches  to  the  question  whether  theoretical 
study  has  been  so  perfectly  embodied  in  form  that  the  student  understands  how  to 
turn  its  effects  to  practical  account.1  Adler  believes  that  success  depends  princi¬ 
pally  upon  the  ability  and  discretion  of  the  professor,  as  well  as  upon  a  small 
attendance.  The  division  of  work  among  the  students  should  be  regulated  as  in 
a  business  establishment — proprietor,  bookkeepers,  cashier,  correspondents,  etc. 
At  the  commercial  university  of  Leipzig,  the  students  of  the  fourth  semester  have 
comprehensive  exercises  similar  to  those  of  a  model  counting  house.  The  impor¬ 
tance  of  such  an  institute  can  be  judged  only  from  the  result  of  the  experiment; 
it  was  by  no  means  unanimously  approved  during  the  congress  in  Venice.  The 
next  congress  is  going  to  discuss  the  subject  again  in  the  light  of  later  experience. 

Ho  school  reform  in  Germany  has  created  a  greater  sensation  than  the  proposi¬ 
tion  to  establish  commercial  universities.  Their  necessity  is  no  longer  disputed. 
Privy  Councilor  Bokmert  believes  “that  the  question  is  perfectly  justifiable, 
whether  commerce  and  trade  have  not  as  much  a  scientific  basis  and  may  not  be 
studied  as  scientifically,  as  horticulture  and  cattle  raising  or  the  construction  of 
roads,  bridges,  houses,  and  machines.  ”  The  idea  is  generally  accepted,  and  foreign 
models  are  brought  forward  in  illustration.  In  Paris  there  is  the  Ecole  cles 
Hautes  Etudes  Commerciaies,  with  the  character  of  a  university,  which  has  occu¬ 
pied  its  new  buildings  on  the  avenue  de  la  Republique  since  March,  1899.  Founded 
in  the  year  1820  as  a  special  school  for  commerce  and  industry,  it  remained  a 
private  institution  until  it  was  bought  by  the  chamber  of  commerce  in  1889, 
which  body  has  since  supported  it.  The  expense  of  the  new  building  was  $400,000, 
of  which  the  city  contributed  $120,000.  In  Antwerp,  the  Institut  de  Commerce 
is  governed  by  the  communal  authorities,  which  contribute  from  the  city  treasury 
one- third  of  the  expenditures  regularly.  The  beginning  of  a  similar  organization 
was  made  in  London  three  years  ago.  The  chamber  of  commerce  assisted  in  estab¬ 
lishing  a  school  of  economics  and  political  science,  with  which  it  is  intended  to 
connect  a  commercial  university.  The  Export  and  Colonial  Academy  in  Vienna, 
established  by  private  enterprise  on  the  same  lines  as  the  Austrian  imperial  com¬ 
mercial  museum,  was  opened  in  October,  1898,  as  a  kind  of  commercial  university, 
with  appropriations  from  the  state  exchequer. 

As  early  as  the  year  1874  commercial  universities  were  discussed  during  the 
framing  of  the  new  federal  constitution  in  Switzerland.  During  the  following 
years  the  directors  of  the  Merchants’  Union  in  Zurich,  who  turned  their  atten¬ 
tion  to  elementary  and  secondary  commercial  schools,  agitated  the  founding  of  a 
commercial  university  also,  and  appointed  a  special  committee  to  arrange  a  pro¬ 
gramme  of  studies.  A  university  of  four  semesters  was  planned,  to  be  divided 
into  the  following  four  technical  grades:  Banking,  railroad  service,  postal  and 
telegraph  service,  and  merchandise  and  manufacture.  In  1877  a  special  commit¬ 
tee  was  called  upon  to  consider  the  question  by  a  petition  from  the  association  of 
former  students  of  the  Polytechnic  at  Zurich.  The  point  of  argument  was 
whether  an  independent  institution  should  he  established  or  whether  a  depart¬ 
ment  of  commercial  sciences  should  be  added  to  the  Polytechnic  in  Zurich,  as  was 
done  in  Riga,  Russia,  and  recently  also  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Germany.  From  the 
executive  center  of  the  commercial  and  industrial  association  of  Switzerland, 
which  realized  the  necessity  of  better  commercial  education,  the  addition  of  a 
special  department  at  the  Polytechnic  was  advocated.  For  a  long  time  these 
movements  remained  too  feeble  to  be. successful,  but  they  have  been  strengthened 
by  the  late  agitation  in  Germany.  The  idea  was  first  realized  in  the  private  com* 

1  See  also  account  of  practical  work  in  Switzerland,  p.  813,  Annual  Report  of  1899-1900. 


COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY. 


27 


mercial  academy  nnder  tlie  patronage  and  direction  of  merchants,  professors,  and 
teachers  of  Zurich,  which  academy  was  founded  October  1,  1895,  through  the 
efforts  of  Dr.  Bertsch,  the  director  of  an  international  educational  institute  in 
that  city.  A  municipal  commercial  academy  and  trade  school  was  opened  in  St. 
Gall  May  1,  1899,  with  about  10  students  in  the  upper  and  about  60  in  the  lower 
division.  A  similar  institution  has  been  planned  by  the  Merchants’  Union  in 
Zurich. 

In  Germany  Leipzig  and  Aix-la-Chapelie  have  set  a  good  example.  In  the  for¬ 
mer  city  a  commercial  university  was  opened  in  the  spring  of  1898.  It  is  affiliated 
with  the  university  and  engages  the  same  teachers.  It  is  occupying  the  same 
buildings  that  had  been  used  for  over  seventy  years  by  the  comm  rcial  college. 
To  speak  correctly,  this  college  by  extending  its  course  and  by  entering  into  close 
affiliation  with  the  Leipzig  university  has  been  made  into  a  department  of  that 
university.  Professor  Raydt,  the  former  principal,  now  acts  as  director  of  the 
commercial  department  of  the  university,  and  the  professors  of  the  university 
lecture  in  the  new  department  as  they  do  in  the  medical,  law,  and  natural  science 
departments.  [Though  at  this  writing,  December,  1900,  scarcely  two  years  old, 
the  new  institution  has  proved  its  necessity;  the  classes  are  full  and  the  students’ 
attendance  all  that  can  be  desired. — Translator.]  In  October,  1898,  a  two  years’ 
course  of  commercial  sciences  was  begun  at  the  Polytechnic  in  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Rhenish  Prussia.  In  neither  school  are  the  studies  compulsory.  The  lectures 
are  proposed  to  the  students  and  their  attendance  is  optional.  [Since  this  was 
written  Hamburg  has  opened  a  commercial  university,  under  the  patronage  and 
direction  and  with  the  liberal  support  of  the  great  magnates  of  commerce  of  that 
city. — Translator.]  Free  night  schools  for  commercial  men  in  Berlin,  Frank¬ 
furt,  and  Mannheim  are  not  well  attended. 

As  in  other  cases  of  human  experience,  the  proposition  of  establishing  commer¬ 
cial  universities  is  nothing  new.  Marperger,  whose  efforts  in  behalf  of  a  com¬ 
mercial  academy  have  been  mentioned,  referred  to  the  subject  in  1728  in  his 
Trifolium  Mercantile  Aureum,  or  The  Merchants’  Golden  Clover  Leaf.  The 
unpropitious  times  prevented  the  carrying  out  of  his  suggestions.  Nevertheless, 
Professor  Zieger's  references  to  Marperger  in  his  book,  A  Saxon  Merchant,  are 
very  interesting,  showing  that  he  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first,  to  propose 
higher  commercial  education.  Professor  Roscher,  usually  a  very  .generous  critic, 
has  pronounced  an  adverse  judgment  on  Marperger.  Still,  if  lie  does  not  occupy 
a  prominent  position  in  literature,  the  writings  of  Zieger  place  him  in  a  more 
favorable  light  as  a  practical  man. 

The  system  (if  this  expression  be  admissible)  of  the  old  court  councilor,  Mar¬ 
perger,  culminates  in  three  institutions.  He  advises  (1)  a  school  for  penmanship, 
arithmetic,  and  bookkeeping— that  is,  in  a  measure,  a  commercial  elementary 
school;  (2)  a  commercial  academy,  and  (3)  the  opening  of  a  department  for  com¬ 
mercial  sciences  in  universities.  Owing  to  Marperger 's  diffuse  style,  the  editor  of 
a  later  edition  of  the  Trifolium  has  not  published  the  whole  work.  He  gives  only 
certain  passages  verbatim,  with  critical  notes,  so  that  we  can  understand  and 
judge  Marperger  s  attitude  on  different  questions  of  commercial  education  better 
than  we  could  from  a  study  of  the  original. 

The  commercial  academy  suggested  by  Marperger  was  designed  to  educate 
future  merchants  as  well  as  to  prepare  official  accountants.  In  essentials  it  was  a 
novel  idea,  for  even  if  it  came  in  touch  with  existing  schools  for  arithmetic  and 
penmanship,  its  aim  was  much  higher,  being  intended  to  give  a  thorough  and 
extensive  professional  education  on  the  very  broadest  basis  without  ever  losing 
sight  of  the  demands  of  practical  life.  The  plan  of  study  was  calculated  to  give 
an  insight  into  the  actions  of  business  intercourse,  a  knowledge  of  commercial 
law  and  the  relations  to  centers  of  production,  of  merchandise  and  the  modes  of 


28 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


transportation,  and  thus  to  cultivate  an  understanding  for  problems  of  economics 
and  political  science.  To  a  certain  extent  the  academy  was  to  he  the  medium  for 
transmission  of  commercial  tradition  and  originate  a  theory  of  trade  based  upon 
experience  of  the  past.  The  mental  horizon  of  the  students  was  to  be  broad¬ 
ened,  their  adaptability  for  practical  experience  awakened,  and  their  observation 
quickened.  The  spirit  of  patriotism,  which  places  general  above  private  interests, 
was  to  be  fostered  above  all  things  else. 

In  the  same  way  the  departments  of  commercial  sciences  in  universities  were  to 
serve  a  double  purpose.  They  were  designed  not  only  for  merchants,  but  to  give 
administrative  officers  their  preparatory  education.  In  so  far  as  the  academy 
served  commercial  interests  by  preference,  these  university  departments  were 
meant  to  give  a  thorough  training  to  future  Government  officials,  and  especially  to 
members  of  boards  of  trade.  A  commercial  councilor,  i,  e.,  a  member  of  the  board 
of  trade,  must  be  ‘experienced  by  study,  and  especially  well  informed  in  political 
economics  and  commercial  lav/,  history,  and  mathematics;  he  should  have  trav¬ 
eled  abroad  and  be  acquainted  with  foreign  languages  and  know  the  police  regula¬ 
tions  and  commercial  habits  of  foreign  countries,  as  well  as  their  geographical 
condition  and  their  commercial  and  manufacturing  status,  the  power  and  wealth 
of  their  inhabitants;  moreover,  he  must  have  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  origin 
of  foreign  merchandise  and  be  able  to  compare  it  with  that  of  his  own  coun¬ 
try.”  According  to  Marperger,  this  is  what  a  commercial  councilor  should  be: 
and  besides  he  should  know  a  great  deal  in  connection  with  special  commercial 
questions.  Consequently,  the  education  which  he  thinks  fit  is  by  no  means  lim¬ 
ited.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  he  demands  no  more  than  what  is  expected  of  a 
modern  man  of  administration— a  knowledge  of  political  economy. 

If  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  commercial  education  seems  therefore  to  have  been 
thus  early  recognized,  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  universities  at  the  close  of  the 
last  century  opened  their  doors  to  the  disciples  of  Mercury.  In  1787  Prof.  John 
Nicholas  Muller  proposed  the  establishment  of  a  commercial  academy  in  Gfttin- 
gen,  which  was  a  little  more  than  an  elementary  school  hardly  in  touch  with  the 
alma  mater.  In  1795,  however,  Professor  Canzler  advanced  the  project  of  an  actual 
commercial  department  as  an  integral  division  of  the  university.  Through  Zieger’s 
efforts  the  pertinent  article  entitled  ‘‘The  commercial  education  of  certain  stu¬ 
dents  at  German  universities,  especially  Gottingen,”  published  in  the  Journal  of 
Manufacure,  Trade,  and  Fashions,  has  been  studied  in  recent  times  and  republished. 
Since  all  the  lectures  to  be  attended  by  the  commercial  students  were  specified 
with  the  names  of  the  professors  who  delivered  tlmm,  and  Dr.  Canzler,  at  the  close 
of  the  announcement,  offered  more  detailed  information,  especially  on  the  expenses 
of  attendance,  we  may  conclude  that  the  arrangement  was,  for  a  time  at  least,  in 
force. 

In  Leipzig  the  first  German  commercial  university  was  opened  at  Easter,  1838. 
It  was  established  by  the  chamber  of  commerce  in  union  with  the  academic  senate 
of  the  university,  and  receives  annual  subsidies  from  the  city  of  Leipzig  and  the 
royal  Government  of  Saxony.  Any  deficiency  is  guaranteed  to  be  made  good  by 
the  chamber  of  commerce.  The  salaries  of  the  dean,  or  director  of  studies,  and 
of  the  teachers  of  the  commercial  academy  employed,  rent,  printing,  and  other 
expenses  are  pa:d  from  these  sources. 

The  students  pay  tuition  fees  for  the  privilege  of  attending  lectures.  The  salaries 
for  lectures  delivered  by  the  teachers  of  the  commercial  academy  (an  old-estab¬ 
lished  secondary  commercial  school,  now  used  as  the  practice  school  of  the  com¬ 
mercial  university)  are  fixed  at  4  marks  per  hour;  and,  as  a  rule,  the  honorarium 
of  university  teachers  does  not  exceed  that  amount.  The  lectures  delivered  within 
the  halls  of  the  academy  are  paid  for  by  the  students  to  the  treasurer  of  the  cham¬ 
ber  of  commerce;  and  as  an  entrance  fee  of  20  marks  ($5)  is  invariably  charged, 


COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  GERM  AMY. 


29 


the  annual  receipts  from  fees  are  considerably  more  than  the  guaranteed  subsidies. 
The  attendance  fees  of  the  university  lectures  are  paid  in  full  to  the  professors  and 
lecturers  through  the  treasurer  of  the  university. 

Prof.  H.  Raydt  in  the  First  Yearbook  of  the  Commercial  University,  gives 
detailed  information  on  the  institute’s  organization,  business  direction,  super¬ 
vision,  conditions  of  admission,  order  of  examination,  and  other  items.  The 
conditions  for  admission  deserve  special  mention.  They  were  discussed  at  length 
at  the  meeting  of  the  national  commission  of  commercial  universities  during  its 
sitting  in  Hanover,  November  27,  1897,  when  the  opinion  was  almost  unanimous 
that  no  certificate  lower  than  that  given  for  the  completion  of  studies  in  nine- 
grade  secondary  schools  should  be  accepted.  Professor  Raydt  and  Dr.  Soetbeer 
were  among  the  few  who  opposed  these  as  unconditional  terms.  The  former 
maintained  that  anyone  who  possessed  the  general  education  required  to  hold  a 
certificate  of  one-year  military  service  (secured  after  six  years’  attendance  in  a 
secondary  school),  and  had  had  some  years’  practical  experience  in  business  serv¬ 
ice  would  be  able  to  understand  the  lectures  in  question.  The  other  gentleman, 
in  addition  to  what  Professor  Raydt  had.  advanced,  expressed  the  apprehension 
that  the  opportunity  for  merchants  to  acquire  a  higher  education  would  be  too 
limited  if  a  graduation  diploma  from  a  secondary  school  were  to  be  taken  as  a  test 
for  admission.  In  his  estimation,  those  who  had  attended  secondary  schools  for 
more  than  six  years  vTere  no  better  prepared  for  commercial  universities,  since 
political  economy  and  law,  the  chief  commercial  studies,  are  not  included  as  pre¬ 
paratory  studies  in  the  curriculum  of  any  secondary  school,  whereas  a  few  years’ 
practical  experience  would  be  an  undeniable  benefit  to  the  student. 

However,  in  principle  the  diploma  of  a  nine  years’  preparatory  course  was 
adopted  as  a  condition  of  admission  at  the  commercial  university  at  Leipzig; 
still,  merchants  who  have  won  the  certificate  for  one-year  military  service  by  hav¬ 
ing  attended  the  preparatory  schools  for  six  years,  and  have  completed  their  term 
of  apprenticeship  in  business,  are  not  refused  admission,  nor  are  they  required  to 
pass  a  test  examination.  The  consequence  is  that  two-thirds  of  all  the  students 
in  attendance  do  not  possess  the  diploma  of  graduation  from  a  secondary  school. 

The  milder  judgment,  therefore,  has  governed  in  practice,  and  the  large 
attendance  of  those  who  possess  no  graduation  diploma  makes  the  necessity  of  this 
milder  judgment  evident.  The  benefit  of  advancement  should  most  assuredly  be 
within  reach  of  the  greatest  possible  number.  Whether  those  who  are  not  fully 
prepared  for  the  lectures  are  able  to  follow  them  intelligently,  experience  must 
decide.  A  positive  tradition  will,  no  doubt,  be  soon  formed  by  the  mercantile 
class  as  to  what  plane  of  previous  preparation  will,  in  pursuance  of  professional 
study,  promise  the  greatest  advantage  for  the  future.  Anyone  who  has  just  com¬ 
pleted  his  apprenticeship  in  business  will  of  course  find  difficulty  in  following  the 
lectures  of  university  professors.  His-  scholarship  will  be  of  little  use  to  him,  for 
the  practice  which  he  has  had,  since  that  time,  will  have  v/eakened  his  taste  and 
understanding  for  theoretical  instruction.  Instances  will  naturally  occur  where 
students  will  enter  the  university  direct  from  the  preparatory  school  without 
passing  through  any  practical  countinghouse  or  other  business  experience. 
Whether  such  a  course  is  the  best  and  most  beneficial,  and  whether  it  is  to  be 
recommended,  is  an  open  question.  It  may  be  that  in  the  countinghouse  or  ware- 
rooms  much  is  learned  that  need  not  be  known,  or  can  be  acquired  in  a  short  time. 
Generally,  however,  it  is  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  a  merchant  to  have  served 
as  apprentice  for  a  certain  length  of  time.  But  whether  high-school  graduates  or 
not,  the  student  of  a  university  must  be  actuated  by  honest  desire  and  zeal  in 
order  to  overcome  the  difficulties  that  beset  him  in  his  studies.  His  own  industry 
must  overcome  the  deficiencies  that  he  will  realize  in  himself.  The  same  energy 
which  nerved  him  in  the  countinghouse  and  in  practical  work  must  urge  him  in 


30 


EDUCATION  EEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


his  studies.  Whether  much  or  little  is  assimilated  will  depend  upon  his  attention, 
intelligence,  and  love  of  work.  And  if  little  of  what  is  given  to  him  by  lectures 
or  exercises  strikes  root,  as  deplorable  as  the  case  may  be,  the  time  devoted  to 
study  will  not  have  been  altogether  lost.  Therefore  it  is  believed  that  the  con¬ 
dition  of  admission  should  be  simply  this:  That  every  applicant  who  has  com¬ 
pleted  his  apprenticeship  and  has  led  a  blameless  life  should  be  admitted  to  the 
commercial  university. 

The  curriculum  received  the  closest  attention  from  the  regents  of  the  univer¬ 
sity.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  seventh  volume  of  the  reports  of  the  national 
commission  is  devoted  to  the  different  opinions  and  programmes  of  study  pro¬ 
posed.  As  there  is  a  two  years’  course,  it  is  believed  that  commercial  studies 
should  predominate.  It  will  be  hardly  possible  for  a  student  20  years  old  to  give 
attention  to  his  general  advancement  simultaneously  in  the  four  semesters  allot¬ 
ted.  Even  students  at  the  university  who  have  as  many  years  as  the  former  have 
semesters  will  have  the  acquisition  of  a  professional  education  for  their  chief  end 
in  view. 

Accordingly,  the  precaution  must  be  taken  not  to  teach  that  for  which  the 
future  business  man  will  have  no  use,  and  which  he  can  not  acquire  without 
neglecting  for  a  time  the  necessary  knowledge  of  his  calling.  The  chief  studies 
to  be  considered  are  political  economy  in  all  its  branches,  combined  with  economic 
and  especially  commercial  history  and  economic  geography,  general  technology, 
as  well  as  commercial  and  marine  law  and  law  of  exchange,  and  the  principles 
of  the  civil  code  together  with  modern  economic  legislation.  These  are  calculated 
to  keep  students  busy  during  the  four  semesters.  Only  the  most  competent  can 
master  statistics,  finance,  jurisprudence,  anthropological  geography,  ethnography, 
and  other  similar  studies  within  the  same  length  of  time.  If  these  studies  are  not 
condensed  to  meet  the  necessities  of  university  students,  they  will  do  well  to  obey 
the  advice  given  in  the  programme  not  to  overburden  themselves  with  lectures, 
as  they  are  expected  not  only  to  take  in  facts,  but  to  assimilate  knowledge. 

Some  restrictions  there  must  be,  as  commercial  exercises  and  foreign  languages 
can  not  be  neglected.  The  curriculum  of  the  University  of  Leipzig  includes  in 
the  former  correspondence  and  countinghouse  work,  commercial  arithmetic, 
bookkeeping,  extensive  commercial  exercises,  mechanical  technology  of  textile 
industry,  and  chemical  technology.  Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  upon  the 
necessity  of  these  branches,  which  every  business  man  must  know.  All  that  these 
subjects  include  affects  practical  experience,  and  is  connected  with  the  occur¬ 
rences  remembered  from  the  days  of  apprenticeship.  More  difficult  questions  can 
be  cousidered  theoretically  in  universities  than  is  possible  in  secondary  commer¬ 
cial  schools.  Respecting  such,  it  may  be  that  the  principal  or  employer  had  not 
the  time  to  do  for  the  student  what  would  have  been  desirable  for  him  in  the 
future,  or,  perhaps,  he  was  lacking  general  knowledge  of  the  many-sided  bearings 
of  commerce  himself,  hence  was  unable  to  initiate  the  apprentice  into  the  rela¬ 
tions  of  business  with  affairs  as  they  frequently  occur  outside  of  the  counting- 
house.  In  such  cases,  systematic  instruction  is  especially  beneficial,  cultivating 
in  the  student  who  returns  to  practical  work  the  ability  to  systematize  what  he 
sees  and  combine  the  teachings  of  theory  with  the  treatment  of  practical  cases. 

At  the  University  of  Leipzig  these  exercises  are  arranged  by  the  teachers  of  the 
commercial  academy,  who  are  four  in  number.  Five  teachers  are  engaged  for 
languages,  two  for  stenography,  and  one  teaches  typewriting. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  Leipzig  Commercial  University  that  a  final  examina¬ 
tion  is  considered  advisable  and  has  been  introduced.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
national  commission  of  commercial  universities  in  Hanover,  November,  1897, 
one  of  the  merchants  present  remarked  that  the  mercantile  class  needs  no  official 
seal  for  the  elevation  of  its  profession;  as  Bismarck  justly  remarked,  the  desire 


COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY. 


31 


for  it  is  a  national  fault  of  G-ermans.  This  assertion,  made  in  a  different  connec¬ 
tion,  may  be  applied  to  examinations  for  merchants.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
employers  will  prefer  to  fill  positions  with  applicants  who  can  show  good  diplomas. 
The  chief  test  for  appointment  and  position  will  most  likely  always  be  a  recom¬ 
mendation  of  practical  ability  as  apprentice.  With  the  diploma  as  proof  of  having 
completed  a  two  years’  course  at  a  commercial  university  added,  any  applicant 
will,  of  course,  be  received  with  greater  favor.  But  why  the  test  of  an  examina¬ 
tion?  The  impression  prevails  that  a  kind  of  proof  of  competency  is  about  to  be 
smuggled  into  the  free  mercantile  class. 

It  can  not  be  denied  that  an  evidence  of  students’  efforts  on  the  completion  of 
their  studies  is  in  every  way  of  excellent  disciplinary  force.  The  hop©  of  being 
able  to  better  their  prospects  by  securing  a  high  certificate  will  urge  them  to  con¬ 
tinuous  zeal  and  any  exertion  which  health,  power,  and  ability  permit. 

As  the  case  may  be,  if  a  final  examination  is  to  be  held  the  order  adopted  at 
the  Leipzig  University  must,  on  the  whole,  be  approved.  With  one  exception  the 
compulsory  subjects  of  study  and  hence  of  examination  seem  well  selected.  The 
train  of  thought  sketched  in  the  foregoing,  which  culminates  in  the  condensation 
of  subject-matter,  has  been  likewise  adopted  in  the  programme  of  studies.  Only 
it  is  doubted  that  it  be  right  to  place  the  study  of  finance  on  a  par  with  political 
economy,  and  rest  content  with  the  outlines  of  commercial  history  and  economic 
geography.  The  reverse  would  seem  a  better  arrangement.  Finance,  or  the 
science  of  the  pecuniary  management  of  a  State,  is  interesting  to  a  merchant,  but 
so  comprehensive  an  understanding  of  the  subject  which  requires  universities 
to  devote  four  hours  a  week  to  it  is  hardly  necessary.  In  the  discussions  of  the 
national  commission  of  commercial  universities,  which  met  at  Eisenach,  October, 
1897,  this  standpoint  was  maintained,  and  it  was  unanimously  decided  to  abide  by 
an  introduction  or  the  outline  of  finance.  The  order  of  examination  in  Leipzig 
should  therefore  include  no  more,  whereas  economic  geography  and  commercial 
history  are  considered  studies  with  which  a  merchant  must  be  thoroughly  con¬ 
versant.  Consequently  their  entire  text,  and  not  merely  their  main  features, 
should  be  taken  into  account  in  the  examination. 

The  short  term  of  existence  of  the  Leipzig  Commercial  University  prevents  a  just 
appreciation  of  its  effects.  The  attendance,  however,  has  been  large  beyond  all 
expectation.  Whereas  the  estimate  or  expectation  for  the  first  two  years  was  50 
students,  244  were  matriculated  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  semester,  to  which  a 
number  who  attend  Gnly  special  exercises  must  be  added.  Such  an  attendance 
manifests  the  urgent  necessity  for  a  more  complete  education  among  the  mercantile 
class.  And  when  we  consider  that  men  over  80  years  of  age— even  40  and  46  years 
old — do  not  disdain  to  devote  their  time  again  to  theoretical  study,  we  may  well 
believe  that  the  institution  has  made  a  reputation  for  itself.  Prof.  H.  Raydt  in  his 
annual  report  expresses  none  but  favorable  comments  on  the  students’  conduct. 
He  says:  “.The  serious  deportment  of  the  students,  their  diligence,  and  the  intelli¬ 
gence  displayed  in  dealing  with  difficult  subjects  during  school  exercises  justify 
the  most  sanguine  expectations.”  The  professional  opinion  is  not  less  encourag¬ 
ing  that  merchants  having  a  diploma  of  a  six  years’  attendance,  at  the  prepara¬ 
tory  school  “  have,  neither  by  their  deportment  nor  by  an y  want  of  understanding 
of  scientific  exercises,  occasioned  the  least  scruple.” 

The  opening  of  a  commercial  department  at  the  polytechnic  institute  in  Aix- 
la-Chapell©  is  less  promising.  No  fault  can  be  found  with  the  students’ deport¬ 
ment,  for  they  manifest  great  interest.  Many  of  the  students  of  this  technological 
university  have  attended  the  commercial  courses;  still  the  number  of  commercial 
students  proper  is  small,  being  one-tenth  that  of  the  Leipzig  University.  The 
cause  of  this  is  not  very  apparent.  Perhaps  it  is  that  the  Prussian  Government, 
although  not  opposed  to  commercial  universities,  has  nevertheless  extended  no 


32 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


direct  patronage  to  the  new  institution.  This  circumstance  may  have  contributed 
to  the  fact  of  the  school’s  relative  obscurity.  It  may  be,  too,  that  Leipzig  has  a 
stronger  attraction  for  students  than  Aix-la-Chapelle  on  account  of  its  more  favor¬ 
able  geographical  position.  Still  the  conditions  in  Aix-la-Chapelle  need  not  be 
looked  upon  in  any  pessimistic  light.  If  the  idea  has  been  so  happily  realized  in 
Leipzig,  it  will  in  the  end  also  succeed  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Woman's  entrance  into  public  life  in  modern  times  has  brought  the  question 
before  the  National  Commercial  Union  as  to  how  to  provide  for  their  proper  edu¬ 
cation.  From  1882  to  1895  the  number  of  women  employed  for  commercial  work 
increased  70  per  cent,  in  contrast  to  35.8  per  cent  increase  of  men  similarly  engaged. 
It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  associations  have  been  everywhere  formed  to  assist 
women  in  business  and  approve  their  preparatory  education.  Otherwise  the  just 
complaints  that  woman  labor  decreases  the  salaries  of  men  could  never  be 
silenced. 

Dr.  Silbermann,  the  general  secretary  of  the  union,  has  written  an  article  on 
the  subject,  and  the  annual  meeting  of  the  union,  held  in  Hanover  in  1899,  dis 
cussed  the  question  in  detail.  Silbermann  reviews  all  the  commercial  schools  and 
courses  for  women,  as  well  as  all  the  continuation  schools  (evening  and  day 
schools)  open  to  them  in  Germany.  They  are  found  in  thirty-two  cities  of  the 
Empire,  and  have  been  established  by  merchants'  associations,  municipal  admin¬ 
istrations,  women's  clubs,  associations  for  public  benefit,  and  by  private  enter¬ 
prise.  But,  as  Silbermann  states,  the  founders  or  directors  of  all  these  institutions, 
which  exist  under  various  names,  have  no  clear  idea  of  their  end  and  purpose. 
The  prevailing  unsystematic  diversity  is  not  advantageous  either  for  the  girls  and 
women  employed  in  business  or  for  the  whole  mercantile  class,  which  is  constantly 
employing  woman  labor  to  an  increasing  extent.  Miss  Agnes  Hermann,  in  Social 
Practice,  justly  deplores  that  many  families  who  intend  their  girls  to  be  employed 
in  business  have  no  conception  of  their  duty  to  provide  them  with  an  appropriate 
education.  A  six  months’  practical  training  behind  a  counter,  or  a  three  to  six 
months’  course  at  a  so-called  commercial  school,  tetter  named  steam  press,  is  con¬ 
sidered  sufficient  to  launch  them  in  the  world  as  saleswomen  or  bookkeepers.  The 
plans  of  the  existing  lower  commercial  schools  for  women  correspond  to  such 
claims  made  by  parents.  The  result  is  unsatisfactory  labor  and  insufficient  pay 
to  saleswomen  and  women  bookkeepers.  Under  such  conditions  there  is  no  need 
of  proving  the  necessity  of  reorganizing  the  education  of  business  women. 

Whether  a  compulsory  attendance  at  continuation  schools  (schools  open  to 
children  having  completed  the  elementary  schools  at  14  years  of  age)  should  be 
required  of  women  is  a  question  that  has  not  yet  been  decided.  Silbermann  is  in 
favor  of  it,  but  the  merchants’  congress  only  admitted  its  importance,  recommend¬ 
ing  earnestly  that  every  urban  community  should  establish  commercial  evening 
schools,  with  a  course  of  study  of  at  least  two  years,  for  women.  State  govern¬ 
ments  should  be  petitioned  to  see  to  it  that  employers  allow  the  necessary  leisure 
for  a  compliance  with  the  legal  obligation  of  attendance. 

It  is  frequently  claimed  in  Germany  that  a  compulsory  commercial  education  is 
especially  necessary  for  women.  It  has  been  opposed  on  the  ground  that  business 
is  only  of  minor  importance  to  many,  and  that  they  give  up  their  positions  as  soon 
as  they  marry.  Moreover,  the  fear  has  been  expressed  that  the  power  of  the 
merchants’  union  will  decline  if  it  is  called  upon  to  give  attention  to  the  education 
of  women  also.  Besides,  the  opinion  has  been  maintained  that  the  influx  of 
women  employees  is  sufficiently  great  without  its  being  increased  by  any  outside 
efforts. 

It  seems,  however,  that  it  is  to  men's  interests  to  make  women  competitors 
equally  competent;  for  salaries  are  kept  down  just  by  those  who  have  “picked 
up  ”  their  knowledge  and  have  no  special  education  worthy  of  the  name.  Men 
must  to-day  reckon  with  saleswomen,  women  bookkeepers,  etc.  It  is  therefore  of 


SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  IN  GERMANY. 


33 


manifest  importance  that  women  competitors  should  be  equally  educated,  so  as 
not  to  force  men  under.  Just  because  many  parents  think  that  their  daughters’ 
education  can  be  restricted  to  the  narrowest  limits,  and  that  they  themselves  are 
satisfied  with  modest  demands  and  beggarly  wages,  compulsory  attendance,  as 
is  required  or  contemplated  for  men,  would  therefore  be  most  appropriate  for 
women  also. 

What  has  been  said  makes  it  self-evident  that  commercial  evening  and  day 
schools  for  women  should  be  better  planned.  Silbermann  justly  asserts  that  the 
work  of  reform  must  begin  with  commercial  schools  now  existing  and  with  sim¬ 
ilar  institutions  which  unscrupulously  claim  to  “  educate  ”  hundreds  and  thou¬ 
sands  of  girls  in  six  weeks  or  three  months.  That  the  mercantile  class  has  so 
many  incompetent  members  is  due  to  them;  and  they  explain,  also,  why  a  woman 
bookkeeper  with  a  salary  of  $30  a  month  displaces  the  man  who  receives  $50  a 
month  or  more.  Well  conducted,  thorough  commercial  schools  would  attract 
competent  and  exclude  incompetent  students.  There  is  no  more  grateful  element 
than  girls. 

Separate  institutions  for  women,  in  place  of  annexes  to  schools  for  men,  are  to 
be  recommended  for  practical  reasons.1  The  studies  and  terms  of  tuition  must, 
of  course,  be  identical;  judgment  could  then  be  pronounced  on  the  competency 
of  women.  “The  purpose,”  in  the  words  of  Silbermann,  “is,  on  the  whole,  the 
same,  hence  the  means  should  not  be  different.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  merchants, 
mercantile  corporations,  chambers  of  commerce,  and  independent  merchants’ 
unions  will  understand  this  fact  and  act  accordingly.”  From  what  has  been  said 
of  the  efforts  of  the  national  union  in  behalf  of  commercial  education  we  may 
believe  that  Gfermany  is  following  the  best  line  of  action  to  provide  for  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  future  merchants  of  the  Empire. 


V.  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  IN  GERMANY. 

It  is  undeniable  that  the  urban  school  systems  of  the  United  States  are  provided 
with  more  superintendents,  assistant  superintendents,  and  supervising  principals 
than  any  school  system  in  central  Europe,  although  the  rural  districts  of  many 
States  in  this  country  lack  efficient  supervision,  while  in  central  Europe  they  are 
supervised  almost  as  much,  or  as  little,  as  the  urban  schools.  That  it  is  not 
thought  necessary  in  German}7,  Austria,  and  Switzerland  to  appoint  supervisors 
and  inspectors  in  such  numbers  as  here,  is  owing  to  the  thorough  professional 
preparation  of  all  teachers.  No  person  can  be  employed  as  an  elementary  teacher 
in  central  Europe  unless  he  have  a  certificate  acquired  in  a  State  examination 
after  four  years’  (in  some  German  States  six  years)  attendance  in  a  normal  school; 
and  no  one  can  be  appointed  to  a  position  in  a  secondary  school  who  is  not  a  uni¬ 
versity  graduate  or  has  university  and  normal  school  training  combined.  Th's, 
naturally,  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  constantly  directing  the  teachers  in 
their  daily  work,  and  hence  the  small  number  of  supervising  officers. 

School  supervision  as  organized  in  central  Europe,  particularly  in  Germany,  is 
not  well  understood  in  this  country,  nor  is  it  plainly  set  forth  in  governmental 
reports  of  those  countries.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to  show  the  system  of  super¬ 
vision  as  if  exists  in  Germany.  There  the  functions  of  a  superintendent  (inspector 
or  school  councilor)  are,  in  the  main,  the  same  as  in  this  country,  only  he  has 
greater  authority  in  questions  of  attendance  of  pupils  and  promotion  of  teachers. 
There  is  also  a  better  division  of  responsibility  and  authority  in  Germany,  as  will 
be  seen  from  a  statement  made  by  Prof.  Theodor  Franke,  of  Wurzen,  Saxony. 

1  The  Germans  are  not  friendly  to  coeducation  of  the  sexes 

ED  1901 - 3 


34 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1800-1901. 


He  describes  the  system  of  supervision  of  his  State,  and  lays  especial  stress  npon 
the  importance  of  district  or  county  supervision.  The  description  he  gives  is 
essentially  true  for  all  German,  Austrian,  and  Swiss  States,  for  the  differences 
found  here  and  there  are  grown  out  of  local  circumstances  and  are  not  important 
enough  to  be  here  enumerated. 

Prof.  Theodor  Franke’s  paper  appeared  in  the  Oesterreichische  Schuibote  (July, 
1900,  Vienna) ,  and  is  here  reproduced  in  translation  owing  to  the  comprehensive 
review  it  offers  within  a  small  compass.  He  describes  the  various  grades  of  super¬ 
visory  authorities  in  Saxony,  their  functions  and  their  relations  to  the  State  school 
system.  He  says: 

SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  IN  SAXONY. 

School  supervision  is  an  important  part  of  the  entire  State  system  of  education. 
Its  character  and  organization  is  a  proper  standard  of  measurement  for  the  whole 
system,  and  the  more  perfect  and  appropriate  it  is,  the  more  the  interests  of  edu¬ 
cation  are  promoted,  and  the  better  will  be  the  results.  School  supervision  in 
Saxony  is  divided  into  three  grades,  all  of  which  have  essentially  different  func¬ 
tions  and  authorities.  They  are  known  as  local  school  supervision,  district  or 
county  supervision,  and  State  supervision. 

( 1 )  State  supervision. — State  school  supervision  is  exercised  by  the  minister  of 
worship  and  education,  a  member  of  the  King's  cabinet.  He  is  assisted  by  a  pro¬ 
fessional  school  councilor,  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  ministerial  division  of  edu¬ 
cation.  Formerly,  some  teachers  opposed  the  union  of  worship  and  education  in 
the  ministry  as  a  recognition  of  the  superiority  of  the  church  over  the  schools. 
It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  no  such  objection  has  been  raised  within  the  past 
ten  years.  During  that  period  an  advance  has  been  made  in  teachers’  salaries, 
the  lowest  salary  for  beginners  having  been  raised  from  $210  to  $300,  and  the 
highest  salary  of  simple  class  teachers  increased  for  the  stipulated  term  of  service 
from  $300  to  $525.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  besides  the  money  paid 
in  form  of  salary  an  extra  sum  is  aliowred  for  rent  of  house  and  garden,  and  that 
only  the  minimum  salaries  are  fixed  by  law  at  the  figures  stated.  Urban  commu¬ 
nities  give  much  more  salary  as  an  inducement  for  the  best  teachers.  At  present 
a  movement  is  afoot?  for  a  union  among  all  the  cities  of  the  Kingdom  to  agree 
upon  a  definite  limit  of  increase  of  teachers’  salaries. 

The  minister  of  education  represents  educational  interests  in  parliament,  makes 
rules  and  regulations  affecting  the  educational  institutions  of  the  State,  prepares 
the  annual  budgets  submitted  to  parliament,  and  acts  as  the  highest  court  of 
appeal  in  cases  of  discipline  of  teachers,  it  is  the  general  opinion  that  the  State 
supervision  is  excellently  adapted  to  conditions  and  most  satisfactory  to  teachers. 
The  high  regard  and  deep  affection  manifested  toward  the  professional  assistant  of 
the  cabinet  minister,  Privy  Councilor  Kockel,  is  a  proof  of  this,  further  substanti¬ 
ated  by  the  fact  that  the  minister  has  considered  the  repeated  and  well-founded 
petition  of  teachers  to  curtail  the  time  devoted  to  instruction  in  religion,  which 
•was  out  of  proportion  to  the  time  given  to  other  branches.  If,  according  to  some, 
this  curtailment  is  still  insufficient,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  fact  that  in 
this  regard  the  minister  does  not  enjoy  entire  liberty  of  decision,  being  restricted 
by  the  Evangelican  Lutheran  Consistory.  Nevertheless,  the  decreed  omission  of 
much  memorizing  of  bible  verses  and  hymns  considerably  lessens  the  burden  for 
children,  especially  since  the  most  difficult  passages  have  been  excluded. 

(2)  Local  supervision. — Local  school  supervision  is  not  the  same  everywhere  in 
Saxony,  nor  for  that  matter  in  Germany,  It  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  com¬ 
munity;  it  is  partly  professional  and  partly  not  so.  The  law  of  April  26,  1873, 
defines  the  following: 

Local  school  supervision  under  State  jurisdiction  is  exercised  (a)  over  such 
schools  as  are  superintended  by  a  principal  (called  director)  through  him;  (6) 
over  such  schools  as  have  no  principal  (chiefly  ungraded  schools)  through  the 
clergyman  who  is  a  member  of  the  school  board,  provided  the  State  authorities  do 
not  revoke  this  commission  or  appoint  a  professional  inspector.  The  office  is  a 
position  of  honor  without  remuneration.  The  local  superintendent  or  inspector 
shall  assist  teachers  in  the  fulfillment  of  their  duties  and  acquaint  himself  with 
the  condition  of  schools  by  personal  visits,  drawing  attention  to  any  faults  he 
notices;  comments  disparaging  to  teachers  must  not  be  made  during  class  or  in 
presence  of  pupils. 

The  church  exercises  special  supervision  over  religious  instruction  and  the 
teachers  of  religion. 

Professional  local  school  supervision,  therefore,  exists  for  all  graded  systems  of 


SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  IN  GERMANY. 


35 


school,  i.  e.,  schools  that  have  principals  or  directors.  Still  as  early  as  1872  the 
desires  of  the  teachers,  as  expressed  in  petitions  to  parliament  and  the  minister  of 
education,  included  more  professional  supervision.  Before  the  passage  of  the 
school  law  (1873),  the  teachers  of  Dresden  and  Leipzig  presented  a  petition  for  the 
abolition  of  ecclesiastical  supervision  even  over  ungraded  schools. 

There  are  no  imperative  reasons  for  any  such  request,  complaints  about  ecclesi¬ 
astical  supervision  are  very  rare,  and  when  they  occur  the  motives  at  bottom  are 
usually  personal.  The  complete  abolition  of  such  supervision  amounts  to  nothing 
more  than  a  question  of  increased  honor  for  and  appreciation  of  the  teaching  pro¬ 
fession.  This  was  accepted  as  a  principle  of  action  in  parliament  when  the  school 
law  was  under  discussion.  The  committee  of  the  lower  house  explicitly  advoca¬ 
ted  the  amendment  which  was  adopted,  that  the  supervision  of  public  schools 
should,  whenever  possible,  be  intrusted  to  professional  educators.  No  satisfactory 
arrangement  to  substitute  professional  for  ecclesiastical  supervision  of  ungraded 
schools  has  as  yet  been  suggested;  and  it  is  self-evident  that  its  abolition  on  the 
mere  plea  of  some  teachers,  that  the  schools  have  enough  supervision  without  it, 
is  not  to  be  expected. 

It  has  recently  been  suggested  that  a  change  could  be  made  without  much 
attendant  difficulty  or  any  special  increase  in  the  expense.  Local  school  super¬ 
vision  of  ungraded  (usually  rural)  schools  could  be  intrusted  to  so-called  super¬ 
vising  teachers,  These  could  perform  the  duties  of  supervising  several  teachers 
as  easily  and  efficiently  as  directors  in  city  schools. 

As  no  examination  nor  special  conditions  besides  a  certificate  of  middle  grade  is 
prescribed  by  law  for  superintendents  in  Saxony, 1  there  is  really  no  essential  dif¬ 
ference  between  supervising  teachers  and  directors  (principals),  though  many 
urban  communities  at  present  elect  only  those  teachers  as  directors  who  possess  an 
academic  (university)  education.  As  the  State  government  exercises  an  influence 
over  the  appointments  to  the  positions  in  schools  without  directors,  it  could  also 
manage  that  only  competent  and  worthy  men  should  be  selected  to  fill  the  office 
of  supervising  teachers  exercising  directive  power  under  its  orders.  Danger  to  the 
uniformity  of  the  system  could  thus  be  avoided,  as  progress  is  then  the  sure  out¬ 
come  of  directive  supervision.  There  would  then  remain  only  some  rural  schools, 
very  far  apart,  having  only  one  teacher  each,  to  whom  the  position  of  supervisor 
could  not  be  given  for  personal  reasons.  For  these,  small  districts  could  be  laid 
out  and  the  worthiest  and  most  competent  teacher  within  a  district  could  act  as 
supervisor.  This  arrangement  would  give  a  commendable  incentive  to  teachers 
to  win  the  confidence  and  esteem  of  higher  authorities  and  fellow  teachers  by  com¬ 
mendable  efforts  and  successful  work.  It  would,  moveover,  be  a  powerful  means 
toward  fostering  self-education  among  teachers.  Just  in  this  respect  it  is  highly 
important  that  excellent  teachers  may  have  the  prospect  of  a  good  position,  even 
though  it  be  unremunerative.  At  present  there  is  no  sign  of  carrying  the  policy 
of  professional  supervision  into  effect.  As  has  been  said,  there  is  no  imperative 
reason  for  immediate  radical  action ,  gradual  changes  seem  advisable.  Only  the 
preliminary  petition  should  be  presented  to  give  the  State  authorities  the  right  to 
appoint  the  “directing”  teachers  at  urban  or  village  schools  of  several  teachers  to 
the  position  of  supervising  principal.  In  this  way  professional  supervision  would 
be  gradually  extended  and  the  slow  change  from  present  conditions  would  avert 
all  the  evils  attendant  upon  radical  reconstruction  of  the  system. 

(3)  County  or  district  supervision. — The  term  district  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  American  school  district.  A  governmental  district  in  Saxony  is  one  of 
the  political  divisions  of  the  State,  hence  it  is  rendered  county  in  the  following 
explanation.  County  school  supervision  ranks  between  State  and  local  school 
supervision,  and  was  likewise  affected  by  the  school  law  of  April  28,  1873.  Before 
that  date  clergymen  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  office  in  addition  to  their  own  on 
their  ministerial  rounds  of  visits.  Consequently,  before  the  passage  of  the  new 
school  law  there  existed  no  professional  supervision  over  counties.  These  condi¬ 
tions,  which  provoked  just  complaint,  chiefly  from  teachers,  were  changed  by  the 
law  mentioned.  Ecclesiastical  supervision  was  abolished,  and  the  clergymen 
were  relieved  of  their  duties  as  school  inspectors.  Their  places  were  taken  by  special 
county  school  inspectors,  civil  officers  in  charge  of  the  supervision  of  the  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  without  any  further  duties.  They  are  appointed  by  the  minister  of 
education  and  receive  a  salary  of  not  less  than  5,400  marks  ($1,285),  which  is  con¬ 
siderably  increased  according  to  the  number  of  schools  in  their  districts  and  age 
of  service;  some  of  these  inspectors  have  a  salary  of  $3,000  per  annum.  They 
have  the  title  school  councillors,  and  this  gives  them  the  rank  of  fourth-class 
councillors  in  the  State  service.  The  law  defines  that  they  be  selected  from 


1  In  other  states  of  Germany  supervisory  officers  have  to  pass  severe  examinations. 


36 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


among  teachers  of  good  standing.  Some  have  acquired  the  academic  degree 
of  doctor  philosophise;  nearly  all  possess  an  academic  or  university  train¬ 
ing,  while  a  few  have  taken  preparatory  courses  at  classical  high  schools,  and 
received  professional  training  in  normal  schools.  Most  of  them  had,  previ¬ 
ous  to  their  appointment  as  school  inspectors,  acted  as  principals  of  large  schools. 
In  many  instances  they  were  selected  from  principals  of  normal  schools,  high 
schools,  and  technical  schools,  very  rarely  from  among  elementary  teachers.  As 
a  rule,  the  best  known  and  most  excellent  men  receive  the  distinction  of  an 
appointment  to  the  district  inspectorship.  The  large  cities  in  Saxony  place  the 
principals  of  their  city  schools  on  an  equality  with  county  school  inspectors  as 
regards  salary,  so  as  to  keep  the  best  men  in  their  positions.  In  almost  every  case 
principals  of  medium-sized  cities  are  selected,  apparently  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  most  principals  in  large  cities  do  not  desire  to  accept  the  appointment. 

Saxony  is  divided  into  28  school  districts,  coinciding  with  the  political  districts. 
This  uniformity  is  owing  to  the  desirability  of  not  duplicating  the  administrative 
machinery.  Each  county  has  its  own  school  hoard,  of  which  the  inspector  is  in  a 
large  measure  the  executive  officer,  and  this  board  is  the  authority  over  local 
school  boards,  hence  is  responsible  for  the  administrative  order  of  the  system. 
This  county  inspection  is  differently  managed  owing  to  different  political  organi¬ 
zations  among  the  districts.  In  cities  where  the  so  called  revised  municipal 
order  obtains,  the  county  government  is  not  in  force,  hence  city  schools  are 
not  subject  to  county  inspection  exclusively,  but  the  city  council  and  county 
school  inspector  together  form  the  authority.  In  cities  of  over  5,000  inhabitants 
the  town  council  manages  the  business  of  schools,  presided  over  by  the  burgomas¬ 
ter,  or  mayor,  who  must  possess  the  legally  prescribed  education,  and  this  local 
board  is  assisted  by  the  county  inspector.  In  all  other  cases,  especially  in  rural 
districts,  the  school  board  consists  of  the  county  officers  and  the  school  inspector. 
The  highest  authority  under  the  minister,  naturally,  is  the  governor  of  the  county. 

The  members  of  the  county  school  board  agree  upon  regulations  for  the  schools. 
In  disputed  questions  the  minister  of  state  for  education  decides.  All  petitions 
addressed  to  the  county  board  are  first  referred  to  the  member  who  is  a  lawyer, 
who  passes  them  over  to  his  pedagogical  colleague,  the  school  inspector,  for 
consideration  and  decision.  The  school  board  (board  of  county  school  supervision, 
as  it  is  called  in  Saxony)  is  nonsectarian,  and  therefore  independent  of  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  any  religious  corporation,  and  is  the  first  authority  over  religious  schools, 
where  they  exist,  except  the  local  board.  This  necessarily  makes  the  school 
inspector  the  executive  officer  of  the  board,  independent  of  ecclesiastical  inter¬ 
ference. 

As  the  county  board  of  supervision  is  also  an  office  of  legal  authority,  certain 
legal  matters  receive  its  attention,  namely: 

1.  It  attends  to  the  execution  of  State  laws  and  regulations  that  apply  to  schools. 

2.  It  directs  all  negotiations  for  the  admission  and  dismissal  of  pupils,  and 
besides  superintends,  through  its  school  inspector,  buildings,  rooms,  and  appli¬ 
ances,  as  well  as  the  payment  of  teachers’  salaries. 

3.  It  makes  all  necessary  investigations  prior  to  the  appointment  of  teachers,  i!  e. , 
passes  upon  their  diplomas  and  examines  and  confirms  or  rejects  regulations  pro¬ 
posed  by  local  school  boards. 

4.  Where  no  special  authority  for  the  purpose  exists,  it  attends  to  the  execution 
of  the  protective  State  law  applying  to  irreducible  funds  and  endowments. 

5.  It  examines  the  annual  county  appropriations  for  school  expenses,  as  well  as 
the  disbursing  officer’s  accounts. 

6.  It  forms  a  court  of  the  first  instance  for  disagreements  on  administrative 
questions  and  settles  differences  of  opinion  concerning  tax  levies  for  school  pur¬ 
poses,  and  likewise  approves  or  disapproves  of  petitions  for  State  appropriations. 

7.  It  decides  all  differences  between  the  local  boards  and  its  executive  officers, 
and  settles  all  other  difficulties  arising  in  the  school  affairs  of  the  district. 

8.  It  manages  all  affairs  of  discipline  with  respect  to  the  conduct  of  teachers, 
and  is  the  agency  for  the  first  and*  second  reproof.  It  likewise  has  the  right  to 
suspend  teachers  temporarily  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  three  months;  the  minister 
of  education  alone  can  discharge  or  summarily  dismiss  a  teacher  from  office  upon 
motion  of  the  county  board,  which  takes  action  upon  motion  of  the  inspector. 

9.  At  stated  intervals  the  county  board  presents  its  suggestions  and  reports  for 
the  improvement  of  external  school  organization  to  the  minister  of  education. 

When  through  any  necessary  resolutions  and  decisions  the  county  school  board 
comes  in  contact  with  church  authorities,  they  act  in  concert.  This  usually  occurs 
in  appointing  teachers  for  positions  in  parochial  schools  and  in  superintending 
the  study  of  religion  in  all  the  schools.  In  matters  pertaining  to  school  hygiene 
the  district  or  county  physician  who  acts  as  health  officer,  and  is  a  member  of  the 
county  government,  is  consulted. 


SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  IN  GERMANY. 


37 


The  business  devolving  upon  county  school  inspectors  as  professional  educators 
is  of  prime  importance  to  teachers,  as  it  affects  the  inner  working  of  the  school 
system.  All  public  elementary  schools  in  the  county  are  superintended  by  the 
county  inspector,  as  well  as  the  course  of  study  in  so-called  preparatory  schools, 
attached  to  secondary  schools,  all  kindergartens  and  schools  ror  the  defectives, 
together  with  the  private  instruction  given  to  children  of  school  age  withheld 
from  school  owing  to  physical  or  mental  defects. 

Inspectors  must  visit  all  the  schools  under  their  charge  at  stated  intervals  and 
inform  themselves  of  their  condition.  As  a  rule  they  should  visit  each  school 
at  least  once  in  two  years;  according  to  discretion,  oftener,  especially  where  little 
progress  has  been  made  and  conditions  are  less  favorable;  by  so  doing  improve¬ 
ments  can  be  suggested.  '  The  dates  of  the  inspectors’  visits  are  not  specified 
by  law  or  regular  announcement,  nor  are  they  rigidly  observed  if  announced. 
In  larger  districts  with  a  full  force  of  teachers  it  often  happens  that  inspectors  do 
not  make  a  round  of  visits  in  four  or  five  years.  The  apprehension,  expressed  by 
those  who  opposed  the  new  order  of  affairs  at  the  time  of  the  abolition  of  ecclesi¬ 
astical  supervision,  namely, that  the  inspectors  would  become  a  public  annoyance, 
has  proved  altogether  unfounded. 

According  to  the  present  plan  of  supervision,  the  inspectors  must  give  their 
attention  to  the  following  points: 

1.  In  the  first  place,  they  are  required  to  ascertain  whether  the  regulations  con¬ 
cerning  the  admission  and  dismissal  of  pupils  are  properly  observed;  in  fact,  they 
are  charged  with  the  supervision  of  the  working  of  the  law  of  compulsory  attend¬ 
ance.  They  require  from  each  school  a  report  of  the  number  of  children  whose 
parents  have  different  religious  creeds  than  prevails  among  the  majority;  a  similar 
annual  report  is  requested  stating  the  attendance  at  religious  instruction  of  those 
children  who  are  not  members  of  the  religion  taught  in  the  school.  Before  pre¬ 
senting  the  statement  to  the  minister,  inspectors  add  the  necessary  explanatory 
notes. 

2.  Their  most  important  duty  is  to  observe  whether  the  diligence  and  deport¬ 
ment  of  teachers,  as  well  as  the  discipline,  order,  and  cleanliness  of  their  schools, 
are  open  to  censure  or  not.  No  opportunities  should  be  neglected  to  advise,  assist, 
improve,  admonish,  correct,  and  warn  teachers  professionally  if  necessary.  In 
the  discharge  of  these  duties,  the  inspector  must  consider  the  standing  of  the 
teacher  and  the  honor  of  the  profession  in  school  and  community;  those  who 
willingly  follow  his  counsel  should  have  his  unreserved  support.  During  their 
visits,  inspectors  examine  the  class  rolls  to  see  that  enrollment  is  not  over  the  pre¬ 
scribed  maximum,  and  investigate  whether  the  books  and  official  blanks  are  used 
as  intended,  and  whether  any  weak-minded  or  neglected  children  who  belong  in 
special  institutions  and  schools  provided  for  them  have  been  admitted.  Where 
the  diligence  and  -deportment  of  teachers  is  open  to  censnre,  the  inspectors  are 
called  upon  to  propose  professional  means  of  improvement.  Generally  they  see 
to  it  that  teachers  present  an  example  to  pupils  in  conduct  and  intercourse,  so 
that  the  schools  may  be  in  reality  nurseries  for  education,  culture,  and  piety.  In 
particular,  they  see  to  it  that  strict  discipline  and  order  are  maintained,  to  the 
exclusion,  however,  of  all  measures  detrimental  to  the  development  of  character 
or  apt  to  destroy  children's  love  and  esteem  for  teachers  and  their  love  of  study. 
Any  unlawful  exercise  of  the  right  of  punishment  is  reproved. 

3.  The  inspector  is  required  to  investigate  whether  the  course  of  study  is  adhered 
to,  and  whether  the  method  of  instruction  and  the  progress  of  the  pupils  realize 
expectations.  Consequently  they  examine  and  approve  of' all  itemized  or  detailed 
courses  of  studies  for  elementary  schools  and  for  continuation  schools  that  come 
within  the  range  of  elementary  institutions.  These  courses  are  submitted  to  the 
inspectors,  and  they  have  to  se©  whether  the  requirements  specified  by  State  law 
are  carried  out  in  them.  They  are  also  notified  of  all  changes  in  the  grading  of 
classes,  which  changes  are  approved  or  rejected  by  them. 

With  regard  to  the  methods  of  instruction,  the  inspectors  are  commissioned  to 
see  that  education  develops  moral  character  and  will  power,  and  that  diligence 
and  obedience  are  not  the  outcome  of  fear.  Instruction  must  develop,  as  far  as 
possible,  all  the  pupils’  inborn  powers,  so  that  no  special  preference  be  given  to 
any  branch  of  study  at  the  cost  of  the  children’s  all-sided  development.  With 
respect  to  religious  teaching  the  inspectors  act  in  unison  with  church  authorities, 
whom  they  must  support  in  the  exercise  of  their  rights  whenever  desirable. 

4.  The  scientific  professional  education  of  teachers  and  their  occasional  supple¬ 
mentary  occupations  for  pay  after  school  hours  are  also  subjects  of  the  inspectors’ 
attention.  At  least  once  a  year  inspectors  call  a  meeting  of  all  the  teachers  and 
principals  in  their  respective  districts.  In  their  addresses  they  usually  express  their 
views  on  teaching  and  training,  and  endeavor  to  inspire  teachers  with  renewed 


38 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


and  cheerful  devotion  for  their  responsible  duties,  while  one  of  the  teachers,  in 
accord  with  the  inspector,  expounds  a  pedagogical  or  practical  subject.  During 
the  discussion  connected  with  the  lecture  all  are  allowed  free  expression  of  opin¬ 
ion.  These  county  teachers’  meetings  accomplish  their  purpose  and  contribute  a 
great  deal  toward  maintaining  friendly  relations  between  inspectors  and  teachers, 
and  calling  forth  mutual  esteem  and  full  confidence. 

Inspectors  exert  a  still  greater  influence  over  assistant  teachers  who  have  not 
passed  the  second  or  final  State  examination.  For  them  they  arrange  conferences 
in  which  trial  lessons  are  conducted,  and  the  work  done  is  criticised.  Important 
publications  on  psychology  and  pedagogy  are  discussed,  as  well  as  sections  of  the 
school  law;  practical  and  theoretical  suggestions  are  given,  and  the  novices  in 
teaching  are  in  every  way  urged  to  a  deeper  study  of  didactics.  Whenever  occa¬ 
sion  admits  counsel  is  given  on  diligence  and  deportment,  which  proves  an 
advantage  for  as  yet  untried  and  unformed  character. 

5.  In  the  interests  of  educational  progress,  inspectors  devote  a  great  deal  of 
attention  to  educational  text-books  and  aids  or  devices,  and  to  the  arrangement 
of  matters  of  instruction.  The  rural  schools  of  Saxony  are  indebted  to  their 
untiring  efforts  for  the  gradual  increase  of  educational  aids  and  material  for 
object  lessons.  Though  they  were  powerless  to  give  direct  compulsory  orders, 
they  nevertheless  exercised  a  controlling  influence  in  defining  the  measure  which 
requires  that  an  annual  appropriation  must  be  expended  in  every  school  district 
for  educational  helps  as  a  part  of  a  school's  equipment.  Moreover,  the  continuous 
admonitions  to  negligent  communities  had  a  good  effect.  Unfortunately,  at  times 
even  the  most  convincing  proofs  brought  forward  by  teachers  are  set  aside  by 
school  boards,  and  in  such  cases  exhortation  and  persuasion  on  the  part  of 
inspectors  gain  the  desired  result. 

<  As  many  antiquated  and  inappropriate  educational  devices  were  still  in  use  when 
county-school  supervision  was  inaugurated  in  1874,  a  broad  field  of  beneficial  action 
in  this  respect  was  open  to  inspectors. 

In  respect  to  the  old  courses  in  study,  the  minister  of  education  earnestly 
requested  the  county  inspectors  to  examine  them,  remedy  conspicuous  faults,  and 
abolish  prominent  evils,  but  refrain  from  any  radical  reconstruction  on  indi¬ 
vidual  authority,  as  the  State  authority  itself  intended  to  define  the  principles  of 
the  course  of  study  for  all  elementary  schools  in  Saxony.  As,  however,  this  official 
course  prescribes  only  the  very  lowest  standard  for  ungraded  elementary  schools 
and  is  intended  to  further  rather  than  forbid  any  special  individual  methodic  appli¬ 
cation,  each  school  is  still  charged  with  the  duty  to  arrange  a  detailed  course 
adapted  for  existing  local  conditions.  The  mere  decree  of  a  course  of  study  from 
an  inspector  has,  therefore,  no  legal  value.  If  a  common  order  for  any  one  branch 
or  an  entire  course  were  to  be  introduced  in  a  district  or  county  it  could  only  be 
done  by  general  consent.  Until  now  very  few  efforts  toward  a  uniform  plan  of 
study  for  all  the  elementary  schoo7s  of  one  county  have  been  made,  and  these  were 
rather  with  reference  to  separate  branches,  such  as  reading  and  language.  Even 
from  a  pedagogical  point  of  view,  a  certain  uniformity  in  regard  to  these  studies 
is  perfectly  justified. 

In  general,  uniform  courses  of  study  can  not  be  regarded  as  beneficial  or  pro¬ 
gressive.  As  a  teacher  at  one  of  the  national  teachers’  meetings  pertinently 
remarked  on  one  occasion,  an  inspector  or  supervisor  must  be  a  man  of  broad  views 
and  great  foresight  not  to  run  aground  on  details.  This  assertion  applies  as  well 
to  methods  as  to  courses  of  study.  In  truth,  on  their  entrance  into  office  most 
inspectors  emphasize  the  fact  that  they  recognize  liberty  in  methods  of  instruc¬ 
tion  within  absolutely  necessary  limits;  unlimited  liberty  or  license  is  not  and  can 
not  be  accepted  or  granted  at  any  time.  Liberty  of  method  is  just  as  indispen¬ 
sable  and  advantageous  for  devotion  to  the  vocation  of  teacher  as  liberty  of  con¬ 
science  and  profession  of  belief  are  in  religion.  Even  though  attempts  have  occa¬ 
sionally  been  made  to  prescribe  certain  methods,  it  is  noted  with  pleasure  that 
such  efforts  have  been  discountenanced  by  the  State  authorities  who  vouchsafed 
the  teachers’  liberty  in  the  choice  of  methods. 

6.  Inspectors  are  obliged  to  pay  attention  to  the  economic  conditions  of  schools, 
especially  to  the  prompt  payment  of  teachers’  salaries  and  the  support  of  schools 
generally,  as  well  as  to  the  hygienic  conditions  and  otherwise  legally  required 
provisions  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  pupils.  For  these  reasons  they  examine  all 
local  budgets  and  school- tax  levies  and  are  advised  of  any  changes  in  the  teachers’ 
salaries.  On  all  important  questions  concerning  the  improvement  of  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  schools  inspectors  endeavor  to  be  in  accord  with  the  local  school  boards,  so 
as  to  avoid  disagreements  between  authorities  and  make  possible  appropriate 
organization  and  pleasant  intercourse. 

7.  Finally,  it  is  the  duty  of  inspectors  to  superintend  the  official  action  of  local 


'SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  IN  GERMANY. 


39 


school  boards.  They  are  called  upon  by  law  to  examine  the  minutes  of  all  the 
board  s  meetings  and  have  the  right  to  notify  the  presiding  officer  to  call  a  meet¬ 
ing  at  any  time.  On  their  rounds  of  visits  they  are  obliged  to  see  that  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  a  permit  for  conducting  a  private  school  are  observed  and  that  the  limits 
of  their  rights  are  not  overstepped. 

Inspectors  must  keep  special  registers  of  their  visits.  The  result  of  their  observa¬ 
tions  should  be  frankly  communicated  to  teachers  and  principals,  but  never  in  pres¬ 
ence  of  pupils.  In  graded  schools  the  inspector  may  hold  a  special  conference  for 
the  purpose.  A  brief  written  review  of  the  condition  in  which  he  found  the  classes 
and  the  studies  is  entered  in  the  school’s  journal  over  his  signature.  A  condensed 
statement  of  the  notes  of  each  visit  is  arranged  in  tabular  form,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  year  a  report  of  all  the  visits  made  is  presented  to  the  minister  of  education. 
In  this  report  any  bad  conditions  and  serious  obstacles  to  progress  are  stated  and 
the  proper  means  for  improvement  suggested.  All  county  inspectors  meet  once  a 
year  at  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  to  discuss  measures  for  the  improvement  of 
schools,  the  introduction  of  educational  devices,  necessary  changes  of  standards, 
and  other  subjects  affecting  school  interests.  To  these  conferences  the  best  Saxon 
teachers— men  of  recognized  merit— are  invited,  often  also  school  principals,  who 
are  justly  looked  upon  as  future  inspectors. 

The  annual  reports  must  state  the  standing  of  the  schools  within  the  district, 
the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  organization  and  the  teachers’  positions,  as 
well  as  the  condition  and  renovation  of  buildings;  they  must  mention  teachers  who 
have  either  excelled  in  work  and  deportment  or  have  not  reached  the  required 
standard,  as  well  as  give  an  opinion  on  the  action  of  principals,  inspectors,  and 
school  boards.  From  these  reports  the  minister  of  education  is  enabled  to  form  a 
correct  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  lower  schools  throughout  the  State  and  of  par¬ 
ticular  schools  that  require  his  attention.  Thus  he  can  exercise  beneficial  influence 
in  all  directions  as  occasion  demands.  If  during  the  year  circumstances  arise  neces¬ 
sitating  the  minister's  immediate  action,  he  is  to  be  notified  at  once.  Inspectors 
must  carry  out  special  commissions  on  the  part  of  the  State  authority  and  must 
acquaint  teachers  with  all  ministerial  decrees.  In  this  way  they  are  intermediate 
factors  between  the  supreme  authority  of  the  State  and  the  teachers. 

In  all  cases  where  the  minister  exercises  the  right  of  nomination  of  teachers, 
namely,  for  positions  in  places  with  fewer  than  5,000  inhabitants,  inspectors  adver¬ 
tise  the  vacancies  and  examine  the  applications.  In  making  the  appointment  three 
names  of  applicants  are  proposed  to  the  minister  of  education,  with  the  reasons  for 
their  selection.  As  a  rule,  the  inspectors  conduct  a  competitive  trial  of  the  three 
applicants,  unless  this  is  set  aside  by  the  local  ^oard.  The  taking  the  oath  and 
installation  into  office  of  permanently  appointed  teachers  and  principals  also 
devolve  upon  them.  While  teachers  are  usually  initiated  by  the  local  authorities 
or  by  the  principal  commissioned  by  the  county  inspector,  the  installation  of  a 
principal,  as  well  as  the  dedication  of  new  schools,  is  conducted  by  the  inspector 
himself.  Both  events  are  celebrated  by  spirited  addresses  on  educational  topics. 
Substitute  teachers  are  appointed  without  any  action  on  the  part  of  school  boards. 
By  the  middle  of  February  inspectors  must  notify  the  minister  how  many  assist¬ 
ants  will  be  required  in  respective  districts  at  Easter  (the  beginning  of  the  school 
year);  they  assign  positions  to  applicants,  which  these  may  not  give  up  without 
permission  until  the  examination  for  eligibility  has  been  taken.  Assistants  present 
their  petition  for  admission  to  examination  to  the  inspector,  who  examines  them 
and  adds  his  comments  on  the  conduct,  talent,  etc.,  of  the  candidate  before  sending 
it  to  the  State  authority,  the  minister.  The  same  course  of  action  is  pursued  with 
petitions  for  admission  to  special  examinations  in  gymnastics,  drawing,  and  French. 

All  petitions  for  leave  of  absence  pass  through  the  hands  of  inspectors.  Leave 
of  absence  for  one  day  to  three  days  can  be  granted  by  the  local  school  inspector 
according  to  his  discretion,  although  the  county  inspector  must  be  notified.  The 
latter  can  grant  leaves  of  absence  for  from  four  days  to  four  weeks,  while  requests 
for  a  longer  time  must  be  sanctioned  by  the  minister  of  education;  still,  the  peti¬ 
tions  must  be  presented  to  and  approved  by  the  county  inspectors.  These  officials 
also  approve  of  children  attending  other  schools  than  those  of  their  native  dis¬ 
tricts,  and  give  permission  for  children  to  leave  school  earlier  than  they  otherwise 
could,  i.  e. ,  before  the  completion  of  the  fourteenth  year  of  life  and  the  satisfactory 
completion  of  the  prescribed  course.  This  last-named  regulation,  as  well  as  that 
which  defines  keeping  children  at  school  a  year  longer  because  of  their  deficiency, 
is  put  into  practice  only  in  exceptional  instances.  Such  a  course  of  action  redounds 
only  to  the  advantage  of  schools. 

Many  county  school  inspectors  are  also  royal  deputies  at  the  State  teachers’ 
examination  for  eligibility,  and  can  thus  exert  an  influence  on  the  methods  of 
conducting  examinations.  County  school  inspectors  naturally  have  a  great  deal 


40 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  writing  to  do.  This  clerical  bnrden  is  made  lighter  through  the  assistance  of  a 
secretary,  otherwise  they  could  not  do  justice  to  their  purely  educational  work. 
In  spite  of  the  help  they  thus  receive,  they  are  only  too  often  confined  to  their 
desks.  From  all  this  the  necessity  is  easily  recognized  of  appointing  these  super¬ 
visors  or  inspectors  instead  of  leaving  that  work  to  he  done  by  the  clergymen,  as 
was  formerly  done.  For  more  than  twenty-five  years  Sasony  has  enjoyed  the 
benefit  of  county  school  supervision  by  officials  educated  in  the  profession  of 
teaching,  and  advocates  of  the  old  order  of  ecclesiastical  supervision  of  schools 
have  made  little  opposition.  It  can  not  be  denied  that  the  progressive  movement  of 
education  noticeable  in  Saxony  since  the  foundation  of  the  German  Empire  is  due 
in  part  to  this  professional  supervision,  though  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
teachers  themselves  have  aided  the  movement  zealously.  Their  petitions  to  the 
State  authorities  culminated  in  the  reform  of  normal  schools  and  the  elevation  of 
the  purpose  of  public  education.  The  excellent  corps  of  teachers  of  Saxony  is  at 
present  strong  in  the  power  of  direction  and  application,  and  this  is  a  powerful 
means  to  the  highest  possible  end  of  State  education. 


YI.  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  DEFECTIVE  IN  GERMANY. 

[At  various  times  the  Annual  Reports  of  this  Bureau  have  given  accounts  of  the 
systems  of  education  prevailing  in  Germany;  the  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher 
schools  have  been  treated  with  all  possible  completeness,  as  far  as  statistics  could 
give  an  adequate  picture  of  the  system.  But  it  always  has  been  difficult  to  give 
account  of  what  is  being  done  for  defective  children,  statistical  reports  of  such 
institutions  being  very  rare.  Prof.  J.  Tews,  of  Berlin,  supplies  the  information  in 
a  review  on  pathological  institutions  (Heilpadagogische  Anstalten)  in  “  Zeitschrift 
fur  Philosophie  und  Padagogik,”  vol.  7,  No.  1.  The  article  is  here  reproduced 
in  English,  owing  to  its  accurate  statistics.] 

The  following  review  of  the  pathological  institutions  of  Germany  lacks  com¬ 
pleteness  in  a  few  items.  In  no  branch  of  our  modern  school  system  does  the  idea 
of  searching  out  and  nursing  defective  humanity  express  itself  so  purely  as  in  these 
institutions.  Children  of  five  senses  and  children  who  are  morally  sound  have 
been  taught  and  trained  with  zeal  and  success  for  centuries,  but  it  was  reserved 
for  our  nineteenth  century  to  lift  to  the  level  of  complete  development  the  poorest 
and  wretchedest  to  whom  nature  had  apparently  closed  the  way  to  nobler  culture 
and  purer  ethical  training.  In  this  department  of  education  particularly,  the 
Pestalozzi  idea  and  Pestalozzi’s  devotion  celebrate  their  highest  triumphs.  It  is 
confidently  expected  that  if  the  development  of  our  civilization  continues  at  its 
present  rate  the  care  for  children  of  four  senses,  for  mentally  defective  children, 
and  those  morally  abnormal  will  gain  in  extent  and  be  better  adapted  to  the 
special  needs  of  the  unfortunate  than  is  the  case  now. 

Heathen  antiquity  got  rid  of  human  beings  neglected  by  nature,  and  it  was  done 
in  the  most  heartless  manner,  presumably  in  order  to  purify  the  species  “homo 
sapiens”  of  elements  diseased  and  weak.  The  present  time  pursues  another 
method.  We  attempt  to  develop  even  the  most  imperfect  germ,  and  firmly  believe 
that  in  this  way  the  human  family  in  its  totality  will  not  only  not  degenerate,  but 
will  gradually  be  lifted  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  in  all  its  members,  more 
surely  than  by  means  of  the  cruel  method  of  the  ancients.  Yet,  only  recently  a 
much-read  educational  journal  contained  the  following  sentiments:  “I  beg  to 
state  that  our  custom  to  preserve,  by  every  possible  method,  the  lives  of  crippled 
and  diseased  children  is  not  at  all  to  be  recommended.  Antiquity  had  in  this 
respect  undoubtedly  better  views  than  ours.”  This  expression  is  prompted  by  a 
brutality  not  generally  found  among  educators,  and  was  characterized  as  such 
without  delay. 


INSTITUTIONS  FOE  THE  DEFECTIVE  IN  GERMANY. 


41 


Hand  in  hand  with  pathological  pedagogy,  of  course,  should  go  efforts  toward 
improving  the  environments  and  conditions  of  life  of  those  strata  of  the  popula¬ 
tion,  especially  the  poorest,  which  generally  furnish  the  candidates  for  pathological 
institutions.  If  that  were  done,  the  number  of  defective  children  deserving  of 
admission  to  pathological  institutions  would  diminish  gradually,  as  is  noticeable 
already  in  the  smaller  number  of  blind  children  admitted  to  blind  asylums.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  other  defectives  would  similarly  decrease  in  number. 

As  the  present  generation  in  Germany  has  succeeded  in  reducing  the  number  of 
beggars  to  a  vanishing  quantity  by  offering  work  for  all,  and  by  caring  for  the 
aged  and  infirm,  it  has  also  succeeded  in  withdrawing  children  of  four  senses  and 
mentally  abnormal  children  from  public  pity,  and  offering  to  them  a  possibility  to 
equip  themselves  for  the  struggle  for  subsistence  by  means  of  associated  charities 
and  State  asylums.  The  following  review  is  almost  complete  for  Prussia,  but 
somewhat  defective  for  the  smaller  States  of  the  Empire. 

I.  BLIND  ASYLUMS. 

In  connection  with  blind  asylums  the  Prussian  governmental  statistics  of  June 
27, 1896,  give  information  with  reference  to  the  number  of  blind  persons  in  the 
Kingdom.  In  1 880  there  were  counted  22, 677  blind.  Of  these  only  918  males  and  786 
females  were  born  blind;  6,969  males  and  6,875  females  had  lost  sight  after  birth. 
Of  3,456  males  and  3,673  females,  a  statement  as  to  the  time  of  beginning  blindness 
had  not  been  made.  The  number  of  cases  of  blindness  has  gradually  decreased, 
partly  owing  to  the  progress  made  in  ophthalmology,  partly  to  the  decrease  in 
cases  of  smallpox,  a  disease  which  is  a  very  frequent  cause  of  blindness  among 
children. 


Number  of  blind  persons  in  Prussia. 


Year. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

Of  every  10,000. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

1871 . , . 

11,066 

11,912 

22,978 

9.1 

9.5 

9.3 

1880. . . . 

11,843 

11,334 

22, 677 

8.5 

8.2 

8.3 

1895  . . . 

11,238 

10, 204 

21,442 

7.2 

6.3 

6.7 

The  decrease  is  obvious.  Especially  has  blindness  decreased  among  children  of 
school  age,  as  is  seen  from  the  following  data:  - 


Year. 

Age  less  than  10 

years. 

Age  10  to  20  years. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

1871 . . . 

664 

658 

1,322 

1,060 

-828 

1,013 

992 

845 

1,858 

1880  . . . 

572 

488 

823 

1,815 

1,733 

1895 

461 

367  { 

1,003 

730 

Hence,  at  present  (in  1800)  there  may  be  between  1,450  and  1,500  blind  children 
of  school  age.  The  number  of  blind  persons  varies  considerably  in  the  different 
provinces,  the  eastern  provinces  showing  a  higher  percentage  than  the  western. 
That  blindness  increases  in  frequency  with  age  is  a  well-known  fact.  In  the  age 
from  0  to  15,  for  instance,  there  were,  in  1895,  only  4  males  blind,  but  in  the  age  from 
50  to  over  70  there  were  105.3  in  every  10,000  male  inhabitants.  The  following 


42 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


table  sliows  the  number  of  blind  not  yet  20  years  old  for  the  various  provinces  of 
the  Kingdom: 


Table  showing  number  of  blind  persons  of  school  age  in  Prussia, 


Provinces  of  the  Kingdom. 

0  to  5  years. 

5  to  10  years. 

10  to  15  years. 

15  to  20  years. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

East  Prussia . . . . 

10 

6 

20 

20 

30 

27 

41 

27 

25 

West  Prussia  _ _ _ 

9 

18 

17 

28 

21 

25 

City  of  Berlin . 

11 

8 

14 

15 

16 

16 

21 

20 

Brandenburg  „ . . 

11 

13 

24 

23 

43 

21 

55 

32 

Pomerania  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

8 

7 

8 

6 

17 

18 

42 

20 

Posen  _ _ 

3 

16 

9 

22 

20 

34 

31 

46 

Silesia _ _ _ 

31 

32 

37 

22 

58 

46 

95 

Saxony  . _ . . . . 

27 

19 

26 

21 

36 

33 

44 

37 

Sleswick-Holstein . . . 

10 

5 

9 

9 

18 

18 

20 

21 

27 

Hannover  _ _  .. 

11 

10 

27 

17 

23 

25 

49 

Westphalia  -  _ 

12 

16 

18 

12 

45 

26 

49 

31 

Hesse-Nassau . _ _ 

9 

8 

15 

12 

26 

15 

25 

13 

Rhenish  Prussia . _ . 

34 

21 

41 

27 

67 

51 

73 

62 

Hohenzollern . 7 . 

1 

1 

The  State . .. . 

188 

157 

273 

210  i 

429 

337 

574 

393 

There  are  15  asylums  for  blind  children  in  Prussia,  in  which  411  boj^s  and  292 
girls,  in  all  703  children,  between  6  and  14,  are  taught.  The  following  table  gives 
the  details: 


Table  showing  number  of  pupils  in  schools  for  the  blind  in  Prussia. 


Institutions. 

Pupils  6  to  14  years. 

Number  of  teachers. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Men. 

Women. 

Total. 

1.  Konigsberg- . „ . 

28 

26 

54 

6 

2 

8 

2.  Konigsthal  . 

38 

28 

66 

3 

1 

4 

3.  Berlin . . 

29 

22 

51 

2 

2 

4 

4.  Steglitz . . 

73 

39 

112 

4 

4 

8 

5.  Stettin.. . . 

17 

11 

28 

4 

2 

6 

6.  Bromberg _ ... _ _ 

22 

18 

40 

4 

4 

7.  Breslau _ _  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

25 

15 

40 

5 

5 

8.  Bar  by . . . -  . _ . . . . 

33 

31 

64 

5 

5 

9.  Kiel. . 

15 

22 

37 

3 

2 

5 

10.  Hanover . . . 

22 

20 

42 

3 

3 

6 

11.  Paderborn . . - . 

25 

9 

34 

2 

2 

12.  Soest . . . - . 

14 

11 

25 

3 

3 

13.  Wiesbaden 

17 

24 

2 

2 

14.  Erankf  ort-on-the-Main  . 

7 

3 

10 

2 

2 

15.  Diiren . . . . 

46 

30 

76 

6 

1 

7 

Total . . . . . 

1 

411 

292 

703 

52 

19 

71 

Of  these  15  schools  13  were  situated  in  cities,  2  in  the  country.  One  is  a  royal 
school,  11  are  provincial,  1  is  a  municipal,  and  2  are  private  schools.  One  is 
ungraded,  3  have  2  grades,  1  has  3,  5  have  4,  4  have  5,  and  1  has  10  grades.  These 
15  schools  have  an  average  of  47  children,  and  the  classes  average  12. 

The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria  has  4  such  institutions,  Saxony  2,  Wurttemberg  3, 
Baden  2,  and  other  States  each  1,  as  is  seen  from  the  following  tables: 


INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  DEFECTIVE  IN  GERMANY. 


43 


Table  showing  number  of  blind  children  in  asylums  in  the  lesser  States  of  Germany. 


Institutions  in — 

Number 

of 

pupils. 

Number 

of 

teachers. 

Bavaria: 

(?) 

59 

<8 

5 

Nuremberg _ _ _ _ _ .... _ _ _ _ _ 

50 

Wnrz’pnrg  _ _ _ _ _ .... _ 

42 

5 

Saxony: 

Dresden _ _ _ ...... _ ... ..... _ _ _ 

110 

16 

Leipzig  --  _  _  __  _ _ _ 

21 

5 

Wurttemberg: 

Heibgenbroun  .  _ ................. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

16 

8 

Schwabish  Gmund _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

86 

5 

Stuttgart  _ _  .  .  _  ..  _  _ _ _ 

52 

6 

Baden: 

Freiburg  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

20 

Tlvesheim  _  _  _  _  ..  _  _ _  _  _ 

52 

Hessia,  Friedberg  .  _ _ _ _ 

21 

6 

Mecklenburg,  Neu  Kloster  .  _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ 

43 

10 

Saxe- Weimar,  Weimar . . . . .  . 

Bremen,  Bremen  __  _ _  _  _  ..  _  . 

8 

(?) 

42 

(?) 

(?) 

Hamburg,  Hamburg _ _ _ _  ... _ 

10 

Alsace- Loraine,  Illzach . . . . . . . . . . . . 

42 

9 

Altogether,  Germany  has  32  schools  for  the  blind.  Other  countries,  so  far  as 
information  is  received,  are  well  provided  with  such  institutions  also.  Austria- 
Hungary  has  12;  Denmark,  1;  Russia,  22;  Belgium,  5;  France,  23;  Spain,  12; 
Australia,  5;  Switzerland,  3;  Sweden  and  Norway,  8;  Netherlands,  7;  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  40;  Italy,  14;  the  United  States,  36. 

II.  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  DEAF. 

Institutions  for  the  deaf  are  more  numerous  in  Prussia  than  those  for  the  blind, 
simply  because  the  number  of  deaf  children  of  the  age  in  which  they  may  receive 
a  school  education  is  much  greater.  On  December  2,  1895,  the  Prussian  census 
found  the  number  of  deaf  children  of  less  than  20  years  to  be  as  follows: 

Table  showing  the  number  of  deaf  persons  under  20  years  in  Prussia. 


Provinces  of  the  Kingdom. 

0  to  5  years. 

5  to  10  years. 

10  to  15  years. 

15  to  20  years. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

East  Prussia _ ...... _ .... 

36 

33 

137 

90 

239 

177 

288 

182 

West  Prussia _ _ 

27 

17 

88 

59 

38 

148 

119 

144 

101 

City  of  Berlin . . 

15 

14 

45 

65 

•51 

67 

65 

Brandenburg _ _ _ _ 

38 

31 

no 

78 

133 

100 

125 

117 

Pomerania  _  _  _  .  .  _  _  _ 

16 

15 

65 

55 

111 

61 

74 

56 

Posen  . . . . . . 

25 

15 

111 

75 

202 

157 

168 

152 

Silesia _ _ _ 

46 

26 

155 

136 

243 

202 

334 

264 

Saxony  _  _ _ _ _ 

30 

28 

98 

98 

115 

119 

117 

113 

Sleswick-Holstein _ _ _ 

11 

13 

49 

75 

42 

54 

46 

45 

53 

Hanover . . . . 

19 

23 

55 

98 

90 

109 

81 

Westphalia... _ _ _ 

34 

22 

98 

68 

119 

101 

119 

78 

Hesse-Nassau . . . . 

18 

16 

62 

64 

85 

80 

93 

65 

Rhenish  Prussia _ 

50 

38 

170 

122 

196 

164 

193 

164 

Hohenzollern  _ .....  _ .... 

1 

1 

1 

4 

o 

Total . 

366 

292 

1,263 

980 

1,808 

1,468 

1,820 

1,493 

Number  of  schools  for  the 


Germany . 98 

Austria-Hungary . 19 

Switzerland .  13 

Belgium . 11 

Denmark . 5 

France . . .  70 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland . 46 

Netherlands . 4 

Italy... . 35 

Luxemburg . . .  1 

Norway  and  Sweden .  17 

Portugal . . . . . . .  1 

Roumania . . 1 


deaf  in  various  countries. 


Russia . . . :  13 

Spain . —  7 

Canada . -----  7 

Mexico . . . 2 

United  States . . .... . . . . .....  105 

Brazil.. . 1 

Argentina . 1 

Australia . . — ....  5 

Africa  (Cape  Colony) . 1 

Asia: 

India . 2 

Japan  . . 2 


44 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
The  schools  for  the  deaf  in  Germany. 


Location:  City,  Province,  and  State. 

Year  of 
foun¬ 
dation. 

Years  of 
course. 

Number 

of 

teachers. 

Number 

of 

classes. 

Number 

of 

pupils. 

Age  of 
admis¬ 
sion. 

PRUSSIA. 

East  Prussia: 

1833 

6 

14 

12 

138 

7-10 

11-14 

7-10 

Friedland  ~  . . . . . . 

1893 

3-4 

4 

3 

39 

1817 

8 

10 

9 

96  • 

1873 

6 

6 

5 

55 

7-10 

7-10 

1840 

6 

H 

8 

75 

West  Prussia: 

1873 

6-7 

3 

4 

30 

7 

1833 

6-7 

12 

10 

124 

7 

1873 

6 

13 

11 

132 

7 

Pomerania: 

Koslin  - . . . . . 

1861 

7 

8 

8 

93 

8 

Stettin  . _ . . 

1839 

7 

8 

7 

80 

8-12 

1837 

6-8 

3 

5 

34 

7-12 

Berlin: 

Berlin  (royal) . . . . . 

1788 

8 

10 

8 

77 

7 

Berlin  (city)  . . . . 

1875 

8 

13 

12 

128 

6 

Brandenburg: 

1891 

8 

12 

9 

86 

7 

1873 

8 

4 

3 

36 

6 

1879 

8 

14 

12 

131 

7-8 

Posen : 

1872 

8 

9 

8 

77 

6-9 

1832 

8 

20 

17 

187 

7-9 

1872 

8 

14 

13 

111 

7 

Silesiar: 

1821 

8 

25 

23 

235 

7 

1831 

7 

9 

9 

91 

7 

Rati  bor . . . . 

1836 

6-7 

27 

24 

290 

7-11 

Saxony: 

1822 

8 

8 

8 

77 

7-12 

Halberstadt _ _ _ 

1825 

8 

8 

8 

81 

7-8 

Halle . 

1835 

6-8 

6 

6 

67 

7-12 

Osterbnre1-  _  .  _  _  __  _  _ 

1864 

8 

4 

4 

37 

7-12 

W  eissenf  els . . . . . . 

1829 

6-8 

7 

7 

63 

7-10 

Sleswick-Holstein: 

Schleswig . „ . . . 

1787 

8 

15 

13 

137 

7 

Hanover: 

Emden  _ _ _ 

1844 

8 

4 

4 

32 

6-7 

Hildesheim . .. . 

1829 

8 

10 

9 

93 

7 

Osnabriick  _ _ ...... 

1857 

8 

9 

7 

68 

7-12 

Stade _ ; . . . . 

1857 

8 

8 

7 

60 

7 

Westphalia: 

Biiren  _ _ _ _ _ 

1830 

8 

9 

8 

76 

7-12 

Langenhorst _ _ _ _ 

1841 

8 

10 

8 

78 

6-10 

Petershagen _ _ _ _ 

1851 

8 

9 

8 

80 

7-8 

Soest  . 

1832 

7 

9 

8 

65 

7 

Hesse-Nassau: 

Camberg  _ _ 

1817 

8 

10 

9 

95 

6-8 

.  FVnnlrfnr't  .  .  _ _ 

1827 

8 

4 

4 

34 

7 

Horn  berg  .  . . . 

1838 

8 

12 

12 

124 

6-8 

Rhenish  Prussia: 

la  Chapelle _ 

1838 

7-8 

6 

5 

47 

6-7 

Briihi  . 

1854 

8 

8 

7 

66 

7 

Elberfeld . - . 

1880 

6-8 

6 

5 

53 

7-9 

Alt -Essen  _ 

1878 

6-8 

6 

5 

58 

6-12 

Hnt  trap  _  _ 

1896 

6-8 

4 

4 

39 

6-12 

TT ore  pen  _ _  _ 

1841 

6-7 

4 

4 

41 

8-10 

Cologne  _ _ ... _ 

1831 

7 

8 

7 

77 

7 

Neuwied,  A _ _ _ _  - 

1854 

6-8 

6 

5 

45 

7-12 

Neuwied,  B  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1898 

6-8 

o 

2 

17 

9-12 

Treves  ...  ._  .  _  _ 

1879 

8 

7 

6 

54 

7-8 

SAXONY. 

PppG'Sfyn  __  ..  _  __  _ _  _ ...... 

? 

8 

21 

17 

193 

8 

pi  auen  .  .  _ _ _ _ 

? 

2 

4 

3 

33 

6 

Leipzig _ _ _ 

1778 

8 

18 

16 

140 

7-12 

BAVARIA. 

A  ltd  erf  _ _ _ _ 

1831 

7 

1 

5 

21 

7-9 

Arsbfl.rVh  ..  _ _ _ _ _ 

1881 

8 

1 

1 

2 

7 

1834 

8 

4 

7 

51 

7 

_ ,  -r _ - _ _ _ 

Ba.mbp.rp'  _ _ 

1855 

5-6 

4 

3 

28 

7-10 

Ra.irontb  .  _ _ _ _ 

1843 

6 

1 

3 

15 

8-10 

Ttillinsren  _  _ .... _ _ 

1855 

8 

7 

4 

52 

7 

ErsmVenthfl.l  _ _ _ _ 

1825 

6 

7 

6 

63 

7 

Fhrt  h  . 

1874 

7 

1 

1 

5 

6 

TTnhenwart,  _  .....  .  _ ...... 

1878 

8 

4 

4 

48 

7 

Munich _ ........................... _ 

1804 

7 

8 

7 

80 

7 

INSTITUTIONS  FOE.  THE  DEFECTIVE  IN  GEEMANY. 


45 


The  schools  for  the  deaf  in  Germany — Con  tinned. 


Year  of 

Years  of 

Number 

Number 

Number 

Age  of 

Location:  City,  Province,  and  State. 

foun- 

of 

of 

of 

admis¬ 

dation. 

COUI*S6. 

teachers. 

classes. 

pupils. 

sion. 

bavaria — continued. 

1832 

7 

4 

4 

38 

6 

7-12 

7-10 

7-11 

1845 

6 

5 

6 

61 

1835 

6 

5 

6 

68 

Wurzburg . . . 

1841 

7 

8 

7 

92 

Zell . 

1873 

7 

2 

o 

28 

7 

VURTTEMBEEG. 

Bonningheim . . . 

1825 

6-7 

6 

6 

59 

7 

1823 

6-7 

0 

6 

60 

59 

7-8 

Grmind^  B . . . 

1888 

6 

7 

6 

7 

1860 

7 

6 

3 

6 

44 

30 

7 

N  agold  . . . 

1887 

6-7 

3 

7-9 

1846 

6-7 

4 

6 

12 

37 

7-9 

Wilhelmsdorf .  . 

1837 

6 

10 

100 

7 

1823 

6-7 

5 

4 

29 

6-12 

BADEN. 

Dinglingen  .. . 

1888 

6 

2 

2 

13 

8-11 

Gerlachsheim  . . . . 

1874 

6-8 

12 

10 

103 

8-11 

Meersburg . . . . . . 

1883 

6 

12 

10 

93 

8 

HESSIA. 

Bensheim . . . . 

1840 

6-7 

6 

6 

67 

8 

Friedberg . . 

1837 

6 

7 

6 

50 

8 

MECKLENBURG. 

Ludwigslust  _ _ _ _ 

1840 

8 

8 

8 

66 

7-11 

6-9 

Rostock . . . . 

1888 

7-8 

1 

11 

ALSACE-LORRAINE. 

Isenkeim . . . . 

1886 

7 

9 

rt 

52 

7 

Metz. . . . . . _ . 

1875 

8 

5 

43 

6-10 

Ruprechtsau  . . . . „ . . 

1824 

8 

7 

4 

5 

42 

36 

6-10 

Strassburg . . . . 

1885 

8 

5 

6-8 

SMALLER  STATES. 

Brunswick . . . . ... 

1828 

8 

6 

5 

50 

8 

Bremen  ..  ..  ... _ _ 

1827 

8 

4 

4 

23 

6-8 

Coburg . . . . . 

1835 

8 

1 

4 

20 

18 

6-7 

Detmold . . . . 

1841 

6 

1 

3 

7-9 

Hamburg . . . . . . 

1827 

8 

9 

8 

94 

6-7 

Hildburghausen . . . 

1843 

6 

2 

3 

23 

7 

Jena . . 

1894 

10 

1 

3 

10 

4-16 

Liibeck _ _ _  _ 

1820 

8 

8 

8 

124 

7 

Schleiz . , . . . 

1847 

8 

3 

4 

30 

7-8 

Weimar . . . . . 

1858 

8 

4 

4 

32 

6-7 

Wildeshausen . . 

1820 

8 

3 

3 

32 

Zerbst . . . 

1865 

8 

3 

4 

24 

7- 

Total  . 

721 

670 

6, 596 

III.  INSTITUTIONS  FOR  IDIOTS. 

The  care  for  weak-minded  or  mentally  defective  children  and  schools  for  their 
instruction  have  in  recent  years  greatly  increased.  So-called  “  closed  institutions” — 
i.  e. ,  asylums  for  idiots  and  epileptics— have  existed  for  many  years,  but  during  the 
last  few  decades  special  attention  has  been  given  to  other  children  who  are  men¬ 
tally  weak  but  not  idiotic — children  who  can  not  possibly  keep  up  in  their  studies 
with  normally  endowed  children,  and  retard  the  progress  of  the  school.  Such 
children  have  been  gathered  either  in  special  ungraded  schools  or  separate  classes. 
A  number  of  German  cities  have  proceeded  to  thus  aid  the  weak  and  at  the  same 
time  enable  the  classes  or  grades  of  normally  endowed  to  progress  at  a  more  rapid 
rate  in  their  studies.  The  following  table  gives  the  details  concerning  schools  or 
asylums  for  idiotic  and  epileptic  children  in  Germany. 


46 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901 


On  January  1,  1898,  there  were  in  Germany  59  of  such  asylums,  with  11,964 
inmates;  6,490  of  these  were  boys,  5,224  girls.  Of  two  institutions  the  number  of 
boys  and  girls  is  not  stated  separately;  only  the  total,  250.  Of  the  total  number, 
only  3,685  were  capable  of  being  taught.  The  others  are  only  occupied  with  man¬ 
ual  labor  or  only  fed. 

Table  showing  details  of  schools  for  idiots  in  Germany. 


Location. 

Date  of 
found¬ 
ing. 

Number  of  in¬ 
mates  in  1898. 

Inmates  classified. 

Teachers  and 
nurses. 

Male. 

Female. 

Taught 

school 

studies. 

Only- 
fed  and 
nursed. 

Only  oc¬ 
cupied. 

Men. 

Women. 

Alsterdorf . 

1850 

333 

241 

121 

187 

266 

63 

55 

Attl . 

Bischweiler . 

1876 

95 

62 

52 

42 

63 

11 

17 

1874 

11 

2 

10 

2 

3 

1898 

Briickberg . . . 

1892 

169 

7 

139 

25 

12 

10 

25 

1895 

26 

8 

10 

8 

9 

1887 

21 

17 

38 

54 

(?) 

1881 

119 

67 

186 

15 

J  22 

Darmstadt . - 

1869 

96 

53 

100 

28 

6 

9 

22 

Dessau . 

1888 

29 

26 

38 

14 

6 

4 

8 

1869 

155 

44 

111 

2 

23 

1873 

42 

18 

50 

10 

1 _ 

21 

Ecksberg . - 

1852 

110 

88 

50 

148 

72 

Erkerode . . . . 

1868 

144 

128 

46 

93 

179 

22 

26 

Gemunden . . 

1882 

80 

36 

58 

31 

27 

3 

11 

1859 

181 

84 

39 

58 

22 

Grosshennersdorf . . 

1846 

243 

162 

29 

52 

22 

10 

Gotba  . 

1889 

9 

0 

Hasserode _ _ 

1861 

40 

is 

10 

15 

5 

Heggbach _ _ 

1887 

43 

54 

97 

1 

30 

Herthen . - . 

1879 

194 

202 

50 

346 

5 

>4 

Himmelkron _ _ 

1892 

130 

36 

42 

52 

2 

15 

Holn stein  __  _ 

1881 

76 

18 

58 

11 

Huttrop . „ . 

1884 

215 

127 

175 

112 

55 

10 

39 

Idstein . . . . . . 

1888 

58 

45 

75 

28 

10 

14 

Kattowitz . . . 

1894 

72 

44 

83 

5 

31 

6 

8 

Kiel.... . . . . 

1862 

40 

27 

50 

9 

8 

3 

9 

Kuckenmiihle . 

1863 

450 

375 

130 

695  / 

64 

112 

Krascknitz . . . . 

1860 

308 

260 

93 

153 

154 

42 

77 

Langenhagen . . . 

1862 

399 

277 

209 

219 

248 

43 

82 

Lauterbofen _ _ 

1881 

93 

64 

29 

5 

15 

Lescbnitz . . 

1871 

126 

75 

129 

25 

47 

9 

19 

Liebenau . . . . 

1870 

140 

150 

20 

170 

100 

2 

33 

Liegnitz . 

1879 

141 

106 

53 

76 

94 

18 

20 

Liibben .  _ _ _ 

1893 

179 

171 

305 

45 

34 

28 

Mariaberg . 

1847 

101 

49 

“36 

53 

60 

4 

;0 

Marienhausen  . 

1893 

70 

36 

92 

14 

3 

12 

Mosbacb . 

1880 

85 

55 

70 

50 

20 

11 

20 

Neinstedt  . . 

1861 

270 

205 

83 

392 

34 

66 

N euendettelsau  ..  .  _ 

1854 

193 

32 

121 

40 

2 

29 

Niedermarsberg . 

1881 

200 

131 

146 

116 

69 

18 

61 

N  ossen  .  _ 

1857 

172 

115 

5 

7 

8 

22 

Oldenburg . 

1887 

44 

29 

41 

20 

1  12 

4 

8 

Polsingen _ _ _ 

1865 

166 

20 

60 

38 

6 

16 

Potsd  am  _  _  . .  .  . 

Z 

30 

(?) 

60 

(?) 

23 

Rastenburg . . 

1865 

178  ' 

128 

104 

173 

29 

14 

13 

Roda 

1886 

13 

12 

10 

is 

1 

5 

Schleswig . . . 

1852 

50 

22 

30 

27 

14 

4 

8 

Stetten . . 

1849 

272 

171 

108 

89 

234 

47 

103 

Scheuern . 

1870 

175 

98 

78 

94 

101 

29 

38 

Scbreiberbau . . 

1845 

27 

32 

19 

20 

20 

7 

6 

Schwerin . . 

1867 

59 

55 

73 

28 

6 

10 

22 

Sobernbeim . . 

1890 

21 

142 

42 

59 

39 

3 

25 

Sobland . . 

1879 

27 

23 

3 

24 

23 

3 

6 

Straubing 

1891 

129 

129 

20 

Treysa 

1893 

46 

28 

60 

14 

8 

14 

Ursberg . 

1884 

412 

343. 

127 

123 

386 

8 

140 

Yolmerdingsen . 

1887 

157 

125 

109 

90 

98 

36 

32 

Total  _ _ _ _ _ 

6,490 

5,224 

.  3,685 

3,196 

2, 892 

611 

1.191 

(25 

1 

•0) 

(1,7 

1 

'49) 

(210) 

INSTITUTION'S  FOR  THE  DEFECTIVE  IN  GERMANY. 


47 


Closely  related  to  schools  for  idiots  are  the  private  institutions  for  intellectually 
backward  children,  of  which  there  are  a  number  in  Germany,  not  included  in  the 
f oregoing  list.  Some  of  these  schools  are  designed  for  children  of  wealthy  parents 
exclusively,  and  hence  charge  heavy  tuition  fees.  Between  the  large  group  of 
normal  children  and  that  of  pathologically  weak  (idiotic)  children  and  degenerates 
there  is  another  group  who  are  hard  to  educate,  being  in  danger  of  develojjing 
abnormally  in  physical,  intellectual,  or  moral  regard.  Since  1890  Professor 
Truper  has  opened  a  school  for  such  children  near  Jena.  Here  children  are 
instructed  and  trained  with  success  according  to  the  principles  of  neuro-pathology 
or  psychopathology. 

IV.  SPECIAL  SCHOOLS  OR  CLASSES  FOR  THE  MENTALLY  WEAK.  ' 

The  number  of  institutions  for  the  education  of  mentally  weak  but  not  idiotic 
children  has  greatly  increased  during  late  years.  While  in  1894  Prussia  had  only 
16  cities  in  which  provision  was  made  for  700  such  children,  there  were  in  1896  as 
many  as  27  cities  maintaining  38  schools  with  2,017  children.  Such  institutions 
are  all  within  the  city  school  systems;  they  are  integral  parts  of  the  system;  hence 
its  statistics  of  attendance  are  contained  in  those  of  the  elementary  schools. 
These  unclassified  schools  and  classes  are  established  for  two  purposes,  (1)  to 
give  special  aid  to  weaklings  and  (2)  relieve  the  generally  overcrowded  classes  of 
elements  which  would  retard  the  progress  of  the  average. 

V.  REFORMATORY  SCHOOLS. 

The  first  institutions  of  this  kind  in  Germany  were  established  by  the  Pietists 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  Men  like  A.  H.  Francke  collected  moral  degenerates 
or  children  exposed  to  vicious  influences.  Pestalozzi  continued  this  work  of  mercy 
and  charity.  Later  on  schools  of  refuge  were  established  on  a  large  scale  by 
Zeller  in  Buggen  (Baden),  by  Count  von.  der  Recke  in  Overdyk  and  Dusselthal 
(Rhenish  Prussia),  and  Johannes  Falk  in  Weimar.  While  formerly  orphan  asy¬ 
lums  and  houses  of  refuge  were  combined,  they  are  strictly  separated  in  late 
years.  Germany  had,  in  1897, 342  houses  of  refuge  or  reformatory  schools,  viz,  209  in 
Prussia,  20  in  Wurttemberg,  26  in  Saxony,  20  in  Bavaria,  14  in  Baden,  11  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  9  in  Thuringia,  9  in  the  three  free  cities,  4  in  Hessia,  4  in  Anhalt,  2  each 
in  Mecklenburg,  Oldenburg,  Brunswick,  and  Lippe-Detmold.  The  total  number 
of  inmates  in  Protestant  refuges  approaches  10,000.  The  value  of  grounds  and 
buildings  is  estimated  at  between  8,000,000  and  10,000,000  marks.  The  tuition  fees 
vary  between  75  and  600  marks  per  annum. 

Through  the  criminal  code  (1871)  for  the  German  Empire  and  the  law  of 
1878  concerning  the  care  of  neglected  children  a  new  kind  of  institutions  has 
been  recognized,  to  wit,  institutions  for  obligatory  training  (Zwangserziehung). 
These  are  maintained  by  societies  and  subsidized  by  the  State.  Between  October 
1,  1878,  and  March  31, 1897,  there  were  in  Prussia 27,645  children  assigned  to  such 
communal  institutions.  Other  communities  and  provincial  governments  have 
performed  their  duties,  imposed  upon  them  by  the  law  of  1878,  by  assigning  chil¬ 
dren  who  have  been  found  guilty  in  the  police  courts  to  private  families,  where 
they  receive  strict  attention.  Some  communities  who  have  no  houses  of  refuge  have 
made  arrangements  with  institutions  of  other  cities  to  receive  their  children  con¬ 
victed  in  court.  In  March,  1897,  as  many  as  10,542  juvenile  criminals  were  pro¬ 
vided  for  in  the  various  ways  indicated,  which  cost  the  communities  $349,246.58  to 
maintain  during  the  year  ending  March  31,  1897.  In  1896  as  many  as  140  of  these 
institutions  had  special  schools  for  their  inmates. 


48  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Table  showing  the  attendance  in  schools  connected  with  reformatories. 


Provinces  of  Prussia. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Number 

of 

classes. 

Number 

of 

teachers. 

Pupils  between  6  and  14. 

Per  cent 
of  all 
childi  en 
of  school 
age. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

East  Prussia . . . 

8 

13 

13 

378 

76 

454 

0. 12 

West  Prussia . 

6 

11 

13 

311 

52 

363 

.13 

City  of  Berlin... . 

6 

15 

17 

327 

113 

440 

.20 

Brandenburg . 

24 

29 

30 

452 

225 

677 

.15 

Pomerania . . . . . . 

14 

21 

22 

337 

107 

444 

.16 

Posen . 

3 

7 

8 

214 

22 

236 

.17 

Silesia. . 

22 

40 

36 

827 

349 

1,176 

.15 

Saxony . . . . 

11 

19 

22 

426 

129 

555 

.11 

Schleswig-Holstein . 

4 

5 

4 

94 

52 

146 

.07 

Hanover  . . . . 

11 

17 

17 

481 

120 

601 

.14 

Westphalia . _ . 

9 

14 

17 

443 

159 

602 

.12 

Hesse-Nassau . 

7 

10 

10 

322 

69 

391 

.13 

Rhenish  Prussia  . 

15 

24 

29 

736 

169 

905 

.10 

Hohenzollern . 

1 

Total... . 

140 

225 

238 

6,990 

5,348 

1,642 

.12 

Of  tliese  schools  95  had  only  1  grade,  24  had  2, 18  had  3,  and  5  had  4  grades  each. 
The  classes  averaged  31  children.  One  hundred  and  twenty  classes  were  exclu¬ 
sively  attended  by  boys,  30  exclusively  by  girls,  and  75  were  mixed  classes.  Insti¬ 
tutions  which  have  no  special  school  facilities  send  their  inmates  under  escort  to 
the  city  schools. 

The  kingdom  of  Saxony  has  27  houses  of  refuge  or  reformatory  schools,  with  703 
inmates.  The  expenditures  for  maintaining  these  institutions  amounted  to  $49,457 
in  1897.  To  these  should  be  added  an  asylum  for  children  who  have  not  been 
convicted  in  court,  but  were  brought  to  this  institution  because  they  were  in 
danger  of  becoming  degenerates,  the  parents  being  in  prison  or  irresponsible  edu¬ 
cational  agents.  This  asylum  is  situated  in  Braunsdorf  and  has  26  teachers,  11 
classes,  and  327  pupils  (252  boys,  46  girls,  and  29  advanced  pupils  the  sex  of  whom 
is  not  stated). 

Orphan  asylums  in  Germany  are  not  classed  among  the  educational  pathological 
institutions.  The  care  of  orphans  is  a  duty  of  the  communities,  nearly  all  of 
which  maintain  orphan  asylums;  rural  communities  often  place  their  orphans  in 
private  families.  In  1898  Prussia  had  78  orphan  asylums  provided  with  schools, 
in  which  5,192  children  were  taught  by  172  teachers.  Wherever  such  schools 
exist  they  are  not  classed  among  the  public  schools. 


YU.  A  NEW  LAW  CONCERNING  REFORMATORY  EDUCATION  OF 
CHILDREN  IN  PRUSSIA. 

[A  law  concerning  obligatory  education  of  minors  has  recently  been  passed  in 
the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies  (May  21,  1900).  The  circumstances  necessitating 
obligatory  education  are  found  in  social  conditions  over  which  no  state  govern¬ 
ment  can  have  full  control.  A  chief  factor  which,  as  a  rule,  is  overlooked  in 
judging  depraved  youth  is  found  in  the  pathological  conditions  of  the  soul  and  in 
the  education  at  home  (or  rather  the  want  of  such  education),  in  school,  and  in 
public  life — in  short,  in  the  diseased  soul  and  its  environment.  This  factor  has 
not  been  taken  into  consideration  by  the  framers  of  the  law  as  much  as  was  desired 
by  persons  who  have  made  the  saving  of  neglected  and  depraved  children  their 
business.  The  editor  of  Kinderfehler,  Zeitschrift  fur  Kinderforschung,  sharply 
criticises  the  law  as  inadequate.  Still,  if  compared  with  the  laws  on  the  subject  in 
other  countries,  it  would  seem  to  go  beyond  the  requirements  in  force  elsewhere. 


REFORMATORY  EDUCATION  OF  CHILDREN  IN  PRUSSIA.  49 


A  careful  reading  of  the  law  will  show  that  the  parental  Government  of  Prussia 
concerns  itself  much  more  about  the  unfortunates  than  do  other  governments. 

Of  late  German  teachers  pay  much  attention  to  pathological  education,  and  it 
was  to  a  large  extent  their  wishes  which  were  consulted  in  the  framing  of  the  new 
law.  That  some  of  them  find  it  unsatisfactory  is  easily  understood,  for  no  law  is 
made  in  advance  of  conditions  to  be  combated.  Law  always  lags  behind.  The 
text  of  the  law  is  here  given  in  English,] 


Art.  1.  Obligators”  education,  as  the  term  is  used  in  this  law,  is  the  education 
under  public  supervision  and  at  public  cost,  in  a  suitable  family  or  in  an  educa¬ 
tional  or  reformatory  institution,  of  minors  exposed  to  evil  influences  or  neglected 
and  depraved. 

Art.  2.  In  case  of  minors  who  have  not  completed  their  eighteenth  year  obliga¬ 
tory  education  may  be  enforced — 

(а)  If  the  presumptions  of  paragraph  1666  or  of  paragraph  1838  of  the  civil  code 
exist,  and  such  education  becomes  necessary  to  prevent  moral  depravity  of  minors. 

(б)  If  a  minor  has  committed  any  criminal  act  for  which  he  can  not  be  pun¬ 
ished  under  criminal  law  on  account  of  his  youth,  and  if  obligatory  education  is 
necessary  to  prevent  further  moral  depravity  because  of  the  character  of  the 
occupation  and  the  personality  or  other  guardians,  and  the  minor  s  special  environ¬ 
ments. 

(c)  If,  aside  from  such  cases,  obligatory  education  is  necessary  to  prevent  com¬ 
plete  moral  ruin  on  account  of  the  insufficiency  of  educational  influence  provided 
by  parents,  other  guardians  or  schools. 

Art.  3.  Obligatory  education  is  enforced  after  the  orphan  court  (Vormund- 
schafts-Gericht)  has  decided  upon  the  existence  of  conditions  stated  in  article  2  in 
view  of  facts  accepted  as  proved,  and  has  ordered  the  enforcement  of  the  provisions 
thereof. 

Art.  4.  The  orphan  court  takes  action,  either  on  authority  of  office  or  upon 
motion.  In  rural  districts  the  county  mayor  (Landrath),  in  urban  districts  the 
magistrate  and  the  board  of  police,  make  the  motion.  These  authorities  have  not 
only  the  right  to  submit  such  cases  to  the  court,  but  it  is  their  duty.  Before 
passing  decision  the  orphan  court  is  required,  as  far  as  it  is  practicable,  to  hear 
the  evidence  of  parents,  legal  guardians  of  the  minors,  and  in  all  cases  the  com¬ 
munal  authorities,  the  minister  of  the  parish,  and  the  principal  or  teacher  of  the 
school  which  the  minor  attends  or  last  attended.  If  the  court  acts  without  pre¬ 
vious  official  motion,  its  resolutions,  accompanied  by  testimony,  must  be  submitted 
to  the  local  authorities  (mayor,  magistrate,  and  police  board)  for  consideration 
before  they  can  be  passed.  The  decision  must  be  delivered  to  the  legal  guardian, 
or  to  the  minor  himself  if  he  has  completed  his  fourteenth  year  of  age,  to  the 
•mayor,  magistrate,  and  police  board.  An  appeal  may  be  taken  immediately  from 
the  decision.  This  appeal  has  the  power  of  postponing  action. 

Art.  5.  In  danger  oi'  delay,  the  orphan  court  can  issue  orders  for  temporary 
charge  of  the  minor.  In  that  case  the  police  board  of  his  locality  must  see  to  it 
that  the  minor  is  placed  in  an  available  institution  or  family.  If  obligatory 
education  is  eventually  enforced  all  attendant  costs  must  be  borne  by  the  com¬ 
munal  authority  (paragraph  14).  If  the  court's  decision  is  reversed  the  costs  of 
temporary  assignment  are  paid  from  the  same  funds  from  which  the  local  police 
force  is  paid.  In  all  cases  the  police  board  must  advance  the  costs  of  a  temporary 
assignment. 

Art.  6.  If  parents  or  legal  guardians  have  not  been  able  to  give  their  evidence,  as 
required  by  paragraph  4,  they  have  the  right  to  demand  a  renewal  of  proceedings. 

Art.  7.  In  so  far  as  no  specific  procedure  is  defined  in  this  law,  the  court  pro¬ 
cedure  is  to  be  conducted  according  to  the  regulations  governing  the  optional 
jurisdiction  of  regular  courts. 

Art.  8.  The  legal  proceedings  are  free  of  fees,  and  documents  require  no  stamps; 
cash  expenses  must  be  paid  out  of  the  State  treasury.  Contracts  for  the  charge  of 
wards  likewise  require  no  stamps. 

Art.  9.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  communal  authorities  (see  paragraph  14)  to  attend 
to  the  execution  of  a  decree  for  obligatory  education;  they  decide  in  what  manner 
wards  are  to  be  brought  up.  Wards  are  delivered  at  the  place  of  assignment  by 
the  police  of  their  places  of  residence. 

Art.  10.  Wards  must  not  be  placed,  in  a  >vdrkhousbv@r  public  poorhouse;  neither 
can  they  be  placed  in  institution^  Ibrjinpnr^bles,  th£  defdrrqed,  idiots,  deaf  mutes, 
and  the  blind  for  any  longer  ti  pie  Ihjbl  kliAr  "physical  -  of  mental  condition  requires. 
For  the  fulfillment  of  obligatory  tkfdcation  in  cases  in  which  action  is  pending  in 

ED  1901 - 4  ■  ,> 


50 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


court,  wards  may  remain  in  their  families  subject  to  the  supervision  and  recall  of 
the  communal  authorities. 

Art.  11.  The  communal  authorities  must  make  provision  for  the  supervision  of 
the  education  and  care  of  any  wards  assigned  to  a  private  family.  Women  may 
hold  the  position  as  supervisor. 

Art.  12.  On  motion  of  the  communal  authorities  (having  due  regard  for  the 
regulations  contained  in  article  78,  section  1,  of  the  law  for  the  execution  of  the 
civil  code)  a  guardian  board  selected  from  the  directors  of  State  reformatory 
institutions  may  be  appointed  for  wards  placed  in  the  institutions  for  the  reasons 
given  in  articles  2  and  3.  The  same  applies  to  wards  who,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  directors  of  an  institution,  are  educated  in  private  families  selected  by  them. 
If  the  supervision  of  wards  is  in  charge  of  an  official  appointed  by  the  communal 
authorities,  he  can,  upon  motion  by  them,  be  appointed  guardian  instead  of  the 
directors  of  the  institution.  No  additional  guardian  can  be  appointed  besides  the 
one  heretofore  stated.  The  guardian  enjoys  the  privileges  allowed  by  article  1852, 
of  the  civil  code. 

Art.  13.  Obligatory  education  is  discontinued  upon  decision  of  the  communal 
authorities,  or  upon  motion  of  parents  or  legal  representatives  of  minors,  if  its 
purpose  has  been  accomplished  or  is  otherwise  assured.  Discontinuance  can  be 
granted  subject  to  revocation  in  case  of  necessity.  Within  a  term  of  two  weeks 
from  the  day  of  the  deliverance  of  a  negative  decree  by  the  communal  authorities, 
a  petitioner  has  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  orphan  court,  from  whose  decision  appeal 
may  be  taken  by  the  local  authorities.  Such  an  appeal  has  the  power  of  postponing 
action.  A  rejected  petition  for  discontinuance  can  not  be  renewed  before  the  end 
of  six  months. 

Art.  14.  The  provincial  authorities  in  Hecse-Nassau,  the  county  officials  of 
Wiesbaden  and  Cassel,  the  State  authorities  of  Lauenburg  and  Hokenzollern,  as 
well  as  the  city  of  Berlin,  are  required  to  institute  measures  in  accordance  with 
this  law  for  the  obligatory  education  of  minors  decreed  by  the  orphan  courts. 
They  are  required  to  erect  educational  and  reformatory  institutions,  if  there  is  no 
opportunity  to  place  wards  in  families  or  in  public,  parochial,  and  private  institu¬ 
tions.  Provision  must  likewise  be  made  for  a  proper  home  after  obligatory  educa¬ 
tion  is  completed.  Suitable  accommodation  must  be  provided  by  those  communal 
authorities  within  whose  jurisdiction  the  place  lies  in  which  the  court  has  acted 
as  an  orphan  court. 

Art.  15.  Expenses  which  accrue  from  placing  a  ward  in  a  family  or  institution 
and  the  cost  of  a  first  regulation  outfit,  as  well  as  traveling  expenses  of  a  dis¬ 
charged  ward,  must  be  paid  by  the  local  directors  of  the  poor  where  the  ward 
resides;  all  other  costs  of  support  and  education,  as  well  as  of  the  provision  made 
on  the  completion  of  obligatory  education,  must  be  defrayed  by  local  authorities. 
These  receive  an  appropriation  from  the  State  amounting  to  one-half  of  their  out¬ 
lay,  which  sum,  by  agreement  with  the  different  local  authorities,  is  paid  regularly 
in  average  installments,  or,  where  agreement  exists,  is  fixed  annually  by  the  min¬ 
ister  of  the  interior  upon  the  basis  of  the  previous  years. 

Art.  16.  The  communal  authorities  have  the  right  to  demand  reimbursement 
of  the  cost  of  a  ward's  support  during  the  term  of  obligatory  education  from  him¬ 
self  and,  when  such  action  is  impossible,  from  the  person  responsible  for  his  sup¬ 
port.  The  rate  of  payment  is  fixed  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  upon  hearing  of 
the  communal  authorities.  The  costs  of  the  general  administration  of  obligatory- 
education,  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  institutions  erected  by  local  authori¬ 
ties,  is  not  herewith  included.  If  any  opposition  is  made  to  a  demand  for  reim¬ 
bursement  the  county  authorities  or  the  municipal  council,  upon  request  of  the 
officials,  have  the  deciding  voice.  Their  decision  is  final,  unless  an  appeal  is  sus¬ 
tained  by  a  civil  court.  One-half  of  the  amounts  thus  recovered  must  be  handed 
over  to  the  State. 

Art.  17.  Local  authorities  are  required  to  draw  up  regulations  for  obligatory 
education  and  for  the  management  of  reformatory  institutions  established  by 
them.  Regulations  concerning  the  admission,  treatment,  instruction,  and  dis¬ 
charge  of  wards  must  be  approved  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  and  the  minister 
of  education  conjointly.  Private  institutions  may  continue  to  comply  with  exist¬ 
ing  regulations. 

Art.  18.  The  legal  requirements  concerning  religious  education  for  children  in 
general  are  likewise  applicable  to  the  obligatory  education  defined  by  this  law. 

Art.  19.  If  wards  of  school  age  (6-1 4)  can  not  be  admitted  into  the  public  schools 
without  detriment  to  the  morality  of' other  -pupils,  the  authorities  must  see  to  it 
that  the  wards  receive  the  btjneJfct  of  instructiop.else where  during  the  term  required 
for  school  attendance  (6-14;  .*  Disputed 'cases  are  decided  by  the  governor  of  the 
province. 


REFORMATORY  EDUCATION  OF  CHILDREN  IN  PRUSSIA. 


51 


Art.  20.  The  school  supervisors  or  inspectors  of  city  and  county  districts,  and, 
in  higher  instances,  the  minister  of  the  interior,  are  required  to  exercise  superin¬ 
tendence  over  institutions  designed  for  the  reformatory  or  obligatory  education  of 
wards;  they  are  therefore  entitled  to  institute  personal  inspection. 

Art.  21.  Excepting  cases  that  come  under  paragraphs  120  and  135  of  the  crimi¬ 
nal  code,  whoever  attempts  to  release  a  minor  for  whom  obligatory  education  has 
been  decreed,  or  tries  to  influence  him  against  complying  with  the  law,  or  is  in 
any  way  accessory  to  his  noncompliance,  shall  be  subject  to  either  two  years’ 
imprisonment  or  a  fine  not  exceeding  1,000  marks  ($238),  or  both. 

Art.  22.  The  minister  of  the  interior  is  herewith  charged  with  the  execution  of 
this  law. 

Art.  23.  This  law  is  in  force  from  the  day  of  its  passage  (May  21, 1900).  At  the 
same  date  the  law  of  March  12, 1878,  relating  to  the  custody  of  neglected  children, 
is  annulled. 

Attested  by  the  minister  of  the  interior: 

Freiherr  von  Rheinbaben. 

REPORT  ACCOMPANYING  THE  BILL. 

The  report  presented  with  the  bill  when  it  was  submitted  to  the  legislature  is 
deserving  special  attention  on  the  part  of  pedagogical  pathologists.  It  discloses 
a  sad  view  of  the  growth  of  neglect  and  depravity  of  youth.  The  document  reads: 

The  obligatory  education  law  of  March  12,  1878,  owes  its  origin  to  paragraph  55 
of  the  criminal  code  of  1871  and  its  first  draft  of  February  23, 1876.  It  is  restricted 
to  neglected  children,  between  the  ages  of  6  and  12,  who  have  committed  criminal 
acts  for  which  they  can  not  be  punished  on  account  of  extreme  youth. 

This  law  of  1878  has  proved  insufficient  to  prevent  the  constant  growth  of  crim¬ 
inality,  neglect,  and  depravity  of  children.  'Up  to  March  31,  1899,  the  law  had 
been  enforced  in  10,759  cases  where  children  under  12  years  of  age  were  protected 
against  further  neglect  and  evil  influences  by  obligatory  education.  But  while 
neglected,  though  law-abiding,  children  under  12  and  neglected  children  over  12 
were  left  to  themselves,  and  the  latter  were  prosecuted  only  upon  commission.of 
crimes,  criminality  among  youth  has  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to  threaten 
social  order. 

Article  56  of  the  criminal  code,  which  grants  judges  the  right  to  clear  any  minor 
incompetent  to  understand  the  culpability  of  his  act  and  allow  him  the  benefit  of 
obligatory  education,  has  had  no  successful  result.  Courts  have  made  very  little 
use  of  their  privilege  in  this  respect.  According  to  the  statistics  of  crime  for  1898 
(Statistics  of  the  German  Empire,  new  series,  vol.  95,  I,  page  28),  sentence 
against  minors  in  cases  of  crime  and  violation  of  public  law  was  pronounced  in 
1882  in  30,697  cases,  in  1896  in  43,962  cases,  in  1897  in  45,327  cases,  showing  an 
increase  of  43.2  per  cent  and  47.3  per  cent,  respectively,  since  1882.  Investigations 
for  the  years  1898  and  1899  show  a  further  increase. 

Statistics  prove  not  only  an  absolute,  but  also  a  relative,  increase  as  regards  the 
whole  population.  In  1882,  from  among  every  100,000  minors  between  12  and  18 
years  of  age,  568  were  sentenced  by  the  courts;  in  1896  there  were  697,  an  increase 
of  22  per  cent.  This  fact  is  the  more  serious,  as  the  growth  of  criminality  among 
adults  during  the  same  period  shows  absolutely  34.1  per  cent,  relatively  to  popu¬ 
lation  only  16  per  cent  increase. 

The  kind  of  criminal  acts  committed  by  minors  like  wise' deserves  most  earnest 
thought.  Whereas  the  number  of  cases  of  theft  during  this  period  has  remained 
approximately  the  same  (among  100,000  minors  there  were  344  cases  in  1882  and  340 
in  1896,  or  1  per  cent  decrease),  the  number  of  cases  of  serious  bodily  injury  rose 
from  48  to  102,  an  increase  of  112.7  per  cent;  judgments  on  the  ground  of  compul¬ 
sion  and  threats  were  trebled  in  number. 

It  is  generally  evident  that  increase  of  crime  among  minors  is  greater  than 
among  adults.  How  ineffective  criminal  laws  have  been  to  prevent  increase  of 
crime  among  minors  is  shown  by  the  following  figures:  In  the  year  1896,  out  of 
43,962  cases  of  minors  tried  in  court,  7,191  were  fined,  9,104  reproved,  and  the 
remaining  27,667  were  placed  in  custody.  Of  the  latter,  62  were  merely  kept  in 
houses  of  detention  and  the  others  imprisoned;  5,524  for  less  than  4  days;  4,921  for 
from  4  to  8  days;  6,851  for  from  8  to  30  days;  4,560  for  from  1  to  3  months.  That 
any  prevention  of  future  criminal  acts  can  not  be  expected  as  regards  the  21,918 
cases  of  imprisonment  under  3  months  is  evident.  Whether  any  better  results 
can  be  anticipated  in  the  4,863  cases  of  imprisonment  from  3  to  12  months  is  a 
matter  of  doubt.  In  general,  it  must  be  accepted  that  the  time  of  3  months  to  1 
year  is  too  short  to  counteract  criminal  tendencies  or  remedy  the  effect  of  neglect 


52 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


among  minors.  The  911  cases  of  punishment  from  1  year  to  2  years  and  the  287 
cases  of  2  years  and  over  are  the  only  instances  that  promise  any  kind  of  success.1 * * * * * 

The  failure  of  these  criminal  laws  expressed  in  numbers  shows  that  depravity 
among  youth  is  gaining  ground  year  by  year.  Of  100,000  minors  in  1889  there  were 
614  condemned  to  punishment;  93  had  already  been  sentenced  (58  once,  20 
twice,  14  from  3  to  5  times,  and  one  6  times).  In  1896  (seven  years  later)  there 
was  an  increase  to  702  sentenced,  132  of  whom  had  been  sentenced  before.  Of  the 
latter  71  had  been  punished  once,  28  twice,  24  3  to  5  times,  and  three  6  times  and 
oftener.  Dufing  the  year  1898-99  26  per  cent  of  the  inmates  of  Prussian  houses  of 
correction  were  under  18  years  of  age.  According  to  an  examination  made  in  1894, 
as  many  as  9,489,  or  53  per  cent,  of  the  17,837  inmates  of  Prussian  houses  of  cor¬ 
rection  had  suffered  the  three  forms  of  punishment  by  imprisonment  (peni¬ 
tentiary,  jail,  and  reformatory  custody  till  the  close  of  minority),  and,  what  is 
more,  of  these  several  had  been  imprisoned  for  six  months  and  longer;  8,789,  or  93 
per  cent,  were  regarded  as  utterly  unfit  to  associate  with  others,  hence  dangerous 
to  society,  and  of  these  34  per  cent  had  been  imprisoned  before  they  were  18  years 
of  age. 

With  the  full  knowledgeof  the  lack  of  efficacyof  imprisonment  as  far  as  concerns 
minors,  all  civilized  nations  have  adopted  the  measure  of  replacing  it  by  system¬ 
atic  education  under  State  supervision  (obligatory  or  reformatory  education). 
Before  criminal  acts  bring  minors  before  courts  of  justice  they  are  taken  in 
charge  as  soon  as  any  evidence  of  depravity,  the  precursor  of  crime,  is  noticed. 
Owing  to  present  economic  and  social  conditions,  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
minors  are  occupied  outside  of  homes,  the  influence  of  which  was  formerly  a 
protection  to  them.  Scarcely  out  of  school,  they  begin  an  independent  career  of 
business  and  pleasure.  Manj7  rush  into  life  uncurbed,  dissipating  the  powers  of 
body  and  soul.  Ruined  by  evil  companionship,  they  are  tempted  by  others  or  fol¬ 
low  their  own  bent  unrestrained  by  force  of  will.  In  order  to  gratify  often  a  most 
senseless  desire,  when  means  fail,  the  sins  of  lying,  theft,  and  embezzlement  are 
committed  without  thinking,  and  even  burglary  presents  no  horror.  To  satisfy 
unbridled  passion,  the  worst  crimes  against  morality  are  committed  without  scru¬ 
ples.  In  cases  of  resistance  to  pubic  authority,  tumult,  or  riot,  half-grown  boys 
usually  form  the  largest  contingent  and  are  the  most  violent  aggressors. 

If  what  has  been  said  refers  chiefly  to  boys  and  young  men,  the  want  of  reform¬ 
atory  education  shows  even  a  worse  effect  among  girls  and  young  women.  The 
ones  who  go  wrong  among  the  young,  some  still  at  school  and  others  immedi¬ 
ately  after  leaving  school,  are  constantly  increasing.  For  certain  reasons,  girls  of 
vicious  habits  under  16  years  of  age  are  placed  under  police  control,  and  present 
legislation  has  devised  no  measures  to  induce  or  force  them  to  change  their  evil  life 
until  they  have  fallen  so  low  as  to  come  under  paragraph  361,  article  6,  and  para¬ 
graph  362,  article  2,  of  the  criminal  code.  Little  is  gained  by  even  such  measures. 
The  term  of  detention  in  the  house  of  correction  is  usually  too  short  for  any  bene¬ 
ficial  result.  Experience  proves  that  a  large,  if  not  the  largest,  number  of  such 
women  are  hopelessly  lost  before  their  sixteenth  year  of  age. 

The  statistics  of  houses  of  correction  in  Prussia  show  with  what  little  success 
penal  measures  have  been  attended.  During  the  year  1898-99  1,193  women  and 
girls  were  inmates  of  houses  of  correction:  910  of  these  because  of  evil  practices; 
all  the  others  for  begging,  vagrancy,  and  being  homeless,  almost  without  excep¬ 
tion  led  evil  lives;  221,  or  19  per  cent,  were  minors,  and  54 of  these  under  18  years 
of  age;  296,  or  25  per  cent,  had  been  sentenced  to  imprisonment  before  their  eight¬ 
eenth  year. 

Religion  and  education  are  the  first  agencies  calculated  and  intended  to  remedy 
these  serious  moral  and  social  evils.  Religious  influence  particularly  will  do 
much  to  lead  the  erring  back  to  a  practice  of  virtue.  Still  it  is  impossible  in  all 
cases  to  remove  minors  from  their  harmful  surroundings  or  lead  them  to  suppress 
their  innate  criminal  tendencies  by  subjecting  them  to  educational  influences  cal¬ 
culated  to  improve  soul,  mind,  and  body.  To  give  them  in  sufficient  measure 
what  their  nature  requires  must  be  considered  a  high  responsibility  of  the  State, 


1  The  sum  total,  27,667,  mentioned  first,  does  not  tally  with  sum  of  the  itemized  cases,  which 

foot  up  to  27,979. 

The  editor  of  Kinderfehler  criticises  the  above  conclusion,  saying:  “In  this  respect  the  views 
and  experience  of  educators  differ  from  those  of  the  lawyers  who  wrote  the  report  and  framed 

the  bill.  Minors  are  seldom  reformed  in  prisons  and  houses  of  correction  ;  many,  in  fact,  are 

only  made  worse.  Sinners  are  reformed  by  a  positive  care  of  the  soul ;  in  other  words,  by  true 
education.  Other  nations  seem  to  understand  this  fact  and  act  accordingly.  The  law  in  question, 
unfortunately,  does  not  consider  the  full  consequences  of  these  experiences.”  (Compare: 

Monroe,  The  Treatment  of  Criminals;  Grossmann,  How  do  Children  Become  Criminals?  Both 
articles  published  in  Kinderfehler,  1898.  Compare  also:  Yearbooks  of  the  New  York  State 

Beformatory,  1898.)  Still,  encouraging  concessions  are  made  by  the  lawyers. 


REFORMATORY  EDUCATION  OF  CHILDREN  IN  PRUSSIA.  53 


a  duty  of  generous  human  charity,  and  an  economic  provision  for  the  future  wel¬ 
fare  of  society. 

The  report  accompanying  the  bill  then  shows  how,  upon  the  ground  of  imperial 
laws,  “  nearly  every  one  of  the  twenty-six  separate  States  of  the  Empire  has  either 
changed  or  made  more  stringent  its  laws  of  obligatory  education,  or  contemplates 
their  reconstruction.  ”  That  this  is  likewise  necessary  in  Prussia,  and  that  broader 
measures  must  be  adopted  in  behalf  of  criminal,  neglected,  or  depraved  children 
can  not,  after  all  that  has  been  said,  be  denied. 

In  considering  reconstruction,  three  questions  naturally  suggest  themselves: 
(1)  What  is  the  extreme  limit  of  age  of  minors  to  be  defined  for  obligatory  educa¬ 
tion?  (2)  Who  shall  assume  the  responsibility  of  obligatory  or  reformatory  edu¬ 
cation?  (3)  Who  shall  defray  the  expenses  of  such  education? 

In  answering  these  questions  the  editor  of  Kinderfehler  refers  only  to  those 
points  which  are  within  the  educational  province  and  omits  purely  administrative 
questions.  The  document  quoted  states: 

Obligatory  education  touches  so  closely  the  relation  of  minors  to  parents  and 
family  that  in  many  cases  a  complete  separation  of  minors  from  their  families 
becomes  a  necessity.  It  should,  therefore,  be  enforced  only  in  the  most  extreme 
cases  when  all  other  measures  at  command  of  the  orphan  court  have  failed. 
However,  the  imperial  law  grants  the  right  of  option  to  State  authorities,  for  it 
provides:  Obligatory  education  can  be  enforced  when  criminal  relations  of  parents 
or  culpable  acts  of  minors  are  beyond  dispute.  Nevertheless,  this  measure  can  be 
executed  only  in  cases  where  it  seems  necessary  for  the  prevention  of  complete 
moral  ruin  of  minors.  The  use  of  the  prerogative  bestowed  by  paragraph  135  of 
the  criminal  code  is  most  earnestly  requested  for  the  general  interest  of  communi¬ 
ties.  Utter  demoralization  and  a  consequent  development  of  crime  can  often  be 
prevented  by  prompt  interference. 

The  age  limit  specified  is  identical  with  that  defined  by  the  imperial  law: 

Since  the  civil  code  has  transferred  obligatory  education  from  the  narrow  con¬ 
fines  of  general  public  education  to  the  other  field  of  public  guardianship  and 
social-political  care  of  minors,  the  reconstructed  laws  of  several  States  (Bruns¬ 
wick  and  Oldenburg,  for  instance)  have  adopted  the  age  limit  of  minority  defined 
for  the  application  and  extension  of  the  civil  law;  others  (Mecklenburg  and  Wurt- 
temberg,  for  instance)  have  fixed  the  age  limit  at  16;  others,  again,  have  had  the 
eighteenth  year  as  age  limit  before.  All,  however,  agree  upon  the  extension  of 
obligatory  education  law  fill  the  age  of  majority  (21  years) ,  where  such  an  exten¬ 
sion  is  peremptorily  demanded  by  the  interests  of  society. 

The  bill  in  question  (which,  as  has  been  stated,  is  now  a  law)  has  adopted  the 
age  of  18  years  for  its  general  application  and  the  age  of  majority  (21  years)  as 
the  limit  of  i'ts  extension  in  urgent  cases,  for  the  following  reasons:  The  young  are 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  depravity  not  only  during  their  school  life  but  even  to  a 
greater  degree  during  the  first  years  after  they  leave  school,  when,  whether  will¬ 
ingly  or  under  necessity,  they  have  left  the  paternal  home  discipline  and  attempt 
to  fashion  their  own  career  independently.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  extend 
the  period  during  which  interference  for  the  prevention  of  depravity  is  allowed  just 
to  these  years.  On  the  other  hand,  the  limits  of  interference  must  be  so  defined  that 
the  period  from  the  beginning  of  obligatory  education  till  its  legal  close  suffices 
to  insure  the  success  of  the  measure.  If  obligatory  education  is  enforced  shortly 
before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  year  of  age,  three  years  are  left  for  its  execution 
until  the  age  of  majority.  This  length  of  time  is  requisite,  and  at  the  same  time 
reasonably  adequate  to  insure  some  measure  of  success. 

The  law  only  regulates  obligatory  education  at  public  cost.  However,  it  recog¬ 
nizes  other  agencies. 

Voluntary  and  religious  charity  have  done  much  in  Prussia  to  provide  for 
vagrant,  neglected,  and  depraved  children.  On  October  1,  1898,  authentic  inves¬ 
tigations  in  Prussia  showed  that  678  educational  institutions  for  orphan,  neg- 
le’cted,  and  depraved  children  had  been  established  and  were  supported  by 
voluntary  charity.  Their  wealth  in  real  estate  and  capital  is  estimated  at  nearly 
100,000,000  marks  ($23,800,000).  Their  annnal  expenses  exceed  11,000,000  marks. 
They  could  accommodate  40,626  wards,  but  the  actual  number  of  inmates  is  30,722. 
Besides  these  institutions,  many  educational  societies  are  in  existence  that  place 


54 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


vagrant  and  depraved  children  in  families  and  contribute  nearly  all  the  means 
for  their  support.  In  future  orphan  courts  will  give  greater  consideration  to  the 
cooperation  of  voluntary  assistance  in  the  care  of  neglected  minors.  This  privi¬ 
lege  is  granted  in  paragraphs  1666  and  1888  of  the  civil  code  and  is  calculated  to 
lighten  and  promote  the  work  of  voluntary  charity.  The  chief  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  beneficial  action  of  such  institutions  and  societies  is  that  the  admission 
and  length  of  stay  of  the  children  in  institutions  and  families  depend  upon  the 
consent  of  the  parents.  Foolish  or  mercenary  parents  either  hesitate  to  confide 
their  children  to  these  institutions  or  allow  them  to  be  educated  free  of  cost  until 
after  they  are  able  to  earn  money.  As  soon  as  there  is  any  prospect  of  profiting 
by  their  children's  labor  these  are  removed,  even  though  their  education  is  not 
completed,  and  the  unfavorable  relations  in  which  they  are  placed  destroy  the 
good  results  of  the  education  which  they  have  enjoyed.  Judges  of  orphan  courts 
have  the  power  to  interfere  in  all  cases  where  the  physical  and  intellectual  welfare 
of  children  is  jeopardized  by  the  way  in  which  parents  and  guardians  exercise 
their  authority. 

To  interfere  with  charity  by  legal  measures  might  disturb  its  effect  and  prevent 
tlie  growth  of  its  work.  It  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  charity  should  care 
for  neglected  and  depraved  youth.  Civil  authority  should  be  exercised  only  when 
efforts  of  charity  fail. 

According  to  experience  in  Baden,  Hesse,  and  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  number  of 
wards  in  reformatory  institutions  will  double  in  Prussia  after  the  law  is  in  force. 
The  number  of  inmates  is  now  10,687  to  31,585,123  inhabitants,  or  3.4  to  every 
10,000  inhabitants. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  interesting  to  note  what  position  the  law  holds  in  the  old 
question  of  dispute — whether  education  in  families  or  in  institutions  is  better  for 
neglected  children. 

At  present  the  dispute  may  be  considered  settled,  in  so  far  as  no  decisive  distinc¬ 
tion  can  be  made  between  the  two  methods,  nor  can  any  legal  decree  be  defined  for 
the  application  of  either.  Each  case  must  be  decided  on  its  own  merits,  accord¬ 
ing  to  a  ward’s  individuality,  the  kind  of  causes  of  his  depravity,  and  the  possi¬ 
bility  of  finding  a  proper  family.  In  point  of  practice,  younger  children  not  much 
depraved  at  first  receive  their  education  in  families.  If  this  measure  proves  unten¬ 
able,  institutional  education  replaces  that  in  families.  Wards  who  have  left 
school  or  wards  whose  moral  depravity  is  at  a  lower  ebb  shall,  in  the  first  place, 
be  put  into  institutions  to  undergo  a  physical  and  moral  cleansing  process.  As 
soon  as  this  is  over  they  shall  be  placed  in  families  under  the  supervision  of  the 
head  of  the  institution,  those  attending  school  to  be  cared  for,  those  who  have 
left  school  to  be  employed  as  apprentices  and  servants.  If  they  conduct  them¬ 
selves  badly  or  if  the  family  proves  unsuitable,  they  shall  be  taken  back  into  the 
institution.  After  a  certain  time  the  attempt  at  education  in  families  shall  be 
renewed.  The  necessary  result  is  that  by  far  the  largest  number  of  wards  will 
be  in  families,  and  all,  whether  apprentices  or  servants,  will  be  under  carefully 
regulated  supervision. 

This  is  the  ground  covered  by  the  law.  As  in  all  matters  of  education,  so  in 
this  case  Prussia  is  not  the  first  or  pioneer  State  of  Germany;  still  its  action 
foreshadows  that  of  others,  and  States  which  have  not  yet  revised  their  obligatory 
education  laws  will  no  doubt  conform  their  amendments  to  the  law  of  Prussia. 


VIII.  CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY  OUTSIDE  OF  FACTORIES.1 

Results  of  an  official  inquiry  {1898)  by  the  Imperial  Chancellery .2 

Topical  outline:  (1)  Purpose  and  nature  of  the  inquiry.  (2)  Results:  (a)  Statistical  results;  (b) 
kinds  of  occupations;  (c)  age  of  children;  (d)  duration  of  daily  work;  (e)  condition  of  work¬ 
rooms;  (f)  legal  conditions  of  child  labor;  (g)  wages  of  laboring  children;  (h)  police  regulations 
of  child  labor  outside  of  factories;  (i)  proposals  for  future  regulation  of  child  labor.  (3)  Sup¬ 
plement  I:  Conditions  of  child  labor  in  some  other  countries.  Supplement  II:  An  article  from 
the  Rundschau. 


1  Translated  from  Vierteljahrshefte  des  Kaiserlichen  Statistischen  Amts,  1900,  Heft  III,  p.  97- 

2  Compare  article  entitled  “  Children’s  claim  upon  childhood,”  in  Annual  Report  of  the  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Education  of  1899-1900,  p.  810. 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY. 


55 


1.  Purpose  and  Nature  of  Inquiry. 

On  December  9,  1897,  the  imperial  chancellor  addressed  the  following  circular 
letter  to  the  governments  of  the  twenty-six  States  of  the  Empire: 

According  to  the  census  of  June  14, 1895,  there  were  in  Germany  45,375  children 
under  14  years  of  age  who  were  wage-earning;  38,267  were  employed  in  industries, 
5,276  in  trade,  and  1,812  in  occupations  of  other  kinds.  Besides  these  there  were 
found  135,175  who  were  employed  as  farm  hands  and  33,501  as  domestics.  These 
figures  apply  only  to  the  most  important  occupations  of  wage-earning  children,  and, 
even  so,  are  far  from  being  accurate  statements  of  actual  conditions,  since  it  may 
be  taken  for  granted  that  not  all  wage-earning  children  have  been  registered  or 
reported  by  the  census  takers.  To  my  knowledge,  the  number  of  children  employed 
in  partly  remunerative  labor  has  not  yet  been  calculated,  but  from  all  indications 
far  exceeds  the  figures  quoted  in  the  census  summaries. 

As  regards  the  distribution  of  wage-earning  children  among  the  separate 
branches  of  industry,  the  only  authenticated  fact  is  that  but  a  proportionately 
small  number  are  employed  in  factories;  the  reports  of  factory  inspectors  for  the 
year  1896  give  5,312.  The  inference  is  that  child  labor  in  factories,  for  which  an 
imperial  law,  usually  called  “industrial  order,”  contains  restrictive  regulations, 
has  lost  much  in  significance,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  has  largely  increased  in 
occupations  outside  of  factories— in  trade  and  home  industries,1  for  instance. 

To  exact  a  certain  amount  of  work  from  children  is  perfectly  justifiable,  as  it 
accustoms  them  to  physical  exercise,  arouses  a  sense  of  diligence  and  economy, 
and  prevents  idleness  and  wrongdoing,  if  parents  are  not  in  position  to  give 
them  the  necessary  watchful  care.  Moreover,  out  of  consideration  for  health, 
a  moderate  application  to  field  and  garden  labor  which,  when  properly  regulated, 
gives  children  the  opportunity  for  exercise  and  occupation  in  the  open  air,  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  strength,  is  not  only  allowable,  but  useful  and  commendable.  Child 
labor,  where  it  is  intended  to  help  parents  in  meeting  the  expenses  of  a  household, 
is  to  be  countenanced  only  in  exceptional  instances,  especially  as  children’s  pay  is 
very  insignificant  and  disproportionate  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  drain  upon 
their  physical  powers.  In  all  cases,  however,  when  the  kind  of  occupation  is  not 
adapted  to  children,  when  working  hours  are  too  long,  when  the  work  required 
must  be  done  at  unseasonable  times  and  inappropriate  places,  child  labor  deserves 
the  most  serious  reflection.  The  question  concerns  not  only  danger  to  health  and 
morals,  but  presents  difficulties  in  enforcing  school  discipline  and  under  some 
circumstances  makes  compulsory  education  an  illusion.  Children  who  are  tired 
out,  and  whose  energies  have  been  taxed  in  unwholesome  rooms  till  late  in 
the  night,  have  not  the  strength  to  give  attention  to  study.  I  need  only  mention 
boys  who  are  employed  late  in  bowling  alleys,  newsboys  who  work  early  in  the 
morning,  and  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  children  engaged  in  all  branches 
of  home  industry.  Recent  investigations  in  different  places  show  that  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  children  necessitate  giving  the  most  earnest  attention  to  their  employment 
as  wage-earners;  and  that  without  interfering  with  dependent  interests,  and 
especially  parental  authority,  glaring  evils  should  be  remedied  and  further  harm 
prevented.  The  press,  of  whatever  political  persuasion,  has  lately  drawn  atten¬ 
tion  to  this  matter. 

Present  legislation  allows  the  following  course  of  action:  In  the  first  place,  the 
regulations  of  the  industrial  order  of  1891,  applying  to  the  employment  of  children 
in  factories,  restrict  child  labor  in  so  far  as  articles  3  and  4  of  section  154  may  be 
respectively  extended  to  workshops  in  which  motors  are  regularly  used,  and  also  to 
workshops  in  which  none  but  members  of  the  family  of  the  employer  are  employed, 
as  well  as  to  buildings.  Inquiries  into  the  necessity  and  manner  of  execution  of 
section  154,  article  3,  are  almost  completed,  while,  in  pursuance  of  the  decree 
of  May  31, 1897,  concerning  the  execution  of  sections  135  to  139  and  139b  of  the 
industrial  order  toward  workshops  of  clothing  and  laundry  establishments,  inves¬ 
tigations  have  begun.  Furthermore,  the  provisions  of  section  120c  of  the  indus¬ 
trial  order  grants  a  certain  degree  of  redress  by  compelling  employers  who  engage 
hands  under  18  years  of  age  to  take  the  necessary  precautions  toward  health  and 
morality  in  the  arrangement  of  their  shops,  as  well  as  in  the  regulation  of  work, 
which  the  age  of  their  employees  demands.  In  pursuance  of  this  regulation,  the 
police  have  in  several  places  interfered,  with  some  success,  to  prevent  the  abuse  of 
child  labor.  The  enactment  of  general  regulations  through  the  instrumentality 
of  the  federal  council  (Bundesrathor  Senate)  is  suggested  in  connection  herewith. 

Meanwhile  it  seems  as  though  not  all  evil  conditions  can  be  improved  by  the 

1  This  term  is  applied  to  trades  in  which  the  employees  do  their  work  at  home,  having  tools, 
such  as  looms,  of  their  own. 


56 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1800-1901. 


application  of  the  regulations  mentioned.  Thus  section  154,  articles  3  and  4,  can 
only  reach  children  employed  in  workshops,  and  so  can  only  be  applied  to  their 
occupation  within  the  said  confines.  Besides,  the  extension  of  protective  regu¬ 
lations  to  workshops  in  which  motors  are  not  used  regularly  is  allowable  only 
if  the  employer  engages  at  least  one  person  who  is  not  a  member  of  his  own  fam¬ 
ily.  Consequently  the  regulation  of  child  labor  is  not  even  possible  in  all  work¬ 
shops.  On  the  other  hand,  independent  of  the  fact  that  its  applicability  to  the 
conditions  in  question  is  disputed  by  many,  section  120c  becomes  ineffective  where 
children  are  not  bound  by  contract,  but  help  their  relations  with  the  work  done. 

A  right  judgment  on  all  pertinent  questions  is  possible  only  v/hen  evidence  is 
perfectly  clear  as  to  the  existence  of  evil  conditions  of  child  labor  in  certain 
branches  of  industry,  and  likewise  as  to  the  nature  of  the  evil.  The  information 
so  far  obtained  is  very  deficient.  For  complete  knowledge,  it  seems,  therefore, 
necessary  to  institute  inquiries  as  to  the  age  of  wage -earning  children;  the  kind  of 
occupation;  the  length  and  distribution  of  working  hours;  the  arrangement  of 
workrooms,  as  well  as  the  legitimate  nature  of  labor  conditions;  the  increase  of 
wages  resultant  from  limitation  of  child  labor  and  industrial  child  labor  outside 
of  factories,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  agricultural  occupations  and  domestic  service. 
Then  the  question  whether,  and  how  far,  investigations  based  on  the  execution 
of  section  154,  article  3,  can  be  deferred  may  be  considered  later  on. 

In  the  prospective  inquiries  I  intend  to  cooperate  with  the  commission  on  labor 
statistics.  This  commission  shall  be  informed,  above  all  things  else,  of  the  number 
of  wage-earning  children  in  general  and  the  number  of  those  employed  in  separate 
branches  of  industry,  as  well  as  of  their  distribution  throughout  the  different 
sections  of  the  Empire.  Furthermore,  it  is  desired  that  the  said  commission  be 
acquainted  with  what  information  has  already  been  gained  on  the  subject,  and 
that  it  receive  a  statement  of  what  measures  have  been  taken  by  the  different 
States  to  suppress  unwarrantable  industrial  labor. 

I  therefore  beg  leave  to  request  of  - to  oblige  me  with  all  pertinent  infor¬ 

mation  obtained,  and  at  the  same  time  to  give  me  the  necessary  data  for  respective 
districts  under  the  following  heads: 

(1)  How  many  children  under  14  years  of  age  are  employed  outside  of  factories? 
These  shall  include  all  who  are  engaged  in  any  industry  exclusive  of  agriculture, 
gardening,  fruit  and  vine  culture,  or  in  menial  service,  even  though  they  receive 
no  wages  and  are  not  bound  by  contract,  but  only  assist  other  members  of  their 
families. 

(2)  In  what  branches  of  industry  and  for  what  occupation  in  these  branches 
are  children  employed?  The  important  fact  here  to  be  kept  in  view  is  the  service 
for  which  children  are  preferably  made  use  of  to  create  the  product. 

(3)  Flow  great,  approximately,  is  the  number  of  (a)  children  employed  in  the 
separate  branches  of  industry ;  (b)  of  those  employed  within  these  branches  in 
work  specified  under  the  second  heading? 

As  regards  the  execution  of  the  requisite  preparatory  inquiries,  the  cooperation 
of  teachers  has  much  in  its  favor,  since  their  control  of  children  during  school 
hours  gives  them  the  opportunity  of  learning  wdiether  these  are  employed  when 
away  from  school,  and  consequently  whether  their  strength  is  overtaxed.  In  this 
case  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  man}T  parents,  from  fear  of  having  their  chil¬ 
dren’s  assistance  limited  in  consequence  of  the  inquiries,  will  influence  them  to 
make  false  report,  so  that  conditions  may  present  favorable  appearance.  I  there¬ 
fore  urge  that  the  measure  of  cooperation  of  teachers  be  carried  out  as  secretly  as 
possible,  so  that  any  unwarrantable  influence  on  the  part  of  parents  be  prevented. 

I  request  that  all  communications  be  delivered  by  April  1  of  next  year. 

Thereupon  the  different  State  governments  conducted  Investigations  from  Jan¬ 
uary  until  April,  1888.  These  extended  to  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Empire.  Wurt- 
temberg  rej)orted  for  24  of  its  64  governmental  districts  (the  municipal  district  of 
Stuttgart  and  23  more  important  districts,  including  the  Schwarzwald industries); 
and  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  confined  investigations  to  63  centers  of  industry,  wThileits 
communities  number  306.  In  Bavaria  and  Bremen  the  police  acted  as  agents; 
everywhere  else,  teachers  of  elementary  schools. 

The  limits  of  the  inquiry  are  partly  narrower  and  partly  more  extensive  than  as 
defined  in  the  circular.  Whereas  child  labor  was  to  be  considered  as  it  occurs  in 
industry,  though  outside  of  factories,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  limited  its  report  to 
children  employed  in  home  industries.  Liibeck  and  Alsace-Lorraine  included 
children  employed  as  farm  hands  and  waiters;  Saxony,  Wurttemberg,  Baden, 
Mecklenburg- Strelitz,  and  Saxe-Altenburg  included  those  in  menial  service.  The 


CHILD  LA  BOH  IN  GERMANY. 


57 


pertinent  calculations  have,  therefore,  not  been  considered  in  the  Imperial  statistical 
report.  In  some  cases,  as  with  Prussia  and  Saxony,  whose  inquiry  blanks  speci¬ 
fied  all  occupations  in  industry,  trade,  and  commerce,  children  employed  in  fac¬ 
tories  have  been  included.  Prussia,  Wurttemberg,  Brunswick,  Liibeck,  and 
Alsace-Lorraine  sent  in  separate  reports  for  the  sexes;  others  followed  the  same 
plan  in  part,  and  others,  again,  omitted  making  any  such  distinction. 

Some  States  considered  the  remark  made  in  the  circular  that  figures  relating  to 
distribution  of  child  labor  have  value  for  legislation  only  when  they  are  accom¬ 
panied  by  references  to  age,  length  of  working  time,  night  and  day  work,  the 
arrangement  of  workrooms,  and  wages,  and  acted  accordingly  by  giving  detailed 
information. 

A  few  States  examined  the  further  points,  whether  certain  occupations  are 
appropriate  or  inappropriate,  age  and  strength  of  children  of  school  age  (6-14) 
considered,  and  what  influence  they  exert  on  body,  mind,  and  soul.  Apposite 
statements  of  police  regulations  concerning  the  restriction  or  prohibition  of  dif¬ 
ferent  occupations,  and  further  measures  to  be  adopted,  were  handed  in  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  statistics.  The  subsequent  statement  of  results  will  mention  which 
States  treated  these  questions  and  in  what  manner. 

If,  as  regards  the  points  of  view  considered  in  the  inquiry,  the  material  at  hand 
is  varied,  not  being  uniform  even  for  the  same  State,  it  is  much  more  varied  as 
regards  its  arrangement  and  revision  on  the  part  of  the  separate  States.  As  the 
circular  made  no  reference  to  the  grouping  of  the  occupations,  etc.,  the  separate 
States  did  not  follow  the  same  plan  of  classification.  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Baden, 
Hesse,  Mecklenburg- Schwerin,  and  Alsace-Lorraine  adopted  the  arrangement 
of  census  statistics  for  industry.  Saxony,  Saxe  Weimar,  Reuss,  and  Bremen 
arranged  the  industries  in  alphabetical  order,  and  Reuss  gave  the  occupations 
within  the  limits  of  each  industry,  likewise  in  alphabetical  order.  Brunswick, 
Anhalt,  and  Hamburg  worked  on  individual  lines  with  specially  prepared  blanks. 
Other  States  made  no  attempt  at  a  general  review.  To  systematize  an  Imperial 
or  federal  report  from  the  statements  thus  offered  was  very  difficult  and  took  a 
great  deal  of  time;  a  certain  degree  of  uniformity  was  obtained  only  by  a  positive 
classification  of  the  separate  reports  into  an  Imperial  scheme. 

That  of  Prussia,  in  essential  features,  was  adopted  as  a  model.  According  to 
this  scheme,  two  tables  have  been  prepared  which  give  the  important  data  on  the 
kind  and  distribution  of  child  labor.  These  are  headed: 

(1)  Children  throughout  the  Empire  under  14  years  of  age  employed  outside  of 
factories,  with  full  data  relating  to  the  kind  of  occupation. 

(2)  Children  in  the  different  States  employed  outside  of  factories,  without 
specifications  as  to  kinds  of  occupation. 

In  the  following  article  the  chief  results  of  this  tabulated  report  are  briefly  dis¬ 
cussed,  and  in  connection  with  this  are  given  expressions  of  the  different  States 
on  questions  regarding  the  distribution  of  child  labor.  The  supplement  is  a  brief 
sketch  of  legislative  measures  adopted  in  foreign  countries. 

2.  Results  of  the  Inquiry. 

I.  NUMBER  OF  CHILDREN  EMPLOYED  OUTSIDE  OF  FACTORIES. 

For  the  year  1898  there  are  reported  to  have  been  employed  outside  of  factories 1 
532,283  children  of  school  age  (6-14). 

This  number,  a  round  half  million,  expresses  the  approximate  extent  of  indus¬ 
trial  wage-earning  child  labor,  or  about  1  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  Empire. 
As  has  been  stated  before,  not  all  districts  came  under  examination,  and  not  all 
examiners  understood  the  term  “  industrial  labor  ”  alike.  Moreover,  it  must  be 

1  This  term  is  understood  to  include  all  those  manufacturing  plants  which  are  classed  as 
“  Fabriken  ”  in  the  census  schedule. 


58 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


remembered  that  investigations  were  conducted  during  the  winter  months  of 
January  and  February  and  partly  during  the  spring  of  1893,  consequently  during 
a  period  when  the  services  of  children,  at  other  times  employed  in  industries,  were 
made  use  of  for  agricultural  labor.  At  all  events,  the  figures  are  far  from  giving 
actual  conditions. 

The  great  contrast  between  the  figures  of  the  inquiry  of  1898  and  those  of  the 
special  census  report  of  1895  need  create  no  surprise.  In  1895  only  45,375  children 
were  reported  to  have  been  employed  in  industry,  trade,  commerce,  and  other 
wage  labor.  The  enumerators  of  that  year  were  instructed  to  report  persons  with¬ 
out  duplication;  hence  children  attending  school  were  specified  in  the  “  household 
lists”  as  having  no  other  occupation.  The  45,375  mentioned  as  wage  earners 
were,  in  point  of  fact,  numbered  as  being  persons  wholly  occupied  with  industrial 
labor  (Hauptberuf).  Such  sole  employment  is  a  rare  occurrence  among  children, 
as  those  under  14  years  of  age  must  attend  school,  and,  as  a  rule,  parents  in  filling 
out  the  blanks  laid  greater  stress  upon  school  attendance  than  upon  wage  labor, 
and,  accordingly,  considered  any  industrial  occupation  as  a  secondary  employment 
(Nebenberuf).* 1  What  is  most  astonishing  is  that  as  many  as  45,375  children 
should  have  been  found  to  be  exclusively  occupied  with  wage  earning.  This  may 
be  partially  explained  by  the  fact  that  investigations  were  made  in  the  summer  of 
1895,  and  that  in  many  districts  so-called  summer  schools  exist  which  are  attended 
only  two  to  three  hours  a  day.  Under  certain  conditions  dispensations  from  school 
attendance  are  granted,  and  in  these  cases  the  remunerative  labor  of  children 
ceases  to  be  a  secondary  occupation.  The  cases  in  which  children  dispensed  from 
school  attendance  in  order  to  receive  private  instruction  are,  of  course,  exceptions. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  much  higher  figures  of  the  inquiry  of  1898  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  investigations  were  limited  to  industrial  occupation;  consequently  chil¬ 
dren  otherwise  employed,  for  instance,  as  farm  hands,  domestics,  or  helpers  in 
industrial  work  at  home,  are  considered  in  the  inquiry  of  1898  as  having  a  single 
occupation,  and  are  all  included  in  the  number  of  industrial  wage-earning  labor¬ 
ers,  even  though  this  kind  of  employment  plays  a  more  subordinate  part  than  the 
other  kinds.  No  such  course  of  action  was  followed  in  the  special  census  report 
of  1895. 

The  value  of  the  present  inquiry  lies  less  in  the  resultant  statistics  than  in  the 
different  questions  which  it  has  provoked  concerning  child  labor.  The  following 
numbers  are  reported  for  the  different  States  and  provinces: 


Table  I. — Children  under  14.  years .  employed  outside  of  factories  in  the  various 
States  and  provinces  of  Germany. 


States  and  provinces. 

Number  of 
children 
employed 
in  indus¬ 
try. 

Total  num¬ 
ber  of 
school  age, 
6-14  years,  a 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
those  em¬ 
ployed. 

Prussia . . . . . . . . . . 

269,598 

5,781 

5,515 

25,146 

5,209, 518 

5.18 

East  Prussia _ _ _  _ .... _ _ 

323,360 
257, 029 

1.79 

West  Prussia _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2. 15 

City  of  Berlin . 

196, 050 

12. 83 

Brandenburg . . . . . 

23, 165 

425,976 

5.44 

Pomerania _ _ _ _  _ _ _ 

7,008 
5, 771 

252, 966 

2. 77 

Posen _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

320, 550 
741,352 

1.80 

Silesia . . . 

48, 456 

6.54 

a  In  Prussia  and  Brunswick  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  refers  to  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1898  (the  date  of  the  inquiry);  in  Bavaria,  to  the  school  year  of  1895-98;  in  Saxony,  to 
1893;  in  Wurttemberg,  to  1896-97;  in  Hessia,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and  Bremen,  to  1897.  The 
numbers  of  -the  other  States  are  taken  from  the  school  census  of  1890. 


1  The  Germans  are  very  particular  in  specifying  a  manls  “Hauptberuf  ”  and  “  Nebenberuf,” 

i.  e.,  principal  and  subordinate  calling  or  occupation.  A  physician  acting  as  health  officer  would 
naturally  bo  enumerated  as  a  physician  uim  Hauptberuf”  and  as  a  health  officer  “  im 
Nebenberuf.” 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY. 


59 


Table  I. — Children  under  14  years  employed  outside  of  factories  in  the  various 
States  and  provinces  of  Germany — Continued. 


States  and  provinces. 

Number  of 
children 
employed 
in  indus¬ 
try. 

Total  num¬ 
ber  of 
school  age, 
6-14  years. 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
those  em¬ 
ployed. 

Prussia— Continued. 

26,092 
12, 643 
17,518 

452, 298 

5. 77 

211, 825 

5. 97 

392,551 

4. 46 

26,286 
15, 191 

492, 875 

5.33 

268,102 
863, 977 
10, 607 
522, 165 

5.66 

50,188 

843 

5.81 

7.95 

Bavaria,  .  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

12, 997 
137, 831 

1.58 

Saxony  .  _ _  -  _ _ _ 

604, 600 

22. 80 

Wurttemberg  _  .  _  _  __  _  _ 

a  19, 546 
28,788 
8, 868 
2,235 
5, 660 

299, 632 
295, 624 

6.52 

Baden .  __  _ _ 

9. 74 

Kessia  _ _ _ _ - _ _ 

156,391 

5. 67 

Mfinklentvrirg-Soh werin  _  _  _  _  _ 

96,918 
55, 943 

2. 31 

Saxe- Weimar  _ _ __ _ _ _ _ 

10. 12 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz _ _ 

213 

16, 684 

1. 28 

Oldenburg  _  .  _  __  _ 

1,927 

2,932 

6,684 

5,686 

5.455 
1,382 

1.456 

65, 035 

2.  96 

Brunswick  .  _  _ 

74, 104 
40, 754 

3.96 

Saxe-Meiningen  .  _ _  ..  _ _ _ _ _ 

16.40 

Saxe- Alten  burg _ _ _ _ _ 

29, 548 

19.24 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  __  _ __ _ _ _ _ _ 

35, 974 
48,236 

15.16 

Anhalt _ _ _ _ - 

2. 87 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  _ _ _ 

13, 676 
15, 148 

10.65 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . . . . - . 

2,487 

16.42 

Waldeck .  . . . . . . . 

62 

10, 777 
10, 988 
21  232 
6,’  867 
25, 322 

.  .58 

Reuss,  senior  line.  _  -  .  _ _ 

1,488 

1,502 

417 

13. 54 

Beuss,  junior  line  _ _ _ 

7.07 

Schaumburg-Lippe  .  _ _  _ _ _ _ - . 

6.07 

Lippe  . . . . . . . . . . 

1,687 

1,218 

867 

6. 66 

Lubeck . . . . . . . . 

12, 706 

9.59 

Bremen . . . . . - . . . . . 

25, 627 
95,574 
245,876 

3.38 

Hamburg  _ _ _ _  _ _ _ 

5,419 

17,878 

5.67 

Alsace-Lorraine _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

7. 27 

The  Empire  _  _  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

a  544, 283 

8,334,919 

6. 53 

ct  Inclusive  of  40  municipal  districts  of  W urttemberg  estimated  to  have  12,000  wage-earning  chil¬ 
dren,  no  special  effort  haying  been  made  in  investigating  the  conditions;  but  the  estimate  is  a 
fair  one. 


The  great  variations  in  the  figures  of  the  foregoing*  table  showing  the  extent  of 
child  labor  are  particularly  noticeable  in  the  third  column,  which  exhibits  the 
percentage  of  children  of  school  age,  and  are  altogether  of  a  formal  nature,  based 
upon  the  already  mentioned  differences  in  the  methods  of  enumeration  and  the 
different  interpretations  of  the  terms  used  in  the  circular  letter.  Nevertheless 
they  undoubtedly  correspond  to  actual  conditions.  For  instance,  if  when  compared 
with  the  percentage  found  for  the  whole  Empire  (6.53  per  cent)  of  wage-earning 
children  of  school  age  the  city  of  Berlin,  the  Thuringian  States,  and  especially  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  with  as  high  as  28.8  per  cent,  show  a  large  percentage,  the 
inquiry  confirms  the  fact  already  known  that  industrial  child  labor  is  made  use  of 
to  an  alarmingly  great  extent  in  large  cities  and  in  the  home  industries  of  Thu¬ 
ringia  and  Saxony.1  The  relatively  low  figures  of  East  and  West  Prussia  (the  two 
provinces  farthest  east  on  the  Baltic),  Pomerania,  Posen,  and  Mecklenburg  are 
explained  by  the  fact  that  children  are  employed  for  agricultural  labor. 

KINDS  OF  OCCUPATION  OF  CHILDREN. 

Children  are  employed  in  many  kinds  of  industrial  occupations.  To  give  a  brief 
review  of  these  they  have  been  divided  into  seven  groups. 


1  For  instance,  in  some  parts  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  86  per  cent  of  school  children  under  14  years 
of  age  are  employed  in  home  industries  (see  foot  note  on  page  55),  and  57  per  cent  in  the  district 
of  Sonneberg,  in  Saxe-Meiningen,  the  center  of  the  toy  manufacturing  of  Germany. 


60 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  first  group  includes  all  assistants  in  industry  proper,  subdivided  according 
to  the  census  list  of  industrial  statistics  into  subgroups,  classes,  and  kinds.  (A 
separate  statement  of  the  number  of  children  employed  in  these  subdivisions  is 
contained  in  the  report,  but  is  here  omitted.  The  exhibit  covers  a  number  of 
pages  of  close  print,  which  would  be  of  interest  only  to  specialists.  Instead  of  it 
a  summary  is  offered  in  Table  III.) 

The  second  group  comprises  assistants  in  trading,  such  as  selling  of  merchandise, 
peddling,  etc. 

The  third  group,  the  smallest  of  the  seven,  includes  all  assistants  in  the  business 
of  transport  on  land  and  water.  The  full  tables  go  into  particulars  only  for 
a  few  States,  since  other  States  .gave  only  summary  reports  on  these  employments. 

The  fourth  group  treats  of  occupations  in  connection  with  taverns  and  hotels, 
such  as  setting  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys,  serving  beer,  waiting  upon  guests,  and 
cleaning  rooms  or  utensils. 

The  fifth  group  refers  to  different  services  as  carriers  and  deliverers  (the  delivery 
of  bread,  cake,  etc.,  milk,  newspapers,  books,  coal,  and  laundry). 

The  sixth  group  includes  all  messengers  and  errand  boys  and  girls. 

The  seventh  group  comprises  all  other  assistants  in  wage-earning  labor  (clerks, 
copyists,  helpers  in  public  shows,  collectors  of  manure,  bones,  and  rags,  etc.). 

A  brief  summary  will  be  found  in  Tables  II  and  III,  the  latter  giving  the  sub¬ 
divisions  of  Group  1  for  industry  proper. 

Table  II. — Kinds  of  occupation. 


Absolute  numbers. 


Relative  numbers. 


Groups  of  occupation. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Sex  not 
stated. 

Total. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Sex  not 
stated. 

Total. 

A.  Industry  proper . 

72,428 

59, 318 

175,077 

306,823 

1  3 

Pr.  ct. 
55.09 

Pr.  ct. 
75.11 

Pr.  ct. 
57. 64 

B.  Trading'.. . 

7,507 

4,540 

5,576 

17, 823 

3.92 

4. 22 

2.39 

3.31 

C.  Transport  business . 

2,014 

163 

514 

2,691 

1.05 

.15 

.22 

1.51 

D.  Taverns  and  hotels...- . 

12, 757 

2,168 

6,695 

21,620 

6.66 

2. 01 

2.87 

4.06 

E.  Carriers  and  deliverers _ 

67, 188 

36, 966 

31, 676 

135, 830 

35.09 

34. 33 

13.59 

25. 52 

F.  Messenger  service . 

23,321 

2, 134 

10,  454 

35, 909 

12. 18 

1.98 

4. 48 

6. 75 

G.  Other  service . 

6,281 

2,387 

3,119 

11, 787 

3.28 

2. 22 

1.34 

2.21 

Total  . . . . 

191,496 

107,676 

233, 111 

1 532, 283 

100 

100 

100 

100 

1  See  footnote  to  Table  I,  which  explains  the  apparent  discrepancy. 


More  than  one-half  of  the  half  a  million  children  employed  are  engaged  in  labor 
of  a  purely  industrial  character.  A  fourth  are  employed  for  errands  and  in  deliv¬ 
ery  service.  As  regards  children  employed  in  industry  proper  the  most,  148.710, 
or  48.84  per  cent,  are  engaged  in  textile  industries.  Cabinet  work  and  carving, 
manufacture  of  clothing  and  scouring  come  next  in  order,  with  40,997  children, 
or  13.62  per  cent.  Home  industry  has  a  special  significance  in  these  groups.  On 
the  other  hand,  few  children  are  employed  in  those  industries  necessitating  fac¬ 
tory  labor  exclusively,  as  the  manufacture  of  chemicals  or  of  illuminating  mate¬ 
rials, fats,  oils,  etc.,  or  in  those  whose  character  presupposes  certain  qualifications 
of  the  labor  personnel,  as  mining  and  the  arts.  If  children  are  employed  at  all 
they  are  only  minor  assistants.  The  cases  in  which  they  are  direct  labor  factors 
form  exceptions.  The  extremely  low  figures  in  this  connection,  sometimes  only 
one  child  listed  for  the  whole  State,  are  due  either  to  a  vague  view  of  the  employ¬ 
ment  in  question  or  to  the  fact  that  the  occupation  was  pursued  accidentally  but 
once.  Any  regular  or  extensive  employment  in  such  occupations  is  forbidden  by 
imperial  law. 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY. 


61 


Table  III  a. — Kinds  of  occupation  in  industry  proper. 


Number  of  children  employed. 


Kinds  of  occupation. 


I.  Horticulture  and  truck  gardening 

II.  Stock  raising  and  fishing . 

III.  Mining  and  smelting . . . 

IY.  Stone  and  clay  industry . 

Y.  Metalworking . . 

VI.  Machine  and  instrument  making .  _ 

VII.  Chemical  industry . 

VIII.  Secondary  products  of  forests . 

IX.  Textile  industry . . 

X.  Paper  industry . . . 

XI.  Leather  industry . 

XII.  Wood  and  carving  industry . 

XIII.  Food  and  delicacies . . . 

XIY.  Clothing  and  scouring . 

XV.  Building  trades . . . . . - 

XVl.  Polygraphic  industries . . 

XVII.  Industrial  arts . 

XVIII.  Industries  not  specified . 

Total... . 


Boys. 

Girls. 

Sex  not 
stated. 

Total. 

160 

98 

50 

308 

274 

138 

99 

511 

354 

97 

17 

468 

2,577 

1,044 

9,269 

12, 890 

7,042 

2,883 

4,433 

14, 358 

843 

200 

3,871 

4,914 

200 

64 

245 

509 

143 

41 

145 

329 

25,955 

29, 725 

88,030 

143, 710 

2,804 

2,019 

4, 147 

8,970 

915 

300 

1.729 

2, 944 

12, 186 

6,715 

22, 900 

41,801 

9, 719 

5, 810 

12, 116 

27, 645 

7,916 

10,009 

23, 372 

40, 997 

1,064 

67 

3,094 

4,225 

241 

55 

422 

718 

45 

7 

49 

101 

290 

46 

1,089 

1,425 

72,428 

59,318 

175,077 

306,823 

Table  III  b. — Kinds  of  occupation  in  industry  proper. 


Kinds  of  occupation. 


I.  Horticulture  and  truck  gardening. 

II.  Stock  raising  and  fishing . . 

III.  Mining  and  smelting. . 

IV.  Stone  and  clay  industry . . 

V.  Metal  working . . 

VI.  Machine  and  instrument  working  . 

VII.  Chemical  industry . . . . 

VIII.  Secondary  products  of  forests _ 

IX.  Textile  industry... . . 

X.  Paper  industry . . 

XI.  Leather  industry . . . . 

XII.  Wood  and  carving  industry . 

XIII.  Food  and  delicacies  . . . . . 

XIV.  Clothing  and  scouring . . 

XV .  Building  trades . . . . . . 

XVI.  Polygraphic  industries . 

XVII.  Industrial  arts . . . 

XVIII.  Industries  not  specified . 

Total . . 


Relative  numbers  of  children  em¬ 
ployed. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Sex  not 
stated. 

Total. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

0.22 

0.17 

0.03 

0. 10 

.38 

.23 

.06 

.17 

.49 

.16 

.01 

.15 

3. 58 

1.76 

5.29 

4. 20 

9.72 

4. 86 

2. 53 

4. 68 

1.16 

.34 

.  2. 21 

1.60 

.28 

.11 

.14 

.17 

.20 

.07 

.08 

.11 

35.84 

50. 11 

50. 28 

46. 84 

3. 87 

3.  40 

2. 37 

2. 92 

1.28 

.51 

.99 

.96 

16.82 

11.32 

13.08 

13.62 

13.42 

9.80 

6.92 

9.01 

10.52 

18.87 

13. 35 

13.36 

1.47 

.11 

1.77 

1.38 

.33 

.09 

.24 

.23 

.06 

.01 

.03 

.03 

.40 

.08 

.62 

.47 

100 

100 

100 

100 

In  various  reports  the  following  occupations  are  mentioned  as  inappropriate  for 
children:  The  breaking  of  stones,  working  in  marble  quarries  or  stone  pits,  stone 
cutting  and  polishing,  brick  burning,  masonry,  forging,  locksmith  work,  and  the 
sawing,  carrying,  and  piling  of  lumber.  Objection  is  made  to  these  occupations 
on  account  of  the  so-ofcen  attendant  physical  exertion.  (Reports  from  Hes.ia 
and  Anhalt. ) 

Other  kinds  of  work  are  characterized  as  peculiarly  prejudicial  to  health,  as 
glazing  and  the  crushing  of  dyes  and  clay  in  potteries;  cleaning  of  rabbit  pelts, 
because  of  the  offensive  effluvia  which  give  the  children  pale  complexions  and 
are  spread  in  schools  through  clothing;  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  tobacco, 
cigars,  and  slate  pencils,  because  of  the  dust  developed;  the  making  of  explosives 
by  means  of  fulminating  silver,  which  occupation  was  forbidden  in  Saxe- 
Altenburg  in  paragraph  120  d  of  the  industrial  law  of  that  State.  Bead  work,  the 
shredding  of  saffron,  and  the  sorting  of  the  different  parts  of  saffron  mills,  and 


62 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1903-1901. 


other  work  by  which  dense  dust  is  developed,  as  well  as  the’  occupations  men¬ 
tioned  before,  as  the  stripping  of  tobacco  leaves  in  cigar  factories;  the  making  of 
buttons  and  slate  pencils  is  particularly  ruinous  to  the  eyes,  bringing  about  inflam¬ 
mation  and  near-sightedness.  All  such  work  as  painting  on  porcelain  ware,  fre¬ 
quently  done  at  night  by  lamplight  (report  of  Scdiwarzburg-Rudolstadt),  is 
likewise  injurious  to  the  eyes. 

Numerous  occupations  engaged  in  at  home  are  given  as  very  injurious  to  health, 
such  as  textile  work,  basket  braiding,  chair  caning  and  reed  work,  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  toys,  buttons,  porcelain,  and  glassware.  Work  of  this  kind  is  often  done 
in  musty  rooms  that  serve  as  sleeping  apartments  as  well  as  work  and  living 
rooms,  and  are  seldom  thoroughly  aired,  particularly  during  the  winter  months. 
Independent  of  this  fact,  complaints  are  made  that  children  employed  at  home  are 
obliged  to  tax  their  strength  to  a  great  extent,  working  mostly,  as  Anhalt  reports, 
till  9  and  10  o’clock  at  night;  young  children,  whose  school  hours  begin  later  than 
those  of  the  older  ones,  work  one  or  two  hours  before  school.  During  the  term 
of  urgent  work  in  home  industry  the  occupation  of  children  is  particularly  taxing 
and  uninterrupted. 

The  consequence  of  excessive  employment  of  children  is  arrested  physical  and 
mental  development.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  teachers  of  the  city  of 
Greiz  (Reuss,  senior  line) ,  detrimental  effects  were  noticeable  in  56,  or  11.5  per  cent 
of  all  wage-earning  children,  and  especially  in  those  employed  in  weaving.  The 
children  look  pale  and  sickly;  are  narrow-chested;  have  curved  spines;  suffer  from 
eye  troubles;  forfeit  mental  vigor,  andbecome  dull  and  uninterested.  Overexertion 
and  inadequate  food  often  produce  nervousness  and  weakness  among  children. 
Education  suffers  under  these  conditions.  Besides,  work  that  occupies  children 
until  late  at  night  and  keeps  them  away  from  home  and  among  adults  exercises  a 
bad  influence  on  morals  and  manners;  unbecoming  conversation  is  often  held 
between  half-grown  boys  and  girls.  In  many  cases  the  immoderate  taxation  of 
strength  during  youth  is  followed  by  premature  physical  debility  and  incom¬ 
petency  for  work  in  school.  (Reports  from  Bavaria,  Wurttemberg,  Hessia,  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Anhalt,  Reuss  senior  line,  and  Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt. ) 

Other  more  favorable  judgments  of  child  labor,  however,  are  not  lacking. 
Reports  were  sent  in  by  some  districts  in  which  no  detrimental  influences  have 
been  noticed.  When  child  labor  is  not  carried  to  excess,  and  is  counterbalanced 
by  activity  in  the  open  air,  that  is  by  farm  or  garden  work,  or  gathering  berries, 
wood,  and  leaves,  it  is  not  to  be  condemned  without  further  cause.  (Reports 
from  Wurttemberg,  Gotha,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. )  Thus,  in  33  of  the  63 
localities  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  in  which  children  are  employed  at  home,  no 
disadvantages  were  noticed.  Among  the  remaining  30  with  evil  effects,  4  reported 
disadvantages  to  the  physical,  11  the  same  to  the  mental,  and  15  the  same  to  the 
mental  and  physical  development.  The  percentage  of  children  employed  in  wage¬ 
earning  was  particularly  high  in  these  places.  While  in  the  33  school  districts 
without  detrimental  results  of  child  labor  only  22.6  per  cent  of  the  children  were 
employed,  the  percentage  in  the  remaining  30  school  districts  was  as  high  as  37.8 
per  cent,  in  the  15  school  districts,  with  equal  disadvantages  to  body  and  mind, 
the  percentage  rose  to  46.5  per  cent. 

The  opinion  of  the  factory  inspector  of  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  on 
child  labor,  based  on  personal  observations,  is  worthy  of  consideration.  He  con¬ 
siders  it  proper  when  (a)  children  are  thus  accustomed  early  to  regular  occupa¬ 
tion  (cultivation  of  diligence,  prevention  of  the  incipient  dangers  of  idleness);  (6) 
the  wages  of  parents  are  thereby  considerably  increased;  (c)  the  cares  of  house¬ 
holds  are  thereby  lightened.  On  the  other  hand,  he  considers  it  a  curse  when  (a) 
children  are  employed  at  too  early  an  age;  (6)  children  are  employed  for  too  long 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY. 


63 


a  time  on  one  day;  (c)  early  in  the  morning,  before, school;  (d)  till  late  at  night; 
(e)  the  workrooms  are  arranged  without  regard  to  hygiene;  (/)  workrooms  serve 
as  sleeping  apartments;  ( g )  a  large  number  of  children  congregate  in  strange 
houses  for  work. 

Among  the  occupations  entered  in  the  other  groups  (see  Table  II,  B  to  G) 
the  following  are  mentioned  as  deserving  of  some  reflection:  The  delivery  and 
selling  of  bread  and  cakes  and  fish,  milk,  newspapers,  etc.,  the  setting  up  of  pins 
in  bowling  alleys,  and  tracking  game.  The  delivery  of  bread  and  cakes  not  only 
occupies  children  at  too  early  an  hour,  so  that  they  get  to  school  too  late,  and  are 
sleepy,  apathetic,  and  exhausted,  but  it  also  keeps  them  working  until  late  in  the 
night.  In  delivering  goods  and  selling  flowers  and  small  articles  of  use,  children 
go  from  one  tavern  to  another,  hear  improper  language,  sacrifice  the  love  of  truth 
by  trying  to  get  rid  of  their  wares  through  all  possible  kinds  of  representation, 
form  the  habit  of  taking  things  to  eat  by  stealth  and  indulging  in  smoking  at  too 
early  an  age,  and  accustoming  themselves  to  the  drinking  of  spirituous  liquors,  for 
which  they  spend  the  money  they  have  received.  The  same  evil  consequences 
attend  employment  in  bowling  alleys  and  playing  dance  music,  which  occupa¬ 
tions  continue  till  late  in  the  night.  The  delivery  of  newspapers  that  occupies  chil¬ 
dren  before  and  after  school  hours  overtaxes  physical  strength,  and  the  result  is 
that  children  get  to  school  tired  out.  (Reports  from  Bavaria,  Iiessia,  Anhalt, 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. ) 

The  foregoing 'summary  (see  Tables  III  a  and  III  b)  gives  an  approximate  idea  of 
the  number  of  children  employed  as  above  mentioned.  The  specification  as  to 
States  and  districts  in  which  the  evils  occur  is  omitted  here. 

III.  AGE  OP  WAGE-EARNING  CHILDREN. 

Prussia,  Hessia,  and  Reuss,  senior  line,  give  detailed  information  concerning  the 
ages  of  wage-earning  children.  The  Prussian  reports  refer  to  11,891  children,  or 
4.04  per  cent;  most  of  the  fourteen  provinces  of  the  Kingdom  are  included.  These 
11,891  children  are  specified  as  follows: 


Ages  (years). 

Number  of 
children. 

Percent¬ 

age. 

6  to  7  . . . 

175 

1.5 

7  to  8  . . . . . . 

491 

4.1 

8  to  9  . . . 

843 

7. 1 

9  to  10  - _ 1 _ _ ... _ _ _ 

1,378 

3,511 

11.6 

10  to  12 . - 

29.5 

12  to  14 . 

5,493 

46.2 

Hessia  classes  the  children  in  two  groups — in  those  6  to  10  years  old  and  those 
10  to  14  years  old — and  distinguishes  the  different  occupations.  The  following 
summary  is  worthy  of  attention: 


Children. 

Occupations.  • 

6  to  10 
years. 

10  to  14 
years. 

Set  ting  up  pins  . . . . . . „ .  . 

30a 

1,013 

850 

Delivery  of  bread  and  cakes . . . . 

a  196 

Delivery  of  newspapers.. . . . 

a  275 

653 

Stringing  and  sewing  on  beads . „ . 

242 

252 

Spooling. . . -v . . . 

161 

288 

Stripping  tobacco  leaves. . . 

108 

94 

Cleansing  of  pelts . 

95 

62 

Peddling . 

147 

76 

a  Among  them  one  child,  less  than  6  years  old. 


64  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

In  the  city  of  Greiz  (Reuss,#sen.  line)  wage-earning  children  were  found  of  the 
following  ages: 


Age  (years). 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

In  textile 
industry 
alone. 

6  . . . 

4 

1 

5 

4 

7  .  . 

13 

12 

25 

20 

8  .  . 

16 

24 

40 

29 

9  . . . 

23 

17 

40 

26 

10  . 

37 

27 

64 

31 

11 . 

70 

28 

98 

34 

12 . . . . 

54 

36 

90 

40 

13. . . . 

59 

20 

79 

16 

14  . . 

39 

6 

45 

11 

Total . 

315 

171 

486 

210 

Very  young  children  are  employed  particularly  in  the  weaving  industry. 

Saxony  mentions  that  in  many  branches  of  industry — as  lace  making,  stray/  and 
reed  braiding,  the  manufacture  of  stockings  and  gloves — children  are  employed 
before  they  are  required  to  go  to  school.  No  accurate  figures  concerning  this 
point  could  be  obtained.  The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen  reports  that,  as  a  rule, 
children  are  required  to  work  as  soon  as  they  are  old  enough  to  go  to  school,  and 
that  in  some  cases  children  of  4  years  are  put  to  work,  because  the  critical  position 
and  paltry  wages  of  many  branches  of  home  industry  necessitate  the  utilization 
of  any  available  labor  factor. 

IV.  DAILY  WORKING  HOURS. 

Prussia,  Wurttemberg,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  Anhalt,  andReuss,  sen.  line,  reported  on  the  length  of  time  in  proportionate 
numbers;  also  to  a  limited  extent  Bavaria,  Schwarsburg-Rudolstadt,  Hessia,  and 
Saxe-Altenburg. 

The  Prussian  reports  have  been  based  upon  the  question  proposed  by  the  circu¬ 
lar  letter  of  inquiry  as  to  how  many  wage-earning  children  work  more  than  three 
hours  a  day  and  on  how  many  days  in  the  week  they  are  required  to  work  longer 
than  three  hours.  The  results  of  investigation  are: 


Child  labor  in — 

More  than  3  hours  a  day. 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
working 
children. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

• 

A.  Industry  proper . 

B.  Trading  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

36,430 
3, 556 
974 
6,066 
14, 677 
12, 932 
1,207 

26, 927 
1,810 
44 
494 
4, 771 
538 
256 

63, 357 
5,366 
1,018 
6,560 
19, 448 
13,470 
1,463 

Per  cent. 
56. 06 
48.11 
49  63 
47.47 
19.95 
54.  74 
19.63 

C.  Transport  business . 

D.  Taverns  and  hotels. . . . . 

E.  Carriers  and  deliverers _ - . 

F.  Messenger  service . . . 

G.  Other  service _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Total . 

75, 842 

24,840 

110,682 

41. 05 

The  number  of  those  who  work  more  than  three  hours  a  day  is,  accordingly,  large 
in  proportion.  To  form  a  correct  conclusion,  however,  we  must  consider  whether 
those  working  hours  are  uninterrupted,  whether  they  are  arranged  before  or  after 
school  hours,  etc. 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY.  65 


Among  the  H0,682  children  the  following  numbers  were  occupied  more  than 
three  hours  a  day  during  the  week: 


Branches  of  work,  a 

Once  a 
week. 

Twice 
a  week. 

Three 
times  a 
week. 

Four 
times  a 
week. 

Five 
times  a 
week. 

Six 

times  a 
week. 

Seven 
times  a 
week. 

A . 

1,933 

639 

7,956 

1,122 

167 

3, 711 
461 

4,584 

354 

4,324 

184 

39, 378 

1,471 

517 

B  . 

2, 089 

c . . . 

94 

60 

79 

15 

492 

111 

D  . 

2,324 
4, 771 
866 

1,361 
3,586 
2, 133 
431 

743 

425 

191 

841 

675 

2,980 

1,710 

157 

E . . 

1,446 

631 

728 

579 

5, 358 

F . . . 

498 

251 

7,381 

a _ 

181 

135 

120 

45 

394 

Total . 

10,808 

9.76 

16, 756 

7, 187 
6.49 

6,788 

5, 589 

55, 933 

7,621 

Per  cent  -  _ _ _ _ 

15.14 

6. 13 

5.05 

50.54 

6.89 

Of  these  were  girls _ _ 

2, 597 
7.45 

3,967 

11.47 

1,951 

5.60 

2, 175 
6.25 

2,447 

20, 024 

1,649 

4.73 

Per  cent . . . . . 

7.02 

57.48 

a  See  foregoing  table  for  classification. 


More  than  half  of  all  the  children  employed  for  over  three  hours  a  day  worked 
thus  intensively  on  six  days  in  the  week.  If  we  add  to  these  the  children  who 
work  still  harder,  namely,  more  than  three  hours  every  day,  Sundays  included, 
Prussia  has  not  fewer  than  68,554  school  children  (41,881  boys  and  21,678  girls) 
who  perform  industrial  labor  beyond  reasonable  limits. 

The  reports  from  Wurttemberg  lead  us  to  infer  that  working  hours,  in  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  instances,  never  exceed  3  hours  a  day,  especially  in 
summer  and  during  harvest  times,  when  there  is  greater  need  of  agricultural 
hands.  Nevertheless,  the  district  of  Neuenburg  reports  that  children  are  occu¬ 
pied  from  8  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  till  far  in  the  night  in  making  chains  of 
silver  and  rolled-gold  wire;  the  same  can  be  said  of  lace  and  crochet  work  and 
spooling  in  the  district  of  Nurtingen,  where  evening  work  sometimes  lasts  until 
11  o’clock.  In  Spaichingen  children  are  employed  in  pulling  feathers,  by  which 
much  dust  is  developed,  until  10  o’clock  at  night,  and  in  manufacturing  parts  of 
shoes,  from  half-past  5  until  9,  and  sometimes  until  11  or  12  o’clock.  In  Geislin- 
gen  from  1  hour  to  6  hours  are  demanded  for  the  manufacture  of  corsets  and 
tights,  and  for  filing  and  polishing  metals.  The  working  hours  are  the  same  for 
G-mund  in  reference  to  goldsmiths’  wares.  Balingen,  another  school  district  in 
Wurttemberg,  reports  that  children  are  employed  in  making  tights,  not  only  after 
school  till  late  at  night,  but  during  the  midday  recess. 

In  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  62  of  213  children  work  longer  than  3  hours  a  day,  as 
follows:  Thirty-five  work  4 hours;  16  work  5  hours;  9  work  6  hours;  2  work  7  hours  a 
day.  Of  these  213  children  108  are  employed  on  all  7  days,  43  on  6,  and20on  3  days 
during  the  week;  72  work  at  night,  42  in  the  morning,  16  at  noon,  18  in  the  morn¬ 
ing  and  at  night,  2  in  the  morning  and  at  noon,  30  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  at 
night,  and  19  indefinitely. 

Saxe-Meiningen  reports  that  children  as  a  rule  work  only  after  school,  from  3 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon  until  about  9  o’clock  at  night.  More  detailed  information 
on  the  length  of  time  of  child  labor  was  given  by  the  industrial  district  of  Sonne- 
berg.  Working  hours  (almost  exclusively  in  home  industry)  in  Sonneberg  are 
specified  as  follows: 

In  4  school  districts  till  9  p.  m.;  in  8  school  districts  till  10  p.  m.;  in  13  school 
districts  till  11  p.  m. ;  in  8  school  districts  till  12  p.  m. ;  in  3  jchool  districts  till  2 
a.  m.;  in  2  school  districts  till  3  a.  m.;  in  1  school  district  till  4  a.  m. ;  in  3  school 
districts  all  night,  i.  e.,  toward  Christmas. 


ED  1901- 


■o 


66 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


In  62  localities  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  working  hours  are  reported  to  be  as 
follows: 


Number 
of  local¬ 
ities. 

Number 
of  hours 
per  day. 

In  these  localities  the 
work  caused — 

No  harm.  1  Harm. 

13 

3 

11 

2 

23 

5 

12 

11 

9 

6 

6 

3 

o 

7 

2 

10 

8 

2 

8 

1 

9 

1 

4 

10 

4 

Labor  in  these  instances  means  turning  in  wood,  wood  carving,  making  but¬ 
tons,  weaving  baskets,  webbing  (gurtweben),  spooling,  and  making  toys.  With 
the  exception  of  2  in  all  the  above-mentioned  localities,  with  more  than  6  work¬ 
ing  hours,  evil  effects  were  noticeable  in  the  children;  whereas  in  the  45  localities, 
with  from  1  to  6  hours,  only  16  cases  of  harmful  influence  are  recorded.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  experience  of  the  factory  inspector,  44  hours  are  the  maximum  time 
during  which  children  can  be  employed  without  detriment  to  their  health  and 
school  duties.  Even  then  it  is  presupposed  that  they  are  not  occupied  every  day 
in  the  year. 

The  reports  from  Anhalt  state  that  children  work  under  great  strain  until  10 
o'clock  at  night,  making  rush  mats  and  reedwork;  children  carry  bricks  from  1 
till  6  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  become  very  exhausted.  In  the  cigar  and 
tobacco  factories  of  Anhalt  children  work  from  1  hour  to  6  hours  a  day  (from  3 
or  4  till  6  or  8  p.  m.),  in  close  rooms,  the  air  of  which  is  filled  with  tobacco  dust, 
stripping  and  smoothing  tobacco  leaves,  wrapping,  and  pasting  labels  and  paper 
boxes. 

In  the  city  of  G-reiz-(Reuss  senior  line)  hours  vary  between  3  and  50  a  week.  In 
most  instances  children  work  from  3  to  4  hours  a  day.  The  highest  number  of 
working  hours  a  week  is  reached  in  cigar  factories,  in  the  book  trade,  and  in 
taverns.  In  the  first  mentioned  children  are  occupied  from  29  to  38  hours  and 
during  vacation  60  hours  a  week.  These  figures  prove  that  children  are  made 
use  of  to  a  most  pitiable  extent,  especially  when  we  consider  that  just  in  this  line 
of  occupation  they  work  together  in  large  numbers  and  in  poorly  ventilated 
rooms,  and  receive  only  from  1.20  marks  (30  cents)  to  1.50  marks  (38  cents)  a  week 
as  wages.  (Greiz  has  introduced  measures  to  remedy  these  evils.)  The  children 
employed  for  setting  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys  work  from  30  to  49  hours  a  week, 
often  till  2  and  even  till  3  o'clock  a.  m. 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  reported  that  children  work  at  rope  making  in  Fran- 
kenhausen,  as  a  usual  thing,  from  3  till  7  and  8  o’clock  p.  m.  In  Leibis  (district  of 
Konigsee)  children  help  their  fathers  in  sawmills  till  11  o’clock  at  night.  In  sev¬ 
eral  localities  children  work  a  few  hours  before  school  in  the  morning  and  are, 
besides,  employed  in  the  afternoon  till  late  at  night. 

Bavaria  mentions  the  fact  as  an  existing  evil  that  children  are  employed  till  late 
at  night  in  setting  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys  and  serving  beer  and  liquor  in  tav¬ 
erns  and  country  inns.  Like  reports  were  sent  in  from  Hessia  which  particularly 
condemn  the  fact  that  children  are  employed  in  playing  dance  music  till  morning. 
Similar  reports  come  from  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  and  Saxe-Altenburg. 

V.  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORKROOMS. 

In  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  workrooms,  Hessia  reports  that  the  cleaning  of 
pelts  and  hair  clipping  deserve  special  consideration  when  it  is  done  in  close  quar¬ 
ters.  Nevertheless  114  children  under  10  and  97  between  10  and  14  years  of  age 
were  thus  employed. 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY. 


67 


Saxe-Meiningen  stated  as  a  well-known  fact  that  small  workrooms  in  which 
meals  are  prepared  and  varnish  or  lime  kept  hot  during  work  hours  are  mdst 
prejudicial  to  the  health  of  adults  and  children.  This  is  especially  true  of  rooms 
in  which  wooden  toys  are  made,  as  they  are  heated,  even  in  summer,  so  that  the 
goods  may  be  dried  before  being  delivered. 

Anhalt  stated  that  the  145  children  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco 
work  mostly  in  rooms  that  are  likewise  used  for  living  rooms  and  sleeping  apart¬ 
ments  and  are  poorly  aired,  particularly  in  winter. 

YI.  LEGAL  CONDITIONS  OE  CHILD  LABOR. 

Only  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Anhalt,  and  Liibeck  reported  with 
reference  to  the  legal  status  of  child  labor.  In  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  only  26  of 
the  213  children  employed  in  wage  earning’  possessed  a  contract  which  provided 
for  a  period  of  giving  notice  to  quit;  4  had  a  week's  notice,  6  a  2  weeks’,  and  16 
a  month’s  notice.  The  other  children  were,  in  part,  under  contract  without  any 
notice  of  leave,  and  in  part  worked  in  the  homes  of  relatives. 

Saxe-Meiningen  reported  that,  as  a  rule,  children  worked  in  the  families  of  their 
nearest  relatives.  The  same  can  be  said  of  a  large  number  of  children  in  Anhalt, 
who  are  employed  in  most  cases  without  pay  and  leave  by  relatives  in  their 
fathers’  trade  and  under  the  supervision  of  parents.  Even  when  they  workaway 
from  their  own  home  no  contract  in  the  legal  sense  of  the  term  exists.  Still  cases 
are  cited  where  children  are  engaged  subject  to  a  month’s  notice  to  deliver  bread, 
etc.,  and  for  work  in  breweries  (washing  bottles  and  pumping  water)  subject  to 
a  week’s  notice. 

In  Liibeck  649  of  the  total  number  of  children  under  14  years  of  age  (1,308) 
employed  outside  of  factories  assist  their  relatives;  659,  or  50.4  percent,  stand  in 
some  relation  by  contract  to  an  employer. 


VII.  WAGES  OF  CHILDREN. 


As  the  majority  of  children  work  for  relatives,  chiefly  parents,  they  in  most 
cases  receive  no  especial  monetary  compensation.  Even  when  they  work  for 
strangers  they  are  paid  by  board  and  lodging.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Anhalt,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  and  Reuss 
senior  line  reported  the  amount  of  wages  received  by  children. 

The  oft-mentioned  213  children  in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  receive  monthly  wages, 


as  follows: 

2  children.. . 
13  children., 
29  children.. 
47  children. . 
25  children.. 
6  children... 
4  children . . . 


Marks. 

...  0. 50 =$0. 12£ 
...  1.00=  .25 
...  2.00=  .50 
...  3.00=  .75 
...  4.00=  1.00 
...  5.00=  1.25 
...  6.00=  1.50 


2  children 


7.00=  1.75 


1  child . . . . . 8.00=  2.00 

84  children,  partial  or  full  board  and  occasional  tips. 


Saxe-Meiningen  reported  from  five  localities  in  the  district  of  Saalfeld  that  the 
weekly  wages  of  children  vary  between  2.40  marks  and  4  marks.  In  some  instances 
5  pfennigs  (— 1£  cents)  per  hour  are  paid.  School  children  who  serve  as  waiters 
receive  for  a  day’s  work  up  to  6  hours  1  mark  (25  cents)  to  4.50  marks  ($1.12£) 
per  month.  Their  pay  is  often  turned  into  the  school  savings  bank. 

The  following  amounts  are  reported  from  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  as  daily  wages. 
The  least  money  is  earned  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons.  Excepting  two  localities, 
which  pay  from  25  to '30  pfennigs  (5  to  6  cents)  a  day,  three  pay  4  and  5,  and  others 


68 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


10, 12,  and  15  pfennigs  ( 1  cent,  11  cents,  2|  cents,  3  cents,  3f  cents) .  In  some  places 
child  labor  in  the  manufacture  of  dolls  is  paid  10  to  12  pfennigs,  in  most  18,  24,  and 
30  pfennigs,  and  in  four  50  to  80  pfennigs  (4  German  pfennigs  equal  1  cent).  In 
Gotha  the  manufacture  of  toys  pays  8  to  30  pfennigs,  in  Coburg  20  to  60  pfennigs. 
For  paper  articles  (masks,  pasteboard  goods,  and  Chinese  lanterns)  children 
receive  20  to  50  pfennigs;  in  only  one  locality  4  pfennigs  (1  cent)  are  paid  a  day.  For 
basket  weaving  and  metal  work  15  to  30  pfennigs,  as  a  rule,  are  received.  Wood 
carving  pays  20  to  60  pfennigs  a  day.  The  factory  inspector  remarks  that  in  esti¬ 
mating  the  daily  earnings  of  the  5,455  children  in  Gotha  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  total  receipts  from  child  labor  are  considerable  and  contribute  greatly  to 
lessen  the  burden  of  household  expenses;  but  whether  the  material  gain  counter¬ 
balances  the  evil  and  harm  of  extensive  home  industry,  conditions  in  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha  lead  one  to  doubt. 

The  report  of  Anhalt  states  that  when  not  employed  at  home  children  receive 
from  2  to  12  marks  (50  cents  to  $3)  a  month  in  baker’s  and  butcher’s  shops;  from 
2  to  5  marks  (50  cents  to  $1.25)  in  tailoring,  shoemaking,  basket  weaving,  turn¬ 
ing,  locksmith  work  (blowing  bellows),  trunk  and  box  manufacture,  and  in  book¬ 
selling;  from  1  to  6  marks  (25  cents  to  $1.50)  a  month  in  bookbinding;  from  1  to 
12  marks  (25  cents  to  $3)  in  glass  works,  porcelain  painting,  lacquer  work,  and 
aiding  wheelwrights;  from  2  to  10  marks  (50  cents  to  $2.50)  in  cigar  making;  from  1 
to  6  and  9  marks  (25  cents  to  $1.50  and  $2.25)  as  newsboys  and  errand  boys;  from 
30  to  60  pfennigs  (7i  to  15  cents  a  day)  for  setting  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys.  Work¬ 
ing  clay  in  potteries  and  washing  bottles  pay  best,  from  8  to  12  marks  ($2  to  $3), 
and  from  10  to  12  marks  ($2.50  to  $3),  respectively,  a  month. 

In  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  district  of  Frankenhausen,  the  delivery  of  jour¬ 
nals  and  newspapers  pays  from  6  to  8.50  marks  ($1.50  to  $2.12^)  a  quarter;  setting  up 
pins  pays  30  pfennigs  (7-|-  cents)  an  hour;  in  one  case  40  pfennigs  (10  cents)  an  evening 
(from  7  until  11  o’clock) .  Children  who  assist  their  parents  at  home  in  making  but¬ 
tons  earn  about  2  marks  a  week.  In  the  manufacture  of  cordage  (knitting,  crochet¬ 
ing,  weaving,  and  the  like) ,  children’s  wages  in  one  locality  (Mehrstedt)  amount  to 
20  and  30  pfennigs  (5  and  7\  cents)  a  day  during  the  winter  season  and  to  20  m  50 
pfennigs  (5  to  12£  cents)  during  the  summer.  In  another  locality  (Schlotheim) 
only  6  to  8  pfennigs  (1£  to  2  cents)  a  day,  or  12  to  18  pfennigs  (3  to  4£  cents)  a  day, 
and  in  most  instances  less  than  1  mark  (25  cents)  a  week  are  reported  for  the 
same  kind  of  work.  The  report  of  the  district  of  Konigsee,  in  Schwarzburg, 
states  that  despite  the  pittance  of  15  pfennigs  (3f  cents)  a  day,  the  father  of  a 
family  can  and  must  take  these  amounts  into  calculation,  owing  to  the  extremely 
low  wages  paid  to  adults  generally. 

The  city  of  Greiz,  in  Reuss  senior  line,  reports  from  1.20  to  1.50  marks  (30  to  37^ 
cents)  a  week  for  employment  during  sixty  hours  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars. 
These  amounts  are  not  increased  in  vacation. 

VIII.  POLICE  REGULATIONS  CONCERNING  CHILD  LABOR. 

Most  States  reported  details  of  how  child  labor  is  restricted  by  police  regula¬ 
tions.  1  These  apply  principally  to  the  selling  of  wares  in  public  streets,  on  squares, 
on  doorsteps,  in  vestibules  and  open  stairways,  and  to  the  employment  of  children 
till  late  at  night  for  setting  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys  and  to  assist  in  public  shows 
or  to  help  in  taverns. 

In  Prussia  nearly  all  districts  have  adopted  different  measures  directed  against 
the  employment  of  children  during  school  hours  and  forbidding  their  working  at 
night,  late  in  the  evening,  and  early  in  the  morning.  The  limits  of  time  vary. 


1  These  facts  refer,  as  expressly  stated,  to  conditions  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1898.  Since 
then  other  more  extended  measures  not  mentioned  in  this  summary  have  been  taken  to  restrict 
child  labor. 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GEEMANY. 


69 


Furthermore,  the  selling  of  wares  on  the  street  or  public  places  is  either  limited 
or  altogether  forbidden.  Children  are  not  allowed  even  to  accompany  peddlers. 
In  some  districts  measures  exist  to  protect  children  against  some  kinds  of  work. 
In  Arnsberg  children  under  15  years  of  age  are  forbidden  to  work  at  sharpening 
needles,  nor  may  any  under  8  years  of  age  be  employed  in  stringing  beads.  The 
government  of  Dtisseldorf  allows  the  employment  of  school  children  at  home  only 
between  the  close  of  school  in  the  afternoon  and  7  o’clock  in  the  evening  (in  the 
manufacture  of  articles  of  clothing  and  the  making  of  match  boxes).  Finally, 
the  assistance  of  children  in  all  kinds  of  public  shows  is  subject  to  restrictive 
laws. 

Bavaria  reports  the  resolution  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  relative  to  child 
labor  (children  under  14)  transmitted  to  the  various  authorities  of  the  Kingdom 
on  April  27,  1898.  It  reads: 

As  a  result  of  the  inquiries  pursuant  to  the  cabinet  order  of  February  4  of  this 
year  it  has  been  observed  that,  excepting  in  large  cities  and  in  cases  of  home 
industry,  the  employment  of  children  under  14  years  has  given  only  occasional 
cause  for  police  interference.  But  as  a  deplorable  evil  must  be  considered  the 
employment  of  children  till  late  at  night  for  setting  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys.  In 
large  cities  children  are  overtaxed  by  delivering  articles  of  food  (milk,  bread,  etc. ) 
and  newspapers.  Objection  was  likewise  raised  against  the  peddling  of  flowers 
and  small  articles  of  use,  as  well  as  against  the  protracted  occupation  of  so-called 
“piccalos”1  in  taverns.  The  greater  number  of  evil  conditions  in  question  can 
be  remedied  by  applying  paragraph  120c  of  the  Imperial  Code.2  It  is  therein 
defined  that  employers  who  engage  laborers  under  18  years  of  age  are  bound  to 
consider,  in  the  arrangement  of  workrooms  and  the  regulation  of  work,  the  special 
claims  on  health  and  morals  which  the  age  of  such  employees  demands.  In  so  far 
as  the  kind  of  employment  and  the  length  of  hours  may  be  prejudicial  to  children's 
health,  the  police  authorities  have  the  right  to  enforce  the  restrictive  measures 
designed  to  prevent  injury.  In  the  same  way  interference  is  permissible  in  cases 
of  occupation  at  home  if  anyone  not  belonging  to  the  family  is  engaged.  District 
police  authorities  are  hereby  directed  to  oppose  the  evils  which  arise  from  the 
employment  of  children  in  the  manner  prescribed.  Relative  to  children’s  ped¬ 
dling,  in  pursuance  of  the  ministerial  resolution  of  February  7,  1898,  regarding 
the  execution  of  the  imperial  law  (see  Ministerial  Organ,  No.  7),  section  5,  and 
paragraph  80  of  section  2,  containing  directions  for  execution,  are  to  be  followed 
exactly.  Continual  attention  shall  be  given  to  the  employment  of  children  at 
home  by  their  own  families,  and  any  particularly  harmful  effects  noticed  must  be 
reported  within  a  year.  A  copy  of  this  resolution  shall  be  sent  to  all  industrial 
supervisors  to  insure  their  cooperation  for  the  correction  of  the  evils  in  question. 

In  Saxony  the  city  councils  of  all  four  counties  have  issued  police  regulations 
against  children  peddling,  delivering  breakfasts  before  school,  and  setting  up 
pins  in  bowling  alleys  till  late. at  night.  The  limits  of  time  and  the  ages  men¬ 
tioned  vary.  In  Bautzen  these  occupations  are  forbidden  after  11  p.  m.,  in  Dres¬ 
den  after  9  p.  m.,  and  in  Neustadt  after  8  p.  m.  In  Pegau  children  engaged  in 
these  occupations  must  be  at  least  10;  in  Wurzen  at  least  12  years  of  age. 

In  Hessia  police  regulations  have  likewise  been  issued  to  prevent  abuse  of  child 
labor.  It  is  forbidden,  for  instance,  to  employ  children  in  bowling  alleys  within 
the  city. 

In  Saxe- Weimar  a  ministerial  decree  of  May  5, 1897,  based  upon  one  dated  March 
20,  1875,  defines  that  children  shall  not  be  employed  in  any  kind  of  taxing  home 
or  field  work  until  after  school  hours,  and  then  two  hours  at  least  must  be 
reserved  for  the  preparation  of  lessons  and  recreation.  For  certain  kinds  of  work 
they  can  not  be  employed  at  all,  or  not  until  their  thirteenth  year  of  age,  and  then 
only  two  hours  a  day. 

In  Saxe-Meiningen  evils  arising  from  selling  bread  and  cakes  in  public  places, 
setting  up  pins,  etc.,  are  checked  by  local  regulations  and  by  decree  of  the  county 


1  A  localism  derived  from  the  Italian,  “little  ones.” 

2  This  paragraph  prohibits  child  labor  in  factories. 


70 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


authorities,  so  far  as  this  was  permissible,  by  the  ministerial  decree  of  March  20, 
1893,  paragraphs  120a,  120b,  Section  XIV. 

Saxe-Altenburg  refers  to  the  order  of  the  city  council  of  Eisenberg  which  per¬ 
mits  children  who  are  physically  well  developed  to  sell  eatables  and  small  articles 
of  use  from  their  tenth  year  up,  though  not  without  special  permit  from  the  city 
council.  In  Schmolln  school  children  are  absolutely  forbidden  to  peddle  and 
exhibit  wares  on  public  streets  and  places,  on  doorsteps,  in  vestibules  and  court¬ 
yards,  as  well  as  in  public  houses.  (Decree  of  January  17,  1894.) 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  quotes  the  following  order  which  pertains  to  the 
district  of  Arnstadt: 

It  is  forbidden:  First,  that  schoolchildren  play  any  land  of  music  on  the  streets, 
in  public  places,  and  localities  (hotels  and  taverns,  restaurants,  confectionery 
stores,  theaters,  and  shows),  present  any  exhibit,  offer  theatrical  show,  lecture, 
or  other  amusement,  or  be  employed  by  others  in  such  amusements  and  per¬ 
formances.  If  any  higher  interest  of  art  or  science  be  involved,  local  police 
authorities  may  make  exceptions.  Second,  that  children,  unless  properly  attended, 
visit  any  public  locality  (places  of  amusement),  during  the  performance  of  any 
kind  of  amusement  whatever.  The  special  rules  prohibiting  the  presence  of 
children  at  public  dancej  are  not  referred  to  in  this.  Third,  that  school  children 
carry  around  bread,  cakes,  fruit,  petty  wares,  flowers,  or  other  articles  for  sale, 
or  receive  presents  on  the  street,  in  public  places,  taverns,  or  private  residences, 
also  children  be  employed  to  act  as  waiters  in  public  places  or  at  drinking  stands. 
Any  violation  of  this  order  on  the  part  of  the  employer,  as  well  as  on  the  part  of 
parents  or  guardians  who  allow  this  order  to  be  disobeyed  by  any  child  under  their 
authority  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  not  to  exceed  thirty  marks  ($7.14),  or  imprison¬ 
ment. 

In  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  children  are  forbidden  by  the  orders  of  August  30, 
1888,  and  September  3,  1889,  to  set  up  pins  in  bowling  alleys  or  sell  goods  after 
9  o’clock  p.  m.  Hawking  on  the  street  and  in  public  localities  is  strictly  prohibited. 

In  Eeuss,  junior  line,  the  following  regulations  are  enforced  respecting  peddling, 
setting  up  pins,  and  industrial  occupations: 

I.  In  pursuance  of  the  law  on  the  authority  of  the  police  in  decreeing  punishment, 
dated  June  8, 1864,  and  relative  to  the  revised  imperial  industrial  code  of  1883,  the 
following  rules  have  been  issued  for  the  lowland  districts:  1.  The  peddling  of  arti¬ 
cles  of  whatever  kind,  whether  on  the  street,  in  public  places,  or  buildings  fre¬ 
quented  by  the  public  is  positively  prohibited  with  regard  to  girls  of  school  age; 
the  peddling  of  such  articles  by  boys  of  school  age  is  allowed  only  upon  special 
permit  granted  by  the  local  police.  2.  All  those  who,  without  permission  from 
the  local  police,  employ  their  own  or  other  children  in  the  above-mentioned  occu¬ 
pations,  or  who  allow  children  under  their  care  to  peddle,  as  well  as  innkeepers 
who  allow  children  without  a  permit  from  police  authorities  to  sell  goods  within 
their  precincts  are  responsible  for  the  observance  of  the  foregoing  order.  3.  Vio¬ 
lations  against  the  order  given  under  1  are  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  30 
marks  ($7.14)  or  imprisonment.  4.  Considering  the  positively  evil  consequences 
of  such  vending  to  the  physical  and  moral  well-being  of  children,  local  police 
authorities  are  advised  to  limit  the  permits  within  their  power  to  grant  according 
to  1,  and  restrict  them  to  the  hawking  and  peddling  of  articles  in  common  use 
when  the  said  occupation  is  pursued  as  a  local  or  general  custom. 

(Gera,  May  13, 1884.  Council  of  the  principality. ) 

II.  In  pursuance  of  the  law  regarding  police  authority  in  executing  punishment, 
June  8, 1864,  innkeepers  are  hereby  prohibited  from  employing  children  of  school 
age  later  than  10  p.  m.  for  setting  np  pins  in  bowling  alleys,  under  penalty  of  a  fine 
not  exceeding  150  marks  ($35.70) .  Parents  and  guardians  who  allow  their  children 
or  wards  to  be  employed  in  setting  up  pins  beyond  that  time  are  subject  to  the 
same  punishment. 

(Gera,  November  5,  1892.  City  council.) 

III.  In  pursuance  of  the  law  regarding  police  authority  in  executing  punish¬ 
ment,  June  8,  1864,  the  following  orders  are  hereby  issued  in  the  interest  of  the 
common  weal:  1.  During  the  hours  before  school  in  the  morning  children  may  be 
employed  outside  of  the  homes  and  shops  of  parents  only  in  light  domestic  work, 
but  in  no  case  in  industrial  occupations.  Only  in  very  exceptional  cases,  but 
never  as  a  rule,  may  children  stay  overnight  in  the  homes  of  their  employers. 
2.  Any  remuneration  in  money  for  the  services  of  school  children  shall  not  be  paid 


CHILD  LABOE  IN  GEBMANY. 


71 


to  these,  but  to  their  parents  or  guardians.  3.  Violations  of  these  orders  by 
parents  or  guardians,  and  employers,  are  punishable  by  a  tine  not  exceeding  150 
marks  ($35.70),  and  in  case  of  nonpayment,  by  imprisonment. 

(Gera,  August  5,  1897.  City  council.) 

In  Bremen  children  under  15  years  of  age  are  prohibited  from  assisting  in  free 
or  public  musical  or  other  entertainments  and  shows  later  than  10  p.  m.;  further¬ 
more,  children  under  14  years  of  age  are  not  allowed  to  peddle  on  public  highways 
or  in  public  places. 

In  Hamburg,  since  June  28,  1897,  children  under  12  years  of  age  are  prohibited 
from  being  employed  in  restaurants  and  taverns  later  than  8  p.  m. ;  those  above  12 
years,  later  than  9  p.m.  Other  police  regulations  refer  to  child  labor  by  separate 
mention.  In  1889  children  of  school  age  were  prohibited  from  assisting  in  public 
shows  (exceptions  granted) ;  in  1891  children  were  forbidden  to  sell  any  wares 
pubiicty;  in  1893  the  selling  of  articles  by  children  in  taverns  was ;  forbidden;  in 
the  same  year  the  employment  of  children  in  shooting  galleries  and  merry-go- 
rounds  at  Christmas  fairs  was  forbidden.  By  a  decision  of  the  Hanseatic  supreme 
court,  a  police  order  of  July  16,  1897,  forbidding  children  to  deliver  newspapers 
and  fresh  bread  early  in  the  morning  was  declared  null  and  void. 

IX.  PROPOSITIONS  FOR  THE  FUTURE  REGULATION  OF  INDUSTRIAL  CHILD  LABOR. 

The  reports  from  the  States  of  Bavaria,  Saxe- Coburg- Gotha,  and  Saxe-Meiningen 
are  the  only  ones  expressing  opinions  as  to  how  improper  child  labor  may  be 
restricted  in  the  future.  The  government  of  Meiningen  declares  it  imperative  that 
industrial  child  labor  be  regulated  and  restricted  by  imperial  laws.  Bavaria 
remarks  that  in  so  far  as  evil  consequences  of  child  labor  necessitated  official  inter¬ 
ference,  such  based  on  paragraph  120c  of  the  imperial  industrial  law  had  been 
successfully  attempted.  Nevertheless,  the  interference  of  police  authority  was 
excluded  in  cases  of  employment  of  children  at  home  where  most  of  them  belonged 
to  the  family.  The  supervision  of  the  occupations  in  question  offered  almost 
insurmountable  obstacles,  and  the  oft-attempted  cooperation  of  official  inspectors 
had  met  with  little  success  in  families.  Moreover,  because  of  the  very  precarious 
circumstances  of  those  engaged  in  home  industry  the  greatest  caution  must  be 
exercised  with  protective  measures  for  children  forming  a  part  of  the  working 
family.  At  all  events  the  absolutely  necessary  protection  of  children  against 
danger  to  health  is  to  be  recommended  for  federal  or  imperial  legislation. 

In  the  report  from  Saxe-Coburg- Gotha  the  opinion  of  the  factory  inspector  was 
quoted.  In  his  estimation  an  essential  amelioration,  if  not  complete  correction  of 
the  evil  consequences  of  home  work  with  children  might  be  effected,  if  their  employ¬ 
ment  (a)  would  not  begin  before  the  close  of  their  ninth  year  of  age  and  be  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  consent  of  a  physician;  (b)  if  it  would  not  begin  early  before  school 
hours;  ( c )  if  it  would  not  continue  longer  than  four  hours  a  day;  ( d )  if  it  were 
interrupted  by  recreation  or  work  in  the  open  air;  (e)  be  confined  to  appropriate 
places;  (/)  be  under  parental  supervision  at  home  and  not  in  common  among 
strangers  in  strange  houses;  ( g )  if  it  be  prevented  from  serving  as  a  pretext  to 
keep  children  out  of  school,  parents  often  making  use  of  the  excuse  that  “the 
child  is  sick.” 

3.  Supplement  I. 

REGULATIONS  CONCERNING  INDUSTRIAL  OCCUPATION  OF  SCHOOL  CHILDREN  IN 
SOME  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  restrictions  of  industrial  occupation  of  school  children  in  the  countries 
under  consideration  are,  in  part,  connected  with  the  public  school  laws,  and  are 
principally  intended  to  aid  the  schools  generally  and  school  attendance  specifically 
whenever  practicable.  Furthermore,  prohibitory  or  restrictive  measures  are 


72 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


enforced  with  regard  to  industrial  labor  of  children  in  general,  or  to  certain  kinds 
of  work  that  endanger  the  physical,  mental,  or  moral  development  of  children. 
The  last-mentioned  regulations  are  enforced  where  industrial  work  is  performed 
in  easily  recognized,  well-defined  labor  precincts,  i.  e.,in  factories,  workshops,  etc. 
The  employment  of  children  in  factories  and  like  places,  such  as  mines,  found¬ 
ries,  wharves,  etc.,  that  come  under  the  protective  labor  laws  of  Germany,  is  not 
considered  in  the  inquiry  in  question,  and  legislation  in  foreign  countries  relative 
to  such  employment  is  therefore  not  discussed.  However,  it  should  not  be  for¬ 
gotten  in  what  follows  that  the  term  “ factory”  in  foreign  laws  has  not  the  same 
significance  as  in  our  industrial  law.  Consequently  the  foreign  “factory  laws” 
could  not  be  set  aside  altogether;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  regulations  refer¬ 
ring  to  the  employment  of  children  in  mining,  concerning  which  special  laws 
have,  as  a  rule,  been  enacted  are  not  mentioned  herein  at  all. 

The  main  point  to  be  shown  is,  to  what  extent  industrial  occupation  of  children 
in  petty  industries  and  labor  at  home — as  in  trade,  commerce,  restaurants,  and 
taverns— is  restricted  in  foreign  countries;  that  is  to  say,  in  countries  of  advanced 
industry.  For,  as  the  following  quotations  show,  several  countries  have  decreed 
significant  restrictions  of  wage-earning  by  children  not  only  in  industry  proper, 
but  also  in  workshops,  and  in  more  than  one  instance  in  other  branches  of  wage¬ 
earning,  besides  productive  labor.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  apparent  that  still 
many  kinds  of  work  are  not  affected  by  these  measures;  for  instance,  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  children  outside  of  labor  centers  to  deliver  newspapers,  bread,  and  the 
like,  or  to  sell  flowers,  matches,  and  other  articles  on  the  street  or  in  public 
places.  As  numerous  abuses  in  the  employment  of  children  are  in  Germany  pre¬ 
vented  by  simple  police  interference,  so  this  may  be  the  case  in  other  foreign 
countries.  How  much  misery  is  thus  prevented  in  other  countries  can  not  be 
stated  without  previous  comprehensive  inquiry  any  more  than  the  same  can  be 
estimated  in  any  other  way  within  the  States  of  the  German  Empire. 

I.  ENGLAND. 

The  English  factory  and  workshop  act  (41  Yict. ,  c.  16)  of  May  27,  1878,  supple¬ 
mented  later  and  partly  changed  by  the  amendments  of  August  25,  1883,  August 
5, 1891,  and  July  6, 1895,  includes,  besides  restriction  of  employment  in  the  general 
interests  of  children,  also  regulations  defining  a  certain  degree  of  compulsory 
education  for  children  employed  in  factories  and  workshops,  as  these  terms  are 
used  in  the  law,  which  class  of  children  were  accordingly  obliged  to  attend  school 
before  a  like  obligation  in  general  was  recognized  in  England.  Obedience  to 
these  provisions,  still  in  force,  has  been  made  a  condition  of  industrial  wage-earning 
occupation. 

The  following  restrictions  are  decreed  by  the  factory  and  workshop  act: 
Children  under  11  years  of  age  shall  not  be  employed  in  factories  and  work¬ 
shops.  Older  children  up  to  the  age  of  16  may  be  admitted  to  factory  labor  only 
if  they  possess  a  physician’s  certificate  stating  their  physical  ability  to  perform 
factory  work.  This  last  regulation  may  be  extended  to  workshops  when  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  health  of  the  children  emploj' ed  seems  a  necessity.  Further  restric¬ 
tions  apply  to  the  employment  of  children  and  young  persons  in  special  places 
of  work,  such  as  mirror  and  white-lead  factories,  glass  manufactories,  and  brick 
kilns,  etc. 

As  far  as  the  employment  of  children  is  permitted  by  the  law  alluded  to,  it  may 
follow  the  “system  of  half-timers,”  of  employment  in  morning  and  afternoon 
sets,  or  of  employment  on  alternate  days  only.  The  beginning  and  close  of  work¬ 
ing  hours,  intermissions  for  meals,  the  change  of  sets  and  particularly  work  on 
Saturday,  are  accurately  regulated.  According  to  circumstances,  working  hours 
may  reach  as  high  a  figure  as  56£  to  60  hours  every  two  weeks.  In  workshops 
the  hours  of  half  timers  in  general  are  limited  to  6  or  7  o’clock  a.  m.  and  1  p.  m., 
and  between  1  p.  m.  and  6  or  7  o’clock  p.  m.  When  children  work  on  alter¬ 
nate  days,  they  begin  at  6  or  7  a.  m.  and  end  at  6  or  7  p.  m.  However,  no  child  is 


CHILD  LABOR  IN  GERMANY.  73 

allowed  to  work  more  than  five  consecutive  hours  without  at  least  a  half  hour's 
intermission. 

In  addition  to  these,  the  following  regulations  apply  to  the  education  and  school¬ 
ing  of  children  under  14  years  of  age  employed  in  factories  or  workshops.  In 
cases  of  half-timers,  children  must  attend  school  at  least  once  every  day  in  the 
week.  In  cases  of  employment  by  sets,  they  must  attend  school  twice  on  every 
day  preceding  a  workday.  Employers  are  prohibited  under  penalty  of  fine  from 
giving  work  to  any  child  who  has  not  fulfilled  the  obligation  of  attending  school 
the  week  before.  All  employment  must  cease  until  the  time  of  absence  from  school 
has  been  made  up.  Every  Monday  employers  must  receive  a  certificate  from  the 
respective  teachers  attesting  the  school  attendance  of  the  children  they  employ, 
and  they  are  not  allowed  to  give  any  work  to  those  who  have  no  satisfactory  report 
of  school  attendance.  The  only  exceptions  to  these  obligations  are  children  13 
years  old  who  possess  a  school  certificate  that  may  be  given  on  completion  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  amount  of  study,  or  at  the  close  of  a  certain  time  of  attendance  according  to 
special  school  regulations. 

The  regulations  mentioned  extend  beyond  factories,  as  the  factory  and  work¬ 
shop  act  applies  to  very  small  shops  in  so  far  as  they  possess  what  are  defined 
in  the  law  as  partly  general,  partly  special  characteristics.  In  consequence  the 
law  would  include  the  workshops  of  nearly  all  industrial  production  in  the  broader 
sense  of  the  term,  namely,  all  places  in  which  work  is  done  for  business  or 
profit,  to  make,  alter,  improve,  or  decorate  wares  or  prepare  them  for  sale.  Home 
labor  for  business  purposes  is  not  excluded  altogether,  but  special  regulations 
apply  to  the  so-called  domestic  workshops,  namely,  such  work  as  is  done  without 
any  mechanical  motor  by  the  members  of  the  family  living  in  the  place  where  the 
work  is  performed.  In  these  cases  children  may  be  employed  according  to  the 
half-time  system,  either  in  the  morning  between  6  a.  m.  and  1  p.  ni.,  or  in  the 
afternoon  between  1  and  8  o’clock  (Saturdays  till  4  p.  m.  only),  but  not  longer 
than  5  hours  continuously,  and  must  observe  the  law  of  school  attendance  men¬ 
tioned  above. 

The  introduction  of  general  compulsory  education  in  England  has  been  gradual. 
It  is  only  since  the  elementary-education  act  of  August  26,  1880,  supplementary 
to  the  laws  of  August  9,  1870,  and  August  15,  1876,  that  the  local  school  boards 
and  school-attendance  committees  are  required  to  issue  statutory  regulations  for 
the  attendance  of  children  within  their  districts.  Some  general  points  are,  never¬ 
theless,  regulated  by  the  law.  Thus,  according  to  the  laws  of  September  22, 1893, 
and  July  13,  1899,  children  under  12  years  of  age  are  not  allowed  to  be  employed 
even  as  half-timers  if  they  are  thereby  prevented  from  receiving  elementary 
instruction.  The  employment  of  children  over  12,  and  accordingly  their  total 
or  partial  absence  from  school,  is  permissible  if  they  possess  a  certificate  that  they 
have  taken  the  studies  required  by  the  school  law.  The  regulation  applies  in 
full  to  all  manufacturing  industry,  not  to  agriculture. 

In  some  branches  of  industry  child  labor  is  regulated  by  special  laws — as  the 
coal  mines  regulation  act  of  September  16,  1887;  the  metalliferous  mines  regula¬ 
tion  act  of  August  10,  1872;  the  pawnbrokers’  act  of  August  10,  1872;  the  shop- 
hours’  act  of  June  28,  1892,  and  the  chimney-sweepers’  acts  of  1840, 1864,  and  1875. 

The  prevention  of  cruelty  to  children  act  of  August  17,  1897, 1  is  designed  to 
protect  children  against  abuses  and  neglect  on  the  part  of  parents  and  guardians. 
One  section  is  devoted  to  the  restriction  of  the  employment  of  children  in  wage¬ 
earning.  Begging,  singing,  playing,  selling  articles  of  merchandise,  and  like 
occupations  are  forbidden.  Whoever  allows  or  forces  any  child  (boys  14  years 
old,  girls  16)  under  his  or  her  care  to  be  present  for  the  said  purpose  on  streets,  in 
public  buildings,  in  squares  at  night  (between  9  p.  m.  and  6  a.  m.),  in  public 
localities  where  spirituous  liquors  are  served,  and  in  public  places  of  amusement, 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  £25,  to  which  three  months’  imprison- 


An  older  law  of  the  same  title  was  passed  as  early  as  1891. 


74 


EDUCATION"  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ment  may  be  added.  This  law  similarly  forbids  the  training  of  children  in  the 
age  mentioned  for  dangerous  performances  (acrobatic  and  circus  performances, 
etc.),  while  an  older  law — the  children’s  dangerous  performance  act  of  July  24, 
1879 — had  already  prohibited  like  employment  of  children  under  14  years  of  age. 

Many  complaints  are  made  against  the  laws  mentioned,  especially  that  their 
execution  leaves  much  to  be  desired  and  that  existing  evils  require  further 
reformatory  measures. 

II.  FRANCE. 

The  law  of  November  2, 1892,  by  which  the  industrial  occupation  of  children  and 
women  is  regulated,  contains  the  following  regulations  concerning  the  employment 
of  children: 

As  a  rule,  children  may  not  be  employed  in  the  work  that  comes  under  the  law 
until  they  have  completed  their  thirteenth  year  of  age,  when  obligatory  school 
attendance  ceases.  (Law  of  March  28,  1882.)  However,  the  employment  of  chil¬ 
dren  at  least  12  years  old  is  permitted,  if  they  have  a  certificate  for  completion  of 
the  elementary  course  of  study  required,  and  physician's  certificate  stating  that 
they  ar9  physically  able  to  work  in  factories.  Factory  inspectors  have  the  right 
at  all  times  to  have  children  under  16  examined  by  a  physician  and  to  effect  their 
dismissal  if  the  conclusion  is  unfavorable. 

Children  under  16  whose  employment  is  permitted  are,  like  those  older,  allowed 
to  work  ten  hours  a  day  at  most.  Until  their  eighteenth  year  night  work,  namely, 
between  9  p.  m.  and  5  a.  m.,  is  prohibited;  besides,  one  day  of  rest  during  the  week 
and  the  observance  of  legal  holidays  is  prescribed. 

In  regard  to  day  work,  as  well  as  to  many  kinds  of  labor  specified  as  unhealthy 
or  dangerous,  the  employment  of  children  is  regulated  by  special  orders. 

The  application  of  the  law  of  1812  extends  to  all  industrial  establishments,  as 
well  as  to  factories,  mines,  foundries,  yards  (chantiers),  and  small  workshops 
(petits  ateliers) ;  only  those  work  places  are  excepted  in  which  members  of  the 
family  alone  work  under  the  supervision  of  father,  mother,  or  guardian,  if  no 
mechanical  motor  is  applied  and  the  work  is  not  considered  dangerous  or 
unhealthy.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  kinds  of  industrial  labor  the 
work  places  of  which  (in  trade  and  commerce,  stores,  offices)  are  not  specified  in 
the  law  and  are  therefore  not  subject  to  the  prescriptions  mentioned. 

In  a  report  of  the  “commission  superieure  du  travail  dans  l’industrie,”  based 
upon  the  statements  of  factory  inspectors  for  the  year  1898,  the  law  is  stated  to 
have  been  efficacious  in  bringing  about  rather  good  results  independent  of  many 
evasions  made  possible  by  the  exceptions  granted.  Conditions  manifest  very 
decided  progress  since  its  application. 

A  great  improvement  has  been  caused  by  the  supplementary  law  of  March  30, 
1900,  which  defines  the  longest  workday  to  be  eleven  hours  for  all  persons  under 
18  years  of  age,  and  directs  that  two  years  after  its  passage  the  workday  is  to  be 
shortened  to  ten  and  one-half  hours  and  two  years  later  to  ten  hours.  Conse¬ 
quently,  on  April  1,  1904,  a  workday  for  children  under  18  will  be  ten  hours. 

In  pursuance  of  the  law  of  1892  and  one  of  December  7,  1874  (relative  a  la  pro¬ 
tection  des  enfants  employes  dans  les  professions  ambulantes)1  special  provisions 
apply  to  the  employment  of  children  in  shows.  If  under  16  they  may  not  be 
employed  to  execute  dangerous  tricks;  neither  may  they  appear  with  traveling  com¬ 
panies,  unless  under  direction  of  parents,  from  their  twelfth  year  on.  The  employ¬ 
ment  of  children  under  13  in  theaters  and  concert  halls  where  regular  performances 
-  take  place,  is  not  permitted.  Certain  performances  are  excepted.  Besides,  the 
law  of  1874  prohibits  the  employment  of  children  for  regular  or  systematic  begging. 

1  Modified  by  the  law  of  April  19, 1898,  on  the  prevention  of  violence,  beating,  acts  of  cruelty, 
and  other  crimes  committed  against  children. 


CHILD  LABOE  IN  GEEMANY. 


75 


III.  AUSTRIA. 

In  Austria  compulsory  school  attendance  begins  with  children  in  their  sixth 
year  and  continues  till  their  thirteenth;  still,  after  six  years’  attendance,  absence 
is  granted  for  half  days,  special  days,  and  certain  seasons. 

According  to  the  industrial  code,  children  not  under  12  (in  factories  not  under  14) 
may  be  employed  “  for  regular  industrial  occupation  ”  *  *  .*  ;  ‘  provided  their 

work  is  not  injurious  to  health  and  does  not  prevent  physical  development  and 
the  fulfillment  of  the  legal  obligation  of  school  attendance.”  However,  they  are 
not  allowed  to  work  longer  than  eight  hours  a  day,  and  night  work  is  prohibited 
(between  8  p.  m.  and  5  a.m.).  In  regard  to  night  work,  exceptions  may  be  granted 
by  ministerial  decrees,  in  pursuance  of  which,  among  other  occupations,  boys  are 
permitted  to  work  as  waiters  till  midnight. 

As  is  seen  from  this  measure,  the  Austrian  regulations  are  not  limited  to  manu¬ 
facture  or  factory  work.  The  industrial  law  applies  rather  to  “all  industrial  or 
wage-earning  occupations,  whether  they  refer  to  production  or  remodeling  of 
articles  of  trade,  the  pursuit  of  business,  or  the  discharge  of  service  and  other 
labor.  ” 

Certain  industrial  occupations  are  excluded  by  the  provisions  of  the  industrial 
code,  and  special  laws  apply  to  them,  such  as  agricultural  and  forest  production 
with  their  dependent  industries,  mining,  and  others  that  might  be  enumerated;  the 
publishing  and  printing  of  periodicals  and  their  sale;  public  shows  of  whatever 
kind;  furthermore,  customary  day  labor,  peddling,  and  (as  the  amendment  of  1883 
states)  “the  whole  of  home  industry.” 

The  term  “home  industry”  was  at  the  time  explained  in  a  ministerial  order; 
the  term  expressed  primary  or  secondary  industries  for  which  the  work  is  done, 
according  to  local  custom,  in  workshops  only  with  the  help  of  members  of  the 
family.  But  in  tyne  this  definition  for  the  earliest  development  of  home  industry 
in  Austria  was  no  longer  suitable,  and  often  doubts  arose  as  to  the  legal  position 
of  respective  employees.  The  term  “factories”  has  likewise  been  explained  by  a 
ministerial  decree;  the  characteristics  of  such  are  defined  as  being  the  usual 
employment  of  more  than  20  workmen,  the  use  of  machines,  both  as  motors  and 
tools,  the  manner  of  division  of  labor,  and  the  position  of  the  proprietor.  As  is 
evident  from  what  has  been  said,  the  protective  regulations  specified,  exclusive  of 
the  more  severe  ones  for  factories,  have  a  very  extended  application  to  small 
industries  and  trades.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Austrian  law  of  prohibition  of 
child  labor  refers,  of  course,  only  to  “regular  ”  occupation. 

Among  other  laws,  excepting  the  industrial  lav?,  that  relative  to  mining  (June 
21, 1884)  contains  iirotective  measures  for  children  which  do  not  come  under  con¬ 
sideration  here.  What  has  been  said  of  England  in  regard  to  restricting  wage¬ 
earning  occupation  of  children  applies  to  the  Austrian  laws;  they  are  seldom 
observed  in  practice  and  often  seriously  sinned  against.  The  causes  for  these  sad 
facts  are  frequently  found  in  the  economic  and  moral  conditions  of  the  poorer 
classes  among  whom  parents  do  not  want  to,  or  can  not,  support  their  children, 
partly  because  of  poverty  and  partly  because  of  indolence,  (Social  administra¬ 
tion  in  Austria  at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Yol.  I,  Social  Economy, 
Vienna,  p.  47.) 

IV.  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

Legislation  in  other  countries  can  only  be  touched  upon  here.  Only  such  coun¬ 
tries  will  be  considered  as  have  introduced  compulsory  education:  Switzerland 
with  different  terms  in  the  25  cantons;  Italy,  for  children  6  to  9  years  of  age; 
Sweden,  as  a  rule,  from  the  seventh  to  the  fourteenth  year  inclusive;  Norway, 
throughout  seven  years  between  the  ages  of  6£  and  15  years. 

In  Switzerland  the  law  of  March  23,  1877,  regulates  uniformly  for  all  the  can- 


76 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


tons  only  the  work  in  factories,  in  which  the  employment  of  children  under  14  is 
positively  prohibited.  According  to  the  standard  maintained  by  the  Federal  Coun¬ 
cil,  the  term  “factories”  includes  not  only  all  places  of  manufacture  with  more 
than  10  workmen,  but  even  places  with  only  5  workmen  where  mechanical  motors 
are  installed,  or  where  the  work  implies  certain  dangers  to  the  health  and  life 
of  the  employee,  and,  finally,  even  the  smallest  places  if  they  present  extraordi¬ 
nary  dangers  to  health  and  life  or  show  the  unmistakable  character  of  factories. 
Besides  these  general  regulations,  there  exist  in  a  number  of  cantons  cantonal 
protective  labor  regulations  which  affect  a  wider  range  of  labor,  such  as  small 
industries,  stores,  etc.  They  refer  principally  to  woman  labor,  but  also  contain 
measures  for  the  employment  of  children,  especially  male  and  female  apprentices 
in  workshops.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  a  number  of  cantons  (Glarus,  Lucerne, 
Soleure,  St.  Gall,  Zurich),  the  order  ha3  been  issued  that  girls  under  14  must  not 
be  admitted  into  workshops  which,  not  being  affected  by  the  federal  factory  law, 
employ  women  and  girl  apprentices. 

In  Italy,  where  protective  labor  legislation  is  backward,  the  protection  of  chil¬ 
dren  is  less  significant  than  in  other  countries.  In  pursuance  of  the  law  of  Feb¬ 
ruary  11, 1886,  and  the  order  for  its  execution  of  September  17,  1886,  children 
under  9  years  of  age  are  not  allowed  to  work  in  factories;  that  is  to  say,  in  places 
where  mechanical  power  is  applied  or  at  least  10  workmen  are  employed.  Older 
children  are  admitted  only  if  they  hold  a  certificate  of  physical  ability.  Besides, 
certain  kinds  of  work  declared  to  be  dangerous  or  unwholesome  are  prohibited,  or 
allowed  only  on  conditions.  The  length  of  hours,  as  well  as  night  work,  is  subject 
to  limitations. 

In  Belgium  the  law  of  December  13,  1889,  respecting  woman  and  child  labor 
forbids  the  employment  of  children  under  12.  The  application  of  this  law  is 
extended  not  exclusively  to  factories  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  term,  but  to 
mines,  quarries,  yards,  harbors,  wharves,  transport  establishments,  theaters, 
laundries,  and  other  places,  and  especially  to  a  large  number  of  occupations  enu¬ 
merated  in  the  law  as  dangerous  or  unwholesome  (etablissements  classes  comme 
dangereux,  insalubres,  ou  incommodes).  Only  those  employments  are  excepted  in 
which  members  of  the  family  exclusively  are  engaged  by  parents  or  guardians 
and  with  which  no  mechanical  power  is  applied,  provided  they  are  not  considered 
dangerous  to  life  and  health.  This  law  has  extended  application;  it  includes 
nearly  all  (large  and  small)  industrial  plants  specified  as  dangerous  or  unwhole¬ 
some,  establishments,  too,  which  would  be  classed  among  workshops  in  Germany 
and  England.  An  order,  dated  February  19,  1895,  for  the  execution  of  the  law, 
extends  the  prohibition  of  certain  occupations  likewise  to  children  over  12  (till  the 
fourteenth  or  sixteenth  year  of  age).  The  number  of  working  hours  per  day  and 
their  distribution  is  regulated  exactly,  partly  in  the  law,  partly  in  the  ministerial 
order.  As  a  general  thing  boys  under  16  may  be  employed  twelve  hours  at  most; 
night  work  (from  9p.  m.  till  5  a.  m.)  is  forbidden  for  them;  furthermore,  certain 
intermissions  and  days  of  rest  are  prescribed.  An  older  law  of  May  28,  1888,  pro¬ 
tects  children  employed  in  ambulatory  occupations.  They  are  forbidden  also  to 
be  employed  for  dangerous  feats,  as  acrobats,  tight-rope  walkers,  etc. 

In  the  Netherlands  the  labor  law  of  May  5,  1889,  which  includes  all  small  man¬ 
ufacturing  plants  and  home  industries,  prohibits  the  employment  of  children 
under  12.  All  dangerous  or  injurious  occupations  are  forbidden,  or  are  permitted 
only  on  condition  to  older  children  (persons  under  16  years  of  age).  The  working 
hours  shall  not  exceed  eleven,  and  not  be  arranged  between  7  p.  m.  and  5  a.  m. ;  in 
exceptional  cases  work  is  allowed  until  10  p.  m. 

In  Sweden  the  law  of  November  18, 1881,  defines  that  children  under  12  years  of 
age  shall  not  be  employed  in  factories,  in  trades,  or  other  occupations.  In  fac¬ 
tories  children  14  years  old  or  less  are  not  allowed  to  work  more  than  six  hours  a 


CHILD  LABOR  1 1ST  GERMANY. 


77 


day;  night  work  is  totally  prohibited.  This  law  has  been  but  partially  success¬ 
ful.  A  new  law  on  the  employment  of  children  and  women,  which  was  passed  by 
the  legislature  in  1900,  has  not  yet  been  accepted  by  the  Royal  Government.  The 
employment  of  children  (boys  under  14,  girls  under  15)  in  public  shows  has  been 
prohibited  by  a  royal  order  of  December  10,  1897.  Furthermore,  the  order  of 
December  4,  1896,  as  well  as  one  prior  (June  10,  1891),  prohibits  children  of  the 
same  age  from  selling  certain  articles  (flowers,  papers,  etc.)  on  the  street  or  in 
public  places  between  the  hours  of  8  p.  m.  and  8  a.  m. 

In  Norway  a  protective  labor  law  was  passed  June  27,  1892,  which,  in  imitation 
of  similar  laws  in  large  countries  of  western  Europe,  introduced,  to  a  certain 
estent,  socio-political  legislation  in  Norway.  The  law  refers  to  all  industrial 
plants  in  which  a  greater  or  less  number  of  workmen  are  employed  regularly 
and  at  the  same  time;  also  to  all  trades  and  various  other  branches  of  industry, 
if  carried  on  “on  factory  lines.”  In  cases  of  doubt,  the  supervisory  authorities 
decide  whether  a  manufactory  comes  under  the  law.  The  employment  of  chil¬ 
dren  under  14  is  forbidden  in  the  places  specified.  If,  at  the  ages  between  12  and 
14,  they  hold  a  physician's  certificate  of  ability,  they  may,  with  the  consent  of  the 
supervisory  authorities,  be  employed  in  light  work  six  hours  a  day.  Certain  dan¬ 
gerous  occupations  (at  machines)  are  altogether  prohibited  for  them.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  law  of  August  6,  1897,  children  under  14  are  also  forbidden  to  work  in 
bakeries.  Besides,  the  public  school  law  of  June  28,  1889,  contains  regulations  by 
which  all  employers  are  forbidden,  under  the  penalty  of  a  fine  not  exceeding  100 
crowns  ($26.80),  to  employ  children  between  6-£  or  7  and  15  years  of  age,  at  such 
hours  as  to  prevent  their  attendance  at  school  or  their  preparation  of  studies. 

In  Russia  protective  regulations  relate  principally  to  factories. 

Supplement  II. 

DISCUSSION. 

Concerning  the  subject  of  wage- earning  children,  a  daily  paper  in  Berlin  (Tag- 
liche  Rundschau,  No.  275,  1899)  contains  an  article,  a  translation  of  which  is 
added  to  the  foregoing  official  statement,  because  it  discusses  the  details  of  child 
labor  frankly  and  openly,  partly  also  because  it  may  lead  readers  in  America  to 
understand  the  social  misery  which  industrial,  agricultural,  and  commercial  com¬ 
petition  has  caused  in  recent  years  all  over  Europe. 

Dr.  Wiese,  the  author  of  the  article,  quotes  the  imperial  law  of  1891,  which  pro¬ 
vides  that  in  factories  and  shops,  as  well  as  in  mines,  children  of  school  age,  or, 
rather,  children  under  14  years,  shall  not  be  employed;  that  children  between  14 
and  16  shall  not  be  employed  for  more  than  ten  hours  a  day,  and  not  during  the 
night  (between  8.80  p.  m.  and  5.80  a.  m.) ,  nor  on  Sundays  or  holidays.  The  Bun- 
desrath,  or  Federal  senate,  has  the  right  to  prohibit  wage  labor  of  women  and 
children  in  especially  dangerous  kinds  of  employment;  that  is,  dangerous  to  life, 
health,  or  morals.  The  law  further  provides  for  an  obligatory  factory  inspection, 
aside  from  the  customary  police  inspection.  There  are  at  present  (November,  1899) 
300  of  such  professional  inspectors,  all  scientifically  and  technically  trained;  in 
some  German  States  women  inspectors  have  been  employed.  Especially  important 
is  the  fact  that  the  imperial  law  does  not  permit  any  exception  whatever,  and  for¬ 
bids  peremptorily  all  employment  of  school  children  in  factory  and  shop  labor. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  whether  the  law  is  an  actual  protection  of  the  weak.  The 
school  census  of  1899  in  Berlin,  instituted  by  the  school  authorities,  revealed  the 
fact  that  25,394  school  children  are  employed  in  some  sort  of  wage-earning  labor, 
namely,  17,636  boys  and  7,758  girls.  It  was  found  that  11,091  children  were 
engaged  for  more  than  three  hours  a  day.  The  total  number  of  school  children 
(6  toll-  years  of  age)  in  Berlin  was  231,862;  hence  about  11  per  cent  were  wage 
earning.  It  is  true  that  these  children  are  not  working  in  factories,  but  they  are 
breadwinners  nevertheless.  The  teachers  have  been  active  in  urging  the  author¬ 
ities  to  suppress  child  labor,  and  they  have  proved  from  reports  of  the  Prussian 
industrial  councilors  that  child  labor  has  increased  throughout  the  State,  especi¬ 
ally  in  home  industries,  to  an  extent  of  which  the  public  has  no  idea.  These  con- 


78 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


ditions  have  led  to  interference  on  the  part  of  the  provincial  government.  Several 
Prussian  industrial  courts  have  repeatedly  given  utterance  to  protests,  without 
thus  far  being  able  to  mitigate  the  evil. 

The  comprehensive  reports  of  the  school  inspector  for  the  district  of  Minden, 
called  for  by  the  imperial  chancellor,  deserve  special  attention.  In  this  district, 
in  1,939  school  classes,  with  an  attendance  of  105,407  children,  10,320,  or  9.8  per 
cent  (6,016  boys  and  4,310  girls),  were  wage  earners;  5,872,  or  5.57  per  cent,  were 
required  to  work  longer  than  three  hours  a  day.  The  majority  of  wage-earning 
children,  namely  5,863,  were  employed  in  cigar  making,  an  industry  conducted  on  a 
large  scale,  especially  in  Hertord.  Of  these  latter  not  fewer  than  3,551  were  obliged 
to  work  longer  than  three  hours  a  day,  and  3,066  were  employed  longer  than  three 
hours  for  every  day  of  the  week.  The  conditions  in  Minden  prove  beyond  all 
contradiction  how  little  good  has  been  effected  by  the  prohibition  of  factory  labor 
alone.  In  1890  as  many  as  1,797,  and  in  the  following  yeir  as  many  as  1,883,  chil¬ 
dren  were  employed  in  cigar  factories.  In  the  year  1896,  owing  to  the  passage  of 
the  protective  labor  law,  only  11  were  thus  engaged  and  since  then  there  have 
been  none.  Instead,  however,  home  industry  has  developed  and  is  carried  on 
principally  through  child  labor,  the  incredible  extent  of  which  is  made  apparent 
in  a  table  giving  statistics  of  separate  classes  in  schools  of  Halftern,  Ostscheid, 
Overnbeck,  Spenge,  and  Ylotho,  small  communities  in  the  district  of  Kerford. 
These  five  schools,  collectively,  number  1,461  children,  in  23  classes.  Of  these  721 
are  employed  in  cigar  making,  531  working  longei  than  three  hours  on  every 
week  day.  In  the  upper  two  grades  of  the  five  schools  there  are  649  pupils  of 
whom  319  are  engaged  in  cigar  making,  353  of  whom  working  longer  than  three 
hours  every  week  day.  Even  pupils  of  the  lowest  school  grades  are  employed  in 
this  notoriously  unhealthy  occupation,  a  considerable  number  working  longer 
than  three  hours  a  day  regularly.  In  view  of  these  deplorable  conditions  the 
chamber  of  commerce  in  Minden  has  proposed  a  regulation,  to  wit:  “Home  work 
in  the  cigar  industry  shall  only  be  performed  by  adults.”  Even  if  the  execution 
of  such  a  rule  were  under  strict  supervision  a  prohibitive  measure  like  that 
would  have  no  other  result  than  that  cigar  making  would  be  replaced  by  a  differ¬ 
ent  industry,  perhaps  less  remunerative  and  utilizing  child  labor  to  even  a  greater 
extent. 

The  root  of  the  evil  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  father  of  a  large  family  of  children 
must  compete  with  single  men.  In  this  respect  legislation  must  act  as  it  does  in 
cases  of  old  age  and  infirmity.  Legal  prohibitive  measures,  limiting  or  forbidding 
specially  harmful  forms  of  child  labor,  would  not  be  superfluous;  on  the  contrary, 
they  could  be  carried  out  strictly  according  to  letter,  so  that  no  equally  great  or 
even  greater  evil  than  the  one  abolished  need  be  anticipated  in  its  stead.  (Padago- 
gische  Zeitung,  No.  36,  1900.) 

Reports  on  child  labor  in  other  parts  of  the  country  are  most  discouraging. 
The  facts  brought  to  light  by  factory  inspectors  are  such  as  demand  stringent 
legislation.  The  effort  to  cheapen  labor  often  lays  burdens  on  children  that  are  in 
startling  disproportion  to  their  physical  strength.  The  report  of  Wurttemberg 
shows  that  the  detrimental  consequences  of  working  children  overtime  are  felt 
years  afterwards.  The  population  does  not  come  up  to  the  same  standard  of 
physical  stature  and  strength,  and  consumption  has  increased  to  a  notable  degree. 
In  Saxony,  in  the  district  of  Bautzen,  school  children  even  have  been  employed 
for  breaking  stones.  Independent  of  the  disturbing  influence  on  education  and 
health,  child  labor  creates  competition  for  men  which,  in  consequence  of  cheap¬ 
ness,  prevents  their  earning  better  wages,  so  that  the  original  expedient  of  assist¬ 
ing  fathers  by  child  labor  becomes  a  permanent  practice. 

Political  or  legislative  measures  are  absolutely  necessary  for  these  evil  social 
conditions.  Police  regulations  could,  first  of  all,  bring  about  a  change.  Home 
industry  likewise  needs  protective  legislation,  and  that  implies  the  great  question 
to  be  solved  concerning  the  occupation  of  children  of  school  age.  The  prohibition 
of  factory  work  for  such  children,  provided  for  in  the  imperial  industrial  code, 
must  be  more  minutely  defined  to  be  adaptable  to  existing  evils. 

In  Austria  the  law  can  easily  be  evaded  in  every  instance.  It  is  true,  children 
may  not  be  engaged  in  all  industries,  but  exceptions  can  always  be  made.  The 
maximum  length  of  a  workday  for  children  12  to  14  years  of  age  is  eight  hours. 
The  prohibition  of  factory  labor  under  14  years  and  night-work  also  “admits 
of  exceptions.”  The  same  may  be  said  of  children  working  in  mines;  if  12  years 
old,  they  may  form  exceptions.  Illegal  extension  of  working  time  and  deficient 
execution  of  the  regulations  applying  to  school  attendance  of  child  wage-earners 
or  apprentices  are  often  deplored  by  Austrian  officials  and  provoke  action  against 
unscrupulous  employers. 

No  country  boasts  more  loudly  of  its  socio-political  laws  than  England.  Let  us 
see  how  facts  correspond  to  legislation.  Children  under  11  years  can,  under  no 


CHILD  LABOE  IN  GEBMAHY. 


79 


circumstances,  be  employed  in  factories  and  shops.  When  necessity  demands,  the 
employer  is  held  responsible  for  the  required  school  attendance  of  their  hands 
from  11  to  13  years  of  age;  above  13  years  children  must  hold  a  school  certificate 
before  they  can  be  employed;  persons  between  the  ages  of  11  and  16  may  be 
employed  in  factories  if  they  conform  to  the  regulations  of  the  home  secretary,  and 
in  workshops  if  they  hold  a  physician’s  certificate  of  health.  In  textile  factories 
children  may  not  be  employed  for  more  than  one-half  of  the  56|  hours  per  week 
defined  for  woman  labor,  as  they  are  not  allowed  to  work  more  than  a  half  day,  or 
a  whole  day  on  alternate  days.  In  work  at  home,  children’s  time  is  limited  to 
half-days  from  6  a.m.  to  1  p.m.,  or  from  1  p.m.  to  8  p.m.  In  mines,  boys  under  12 
can  not  work  under  ground.,  and  in  coal  mines  children  under  12  can  not  work  at 
all.  The  length  of  time  is  fifty-four  hours  a  week  under  ground  at  most  for  boys 
from  12  to  16  years  of  age.  For  children  12  to  13  years  old,  the  work  over 
ground  must  not  exceed  ten  hours  a  day.  If  they  work  more  than  three  days  in 
the  week,  six  hours  is  the  highest  limit  per  day.  In  shops — namely,  places  of  sale 
of  all  kinds,  including  hotels  and  excepting  pure  family  industries,  according  to 
the  law  of  1892,  persons  under  18  years  of  age  may  be  employed  only  seventy-four 
hours  a  week,  including  intermissions.  Industrial  inspection  has  been  in  existence 
since  1833.  At  present  114  officials  are  appointed  for  200,000  factories  and  shops 
and  one-half  a  million  of  laborers. 

Whoever  thinks  that  despite  these  laws  child  labor  i3  made  use  of  to  a  smaller 
extent  than  on  the  continent,  is  mistaken.  For  example,  in  England  114,025 
children  under  14  years  of  age  work  from  72  to  87  hours  a  week.  At  the  conclu¬ 
sion  of  last  year’s  address  to  the  House  of  Commons,  in  which  the  department  of 
education  requested  an  appropriation  of  nearly  180,000,000  marks  (£9,000,000  or 
$45,000,000)  for  educational  purposes,  the  under  secretary  of  state,  Sir  John  Q-orst, 
himself  stated  that  there  are  boys  not  yet  12  years  of  age  who  are  obliged  to  work 
100  hours  a  week.  Others  of  these  “white  slaves,”  as  he  called  them  (17,084  in 
number) ,  work  from  72  to  87  hours  a  week  for  less  than  12i  cents  per  week,  others 
receive  $1.75.  Again,  131  children  regularly  employed  are  not  6  years  old,  the 
age  defined  by  law  for  school  attendance.  Such  a  utilization  of  child  labor  is 
only  possible  on  account  of  the  “  half-day  law,”  which  provides  that  children  may 
work  half  a  day  if  they  spend  the  other  half  in  school.  As  many  children  are 
dismissed  from  school  as  early  as  10  years  of  age,  namely,  if  they  can  pass  an 
examination  covering  all  that  is  taught  in  elementary  schools  of  England,  -which 
is  very  little,  and  as  they  come  under  the  labor  law  only  later  on,  parents  make 
use  of  just  these  years  for  the  greatest  amount  of  labor,  and  often  most  inhuman 
labor.  Sir  John  Gorst,  moreover,  remarked  that  of  5,000,000  children  of  school 
age  over  1,000,000  did  not  attend  school.  If  no  criticism  on  such  conditions  can  be 
too  severe,  the  kind  of  labor  exacted  from  children  calls  forth  even  sterner  judg¬ 
ments.  Boys  are  required  to  spend  hours,  and  even  whole  days,  watching  teams, 
while  the  driver  is  attending  to  the  loading  and  unloading  of  the  wagon.  If  such 
occupation  is  continued  for  weeks  and  months,  the  boy  naturally  develops  into 
an  idler  or  idiot  who  prefers  to  beg  later  on. 

In  the  large  cities  of  Germany,  too,  especially  in  Berlin,  boys  of  school  age  are 
often  employed  in  the  business  of  transportation,  as  so-called  “  Rollmopse  ”  (team 
watchers).  Observations  made  by  teachers  of  that  city  show  that  the  police  allow 
such  things  with  indifference.  Daily  contact  with  nearly  always  rough  drivers 
corrupts  boys  in  an  alarming  way;  it  leads  to  coarseness  in  expression  and 
manners  and  accustoms  the  boys  to  drink,  while  exposure  to  wind  and  weather 
undermines  the  health  of  such  pitiful  creatures  only  too  often  scantily  clothed. 
The  same  applies  to  making  use  of  children  for  agricultural  labor.  In  itself  this 
is  calculated  to  benefit  rather  than  harm  children.  But  who  is  to  protect  them 
against  the  coarse  and  immoral  conversation  and  manners  of  farm  hands  and  the 
temptation  to  drink?  The  curse  of  child  labor  is  not  always  the  work  itself,  but 
oftener  and  almost  exclusively  the  absence  of  care  for  the  physical  and  spiritual 
welfare  of  children  during  work. 

Furthermore,  if  in  England — and  complaints  in  this  respect  are  numerous — girls 
pass  all  the  day  on  the  street,  spending  their  valuable  time  in  carrying  messages, 
uncared  for  and  unadvised,  they  develop  the  dangerous  inclination  of  wandering 
about  that  no  philanthropic  efforts  later  on  can  root  out,  and  that  slowly  leads 
them  to  their  destruction.  As  in  these  cases,  mind  and  soul  are  gradually  dead¬ 
ened,  so,  in  others,  the  physical  constitution  is  weakened,  if  not  ruined,  by  sys¬ 
tematic  wear  and  tear.  In  one  instance,  in  London,  a  boy  13  years  old  was  obliged 
to  work  thirty  hours  a  week  in  a  pool  room  for  $1;  in  another  instance,  a  boy  was 
required  to  assist  his  father  by  hard  labor  in  keeping  a  provision  stand;  he  worked 
from  3  a.  m.  till  the  opening  of  school  and  from  the  close  of  school  until  9  p.  m. 
The  most  distressing  sight,  however,  is  to  see  school  children  employed  as  street 
cleaners,  working  all  night,  from  8  p.  m.  till  6  a.  m.  All  their  moral  and  physical 


80 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


energy  seems  to  have  been  exhausted  when  they  come  to  school.  What  a  sad  kind 
of  citizenship  is  to  be  expected  from  them  when  they  grow  up,  if  they  ever  do. 

Italy  and  Spain  have  large  numbers  of  cripples  and  beggars.  While  in  the 
former  there  is  some  mention  on  paper  of  protection  of  children ,  not  even  this 
much  can  be  found  in  the  latter.  If  we  ask  where  Italy  gets  her  many  cripples 
and  beggars,  the  answer  is  given,  by  the  white  slaves  employed  in  the  sulphur 
mines  of  Sicily.  The  fact  is  well  known  and  has  been  repeatedly  discussed  that 
boys  of  tender  years  are  required  to  carry  heavy  sacks  of  sulphur  up  small  ladders. 
The  lowness  of  the  tunnels  forces  them  to  stoop  constantly,  and  a  few  years  suf¬ 
fice  to  bend  the  tender  limbs.  Mercilessly  driven  out  when  they  are  unequal  to 
the  task  imposed,  and  incompetent  for  any  other  work,  they  increase  the  countless 
hosts  of  beggars  the  sight  of  which  is  repulsive.  The  Government  can  find  no 
remedy  at  hand  for  this  public  nuisance.  There  is  but  one— a  positive  prohibi¬ 
tion  of  child  labor  and  its  effectual  execution.  But  then  what  would  the  mine 
owners  say  and  do? 

In  sunny  Andalusia  children  under  8  years  of  age  supply  the  deficiency  of  water 
in  the  conduits.  Eight  hours  a  day  they  carry  heavy  buckets  of  water  on  their 
heads  into  the  fields  in  order  to  protect  the  germinating  seed  against  drying  up. 
The  worst  lot,  however,  falls  to  the  children  of  Catalonia.  The  pen  almost 
refuses  to  picture  the  barbarity  practiced  by  employers  on  the  tender  bodies 
of  children  and  with  the  full  knowledge  of  the  Government.  Thousands  of  chil¬ 
dren  under  6  years  of  age  are  daily  employed  in  the  magnesia  mines.  The  tunnels 
are  so  low  that  grown  persons  can  not  enter  them;  so  the  youngest  and  smallest 
children  are  hired  for  the  work.  The  poisonous  vapors  generated  in  the  mines 
produce  a  frightful  disease,  “colica  saturnans,”  which  claims  its  victims  daily 
and  rages  as  an  epidemic  during  certain  times  of  the  year.  Still  the  mine  owners 
continue  to  employ  little  children  ior  this  horrible  labor,  giving  them  but  a 
a  small  pittance  in  return. 

It  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  many  countries  of  Europe  possess  laws  for  the 
prohibition  or  restriction  and  regulation  of  child  labor,  but  that  these  laws  are 
not  put  in  force;  that  some  kinds  of  work,  as  that  connected  with  home  industry, 
are  not  sufficiently  protected;  and  that  others,  again,  have  no  provision  at  all  for 
the  protection  of  children.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when 
all  countries  will  remember  their  sacred  duty  for  their  own  interests  and  protect 
children  against  unscrupulous  parents  or  greedy  capitalists.  Until  this  happens 
it  will  be  necessary  again  and  again  to  draw  public  attention  to  the  facts,  arouse 
public  conscience,  and  spread  information  on  so  highly  important  a  question  over 
as  broad  a  field  as  possible.  It  is  one  which  in  the  end  affects  the  well  being  of 
the  State,  which  must  have  an  interest  in  the  development  of  a  strong  and  sturdy 
youth,  for  it  is  they  who  will  have  to  meet  the  claims  of  later  life.  Hence  in  pro¬ 
tecting  the  children  the  State  protects  itself. 


IX.  THE  GERMAN  LIBRARY  SYSTEM. 

Praiseworthy  as  the  educational  system  of  the  German  Empire  may  be,  and 
unquestionable  as  its  results  prove  to  be,  there  seems  to  be  a  weak  spot  in  it  which 
is  well-nigh  incomprehensible  to  the  American  and  English  observers.  It  is  the 
fact  that  comparatively  little  is  done  in  maintaining  public  libraries  such  as  are 
supported  by  local  taxation  in  the  United  States  and  in  England.  This  auxiliary 
to  the  nation’s  educational  institutions  is  still  in  its  infancy  in  Germany.  Not 
that  they  have  no  large  libraries  in  that  country;  but  they  are  old  university 
libraries  reserved  for  the  students,  royal  or  State  libraries,  or  venerable  provincial 
libraries  closed  to  the  general  public  ;  there  were,  not  many  years  ago,  even  exten¬ 
sive  city  libraries  in  which  rarely  any  other  footfall  than  the  librarian’s  and  his 
assistants’  were  heard.  In  late  years,  however,  efforts  are  being  made  to  supply  the 
deficiency,  and  notable  librarians,  like  Prof.  C.  Norrenberg,  of  Kiel,  and  Prof.  Ed. 
Reyer,  of  Leipzig,  are  making  themselves  heard  in  behalf  of  the  rights  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  population,  claiming  that  the  public  should  have  access  to 
the  enormous  library  treasures  heaped  up  in  State,  provincial,  and  university 
libraries,  and  voicing  the  desire  of  the  people  for  wide-open  town  and  city  libraries. 


THE  GERMAN  LIBRARY  SYSTEM. 


81 


A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  the  profession  of  a  librarian  as  an  independent  pro¬ 
fession  was  unknown  in  Germany.  When  in  America  and  England  professional 
librarians  had  long  been  numerous,  in  Germany  the  custom  was  still  to  intrust 
a  professor  or  teacher  in  annual  rotation  with  the  care  of  the  library  of  an  insti¬ 
tution.  A  change  l\as  come  over  the  people,  and  after  the  model  of  Americans 
and  Englishmen  they  began  to  apply  local  self-government  to  the  question  of 
public  libraries.  At  first  numerous  cases  of  private  enterprise  showed  the  way; 
then  many  city  and  town  governments,  prodded  by  public-spirited  men,  appropri¬ 
ated  money  annually  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  such  institutions. 
The  management  of  large  libraries,  hitherto  closed,  changed  also,  and  the  millions 
of  books  that  had  been  collected  for  centuries  were  slowly  made  accessible  not 
only  to  students  but  to  the  general  public.  In  all  publications  on  the  subject  in 
Germany  again  and  again  the  United  States  are  set  up  as  a  model  for  imitation. 

Recently  a  work  ha,s  been  imblished  in  Germany  by  Dr.  Ernst  Schultze  on  Free 
Public  Libraries,  People's  Libraries,  and  Reading  Rooms  (pp.  362, .with  numerous 
illustrations).  In  this  work  the  author  lays  bare  the  weakness  of  the  German 
library  system,  and  with  constant  reference  to  conditions  and  institutions  in  the 
United  States  and  England,  as  well  as  other  countries,  he  advocates  a  reform  which 
is  sure  to  come.  He  does  not  spare  his  language,  but  reports  the  facts,  both  posi¬ 
tive  and  negative,  without  regard  to  the  uneasiness  he  may  cause  to  conservative 
institutions  or  to  legislators  and  officials  who  fail  to  see  the  rights  of  the  people 
to  the  freest  possible  access  to  the  world's  intellectual  treasures. 

Mr.  Thomas  E.  Maw,  librarian  in  King's  Lynn,  England,  subjects  the  book  to 
a  critical  review  in  the  Library  World  (London)  and  quotes  the  author  copiously. 
This  review  is  here  inserted: 

One  would  imagine  that  the  nation  of  thinkers  and  poets,  a  nation  enjoying  the 
highest  and  best  of  modern  elementary  education,  and  a  nation  which  points 
with  pride  to  a  State  whose  people  are  the  best  educated  in  the  world,  would  have 
no  need  of  such  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  public  library  cause  as  Dr.  Schultze. 1 
English  and  American  readers  unfamiliar  with  Germany  will  be  surprised  and 
puzzled  at  the  existing  state  of  affairs  in  the  German  library  world,  for  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  believed  in  Germany  and  England  that  the  “  Voiksbibliothek  ”  is  very 
much  like  the  “public  library,”  and  the  number  of  Volksbibliotheken  is  large 
enough  to  confirm  our  belief  that  Germany  is  always  trying  to  get  ahead  or  to 
keep  abreast  of  others.  The  author  points  to  the  folly  of  raising  monuments  to 
the  memory  of  their  great  writers  when  their  works  are  unknown  or  forgotten  by 
the  people,  owing  to  lack  of  opportunity  for  reading  them.  He  also  calls  upon  the 
nation  to  have  a  fitting  Gutenberg  celebration  “by  making  it  possible  for  books — 
living  witnesses  of  this  world-changing  discovery — to  be  read  by  everyone,  even  in 
the  remotest  hamlet,  instead  of  feasting,  carousing,  and  parading  with  Chinese 
lanterns.”  That  the  old  German  appetite  is  potent  enough  to  hinder  the  progress 
of  education  and  culture  is  evident.  “As  I  write  these  lines  I  am  informed  that 
a  German  university  town  which  in  many  ways  takes  high  rank,  and  which  also 
has  a  large  working-class  population,  is  going  to  celebrate  the  matriculation  of 
the  one  thousandth  student.  The  municipal  authorities  had  previously  decided 
to  show  their  appreciation  of  the  growth  of  the  intellectual  life  of  their  town  by 
establishing  a  public  reading  room,  which  had  long  been  projected,  but  which  all 
private  efforts  had  been  unable  to  effect.  But  what  did  the  city  fathers  do?  They 
thought  the  one  thousandth  student  could  not  be  welcomed  in  a  worthier  manner 
than  by  filling  him  with  strong  drink.  And  how  much  was  voted  for  this  object? 
One  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars,  or  even  $250?  Oh,  no;  not  at  all — but  thrice 
that  amount,  $750!  The  reading  room  remains  a  project — to  commemorate  the 
intellectual  importance  of  the  town!  ” 

Dr.  Schultze  lays  stress  upon  the  rights  of  all  men  to  share  in  the  national  treas¬ 
ure — good  literature.  “  Who  has  the  effrontery  to  say,”  he  asks,  “  that  it  is  good 
for  him  to  read,  but  at  the  same  time  fears  that  reading  would  be  dangerous  for 
his  uneducated  brother?  ”  That  there  is  a  strong  craving  for  reading  of  some  kind 
he  amply  demonstrates.  Small  libraries  have  had  their  stock  quickly  used  up,  and 


'Dr.  Ernst  Schultze.  Freie  Oeffentliche  Bibliotheken,  Volksbibliotheken,  und  Lesehallen. 
Pp.  362.  Illustrations.  Jannenberg,  Stettin.  1900. 

ED  1901 - 6 


82 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


are  unable  to  replace  worn-out  books,  and  the  enormous  sale  of  sensational  trash 
of  the  worst  kind  is  an  evil  only  to  be  remedied  by  the  supply  of  pure  literature 
by  means  of  public  libraries,  for  all  legislative  attempts  to  suppress  such  produc¬ 
tions  have  been  ineffective.  The  author,  with  enviable  optimising  believes  the  pub¬ 
lic  library  to  be  a  panacea  for  most  of  the  existing  evils.  “  The  uneducated  work¬ 
man  who  knows  nothing  of  life  but  the  dusty  factory,  the  ill-ventilated  sleeping 
room,  and  the  reeking  tap  room,  can  not  understand  what  ishneant  by  the  State, 
and  can  not  believe  that  it  has  any  right  to  exist.”  Immorality  and  crime,  the 
daughters  of  drunkenness,  will  go  the  way  of  anarchy  if  reformers  turn  their 
attention  to  providing  counter  attractions  to  the  public  house  in  the  shape  of  good 
literature.  Dr.  Schultze  regards  the  public  library  as  essential  to  any  complete 
system  of  national  education.  Not  only  does  literature  raise  the  standard  of  the 
worker  as  a  producer,  but  it  enlarges  the  spiritual  and  mental  horizon,  and,  what  is 
of  great  importance  to  a  German,  either  calls  into  existence  or  strengthens  the  deepest 
feelings  of  patriotism.  The  building  of  a  public  library  is  one  of  the  finest  and 
noblest  monuments  they  could  raise  in  memory  of  the  heroes  who  had  given  their 
lives  for  their  country,  for  “on  entering  the  library  *  *  *  he  sees  the  names 

of  those  who  fought  for  freedom  and  right,  and  he  must  surely  receive  a  strong 
impulse  to  read  the  history  of  his  own  nation,  and  thereby  learn  to  love  his  coun¬ 
try  more  and  more.  I  can  think  of  no  war  memorials  more  likely  to  really  serve 
their  purpose  than  these  public  libraries.  ” 

Dr.  Schultze  does  not  enter  into  the  details  of  library  management,  but  gives 
merely  a  brief  outline  of  the  methods  of  working  which  he  has  seen  in  the  English 
public  libraries.  His  chief  concern  is  with  the  crying  necessity  for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  public  libraries  in  Germany  and  the  satisfactory  results  achieved  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  America.  He  condemns,  in  no  half-hearted  way,  the  effete  institutions 
known  as  Volksbibliotheken  (literally,  people’s  libraries),  and  asks  for  a  library 
which  will  supply  the  pressing  needs  of  all  classes  to-day.  “The  Volksbibliothek 
movement  in  Berlin  has  considerably  influenced  the  movement  throughout  Ger¬ 
man}7,”  so  it  will  be  well  to  see  what  has  been  done  in  Berlin  if  we  are  to  judge  of 
the  future  prospects  of  the  Volksbibliotheken.  In  1847  a  few  professors  of  the  Ber¬ 
lin  University  formed  what  we  may  call  a  university-extension  society  for  scien¬ 
tific  lectures,  with  the  secondary  object  of  founding  Volksbibliotheken.  A  small 
charge  for  admission  to  the  lectures  was  made,  and,  the  lecturers  giving  their 
services  free,  a  considerable  sum  was  acquired  for  the  Volksbibliotheken,  and  in 
1847  the  society  was  able  to  offer  12,000  marks  ($3,000),  which  the  city  accepted, 
and  in  1850  the  amount  was  increased  to  18,000  marks  ($4,500).  On  August  1, 
1850,  the  first  four  Volksbibliotheken  were  opened.  They  were  governed  by  com¬ 
missioners  selected  from  the  society  and  the  city  councils;  the  city  had  to  con¬ 
tribute  $750  yearly,  and  the  society  gave  the  proceeds  of  the  lectures.  Besides 
these  annual  contributions,  the  society  gave  an  endowment  of  30,000  marks  ($7,500), 
which  produced  $300  a  year.  Altogether  the  society  gave  the  city  over  $25,000  up 
to  the  time  of  its  dissolution  in  1879.  Although  there  are  now  27  small  Voiksbib- 
liotheken  in  Berlin,  there  is  no  central  library,  so  that  their  usefulness  is  very 
greatly  diminished,  because  either  the  27  must  all  buy  the  same  books,  thereby 
necessitating  wasteful  and  costly  overlapping,  or  the  readers  of  26  are  deprived  of 
that  particular  book  in  the  library  where  it  has  been  purchased. 

“The  27  libraries  together  contain  104,356  volumes,  giving  an  average  of  less 
than  5.000  volumes  to  each,  and  this  for  a  city  of  nearly  2,000,000  inhabitants,  the 
capital  of  the  Empire.  The  absurd  hours  of  opening  are  the  greatest  inconven¬ 
ience.  It  seems  incredible,  but  it  is  none  the  less  true,  the  majority  of  them  are 
opened  for  only  six  hours  weekly,  and  that  at  midday — Wednesday  and  Saturday 
from  12  to  2,  and  on  Sunday,  11  to  1.  That  may,  perhaps,  have  suited  the  times 
in  1850,  but  to-day  such  hours  are  totally  inadequate.  But  can  it  be  seriously 
thought  that  the  lower  classes  can  And  time,  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  not  only  to 
go  to  the  library  but  to  take  their  place  in  the  crowd  always  there  and  wait  half 
an  hour  or  more  until  those  before  them  have  received  their  books?  It  really  says 
something  that,  in  spite  of  this,  the  use  made  of  the  library  is,  according  to  sta¬ 
tistics,  very  considerable.  Happily  these  hours  of  opening  are  now  being  changed; 
1896-97  Nos.  1,  16,  20,  and  27  were  opened  during  the  evening  instead  of  midday. 
*  *  *  These  four  are  open  from  6  to  9  p.  m. ,  and  how  this  tends  to  increase  the 
usefulness  of  the  library  is  shown  by  the  last  official  report.  No.  1  issued  in 
1895-96  only  11,528  volumes,  but  in  1898-99,  68,578  volumes.” 

Prussia  contributes  over  1,000,000  marks  ($250,000)  annually  to  the  university 
library  and  the  royal  library  in  Berlin,  but  only  50,000  marks  ($12,500)  for  the 
volksbibliotheken  throughout  the  State.  Dr.  Schultze  thinks  that  no  part  of  this 
money  should  go  to  the  city  libraries,  as  these  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves; 
but  to  the  village  libraries,  whose  existence  depends  upon  outside  support. 


THE  GERMAN-  LIBRARY  SYSTEM. 


83 


Dr.  Schultze  gives  well-deserved  praise  to  the  Society  for  the  Extension  of  Pop¬ 
ular  Education,  which,  since  1892,  has  devoted  its  entire  attention  to  the  founding 
of  “landiich©  Volksbibliotheken”  (village  libraries).  From  August,  1892,  to  the 
end  of  1900,  it  established  no  less  than  760,  with  46,257  volumes,  and  gave  to  843 
others  10,724  volumes. 

The  advocates  of  the  public  library  meet  with  the  same  unreasoning  opposition 
and  same  lack  of  understanding  as  we  have  experienced  in  England.  The  neces¬ 
sity  for  such  libraries  is  questioned,  as  if  the  popularity  of  the  existing  libraries 
did  not  show  that  the  people  were  eager  for  the  spread  of  libraries  throughout  the 
land.  “  Then  the  city  fathers  come  with  long  faces  and  talk  of  the  great  demands 
upon  their  resources,  but  a  fortnight  afterwards  the  same  city  fathers  are  ready 
to  vote  hundreds  of  dollars  toward  entertaining  any  congress,  great  or  small. 
That,  however,  is  the  recognized  thing  to  do,  and  is  reported  in  the  newspapers, 
but  the  other  works  silently,  yet  would  amply  repay  the  costs.” 

The  author  says  he  has  “purposely  almost  ignored  the  Stadtbibliotheken  (city 
libraries),  which  so  many  towns  possess,  because  the  greater  number  do  not  at  all 
represent  the  public  library  as  understood  in  this  country.  Instead  of  trying  to 
keep  abreast  of  the  times  they  have  slavishly  followed  their  original  plan  of  buy¬ 
ing  only  theology,  history,  and  j)hiiology,  thereby  making  them  useless  except  to 
the  learned,  and  as  their  means  increased  during  this  century  they  have  gone  on 
in  an  objectless  way  trying  to  rival  the  university  libraries.  *  *  *  They  are 
very  little  used,  *  *  *  cost  the  towns  enormous  sums,  and  would  be  decidedly 
better  if  converted  into  real  public  libraries,” 

Dr.  Schultze  meets  present  and  future  objections  by  saying  that  there  is  no  rea¬ 
son  why  German  public  libraries  should  not  be  as  successful  as  those  of  England 
and  America,  for  although  there  are  not  so  many  men  of  enormous  wealth  in  Ger¬ 
many  as  in  America,  yet  they  could  surely  do  what  had  been  done  in  England,  as 
English  public  libraries  were  not  so  much  indebted  to  private  benefactors  as  to 
municipal  enterprise.  “For  do  we  not  follow  England  in  many  other  things  in 
which  a  few  decades  ago  she  seemed  to  be  far  ahead  of  us?  Have  we  not  outdis¬ 
tanced  England  in  many  branches  of  industry?  Have  we  not  so  developed  our 
commerce  that  England  is  seriously  affectedby  it?  Are  wenot  trying  to  put  our  fleet 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  English,  as  seems  so  desirable  to  friends  of  the  navy? 
And  then  are  we  to  resignedly  take  a  position  behind  England  in  a  matter  which 
hitherto  has  always  been  regarded  as  the  peculiar  province  of  German  culture — 
in  the  matter  of  education?  Such  resignation  shows  little  spirit  and  little  reason. 
*  *  *  We  must  first  of  all  have  it  clearly  and  thoroughly  understood  that  we 
are  here  dealing  with  a  duty  imposed  by  civilization  which,  strange  to  say,  has 
been  grossly  neglected  by  ns  for  generations,  and  that  we  owe  it  to  onr  national 
honor  and  national  greatness  to  see  that  we  promptly  and  fully  atone  for  our 
neglect.”  It  will  indeed  be  strange  if  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  such  a 
plea  as  is  contained  in  this  book  of  nearly  400  pages  can  be  put  forth  in  the  cause 
of  education  without  producing  effect.  In  any  country  it  would  be  remarkable, 
but  in  Germany  it  would  be  incredible. 

Although  English  librarians  will  feel  highly  pleased  to  read  the  nice  things  said 
of  them  and  their  libraries,  they  will  not  find  Dr,  Schultze  chanting  paeans  to  ail 
their  ways.  In  a  brief  mention  of  the  debated  “  open  access  ”  question  he  says 
that  the  system  commends  itself  to  his  favor,  but  that  there  is  not  much  prospect 
of  unanimity  of  opinion  on  this  question,  which  is  attacked  and  advocated  by 
strong  partisans,  but  the  fact  of  opposition  being  made  to  the  newer  system  is  not 
to  be  taken  into  account  in  judging  its  merits,  for  “all  English  librarians  are  not 
so  practical  in  all  matters  as  we  might  have  expected  them  to  be.  This  is  espe¬ 
cially  noticeable  in  the  usual  English  practice  of  dividing  English  libraries  into  two 
parts,  the  lending  and  reference  libraries.  It  might  be  thought  that  this  division 
only  went  as  far  as  keeping  in  the  library  ail  purely  reference  works,  such  as  dic¬ 
tionaries,  atlases,  etc.,  and  costly  and  sumptuous  books,  while  all  others  might  be 
issued  for  home  reading.  No;  far  from  it.  A  very  large  part  of  the  collection  is 
taken  and  made  into  a  reference  library,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  science  books 
are  put  into  this  section.  Why?  jjBecause  it  has  always  been  done,  and  also,  per¬ 
haps,  because  the  British  Museum  does  not  issue  its  books  for  home  reading,  and 
in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  readers  who  are  making  special  studies  to  obtain 
the  book  at  any  time,  as  in  the  British  Museum. 

“  It  is  at  the  same  time  forgotten  that  the  British  Museum  serves  only  for  special 
purposes,  but  that  in  a  smaller  town  the  specialists  are  very  few,  and  for  them 
there  are  generally  science  libraries,  and  that  limiting  the  use  of  large  collections 
of  books  to  the  reference  library  reduces  its  usefulness  to  a  mere  shadow.  Many 
warning  voices  have  been  raised  against  the  extension  of  the  reference  library,  but 
I  can  not  go  further  into  this  matter  here,  and  only  point  to  the  folly  we  would  be 
guilty  of  were  we  to  tmquestioningly  copy  not  only  the  good  and  admirable  quali- 


84  EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901.~ 

ties  of  the  English  public  library,  hut  also  the  bad.  Fortunately  there  seems  no 
disposition  to  do  this.” 

Our  Sunday  is  as  strange  to  the  continental  as  a  German  Sunday  is  to  the  Scot¬ 
tish  Presbyterian,  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  hear  that  when  public  libraries  are 
really  established  in  Germany  they  will  open  on  Sunday.  Dr.  Schultze  puts  the 
case  for  Sunday  opening  just  as  strongly  as  do  all  who  advocate  a  rational  Sun¬ 
day,  but  even  those  who  would  open  all  public  libraries  on  Sundays  must  notice 
that  the  British  artisan  does  not  crowd  his  fellow  in  the  reading  rooms  on  Sun¬ 
days.  However,  conditions  are  different  in  Germany.  The  conscientious  objector 
who  regards  Sunday  opening  as  sinful  (the  difficulty  of  staff  can  be  overcome  by 
employing  Jews,  as  in  Birmingham)  receives  no  mercy  at  Dr.  Schultze’s  hands. 
“  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  shall  remain  free  from  such  aberrations.  Happily  it  is 
an  understood  thing  that  we  shall  have  Sunday  opening  when  the  time  comes.” 

This  book  will  certainly  interest  German  readers,  and  ought  to  be  of  interest  to 
librarians,  for  the  survey  of  public  library  work  covers  the  world.  The  photo¬ 
graphic  illustrations  might  have  been  more  numerous.  In  this  edition  they  are 
limited  to  pictures  of  typical  libraries.  The  prevailing  opinion  in  Germany  and 
England  is  that  the  Volksbibliothek  and  public  library  are  identical.  There  is  now 
no  longer  excuse  for  belief  in  this  popular  fallacy. 

Dr.  Schultze  concludes  finely  by  saying  that  to  cool,  calculating  reason  the 
establishment  of  public  libraries  now  appears  to  be  a  pressing  necessity,  and  this 
necessity  is  more  and  more  recognized  by  every  generous  nature.  “  ‘And  though 
l  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels,  and  have  not  charity,  I  am  become 
as  sounding  brass  or  a  tinkling  cymbal.’  Love  for  our  fellow-men— surely  that 
will  help  us  to  do  what  we  acknowledge  to  be  our  duty.  True,  many  difficulties 
are  to  be  overcome,  but  if  the  right  spirit  is  in  us  the  tide  of  hope  shall  sweep 
away  all  barriers.” 


X.  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  AUSTRIA. 

[Little  has  been  said  hitherto  concerning  the  higher  education  of  women  in 
Austria,  but  in  reality  strong  efforts  are  being  made  there  to  lift  the  education  of 
women  to  a  higher  plane,  and  it  is  the  men  who  aid  the  cause  in  many  ways,  as 
will  be  seen  from  a  brief  summary  which  appeared  in  the  Deutsche  Stimmen,  a 
magazine  published  in  Cologne,  Germany,  and  which  is  here  reproduced  in 
English.] 

Since  the  entrance  upon  office  of  the  minister  of  education,  Dr.  von  Hartel,  who 
in  his  former  position  as  court  librarian  showed  on  different  occasions  that  he  was 
a  friend  and  advocate  of  the  education  of  women,  an  earnest  effort  has  been  mani¬ 
fested  in  Austria  toward  the  reorganization  of  the  entire  system  of  female  educa¬ 
tion.  The  former  chief  in  the  ministry  of  education,  Baron  von  Gautsch,  had 
already  taken  measures  to  regulate  the  higher  education  of  women  in  general,  and 
for  the  establishment  and  organization  of  secondary  schools  for  girls  in  particular. 
For  this  purpose  the  present  minister  sent  an  experienced  educator  to  Germany, 
with  the  commission  to  study  the  system  of  secondary  schools  in  that  country  and 
report  the  result  of  his  investigations  to  the  minister  of  education.  Reports  on 
their  organization,  attendance,  and  the  professions  open  to  their  graduates  were 
likewise  requested  of  the  girls’  high  schools  already  existing  in  the  different  Crown 
lands  of  Austria,  so  that  the  minister  had  at  hand  abundant  material  in  order  to 
discuss  the  principles  of  a  plan  for  reorganization  of  girls’  high  schools  in  a  con¬ 
ference  of  professional  men. 

This  conference  took  place  in  the  ministry  of  education  on  May  14  and  15, 1900, 
and  framed  resolutions  on  the  basis  of  which  a  speedy  reform  of  female  education 
might  be  undertaken.  Before  giving  the  results  of  this  discussion,  a  few  brief 
general  remarks  on  the  education  of  women  in  Austria  may  be  made. 

This  country  was  comparatively  late  in  affording  girls  the  possibility  of  attending 
advanced  educational  institutions  after  leaving  the  common  school  upon  comple¬ 
tion  of  the  obligatory  course  of  study — that  is,  after  the  fourteenth  year  of  age. 
As  in  cases  of  different  character,  private  enterprise  made  use  of  the  circumstance, 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  IN  AUSTRIA. 


85 


so  that  the  State  made  no  provision  for  further  education  of  girls.  Thus  as  early 
as  1869,  by  sanction  of  the  imperial  public  school  law  which  annexed  a  three-graded 
burgher  school  to  the  five- graded  elementary  or  people's  school  in  cities,  a  large 
number  of  private  institutions  were  called  into  existence,  which,  under  such  names 
as  female  continuation  schools,  schools  for  girls,  or  girls’ lyceums,  aimed  at  giving 
young  ladies  instruction  beyond  that  which  is  offered  even  in  well-advanced  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  especially  in  the  study  of  foreign  languages.  In  the  year  1888 
the  conservative  amendment  to  the  school  law  of  1869  was  passed,  which  contained 
the  following  paragraph  relative  to  the  secondary  education  of  girls:  “  For  girls 
who  have  attained  an  age  beyond  that  of  obligatory  school  attendance,  courses  of 
study  may  be  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  advanced  education  ”  (allgemeine 
Fortbildung) .  In  1885  a  ministerial  decree  regulated  the  system  of  secondary 
education,  formerly  only  subject  to  local  legislation,  from  a  pedagogic-didactic 
standpoint. 

Among  these  newly  founded  institutions,  the  schools  established  by  the  W Oman's 
Industrial  Society  of  Vienna,  in  1867,  occupy  a  special  place;  they  include  a  lyceum 
for  girls,  a  business  college  for  girls  and  women,  a  drawing  school  (a  school  of 
design,  as  it  would  properly  be  called),  a  dressmakers’  school,  a  studio  for  decora¬ 
tive  art,  courses  in  foreign  languages,  in  knitting,  embroidery,  hairdressing,  etc. 
Since  its  foundation  the  society  has  instructed  about  20,000  pupils  and  has  done 
much  to  develop  the  idea  of  professional  education  of  women. 

A  similar  association  was  founded  in  Vienna,  the  Society  for  the  Higher  Educa¬ 
tion  of  Women,  which  established  a  classical  high  school  for  girls  October  1, 1892. 
One  year  after,  an  institution  of  the  same  character  was  opened  in  Prague  by  the 
Minerva  Society.  Since  its  foundation  the  society  in  Vienna  has  accomplished  a 
great  deal  and  has  opened  many  lines  of  occupation  to  women.  Its  final  and  chief 
aim  is  to  open  the  Austrian  universities  to  women,  to  gain  for  them  the  right  of 
practicing  medicine,  and  also  to  make  the  higher  positions  in  the  teaching  profes¬ 
sion  accessible  to  them. 

A  great  deal  has  been  accomplished  in  this  regard  within  the  past  few  years.  In 
1897  women  were  permitted  to  take  the  university  course  of  philosophy  after  they 
had  been  allowed  to  attend  the  lectures  of  private  professors  by  invitation  since 
1878.  The  regular  students  of  the  optional  course  of  philosophy  are  likewise 
admitted  to  the  obligatory  course,  if  they  have  attained  the  age  of  18  and  possess 
a  diploma  from  any  Austrian  gymnasium  (classical  high  school)  or  one  admitted 
by  the  minister  of  education  to  be  of  equal  rank.  Until  further  action,  the  decree 
of  the  year  1896  holds  good,  allowing  the  young  women  of  Austria  to  be  matricu¬ 
lated  for  the  course  of  medicine  if  they  have  studied  ten  semesters  at  a  foreign  uni¬ 
versity  after  passing  the  State  examination.  The  study  of  medicine  is  therefore 
open  to  women,  although  the  well-known  physician,  Professor  Albert,  in  1895 
emphatically  declared  himself  opposed  to  the  admission  of  women  to  the  profes¬ 
sion.  Recently,  Prof.  Edmund  Bernatzek,  of  the  Vienna  bar,  has,  upon  request, 
published  an  opinion 1  on  the  admission  of  women  to  the  study  of  law.  He  advo¬ 
cates  their  admission  as  a  consequence  of  the  graduation  examination  allowed  in 
the  classical  preparatory  schools.  He  also  requires,  as  a  further  consequence,  that 
women  be  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law,  as  the  consent  to  study  would  otherwise 
not  be  complete,  and  useless.  “Not  all  positions  in  the  legal  profession,  it  is  true,” 
he  says,  “  are  appropriate  for  women.  Still,  they  can  with  propriety  fill  those  in 
which  they  do  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  public.  ”  In  pursuance  of  this 
opinion,  the  faculties  of  law  at  the  universities  of  Prague  and  Vienna  have  admitted 
women  to  their  lectures. 

A  wide  field  of  action  is  open  to  the  women  of  Austria  in  the  profession  of  teach- 

1  The  Admission  of  Women  to  the  Study  of  Law,  by  Dr.  Edmund  Bernatzek,  Vienna,  1900,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Society  for  Higher  Education  of  Women. 


86 


EDUCATION  KEPOET,  1900-1901. 


ing  in  elementary  and  burgher  schools,  as  women  who  have  received  their  educa¬ 
tion  at  State  or  private  normal  schools  are  preferred  for  the  lower  grades  of  such 
schools  as  well  as  for  kindergartens. 

In  addition  to  these  institutions  for  higher  female  education,  the  Society  for 
Academic  Lectures  for  Women,  the  so-called  Ladies’  Academy,  founded  by  pri¬ 
vate  enterprise  in  1895,  but  receiving  State  support,  gives  a  scientific  education 
to  young  women  and  girls  of  the  upper  classes  adapted  in  text  and  outline  to  the 
future  vocations  of  the  students,  and  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  a  continuation  of  the 
girls’  gymnasia,  designed,  as  the  then  chief  of  the  section  of  the  ministry,  Dr.  von 
Hartel,  announced  at  the  opening  of  the  academy,  “to  refute  the  opinion  of 
serious-minded  men,  that  women  are  not  adapted  and  competent  to  accomplish 
any  earnest  scientific  work.5’ 

The  youngest  higher  institution  for  women,  still  in  its  earliest  stage  of  develop¬ 
ment,  is  the  Atheneum,  a  kind  of  woman’s  university  for  scientific  lecture 
courses  founded  by  voluntary  action  of  the  Austrian  university  lecturers,  and 
designed,  primarily,  to  consolidate  the  heretofore  divided  separate  scientific 
efforts  in  behalf  of  women.  The  attendance  of  women  teachers  and  educators, 
in  particular,  is  anticipated  and  solicited,  and  their-  professional  needs  will 
receive  consideration.  Women  and  girls  are  instructed  in  all  the  sciences,  with¬ 
out,  however,  the  prospect  of  receiving  a  diploma  or  any  certificate  testifying  to 
their  ability  in  any  branch.  No  attention  is  paid  to  business  education;  the 
effort  of  women  to  advance  in  learning  alone  is  considered.  Lectures  are  deliv¬ 
ered  on  chemistry,  the  hygiene  of  food,  hygiene  of  female  life,  the  history  of 
civilization,  political  economy,  and  French,  G-erman,  and  English  literature.  If 
the  attendance  proves  sufficiently  large,  the  courses  may  be  extended  and  supple¬ 
mented.  The  Atheneum  began  its  work  October  1,  1900.  Among  the  lecturers 
are  professors  to  whom  Vienna  owes  the  introduction  of  the  popular  lecture 
courses,  the  so-called  university  extension. 

The  official  inquiry  referred  to  in  the  beginning  of  this  article  was  to  determine, 
in  the  first  place,  whether  a  reorganization  in  the  sense  of  uniformity  were  desir¬ 
able;  whether  the  existing  type  of  six-graded  lyceums  were  to  serve  as  a  model 
and  what  studies  were  to  form  the  curriculum;  and,  finally,  to  decide  whether  it 
be  wise  to  admit  all  teachers  to  the  full  course  of  study. 

In  the  discussion  the  fact  was  not  ignored  that  female  education  by  no  means 
meets  the  demands  of  the  times,  which  present  new  conditions  of  the  social  and 
economic  life  of  women  entirely  different  from  those  of  former  epochs ,  and  for  which 
the  schools  of  the  present  period  sufficed.  Neither  was  it  forgotten  that  women 
have  been  admitted  to  professions  which  require  an  academic  education  and  were, 
until  recently,  open  to  men  only,  and  that  a  strong  movement  has  been  manifested 
which  demands  for  the  broader  sections  of  society  something  beyond  the  obliga¬ 
tory  common-school  education  from  which  a  professional  and  industrial  education 
must  result.  The  inquiry  furthermore  considered  the  differences  existing  in  the 
various  girls’  schools  of  Austria,  numbering  47  at  the  time,  with  regard  to  their 
organization,  and  concluded  that  a  reorganization  of  female  education  was  neces- 
sar}^  to  the  end  that  the  more  numerously  peopled  strata  of  society  be  provided 
for  before  measures  can  be  taken  for  the  establishment  of  State  institutions  for 
the  well-to-do  classes.  These  latter  are  in  a  position  to  acquire  an  advanced  educa¬ 
tion  by  private  means  without  making  a  claim  for  assistance  from  the  State. 

Concerning  the  results  of  the  inquiry,  most  of  those  actively  interested  advo¬ 
cated  a  reorganization  of  the  six-grade  girls’  lyceum,  which  may  be  attended  till 
the  seventeenth  year  of  age,  after  completion  of  the  studies  of  the  five-grade  peo¬ 
ple's  school.  For  this  lyceum  a  uniform  curriculum  was  advised,  the  foundation 
of  which  was  to  be,  as  before,  the  humanistic  branches,  language  forming  the  cen¬ 
tral  study.  Foreign  language  study,  as  well  as  the  natural  sciences  applied  as 
closely  as  possible  to  practical  demands  of  life,  should  have  a  sufficient  number  of 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OE  WOMEN  IH  AUSTRIA. 


87 


hours  assigned.  A  conspicuous  fact  is  that  religious  instruction  is  likewise 
designed  for  these  institutions.  Different  privileges,  among  them  admission  to 
university  courses,  are  to  be  granted  to  graduates  of  such  normal  lyceums.  It  was 
advocated  to  employ  women  teachers  who  have  graduated  from  these  lyceums  and 
have  attended  lectures  at  the  university,  but  before  such  a  reform  can  be  carried 
out,  a  teacher’s  diploma  issued  after  an  examination  for  positions  in  girls’  lyceums 
must  be  insisted  upon,  lest  these  schools  be  injured  from  the  start  by  inferior 
teachers. 

The  establishment  of  State  gymnasia  (classical  schools)  for  girls  does  not  come 
within  the  scope  of  the  plan  of  the  minister;  still,  girls  who  have  privately  acquired 
a  classical  preparation  are,  upon  passing  the  required  examination,  granted  certain 
rights  that  were  proposed  for  discussion.  The  main  purpose  of  female  secondary 
schools,  according  to  the  resolutions  of  the  conference,  is  to  give  a  certain  degree 
of  thorough  general  education  especially  adapted  to  women;  consequently,  no 
superficial  smattering  of  many  studies,  but  a  solid  knowledge  and  ability  in  the 
important  branches  of  female  education.  Elementary  female  education,  particu¬ 
larly  in  burgher  schools,  was  also  discussed  during  the  conference,  as  well  as 
industrial  technical  schools  for  the  poorer  people.  These  schools  for  a  long  time 
have  been  a  social  problem  of  vital  importance  to  general  social  order.  The  strug¬ 
gle  of  women  and  girls  to  extend  their  field  of  labor  has  become  a  serious  social 
necessity. 

The  less  conspicuous  efforts  to  meet  the  pressing  needs  of  extensive  social  circles 
by  education  above  that  which  is  offered  in  obligatory  elementary  schools  also 
received  attention.  In  that  regard  a  recently  published  article  has  stirred  the 
authorities  to  action.  It  is  entitled  Technical  Education  for  Women  and  its 
Organization  with  Reference  to  the  Practical  Demands  of  Life,  written  by  the 
ministerial  councilor  and  well-known  organizer  of  industrial  and  commercial 
schools  in  Austria,  Dr.  Franz  R.  von  Haymerle.  In  his  opening  address  Minister 
von  Hartel  referred  emphatically  to  this  article.  The  trend  of  thought  in  his 
remarks  was  the  same  as  that  followed  by  Haymerle  in  his  excellent  treatise. 

The  well-informed  author  undertakes  to  point  out  partly  new  ways  of  female 
education,  and  in  giving  the  character,  outline,  and  arrangement  of  instruction, 
based  upon  thoroughly  practical  grounds,  he  shows  ways  and  means  to  increase 
the  labor  power  of  women.  In  the  beginning  of  his  article  he  distinctly  states 
that  he  has  expressed  only  his  private  views,  nevertheless  they  may  be  accepted 
.without  fear  of  contradiction  as  those  now  dominant  in  Austrian  educational  cir¬ 
cles.  He  advocates  the  establishment  of  cooking  schools  and  training  schools  for 
factory  hands,  orphan-asylum  and  domestic-service  schools  (Austria  numbers  a 
half  million  house  servants,  Vienna  alone  86,000),  and  courses  in  bookkeeping; 
conse*quently,  the  establishment  of  institutions  designed  for  the  education  of  the 
wage-earning  classes,  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  term,  besides  schools  for  tech¬ 
nical  education  in  special  branches,  as,  for  instance,  the  training  of  nurses  for 
infants  and  nurses  for  the  sick,  also  special  preparatory  courses  for  business  posi¬ 
tions,  office  work,  agricultural  pursuits,  as  well  as  for  various  arts  and  industries. 

According  to  Haymerie’s  plan,  a  second  grouj)  of  institutions,  schools  for 
domestic  economy,  housekeeping  high  schools,  and  courses  on  sanitation  are 
designed  to  teach  housekeeping  and  its  refining  technical  side.  Another  group 
includes  technical  continuation  schools  for  girls,  especially  apprentices.  To  the 
last  group  belong  all  preparatory  institutions  intended  as  a  foundation  for  higher 
courses  and  studies.  To  crown  the  whole  structure,  Haymerle  proposes  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  a  female  technical  labor  museum,  and  a  central  place  for  the  encour¬ 
agement  of  the  arts,  in  which  all  ramifications  of  the  organization  shall  find  a 
common  focus.  . 

It  is  in  a  high  degree  significant  that  the  author  of  this  study  considers  the 
development  of  female  education  from  its  beginning  on,  keeping  woman’s  ihde- 


88 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


p:ndent  ability  to  earn  a  livelihood  in  the  foreground,  and  not  ignoring  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  female  power  to  manual,  industrial,  and  administrative  purposes.  In 
the  year  1890  there  were  in  Austria  a  round  half  million  more  women  than  men; 
and  of  nine  millions  over  10  years  of  age,  almost  five  were  self-supporting;  of  these 
about  three  millions  were  unmarried.  These  must  be  provided  for  first,  not  the 
upper  ten  thousand,  “who  may  seek  their  educational  benefit  in  aesthetic  and 
philosophic  studies,  and  in  following  the  beaten  paths  in  wThich  the  alternations  of 
life  depend  upon  a  more  or  less  successful  penetration  into  the  secrets  of  Latin 
and  Greek  grammar,  or  may  do  homage  to  more  practical  aims.5'  In  our  estima¬ 
tion,  also,  the  main  y>oint  of  issue  in  the  modern  woman  movement  in  Austria  is  to 
apply  the  efforts  toward  ad  vanced  education  to  the  benefit  of  the  middle  and  lower 
classes  especially,  whose  professional  and  technical  education  must  be  provided 
for  by  the  State.  To  quote  Hay  merle  again:  “Only  the  authority  of  the  State 
and  the  established  confidence  in  its  actions  can  make  an  educational  institution 
popular  in  the  broader  sense  of  the  term.”  For  the  current  year  (1900)  8,220,000 
crowns  (about  $2,110,000)  have  been  appropriated  for  industrial  and  commercial 
education;  only  156,000  crowns  (about  $39,000)  of  this  amount,  however,  is  to  be 
expended  on  female  schools.  These  conditions  can  not  continue;  changed  social 
and  economic  relations  must  be  taken  into  account.  Female  education  must  be 
recognized,  so  that  women  and  girls  who  are  not  provided  for  may  acquire  the 
means  to  earn  their  own  livelihood. 

The  question  of  support  has  become  so  prominent  that  it  forms  the  basis  of  all 
other  reflections.  During  the  women’s  congress  in  Munich,  October,  1899,  Pro¬ 
fessor  Haushofer  spoke  on  “  Woman  in  business,”  concluding  his  address  with  the 
words  that — 

If  women  want  to  improve  their  position  they  must  not  fail  to  observe  three 
things  incessantly:  First,  a  uniform  movement  must  be  supported  by  all  the 
women  of  Germany;  that  which  has  been  attained  can  not  be  given  up,  the  as  yet 
unattained  must  be  striven  for  with  the  evidence  of  its  being  necessary  and 
deserved.  Second,  women  must  take  the  peculiarly  feminine  viitues  into  public 
life — patience,  punctuality,  carefulness,  and  aesthetic  taste  in  all  they  do.  Finally, 
women  must  learn  of  men  the  ability  to  organize  and  administrate,  to  separate 
personality  from  objects  in  view,  and  to  discipline  self. 

W e  believe  that  the  women  of  Austria  in  their  struggle  for  opportunities  of  edu¬ 
cation  and  labor  should  not  ignore  the  admonition  of  one  who  has  so  thorough  a 
knowledge  of  our  economic  conditions. 


XI.  AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA. 

Contents:  General  review.  I.  Higher  agricultural  and  forestry  schools:  (a)  University  of 
Vienna;  (b)  University  of  Krakow;  (c)  Technological  University  of  Vienna.  II.  Secondary 
agricultural  schools:  (a)  Agricultural  colleges;  (b)  forestry  colleges;  (c)  wine,  fruit,  and  gar¬ 
deners’ schools;  (d)  brewers’ school.  III.  Lower  agricultural  schools:  (a)  day  schools;  (b)  win¬ 
ter  schools;  (c)  forestry  schools;  (d)  dairy  schools;  (e)  schools  for  special  branches,  such  as 
fruit,  wine,  flax,  and  hops;  (f)  schools  for  brewers  and  distillers.  Statistical  data. 

[Note. — For  the  exposition  in  Paris,  the  Austrian  Government  prepared  a  num¬ 
ber  of  monographs  descriptive  of  various  characteristic  features  of  the  Austrian 
educational  system.  Among  them  was  one  giving  an  account  of  the  efforts  in 
behalf  of  agriculture  and  forestry,  which  was  prepared  by  Friedrich  Ritter  von 
Zimmerauer,  chief  of  the  educational  section  of  the  department  of  agriculture  in 
Austria.  It  appeared  simultaneously  in  German  and  in  French. 

This  pamphlet  is  of  unusual  interest,  inasmuch  as  it  shows  not  only  what  is 
done  for  agriculture  in  Austria,  but  how  it  is  done.  It  is  inserted  here  in  English 
owing  to  its  lucid  classification  and  the  numerous  hints  it  offers  for  similar  schools 
in  other  countries.  The  author  evidently  has  the  educational  side  of  the  question 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTEIA. 


89 


of  agriculture  near  at  heart,  and  he  states  the  facts  in  simple,  unequivocal  style. 
His  comprehensive  statistical  tables  are  here  omitted,  as  being  of  no  immediate  use 
to  the  American  readers;  only  summaries  are  offered.] 

General  Review. 

The  manifold  forms  of  agricultural  and  forestry  education  in  detail  in  Austria1 
may  be  classified  in  a  system  with  three  main  groups  of  schools:  A.  Higher  insti¬ 
tutions,  of  university  rank;  B.  Secondary  schools;  C.  Lower  schools.  The  basis 
for  this  division  is  found  in  the  higher  or  lower  curriculum  designed  for  the 
different  schools. 

The  course  of  study  determines  for  what  occupation  within  the  broad  field  of 
agriculture — eventually  for  what  particular  specialty — the  separate  institutions 
prepare  their  students.  As  manifold  as  their  purposes  may  be,  they  are  nevertheless, 
at  least  approximately,  referable  to  one  of  the  following  three  fundamental  ideas: 
(1)  The  course  of  instruction  takes  pupils  so  far  as  to  prepare  them  to  manage 
independently  a  small  estate  (a  farm,  for  instance),  which  means  a  business  in 
which  the  proprietor  and  manager,  as  a  rule,  does  part  of  the  work  himself.  (2) 
The  course  may  give  an  advanced  education  required  for  agricultural  andforestry 
pursuits  in  which  the  manager  gives  no  assistance  by  manual  cooperation,  but 
only  distributes  or  directs  labor.  (3)  Or,  finally,  the  course  insures  the  highest 
scientific  education  in  agriculture  and  forestry  preparatory  for  practical  work  or 
technical  teaching  and  original  investigation. 

Upon  this  difference  in  the  aim  of  the  studies,  with  which,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
various  demands  with  reference  to  preparatory  courses  go  hand  in  hand — as  any 
technical  education  presupposes  a  certain  degree  of  general  education — rests  the 
above-mentioned  fundamental  division  into  the  three  categories  of  lower,  second¬ 
ary,  and  higher  schools. 

To  this  first  and  most  important  classification,  however,  a  second  is  added  with 
regard  to  agricultural  schools.  According  as  all  agricultural  studies  are  taught 
to  an  equal  extent  and  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the  institution,  or  only  special 
branches  (for  instance,  fruit  culture,  vine  raising,  dairy  farming,  housekeeping, 
etc.),  these  schools  are  divided  into  (1)  general  agricultural  or  agricultural  tech¬ 
nical  schools,  and  (2)  special  agricultural  schools. 

Considered  from  the  two  points  of  view  mentioned,  there  exists  in  Austria  to-day 
(1900)  the  following  kinds  of  independent  agricultural  and  forestry  schools: 

A.  Those  of  the  lower  grade,  distinguished  as  general  technical  schools  (includ¬ 
ing  all  general  studies  pertaining  thereto) — farming  and  agricultural  winter 
schools,  sylvicultural  schools  and  training  schools  for  foresters;  also  special  schools 
for  the  study  of  horticulture,  fruit  culture,  vine  raising,  dairy  farming,  house¬ 
keeping,  brewing,  and  distilling. 

B.  Those  of  the  secondary  grade,  distinguished  as  general  technical  schools, 
the  so-called  agricultural  institutes  or  colleges,  and  the  secondary  agricultural 
and  forestry  schools,  an  oenological  and  pomological  institute,  a  secondary  school 
for  fruit  culture  and  horticulture,  and  a  secondary  special  school  for  brewers. 

C.  Higher  schools  or  universities— only  one  institution  in  Vienna — with  three 
departments,  namely,  for  agriculture,  forestry,  and  the  technique  of  agriculture. 
Also,  an  agricultural  lecture  course  at  the  University  of  Krakow. 

As  a  rule,  the  completion  of  the  course  offered  in  elementary  or  people’s  schools 
is  the  condition  of  admission  to  the  schools  of  the  lower  grade  (A). 

For  schools  of  the  secondary  grade  (B),  as  a  rule,  the  completion  of  the  studies 
of  the  lower  grade  of  general  secondary  schools  (so-called  high  schools  of  six 


1  In  this  article  Austria  is  understood  to  mean  Austria  proper,  officially  called  Cisleithania, 
which  does  not  include  Hungary. 


90 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1991. 


years'  course),  or  at  least  graduation  from  a  burgher  school  (advanced  elementary 
school  with  some  secondary  studies)  is  required. 

The  highest  grade  of  agricultural  and  forestry  education  offered  in  institutions 
of  university  rank  (C)  presupposes  the  passing  of  the  graduation  examination  of 
either  classical  or  modern  high  schools  of  nine  years’  course,  which  admits  anyone 
who  holds  this  certificate  of  graduation  to  universities  or  polytechnical  schools. 

The  three  chief  categories  of  independent  technical  schools  mentioned  by  no 
means  exhaust  all  the  opportunities  offered  for  an  agricultural  education  in 
Austria.  To  the  foregoing  should  be  added  the  instruction  in  agriculture  and 
forestry  given  in  all  polytechnical  institutes  under  the  form  of  lectures  by  private 
and  regular  professors;  furthermore,  the  obligatory  courses  in  agriculture  in 
normal  schools,  and,  finally,  the  so-called  agricultural  continuation  courses  de¬ 
signed  for  the  more  numerous  classes  of  society,  and  forming  part  of  the  curricu¬ 
lum  of  people's  (or  public)  elementary  schools. 

All  these  manifold  forms  of  agricultural  education  are  still  further  supple¬ 
mented  by  the  extensive  system  of  ambulatory  lectures,  the  freest  form  of  profes¬ 
sional  instruction,  which  is,  literally  speaking,  brought  to  the  door  of  the  rural 
people;  also,  by  the  frequent  courses  in  agriculture  and  allied  sciences  in  schools 
not  directly  designed  to  aid  agriculture,  which  courses  are  outside  the  scope  of  the 
present  article,  and  will  receive  no  further  mention. 

An  important  principle  often  overlooked  is  that  each  one  of  the  three  categories 
of  schools  mentioned  gives  a  technical  education  in  itself  separate  and  complete, 
and  that  consequently  the  lower  grade  of  schools  is  not  simply  a  preparatory  insti¬ 
tution  for  the  higher.  This  idea  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  a  definite  course 
of  study  without  any  reference  to  a  higher  course  is  arranged  for  each  category 
and  requires  a  certain  degree  of  general  preparatory  education. 

With  these  remarks,  necessary  for  the  correct  understanding  of  the  system  of 
agricultural  and  forestry  schools,  we  shall  proceed  to  give  a  short  sketch  .of  the 
most  important  features  in  the  organization  of  each  of  the  three  categories  men¬ 
tioned.  We  shall  begin  with  the  highest  grade — the  university. 

I.  Higher  Agricultural  and  Forestry  Institutions. 

The  following  institutions  in  Austria  are  devoted  to  the  highest  agricultural 
and  forestry  study:  The  Agricultural  University  of  Vienna,  established  by  the 
department  of  agriculture  and  opened  in  1872;  the  faculty  of  agriculture  at  the 
University  of  Krakow,  established  in  1890;  the  lecture  courses  in  agriculture  at 
the  technological  universities  in  Vienna,  Graz,  Prague  (both  in  the  German  and 
the  Bohemian),  Briinn,  and  Lemberg;  and,  lastly,  the  two  courses  of  agricultural 
technique  in  the  institutions  at  Prague. 

1.  THE  AGRICULTURAL  UNIVERSITY  AT  VIENNA. 

For  the  establishment  and  support  of  this  institution  (which  is  not  to  be  con¬ 
founded  with  the  ancient  university  of  that  city)  the  law  of  April  3,  1882,  appro¬ 
priated  all  expenses.  It  is  designed  (according  to  its  charter,  dated  June  6,  1872) 
to  give  “the  highest  possible  scientific  education  in  agriculture  and  forestry.” 

Founded  by  the  department  of  agriculture,  the  institution  was  transferred  in 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1878  to  the  department  of  education.  Still  the  former 
department  has  preserved  a  voice  in  the  management  of  the  institution,  such  as 
questions  of  organization  and  the  nomination  and  appointment  of  professors. 

The  didactic  direction  of  the  university  is  confided  to  a  faculty  of  professors 
who  are  responsible  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  purpose  of  the  institution.  The 
rector  is  at  the  head,  and  is  elected  by  the  faculty  for  a  term  of  one  year  from 
among  the  regular  or  ordinary  professors.  The  department  of  education  has  the 
right  of  confirming  or  rejecting  the  election. 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA. 


91 


The  teaching  personnel  consists  of  17  ordinary  and  3  extraordinary  professors; 
21  private  docents;  3  teachers  and  12  assistants.  Since  the  school  year  1883-84 
three  courses  of  study  are  pursued:  (1)  For  farmers;  (2)  for  foresters,  and  (3) 
for  agricultural  technologists. 

For  the  matriculation  of  regular  students  a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a 
classical  or  realistic  high  school  of  nine  years’  course  is  required.  Regular  stu¬ 
dents  of  a  technological  university  (polytechnicum)  are  admitted  if  they  hold  the 
same  certificate.  Students  may  be  admitted  as  mere  hearers  or  extraordinary 
students  if  they  do  not  hold  the  graduation  certificate  but  possess  sufficient  prepa¬ 
ration  and  have  passed  their  eighteenth  year  of  age. 

Liberty  of  choice  is  allowed,  both  in  regard  to  studies  and  direction;  neverthe¬ 
less,  a  plan  of  studies  arranged  by  the  professors  for  each  of  the  three  courses  for 
a  term  of  three  years  is  outlined  to  be  a  guide  for  students.  The  following  con¬ 
densed  remarks  refer  to  the  system  of  examination  in  vogue: 

Regular  students  have  the  right  to  be  examined  in  their  special  studies  at  the 
close  of  each  semester  by  the  respective  lecturers  and  receive  certificates  of  progress. 
The  examinations  are  intended  to  prove  the  diligence  and  knowledge  of  students 
with  respect  to  certain  leading  courses  or  branches.  To  attest  the  result  of  the 
entire  course  of  study,  public  state  examinations  are  held;  three  for  the  students 
of  the  agricultural  and  forestry  department,  and  two  for  those  of  the  course  in 
agricultural  technique. 

The  first  (general)  state  examination  includes  the  fundamental  branches  of  all 
three  courses  of  study.  The  subjects  of  the  technical  branches  of  agriculture  and 
forestry  are  divided  into  two  examinations— the  one  including  production,  the 
other  agricultural  industry  or  management.  The  course  of  technique  comes 
within  the  scope  of  a  single  examination,  aside  from  the  general  examination, 
which  is  common  to  all  courses.  In  point  of  succession,  after  the  general  or  first 
State  examination  the  examination  on  production  forms  the  second  and  that  of  agri¬ 
cultural  industry  the  third  State  examination.  Students  of  agriculture  and  forestry 
are  required  to  pass  the  first  State  examination  at  theclose  of  the  second  or  during 
the  third  semester;  the  second  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  or  during  the  fifth  semes¬ 
ter,  and  the  third  at  the  close  of  the  sixth  semester  or  later.  The  students  of  agri¬ 
culture  technique  are  admitted  to  the  first  examination  at  the  end  of  the  third  or 
during  the  fourth,  and  the  second  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  semester. 

To  conduct  the  State  examinations  the  minister  of  education  appoints  special 
committees,  composed  partly  of  professors  and  lecturers  at  the  university,  partly 
of  men  not  connected  with  it.  The  minister  of  agriculture,  as  well  as  the  minister 
of  education,  may  delegate  special  government  commissioners  to  the  State  exami¬ 
nation. 

Other  purely  scientific  examinations,  the  examinations  for  diplomas,1  introduced 
in  1875,  are  designed  to  prove  the  highest  scientific  ability  for  the  profession  of 
agriculture  and  forestry.  Only  regular  students  who  have  completed  at  least  the 
chief  studies  of  the  three  years'  course  are  eligible  for  diploma.  The  attendance 
at  lectures  as  regular  students  at  a  technological  university,  or  of  those  on  philoso¬ 
phy  at  a  university  is  accepted;  however,  attendance  at  the  university  in  question 
for  three  semesters  at  least  is  required. 

The  diploma  examinations  for  the  two  branches  mentioned  are  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  first  of  which  includes  the  preparatory  sciences  and  law.  The  first 
group  is  open  to  candidates  after  their  third  semester  of  the  university  course,  if 
they  have  followed  the  plan  of  study  recommended.  The  second  group  is  open 
to  such  candidates  as  have  completed  at  least  the  chief  branches  of  the  respective 
technical  studies  as  regular  students  of  the  university.  Oral  examinations  are 
conducted  publicly,  written  examinations  privately  and  under  surveillance. 

The  committee  on  diploma  examinations  is  composed  of  the  regular  and 
extraordinary  professors  and  lecturers  of  the  studies  forming  the  subjects  of 
examination.  All  candidates  who  pass  receive  a  diploma  stating  their  ability  in 
agriculture  and  forestry  in  the  terms  “  competent  ”  or  “  highly  competent.”  The 
State  teachers’  examinations  in  agriculture  and  forestry  held  at  the  university 
form  no  specific  function  of  the  institution. 

For  a  number  of  years  special  courses  on  practical  agriculture  and  forestry  have 
been  held  at  the  university.  The  latest  results  of  investigation  by  practical  men 
are  given  in  lectures  and  demonstrations.  These  courses  are  usually  delivered 


Academic  degrees  are  not  granted  at  the  agricultural  university. — Tr. 


92 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


toward  the  close  of  the  winter  semester  and  include  an  extensive  series  of  lectures 
and  demonstrations  on  the  most  varied  branches  of  agriculture  and  forestry. 

2.  THE  AGRICULTURAL  COURSE  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  KRAKOW. 

This  course  was  established  in  1890.  It  is  the  second  higher  agricultural  insti¬ 
tution  in  Austria  and  the  only  one  connected'  with  any  of  the  old  universities. 
Together  with  all  its  accessories,  collections,  laboratories,  and  other  helps  it  forms 
an  integral  part  of  the  department  of  philosophy.  Being,  therefore,  a  State  insti¬ 
tution,  it  is  subject  in  its  entire  organization  to  the  law  governing  universities 
and  departments  of  philosophy  in  particular.  Consequently  only  those  are  admit¬ 
ted  as  regular  students  who  have  passed  the  graduation  examination  of  a  gym¬ 
nasium  and  hold  a  certificate  of  admission  to  universities.  Other  applicants, 
particularly  graduates  from  a  realistic  high  school,  even  though  they  hold  cer¬ 
tificates  of  admission  to  a  technological  university,  are  only  accepted  as  extraor¬ 
dinary  students,  so-called  hearers.  In  accord  with  the  academic  council  (or 
senate)  of  the  university,  the  minister  of  education  decreed  in  1891  that  students 
who  are  graduates  of  a  realistic  high  school  may,  upon  request  of  the  professors, 
be  admitted  to  the  promotion  and  graduation  examinations  if  they  attend  all  the 
lecture  courses  of  the  regular  study  plan. 

By  statute  of  the  university  the  course  on  agriculture  must  “  afford  future 
agriculturists  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  a  thorough  general  and  specific  edu¬ 
cation,  and  enable  students  of  other  courses  to  gain  a  practical  knowledge  of  agri¬ 
culture  of  use  to  them  in  their  vocations.  ”  The  complete  course  requires  three 
years.  A  definite  plan  of  study  is  outlined,  which  must  be  followed  for  intended 
graduation.  Polish  is  the  language  of  instruction. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  and  second  years  promotion  examinations,  and  after  the 
third  year  a  final  examination,  are  held.  Students  who  pass  the  last  mentioned 
are  graduated.  Regular  students  who  have  taken  a  four  years’  university  course 
can,  in  conformity  with  the  rules,  receive  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy. 
The  dissertation  submitted  for  that  purpose  may  have  an  agricultural  subject. 

A  permanent  committee,  composed  of  specially  appointed  professors  of  agricul¬ 
ture  and  three  professors  of  natural  science,  manage  all  matters  pertaining  to  this 
department.  Chairman  of  this  committee  is  the  regular  professor  appointed  by 
the  minister  of  education,  and  serving  for  three  years  as  director  of  the  agri¬ 
cultural  course.  The  corps  of  teachers  consists  of  five  professors,  two  substitute 
teachers,  and  several  assistants  and  demonstrators,  besides  a  large  number  of  pro¬ 
fessors  of  the  philosophy  faculty,  a  few  of  the  law  faculty,  one  veterinary  surgeon, 
and  two  teachers  from  other  schools  in  Krakow. 

The  agricultural  course  at  the  university  of  Krakow  was  opened  in  October, 
1890;  the  following  year  the  second  year’s  course  was  added,  and  the  third  in  1892. 
The  appointment  of  teachers  and  the  fitting  out  of  collections  went  parallel  with 
this  successive  extension.  In  1893  the  first  graduates  left  the  institution,  and 
since  then  it  has  become  more  and  more  solid  within  the  compass  of  the  organiza¬ 
tion  sketched  in  the  foregoing,  and  is  at  present  an  important  factor  in  the  system 
of  technological  instruction  in  Austria. 

3.  HIGHER  AGRICULTURAL  COURSES  IN  OTHER  INSTITUTIONS. 

Besides  the  university  of  agriculture  in  Vienna  and  the  agricultural  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  university  of  Krakow,  the  various  technological  universities  (poly- 
technica)  give  a  higher  course  of  instruction  in  agriculture.  It  is  especially 
worthy  of  note  that  the  German  and  the  Bohemian  technological  universities  at 
Prague  have  courses  on  the  technology  of  agriculture  in  which  the  important 
branch  of  technique  receives  very  much  attention. 

The  studies  of  agriculture  and  forestry  are  naturally  only  secondary  at  techno- 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA. 


93 


logical  universities.  Nevertheless  they  form  a  very  valuable  addition  to  allied 
subject-matter  in  purely  technological  branches,  and  afford  students  of  the 
last  mentioned  a  welcome  opportunity  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  essential 
principles  of  agriculture. 

As  a  matter  of  course  the  instruction  given  is  essentially  encyclopedic.  Usually 
there  is  but  one  teacher,  who,  however,  is  greatly  assisted  by  the  lectures  held  on 
the  comprehensive  studies  that  form  the  course  at  technological  universities, 
especially  the  natural  sciences,  agricultural  chemistry,  the  studies  of  mechanics 
and  machine  constructions,  and  the  technique  of  agriculture. 

Lectures  on  agriculture  are  held  every  year  at  all  technological  universities— 
that  is  to  say,  in  Vienna  in  two  departments,  in  Gratz,  in  Prague  in  two  institu¬ 
tions  (the  German  and  the  Bohemian),  and  at  the  institutions  in  Brunn  and  Lem¬ 
berg.  In  Vienna  and  Brunn  the  lecture  courses  are  conducted  by  regular  professors, 
in  Prague  by  extraordinary  professors,  and  in  Gratz  and  Lemberg  by  private  lec¬ 
turers. 

Forestry  is  included  in  the  lectures  on  agriculture  at  the  technological  university 
in  Vienna.  At  the  two  institutions  in  Prague  and  at  that  in  Lemberg  it  forms  the 
subject  of  separate  lectures.  In  Gratz  it  is  omitted  altogether,  and  in  Brunn  special 
lectures  on  the  damming  of  rivers  closely  connected  with  forestry  are  held. 

II.  Agricultural  and  Forestry  School  of  Secondary  Order. 

1.  SECONDARY  AGRICULTURAL  INSTITUTIONS  AND  MIDDLE  SCHOOLS. 

In  considering  the  agricultural  and  forestry  schools  of  the  secondary  category — 
that  is,  the  schools  which  hold  a  rank  between  the  universities  requiring  a 
complete  academic  education,  heretofore  discussed,  and  the  lower  schools  founded 
on  the  elementary  schools — we  shall  first  speak  of  agricultural  schools  exclusive  of 
forestry  schools. 

Among  these  the  schools  at  Teschen-Liebwerd  and  at  Tabor,  in  Bohemia,  and  at 
Dublany,  in  Galicia,  entitled  “secondary  agricultural  institutions, ’’rank  first  and 
hold  a  somewhat  exceptional  position.  The  two  schools  in  Bohemia  require  for 
admission  graduation  from  an  advanced  agricultural  school  or  the  completion  of 
six  grades  of  a  classical  or  a  realistic  high  school.  The  institution  in  Dublany 
requires,  as  a  rule,  the  completion  of  studies  at  a  classical  or  a  realistic  high  school, 
although  a  less  complete  preparation,  though  not  below  the  completed  sixth  grade 
of  a  high  school,  may  admit  applicants  if  they  pass  a  severe  matriculation  exami¬ 
nation.  These  three  institutions  have  a  three  years’  course  each. 

Excepting  these  three  institutions,  whose  exceptional  position  depends  upon  par¬ 
ticular  historical  developments,  the  organization  of  all  other  agricultural  secondary 
schools  in  Austria  is  alike  in  essential  features.  They  are  at  Modling  in  Nether- 
Austria;  Chrudim,  Kaaden,  and  Raudnitz-Hracholusk  in  Bohemia;  Neutitschein 
and  Prerau  in  Moravia;  Oberhermsdorf  in  Silesia;  Czernichow  in  Galicia,  and 
Czernowitz  in  Bukowina.  Applicants  who  have  finished  the  six  years’  course  of 
any  high  school  are  admitted.  The  schools  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  admit  also 
graduates  of  a  burgher  school.. 

All  agricultural  secondary  schools  have  a  three  years’  course,  during  which 
agriculture  is  thoroughly  taught,  besides  the  natural  sciences  and  the  general 
studies  (language,  history,  geography)  connected  with  the  required  preparatory 
education.  The  examinations  are,  as  a  rule,  so  arranged  that  pupils  receive  a  cer¬ 
tificate  at  the  close  of  each  semester  and  one  at  the  end  of  each  year.  All  students 
who  complete  the  three  years’ course  may  take  a  final  examination  for  graduation, 
for  which  they  receive  a  diploma.  Students  leaving  before  the  close  of  any  school 
year  receive  a  certificate  of  attendance. 

The  most  important,  the  final  or  graduation  examination,  is  both  written  and 


94 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


oral.  The  latter  includes  the  following  studies:  Anatomy  of  plants;  stock  raising, 
based  on  physiology  of  animals ;  the  study  of  agricultural  implements  and  machi  nes ; 
the  system  of  melioration;  agricultural  chemical  technology;  industry,  and  taxa¬ 
tion.  The  purpose  of  this  examination  is  not  only  to  learn  what  the  students  have 
gained  in  each  branch,  but  also,  and  particularly,  how  their  knowledge  is  corre¬ 
lated,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  utilization  of  one  science  by  the  aid  received  in  another. 

The  corps  of  teachers  consists  of  a  director,  who  represents  the  institution  and 
is  responsible  for  its  management,  and  the  required  number  of  regular  teachers  or 
professors,  besides  substitutes  and  assistants  for  inferior  studies.  All  the  higher 
and  secondary  agricultural  schools  are  State  institutions,  with  the  single  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  “  Francisco- Josephinum,”  at  Modling,*  which  is  supported  by  an 
association. 

The  graduates  of  all  these  institutions,  like  the  graduates  of  other  high  schools, 
enj  oy  the  privilege  of  only  one  year’3  military  service.  To  the  three  institutions 
mentioned  first  (see  p.  93)  the  further  privilege  is  granted  that  even  students  of 
the  senior  year  may  enjoy  the  same  favor  before  they  have  graduated,  provided 
they  make  application  during  that  year. 

2.  SECONDARY  FORESTRY  SCHOOLS. 

The  secondary  forestry  schools  correspond  to  the  agricultural  schools  of  the  sec¬ 
ond  category  just  discussed.  There  are  three  of  them,  located  in  Weisswasser, 
Bohemia;  Weisskirchen,  Moravia;  and  Lemberg,  Galicia.  The  first  two  are  asso¬ 
ciation  institutions;  the  last  mentioned  is  a  State  institution.  There  may  also  be 
mentioned  a  similar  school  in  course  of  construction  in  Eruck,  on  the  Mur  River, 
in  Styria. 

All  these  schools  follow  the  same  course  of  study.  The  statutes  of  the  school  in 
Weisskirchen  define  that  “students  shall  be  educated  by  thorough  courses  in  for¬ 
estry  and  correlative  sciences,  so  as  to  be  able  to  pass  the  State  examinations 
required  for  the  practice  of  forestry.”  The  two  years’  course  formerly  adopted  in 
these  schools  proving  altogether  insufficient,  a  third  year  was  added  to  the  course, 
which  enables  the  faculty  to  give  more  thorough  instruction  and  in  systematic 
order,  especially  in  the  natural  sciences  and  mathematics,  and,  above  all,  in  for¬ 
estry  and  its  relations.  The  humanistic  branches  are  taught  to  a  limited  extent 
in  the  most  important  general  disciplinary  studies,  religion,  language,  history,  etc. 

The  condition  of  admission  is  the  completion  of  the  studies  of  the  lower  grades 
of  a  classical  or  a  realistic  high  school  and  one  year’s  actual  practice  in  forestry. 
So  much  objection  has  recently  been  made  to  the  value  of  this  practice,  owing  to 
the  youth  of  the  students,  that  it  is  no  longer  strictly  required. 

The  corps  of  teachers  is  composed  of  a  director,  the  requisite  number  of  specialist 
professors  and  lecturers,  and  several  assistant  teachers.  As  regards  examinations, 
it  need  only  be  remarked  that  they  are  held  at  the  close  of  every  semester,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  third  year  upon  completion  of  the  course,  when  those  who  pass 
receive  a  diploma.  With  reference  to  the  one-year  military  service,  graduates  of 
these  secondary  forestry  schools  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  those  of  secondary 
agricultural  schools. 

3.  SECONDARY  SPECIAL  SCHOOLS  FOR  WINE  RAISING,  FRUIT  CULTURE,  AND 

HORTICULTURE. 

The  Geological  and  Pomological  School  at  Klosterneuburg,  near  Vienna,  holds 
a  special  rank  among  the  technical  special  schools  of  the  secondary  category.  It  is 
the  only  State  school  of  agriculture,  and  as  such  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
department  of  agriculture.  The  aim  of  this  institution  is  to  add  to  the  education 
received  in  the  lower  half  of  any  general  secondary  school  technical  instruction  in 
wine  raising,  wine  making,  wine  treating,  and  in  fruit  culture  the  profitable 


95 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA. 

utilization  of  fruit,  so  that  students  are  prepared  for  positions  as  managers  of 
vineyards,  cellarers,  teachers  of  lower  special  schools,  and  ambulatory  teachers 
of  the  courses  on  wine  raising  and  fruit  growing,  or  as  directors  of  schools  for 
wine  raising  and  arboriculture.  Furthermore,  that  owners  of  large  vineyards  and 
orchards,  as  well  as  wine  merchants,  maybe  enabled  to  conduct  their  business  intelli¬ 
gently.  Besides  these  special  branches,  agriculture,  mathematics,  law,  and  political 
economy  are  taught. 

The  purpose  of  the  studies  taught  is  attained  by  a  two  years’  course  of  theoret¬ 
ical  instruction,  corresponding  demonstrations,  and  practical  exercises  in  vine¬ 
yards,  orchards,  and  cellars,  and  by  appropriate  excursions.  The  students  are  either 
regular  or  transient  students.  The  condition  for  admission  of  regular  students 
is  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  course  of  study  of  a  general  secondary  school 
and  a  certificate  of  some  practical  experience  in  wine  and  fruit  raising.  Appli¬ 
cants  who  are  prepared  to  leave  the  lower  grades  of  a  high  school  of  six  years’ 
course  may,  upon  consent  of  the  minister  of  agriculture,  be  admitted  after  pass¬ 
ing  an  entrance  examination,  to  which  special  rules  apply.  Transient  pupils 
form  an  exception,  and  special  regulations  apply  to  their  admission.  For  the 
first  year’s  course  the  number  of  students  is  limited  to  25. 

Independent  of  tests  during  the  semester,  examinations  are  held  at  the  close  of 
each  semester  and  upon  completion  of  the  course  of  study.  The  subjects  of  the 
final  examination  are  limited  to  the  cenological  and  pomological  branches  and 
agriculture  and  their  correlated  sciences.  Those  who  pass  receive  a  diploma. 
The  corps  of  teachers  consists  of  a  director,  three  professors,  two  lecturers  for 
agriculture,  law,  and  political  economy,  one  substitute,  and  several  demonstrators 
for  practical  experiments.  The  director  has  full  charge  of  the  management,  rep¬ 
resents  the  institution,  and  is  responsible  to  the  department  of  agriculture  for  the 
position  of  the  institution  in  didactic,  disciplinary,  and  economic  relations.  All 
the  teachers  are  State  functionaries  and  are  entitled  to  pensions.  With  regard  to 
the  one-year  military  service,  the  students  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  those  of 
agricultural  secondary  schools. 

Important  supplements  to  the  curriculum  are  the  annual  special  courses  for 
practitioners  on  management  of  cellars,  grafting,  protection  against  the  Perono- 
spora  and  Oidium  of  the  vines,  and  on  fruit  culture  and  the  utilization  of  crops. 
The  most  important  of  these  courses  is  the  one  on  management  of  cellars,  held 
every  year  for  two  weeks,  usually  during  February.  It  embraces  a  complete 
series  of  lectures  (48)  and  a  number  of  demonstrations  and  excursions  in  the 
afternoons. 

Besides  the  institution  in  Klosterneuburg,  a  second  technical  secondary  school 
for  horticulture  and  fruit  culture  has  been  in  existence  in  Austria  since  1875.  It 
is  the  school  for  horticulture  and  fruit  culture  in  Eisgrub,  Moravia.  It  was 
originally  a  high  school  for  horticulture  only. 

This  institution  was  opened  in  1895  through  the  initiative  of  the  Horticultural 
Society  of  Vienna,  wfth  appropriations  from  the  department  of  agriculture  and 
the  Diet  of  Moravia  and  the  munificent  support  of  the  Prince  von  Lichtenstein, 
by  whose  generosity  the  school  was  built  in  the  extensive  gardens  of  the  Prince  at 
Eisgrub.  The  purpose  of  this  special  school  is  defined  by  its  statutes  ‘  ‘  to  give,  on 
the  basis  of  the  preparation  acquired  in  the  lower  divisions  of  a  general  secondary 
school,  or  by  the  completion  of  the  studies  of  a  burgher  school,  a  practical  scientific 
and  artistic  education  in  all  branches  of  horticulture  and  fruit  culture;  to  make 
the  students  competent  for  new  applications  of  all  kinds  of  gardening;  an  intelli¬ 
gent  management  of  vegetable  gardens;  the  direction  and  supervision  of  public 
and  private  gardens,  of  whatever  kind,  and  an  intelligent  management  of  fruit 
culture  on  a  small  or  large  scale.”  The  course  requires  three  years.  The  condi¬ 
tion  of  admission  for  ordinary  students  is  the  preparation  mentioned  in  the 
statutes  and  at  least  one  year’s  confirmed  apprenticeship  in  a  large  horticultural 


96 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


establishment.  The  number  of  students,  for  whom  a  boarding  school  exists,  is 
limited  to  20  a  year.  Transient  students  may  be  admitted  according  to  the  limit 
of  accommodations. 

Besides  the  natural  sciences  and  the  chief  branches  of  the  humanities  (religion, 
language,  history,  geography),  statistics,  and  the  technical  disciplinary  studies, 
the  curriculum  includes  special  practical  instruction,  upon  which  great  stress  is 
laid  and  for  which  the  extensive  gardens  of  the  prince  afford  a  field  for  demon¬ 
strations  and  exercises  hardly  equaled  in  extent  and  variety. 

The  system  of  examinations  and  certificates  is  similar  to  that  of  Klosterneu- 
burg.  The  institution  is  under  the  management  of  a  board  of  curators,  composed 
of  delegates  from  the  authorities  that  contribute  to  its  support.  The  corps  of 
teachers  consists  of  the  director,  three  chief  teachers,  and  a  number  of  substitutes 
and  assistants.  The  favor  of  one  year’s  military  service  is  also  accorded  to  this 
school. 

4.  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  FOR  BREWERS. 

Another  establishment  of  recent  times  within  the  domain  of  agricultural  instruc¬ 
tion  is  the  academy  for  brewers,  found  in  Vienna  (Suburb  Wahring)  in  1895  by  the 
Austrian  experiment  station  for  brewing  and  malting.  The  aim  of  this  institu¬ 
tion  is  to  educate  technologists  competent  to  fill  positions  as  managers  in  the 
establishment  of  this  industry.  Besides  instruction  in  the  theoretical  branches 
and  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  technical  auxiliary  studies,  as  construction, 
machines,  electrotechnics,  and  the  administrative  and  commercial  studies,  the 
school  offers  opportunity  to  attain  the  high  degree  of  proficiency  required  for  the 
management  of  any  large  brewery  in  the  present  state  of  high  development  of  this 
industry. 

The  degree  of  education  required  for  only'  one  year's  military  service  in  Austria- 
Hungary — that  is  to  say,  as  a  rule,  the  completion  of  the  course  at  a  general  high 
school — as  a  condition  for  admission,  corresponds  to  the  high  aim  stated  above. 
Those  holding  no  such  certificate  are  required  to  pass  an  entrance  examination. 
The  course  requires  two  years,  of  which  the  first  is  devoted  principally  to  the 
natural  sciences,  mathematics,  and  mechanics,  and  the  second  to  the  technical 
branches  and  several  auxiliaries,  as  economics,  law,  industrial  hygiene,  prevention 
of  accidents,  the  keeping  of  draft  animals,  etc. 

The  academy  for  brewing  is  connected  with  the  experiment  station  for  brewing 
and  malting  in  Vienna,  and  the  Technological  Industrial  Museum,  also  in  Vienna. 
The  lectures  and  exercises  of  the  first  year  are  conducted  in  the  latter.  Those  of 
the  second  year  are  held  in  the  building  of  the  academy  and  the  experiment  sta¬ 
tion,  where  a  large  lecture  and  drawing  hall,  a  finely  equipped  chemical,  a  micro¬ 
scopical,  and  a  biological  laboratory,  a  great  “culture  station,”  also  valuable  col¬ 
lections  of  helps  to  study  and  a  completely  equipped  school  brewery  and  malt  kiln, 
erected  at  great  cost,  are  at  the  students’  command. 

The  corps  of  teachers  consists  partly  of  lecturers  appointed  for  the  academy, 
partly  of  lecturers  of  the  Technological  Industrial  Museum.  Examinations  on 
the  practical  and  theoretical  branches  are  held  at  the  close  of  each  year  and  cer¬ 
tificates  are  given.  Those  who  complete  the  second  year's  course  receive  a  certifi¬ 
cate  of  graduation.  Those  who  have  had  a  three  years’  practical  experience, 
either  before  or  after  completing  the  course  at  the  academy,  are  entitled  to  a 
‘  ‘  brewing  masters’  diploma.  ” 


III.  Elementary  Agricultural  and  Forestry  Schools. 

1.  FARMING  SCHOOLS. 

These  farming  schools  are  elementary  agricultural  schools  with  instruction  all 
the  year  round.  As  different  as  the  purposes  of  these  institutions,  designed  prin- 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA. 


97 


cipally  for  the  farming  population,  may  be,  there  is  one  thing  in  which  they  are 
alike,  to  wit:  The  statutes  define  in  the  first  place  that  pupils  who  have  completed 
the  studies  of  an  elementary  school  shall  receive  a  practical  and  theoretical  educa¬ 
tion  which  will  enable  them  to  manage  a  small  farm  intelligently.  Many  of  the 
regulations  emphasize  the  fact  that  these  schools  are  designed  for  the  peasantry, 
young  men  from  that  class  being  admitted  in  preference  to  others.  The  further 
purpose  of  these  institutions  is  to  educate  intendants,  managers,  fodder  masters, 
cheese  makers,  and  other  auxiliaries  in  agricultural  industry.  Many  of  these 
schools  limit  the  number  of  pupils  from  didactic  reasons  and  because  of  the  lim¬ 
ited  accommodations  of  the  dormitories  often  connected  with  them.  Twenty  is 
the  largest  number  of  admissions  for  each  year’s  course. 

Farming  schools  strive  to  attain  their  purpose  by  theoretical  instruction,  not 
only  in  agriculture  and  natural  science,  but  in  the  ordinary  branches  of  general 
education,  the  main  point  of  instruction  in  the  latter  branches  being  to  confirm  the 
knowledge  acquired  in  people’s  schools.  Practical  instruction  is  likewise  given  in  all 
work  that  a  farmer  should  know  how  to  do,  such  as  cabinetmaking,  wheelwright’s 
work,  basket  braiding,  etc.  In  by  far  the  greater  number  of  these  schools  the 
course  of  study  requires  two  years.  The  exceptions  are  only  two  farming  schools 
in  Lower  Austria  (Edthof  and  Edelhof )  with  a  course  of  one  year  and  a  half,  and 
the  five  schools  in  Galicia  with  a  three  years’  course. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  elementary  agricultural  schools  in  Austria,  presup¬ 
posing  the  preparation  of  an  elementary  school,  is  the  specialty  of  practical 
instruction,  for  which  reason  they  are  open  all  the  year  round,  even  during  sum¬ 
mer,  the  most  important  time  for  practical  work.  Therefore,  a  sufficiently  large 
farm  (a  practice  farm)  is  required  by  statute  in  connection  with  them,  and  forms 
an  indispensable  means  for  demonstrations  and  exercises.  Many  enjoy  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  possessing  such  an  experiment  station,  others  are  obliged  to  rent  a  piece  of 
ground. 

The  corps  of  teachers  consists  of  regular  teachers  permanently  appointed  for 
farming  schools,  and  of  a  requisite  number  of  assistants.  The  number,  usually 
two  or  three,  is  defined  by  statute;  one  of  the  teachers  fills  the  position  of  director 
or  principal  of  the  school  and  the  school  farm  connected  with  it.  The  regular 
teachers  enjoy  permanent  positions  and,  being  ranked  as  public  functionaries, 
have  a  right  to  pensions  when  they  retire. 

The  greater  number  of  these  schools  are  under  the  management  of  a  board  of 
curators  composed  of  delegates  selected  by  those  who  contribute  to  the  support 
of  the  school.  They  supervise  the  instructions,  administer  all  their  financial 
affairs,  and  in  case  of  vacancies  in  the  faculty  make  new  appointments,  while  the 
appointment  of  assistants  and  all  the  laborers  is  under  the  immediate  control  of 
the  schools  themselves.  The  highest  administrative  authority  emanates  from  the 
State  governments  of  the  crown  lands  or  provinces.  As  a  rule,  two  kinds  of  cer¬ 
tificates  are  issued:  the  so-called  classification  certificate,  stating  the  results  of 
examinations  held  during  the  year,  and  certificates  of  completion  of  the  studies 
given  as  a  result  of  final  examinations. 

.  2.  AGRICULTURAL  WINTER  SCHOOLS. 

The  purpose  of  agricultural  winter  schools  is  to  give  pupils  who  have  left  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  and  desire  to  become  farmers  on  a  small  scale  a  theoretical 
preparation,  principally  for  the  profession,  with  the  least  expenditure  of  money 
and  time.  As  the  name  implies,  these  institutions  are  open  only  during  the 
winter  months.  In  the  spring  the  pupils  return  home  to  begin  practical  field  work. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  agricultural  winter  schools— those  with  a  one  year’s 
course,  those  with  an  optional  two  years’,  and  those  with  an  obligatory  two  years’ 


ED  1901 


■7 


98 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


course.  The  first  class,  open  only  one  winter  (five  or  six  months) ,  are  gradually 
decreasing  in  number,  as  it  is  beginning  to  be  understood  that  their  purpose  can 
be  attained  only  by  a  two  years’  course,  in  those  with  an  optional  two  years’ 
course  the  instruction  given  during  the  first  winter  is  reviewed,  applied,  and 
greatly  extended  during  the  second  winter.  In  those  with  an  obligatory  two  years’ 
course  the  students  are  divided  in  such  a  way  that  the  fundamental  branches 
precede  the  technical,  and  the  first  course  devoted  to  the  first-mentioned  branches 
forms  no  complete  whole,  but  is  simply  a  preparation  for  the  second,  the  two 
forming  a  complete  course. 

The  winter  schools  have  increased  to  a  remarkable  extent  in  Austria  during  the 
last  ten  years.  As  the  statistics  show,  fifty-seven,  or  more  than  one-third  of  the 
one  hundred  and  fifty-nine  agricultural  schools  in  1898-99,  were  winter  schools. 
The  favor  which  these  schools  enjoy  in  preference  to  schools  open  all  the  year 
round  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  attendance  being  required  during  the  months 
from  October  to  April  only,  pupils  are  able  to  return  home  in  the  spring  and  help 
their  parents  in  outdoor  work.  The  people  attach  great  weight  to  this  circum¬ 
stance,  though  they  realize  the  disadvantage  of  having  no  practical  field  exercises 
which  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  pupils  combined  with  theoretical  instruction. 

Several  winter  schools  are  trying  to  remedy  this  evil  by  brief,  practical,  sum¬ 
mer  courses  on  certain  branches  of  agriculture  (for  instance,  fruit,  fodder,  and 
vegetable  culture).  It  stands  to  reason  that  no  exhaustive  practical  instruction- 
can  be  given.  The  curriculum,  in  general,  includes  all  the  fundamental  branches 
taught  in  farming  schools  limited  by  the  shorter  terms.  The  personnel  of  teach¬ 
ers,  as  a  rule,  consists  of  only  one  permanent  teacher,  who  is  the  director  and 
teaches  the  technical  branches  and  natural  sciences,  and  of  a  small  number  of 
assistants  or  substitutes  for  the  general  studies.  For  each  of  the  agricultural 
winter  schools  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  two  special  teachers  are  appointed. 

Although  almost  all  these  schools  are  supported  by  associations,  the  teachers 
enjoy  the  rank  of  government  officials,  and  are  pensioned  like  those  of  farming 
schools.  Winter  schools  in  all  economic  and  administrative  affairs  are  under  the 
management  of  boards  of  curators  composed  similarly  to  those  of  farming  schools 
and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  government  council.  According  to  the 
statutes  of  organization,  final  examinations  are  held  at  the  close  of  the  course  and 
certificates  are  given  to  those  who  pass  them. 

3.  ELEMENTARY  FORESTRY  SCHOOLS. 

As  farming  and  agricultural  winter  schools  form  the  lowest  grade  of  agricul¬ 
tural,  so  the  two  kinds  of  elementary  forestry  schools,  namely,  ‘ 4  forestry  training 
schools  ”  amd  “  s}Tviculture  schools,”  form  the  lowest  grade  of  forestry  instruction 
offered  in  Austria.  The  number  of  these  schools  is  conspicuously  small.  While 
in  the  school  year  1898-99  there  were  97  farming  and  agricultural  winter  schools 
in  all  Austria,  there  were  only  seven  forestry  schools.  It  is  not  surprising,  then, 
that  an  effort  has  recently  been  made  to  establish  more  of  such  institutions. 
Very  lately,  in  1899,  two  new  sylviculture  schools  were  established  in  Bohemia, 
and  both  opened  with  favorable  attendance. 

The  purpose  of  all  forestry  training  schools,  four  in  number  at  the  close  of  1899, 
is  to  educate  foresters  and  assistants,  especially  for  State  forestry.  On  account  of 
the  extensive  forests  of  Austria  and  the  consequent  need  of  foresters,  these  schools 
are  State  institutions  and  are  subject  to  the  board  of  directors  of  forests  and 
domains,  and  in  the  last  instance  to  the  minister  of  agriculture. 

Instruction  is  given  during  eleven  months,  beginning  with  October  1 ,  and  is  dur¬ 
ing  the  winter,  till  the  close  of  March,  confined  to  the  class  room.  During  the 
summer  practical  exercises  are  conducted  in  the  woods.  The  conditions  of  admission 
are  relatively  high,  being  the  completion  of  the  studies  of  a  burgher  school,  or  three 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IH  AUSTRIA. 


99 


years  of  a  high  school,  and  at  least  one  year’s  practical  experience  in  forestry.  The 
curriculum  includes  elementary  instruction  in  the  studies  of  arithmetic,  geometry, 
surveying,  mensuration,  natural  science,  natural  history,  penmanship,  drawing,  and 
the  technical  branches  of  sylviculture,  preservation,  use,  and  administration  of 
forests,  besides  instruction  in  hunting  and  fishing,  the  study  of  game  laws,  out¬ 
lines  of  construction,  and  first  help  in  cases  of  accidents.  The  personnel  of  the 
schools  is  selected  from  the  board  of  administrators  of  forests  and  domains,  and 
always  consist  of  a  director  and  one  or  two  assistants — forest  assistants  or  advanced 
students.  Pupils  are  obliged  to  pass  public  examinations  at  the  close  of  the 
course,  which  are  divided  into  those  held  in  the  woods  and  those  held  in  the  school¬ 
room. 

The  second  type  of  elementary  forestry  schools  in  Austria  includes  the  so-called 
sylviculture  schools,  all  of  them  institutions  supported  by  associations.  The  one 
in  Aggsbach,  Lower  Austria,  and  that  in  Pisek,  Bohemia,  are  connected  with 
farming  schools,  that  of  Weisskirchen,  Moravia,  is  connected  with  a  secondary 
forestry  school. 

These  institutions  are  designed  to  educate  foresters,  assistant  foresters,  and 
guards.  For  admission  the  school  in  Pisek  requires  the  completion  of  the  studies 
of  a  burgher  school,  or  four  years’  attendance  at  a  high  school  of  six  grades;  the 
other  two  require  one  year  of  preparation  less,  but  all  have  the  indispensable 
requirement  of  one  year’s  practical  service  in  forestry. 

The  course  of  study  at  the  school  in  Pisek,  which  has  by  far  the  largest  attend¬ 
ance,  is  the  most  extended  and  requires  two  years;  the  other  two  have  only  one 
grade.  All  three  institutions  teach  the  studies  of  a  general  education,  particularly 
language,  the  fundamental  branches  of  the  mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences, 
besides  technical  subjects  with  correlative  and  auxiliary  branches,  as  construc¬ 
tion,  hunting,  fishing,  and  game  laws.  In  Pisek  the  encyclopedic  study  of  agri¬ 
culture  is  added  to  this  curriculum.  All  three  institutions  attach  great  impor¬ 
tance  to  practical  instruction  in  the  woods. 

In  Aggsbach  the  teaching  personnel  consists  of  two  specially  appointed  teach¬ 
ers,  one  of  whom  acts  as  principal.  In  Weisskirchen  the  teachers  are  selected 
from  those  of  the  higher  institution,  and  in  Pisek  partly  from  those  of  the  farm¬ 
ing  school.  Semiannual  examinations  are  held  at  all  these  schools,  and  a  certifi¬ 
cate  for  completion  of  studies  is  given  if  the  final  examination  is  passed. 

4.  DAIRY  AND  HOUSEKEEPING  SCHOOLS. 

While  all  the  categories  of  schools  that  have  been  discussed  are  open  only  to 
boys  and  young  men,  dairy  and  housekeeping  schools  are  designed  either  exclu¬ 
sively  for  girls  and  young  women  or  they  admit  them.  The  purely  housekeeping 
schools  are  meant  exclusively  for  girls.  Their  purpose  is  to  instruct  young  women 
in  household  duties  and  to  create  skill  in  the  management  of  a  country  home. 
Instruction,  therefore,  includes  management  of  stables  and  dairies,  vegetable  and 
fruit  culture  in  home  gardens,  the  utilization  of  fruit,  and  general  housekeeping 
(superintendence  of  kitchens,  including  baking  and  laundry),  female  handiwork, 
hygiene,  and  care  of  the  sick.  Besides  religion,  language  and  arithmetic  are 
taught.  The  latter  branch  includes  the  keeping  of  household  accounts.  Some 
schools  also  include  the  education  of  children.  These  schools  are  differently 
arranged  in  details,  and  it  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article  to  enter  upon  these 
differences.  It  is  almost  needless  to  remark  that  these  institutions  are  arranged 
as  boarding  schools,  the  pupils  being  as  a  rule  arranged  in  groups,  for  special 
importance  is  attached  to  practical  exercises  in  work.  Three  female  teachers  are 
in  charge.  The  matron  supervises  and  teaches  the  branches  of  housekeeping;  the 
stewardess  instructs  in  stable  and  dairy  work,  and  the  industrial  teacher  teaches 
female  handiwork,  arithmetic,  and  composition  (letter  writing).  Besides  these 


100 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


three  there  are  some  assistants  for  other  branches  according  to  local  demands. 
The  course  requires  one  year. 

Housekeeping  schools,  according  to  experience  so  far,  are  very  successful. 
Attendance  has  steadily  increased.  Where  regular  schools  with  dormitories  do 
not  exist,  short  courses  on  housekeeping  are  held  for  several  months,  mostly  in 
elementary  agricultural  schools,  especially  in  winter  schools.  In  these  courses  the 
most  important  branches  of  the  above-mentioned  curriculum  are  taught  within  a 
more  limited  space  of  time. 

In  Friedland,  Bohemia,  there  is,  aside  from  a  regular  housekeeping  school,  an 
independent  dairy  school,  governed  by  its  own  statutes  and  possessing  steam 
appliances.  It  is  designed  exclusively  for  dairy  instruction  and  several  courses  of 
lectures  are  given  during  the  year,  some  for  men  and  some  for  women. 

5.  ELEMENTARY  SPECIAL  SCHOOLS  FOR  HORTICULTURE,  FRUIT,  WINE,  FLAX,  AND 

HOP  CULTURE. 

Necessities  felt  in  various  branches  of  the  agricultural  industry  have  in  the 
course  of  time  led  to  the  establishment  of  schools  for  special  branches  which  can 
not  receive  sufficient  attention  in  general  agricultural  schools.  For  this  reason 
special  schools  for  horticulture,  wine,  fruit,  and  hop  culture  have  been  established, 
with  extensive  buildings  and  experimental  fields,  designed  to  give  their  pupils, 
who,  as  a  rule,  have  completed  the  elementary  course  of  a  people’s  school,  theoretical 
and  practical  instruction,  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  practice  their  specialty  intelli¬ 
gently  later  in  life.  Those  for  wine  and  fruit  culture,  chiefly  State  institutions, 
may  be  considered  the  most  important  of  these  special  schools.  The  next  in  order 
are  horticultural  schools  for  the  education  of  practical  vegetable  gardeners. 

The  institutions  belonging  to  this  category,  included  in  the  statistical  notes  fol¬ 
lowing,  are  arranged  very  differently  to  satisfy  local  demands  and  the  reasons  for 
their  foundation.  They  are  partly  State,  partly  association,  partly  community,  and 
partly  private  institutions.  The  term  of  instruction  varies  between  a  winter 
course  and  one  of  three  years.  The  studies  in  subject-matter  and  extent  likewise 
show  the  greatest  variations,  but  it  is  impossible  to  classify  or  group  the  schools 
as  was  done  with  others  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 

6.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  FOR  BREWING  AND  DISTILLING. 

Strictly  speaking,  these  schools  belong  rather  to  technical  industry  than  to  the 
culture  of  the  soil.  In  Austria  they  are  represented  by  two  schools  for  brewing 
and  two  for  distilling.  One  of  the  schools  for  brewing  is  connected  with  the  agri¬ 
cultural  secondary  school  Francisco- Josephinum  as  a  branch  institute,  and  is 
managed  by  a  board  of  directors  under  the  control  of  the  board  of  curators  of  the 
agricultural  school  with  which  it  is  affiliated.  This  school,  with  which  a  well- 
equipped  school  brewery  for  experiments  is  connected,  is  designed  to  give  practical 
brewers  theoretical  instruction  combined  with  laboratory  exercises  in  chemistry 
and  experiments  in  the  school  brewery.  The  elementary  school  branches  are 
included  in  the  curriculum.  The  school  year  is  divided  into  two  terms  of  equal 
length,  technical  instruction  being  confined  to  the  second  term.  Applicants  with 
an  advanced  preparatory  education — for  instance,  that  offered  in  the  lower -grade 
general  high  school  or  in  a  secondary  agricultural  school,  as  well  as  those  who 
are  older  and  who  have  held  independent  positions  in  the  business— are  admitted 
at  once  to  the  second  course.  The  conditions  of  admission  to  the  first  course  are 
the  completion  of  the  studies  of  an  elementary  school  and  at  least  a  half  year’s 
practical  experience  in  a  brewery. 

The  city  of  Prague  possesses  a  similar  school  which  belongs  to  two  associations, 
the  brewers’  association  in  Prague  and  the  industrial  brewing  association  of 
Bohemia.  The  preparatory  education  required  is  the  completion  of  the  course  of 


AGRICULTURAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA. 


101 


studies  of  a  burgher  school,  commercial  school,  or  the  lower  half  of  a  general  high 
school.  Those  who  can  not  comply  with  these  conditions  are  admitted  if  they 
pass  the  entrance  examination.  The  school  year  begins  with  the  first  of  November 
and  ends  with  the  last  of  June  and  is  not  so  strictly  divided  into  two  terms  as  that 
of  the  school  in  Modling.  Owing  to  the  shorter  term  the  course  of  studies  is 
somewhat  less  extensive.  Nevertheless  the  institution,  which  gives  instruction  in 
two  languages,  German  and  Bohemian,  and  admits  pupils  of  both  nationalities, 
has  a  very  good  annual  attendance. 

There  are  also  two  elementary  schools  for  distilling,  one  in  Prague,  founded  by 
the  association  for  the  alcohol  industry  in  Bohemia.  This  school  has  an  experiment 
plant.  The  other  school  is  at  Dublany,  Galicia,  and  was  founded  by  a  committee 
of  the  higher  agricultural  institution  of  that  crownland.  Both  schools  are  designed 
to  prepare  managers  of  distilleries,  theoretically  and  practically,  by  a  seven  months’ 
course  of  study.  Those  who  have  completed  the  course  of  a  high  school  of  six 
years,  or  that  of  an  agricultural  school,  and  practical  men  who  can  pass  the  entrance 
examination,  are  admitted.  Great  importance  is  attached  to  experimental  lessons 
in  both  schools,  that  in  Prague  dividing  its  students  into  four  groups,  each  assigned 
to  different  work.  Frequent  distribution  of  work  enables  the  students  to  acquire 
a  general  and  thorough  knowledge  of  distilling  in  a  short  time. 

Statistical  Data. 

To  complete  the  foregoing  condensed  account  of  the  system  and  organization  of 
agricultural  and  forestry  schools  in  Austria  a  few  statistical  data  may  follow: 

At  the  close  of  the  school  year  1898-99  there  were  159  agricultural  and  forestry 
schools  in  Austria.  These  include  2  institutions  of  university  rank;  12  secondary 
agricultural  schools  and  colleges;  3  secondary  forestry  schools;  2  secondary  special 
schools  for  wine  and  fruit  and  horticulture;  1  secondary  school  for  brewers;  40 
farming  schools,  or  elementary  agricultural  schools,  open  all  the  year;  57  agricul¬ 
tural  winter  schools;  7  elementary  forestry  schools;  13  dairy  and  housekeeping 
schools;  18  elementary  special  schools  for  fruit,  wine,  and  hop,  and  horticulture;  2 
schools  for  brewers;  2  schools  for  distillers. 

According  to  the  school  census  of  1898-99  these  institutions  were  attended  by 
5,343  students. 

According  to  the  language  of  instruction,  these  159  institutions  were  divided 
into  65  German,  62  Bohemian,  6  mixed  German  and  Bohemian,  17  Polish,  3  Slavo¬ 
nian,  2  Italian,  1  Servo-Croatian,  1  German-Italian,  1  German-Ruthenian,  and  1 
German-Roumanian. 

The  detailed  statistics  are  here  omitted,  but  from  what  has  been  said  it  is  seen 
that  instruction  in  the  important  study  of  agriculture,  the  basis  of  the  nation’s 
prosperity,  is  comprehensive  and  regulated  by  a  definite  system.  If,  besides  agri¬ 
cultural  and  forestry  schools,  we  consider  the  other  manifold  institutions  for 
instruction  in  agriculture  not  organized  as  separate  schools,  such  as:  (1)  Instruc¬ 
tion  given  in  agriculture  and  forestry  at  many  schools  as  a  supplementary  branch; 
(2)  ambulatory  lectures  on  agriculture;  (3)  the  very  large  and  constantly  increas¬ 
ing  number  of  special  popular  courses  given  by  expert  professors;  (4)  the  instruc¬ 
tion  in  agriculture  offered  in  rural  continuation  schools  (which  is  in  need  of 
extension  and  vigorous  development)  for  people  too  old  to  attend  elementary 
schools,  and  (5 )  other  agencies  for  disseminating  knowledge  of  agriculture,  we  may 
assert  that  in  Austria— thanks  to  the  active  and  unselfish  cooperation  of  all  factors 
concerned,  State  and  provincial  governments,  special  corporations,  societies,  and 
private  citizens— those  who  intend  to  follow,  or  are  following  already,  the  profes¬ 
sion  of  agriculture  and  forestry  enjoy  the  advantage  of  perfecting  themselves 
in  the  most  varied  manner  and  according  to  their  necessities  in  all  the  special 
branches  of  their  profession. 


102 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


All  existing  institutions  with  this  purpose  in  view  are  in  a  state  of  constant 1 
progress  and  development  so  as  to  be  able  ever  to  meet  new  demands  and  new 
necessities;  this  sketch  is  therefore  not  a  representation  of  a  complete  develop¬ 
ment,  but  only  of  the  present  progressive  state  of  affairs. 


XII.  NOIRE’S  LOGOS  THEORY. 

[Prof.  Ludwig  Noire,  in  his  book  on  “  Logos,  Ursprung  und  Wesen  der  Begriffe,” 
closes  his  interesting  philosophic  discussion  with  a  chapter  entitled  “  The  Logos 
Theory.”  In  this  chapter  he  elucidates  the  theory  of  apperception  in  so  instruc¬ 
tive  a  manner  that  it  seems  proper  to  render  it  in  English  as  a  contribution  to  the 
discussion  on  psychology,  especially  on  apperception,  at  present  going  on  in  the 
educational  press  of  this  country.] 

I  shall  call  my  theory  of  the  origin  of  language  the  logos  theory.  Two  other 
names  are  appropriate  for  it  also,  to  wit,  “  sympathy  theory  ”  and  “  causality  the¬ 
ory,”  though  not  completely,  because  they  do  not  include  all  the  various  parts  of 
the  whole  organic  analysis.  The  term  logos  theory  puts  the  weight  of  the  argu¬ 
ment  where  it  belongs,  namely,  in  the  origin  of  the  idea  and  the  combination  of 
the  various  opposing  elements  which  had  to  join  and  organically  combine  to  gen¬ 
erate  and  develop  language  and  thought,  the  greatest  wonder,  the  pride  of  crea¬ 
tion.  These  contrasts  or  opposites  may  be  plainly  shown,  in  order  to  make  the 
reader  conscious  of  the  many  powers  which  had  to  combine  to  form  the  seed  bud 
of  linguistic  life  and  to  prove  the  absurdity  and  the  nonsensical  triviality  of  the 
so-called  “  imitation  and  interjection  theory;”  for  these  are  explanations  of  the 
process  of  thought  that  can  suit  only  such  people  as  do  not  think.  I  will  begin 
with  a  comparison  of  language  and  poetry. 

Poetry  is,  even  to-day,  creating  language,  that  is  to  say,  ideas,  and  all  original 
creating  of  language  was  poetry — high,  ideal  poetry.  When  in  the  midst  of  the 
chaotic,  noisy,  many-voiced  concert  of  sounds  of  volition  and  emotion,  for  the 
first  time  on  our  earth  a  sound  was  heard  that  had  a  distinct  comprehensible  sense, 
an  objective  meaning,  it  was  a  moment  of  lofty  poesy,  for  then  the  sixth  day  of 
creation  dawned. 

Let  us,  therefore,  look  into  poetry  as  the  living,  ever-widening  stream  of  the 
power  of  language  for  an  explanation  of  the  essence  and  characteristics  of  human 
thought  in  its  perceptible,  tangible  appearance  in  language.  Above  all,  let  us 
see  what  ultimate  contrasts  are  lying  hidden  in  its  depth,  which  in  their  combi¬ 
nation  and  cooperation  constitute  its  life. 

Jean  Paul1  says-of  the  drama  that  its  most  important  task  is  the  correct  state¬ 
ment  of  motives.  “But  what  else  is  this  than  to  make  inner  necessity  appear  in 
the  external  succession  of  facts  and  scenes?  This  is  possible  in  four  ways:  (1) 
Inner  phenomena  arise  from  outer,  (2)  outer  from  inner,  (3)  outer  from  outer, 
(4)  inner  from  inner  x>henomena.” 

The  drama  is  the  core  of  all  poetry,  for  in  it  speech  and  action,  action  and 
speech,  are  of  equal  importance;  each  pervades  the  other,  both  elucidate  each 
other.  What,  then,  Jean  Paul  says  of  the  drama  may  be  applied  to  all  poetic 
expression.  I  shall  proceed  to  present  the  four  categories  in  their  natural  succes¬ 
sion  and  explain  them  by  examples.  Action  implies  doing  or  working  (wirken); 
but  doing  implies  causality,  the  fundamental  object  of  thinking,  and  hence  the 
only  means  of  portrayal  in  poetry.  We  may  use  the  term  “originate”  (grow  out 
of)  instead  of  “wirken”  (doing  or  performing). 

1.  In  poetic  expressions  exterior  things  work  upon  other  exterior  things.  This 
relation — that  of  cause  and  effect — is  the  fundamental  category  of  all  our  compre- 


Vorschule  der  Aesthetik,  II,  p.  80. 


noire’s  logos  theory. 


103 


hension  of  the  perceptible  world.  Everything  is  traceable  to  it;  every  things  must 
be  expressed  through  it;  without  it  no  expression  is  possible.  It  therefore  must  be 
presupposed,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  all  the  following  cases,  since,  evidently,  all 
inner  things  can  only  be  existent  for  language  and  thought  after  they  ar  expressed, 
i.  e.,  after  appearing  as  perceptible  words.  Hence  that  which  distinguishes  the 
first  category  from  the  three  following  ones  is  the  fact  that  in  it  only  a  purely 
mechanical  process  takes  place,  while  the  interior — the  will — does  not  apparently 
come  into  consideration.  It  is  the  source  of  its  appeal  to  sense-perception 
(Anschaulichkeit),  the  supreme  merit  of  all  poetry. 

Horace  says:  “  You  see  how  Mount  Soracte  stands  out  covered  with  deep  snow; 
how  the  moaning  trees  bend  under  their  burden;  how,  arrested  by  the  frost,  rivers 
and  brooks  halt  in  their  courses.”  All  this  is  outer  causality,  outer  change,  very 
characteristic  through  the  contrast  to  the  former  natural  condition,  when  Mount 
Soracte  appeared  green,  the  trees  stretched  their  limbs  aloft,  and  the  rivers  and 
brooks  incessantly  hurried  onward.  An  opposite  case  is  found  in  a  similar  form 
of  representation: 

Diffugere  nives,  redeunt  iam  gramina  campis, 

Arboribusque  comae. 

And  here  are  two  more:  “May  is  laughing,  the  woods  are  free  of  rime  and  icicles; 
snow  is  gone,  at  every  green  grove  songs  of  joy  are  heard.”  “Freed  of  ice  are 
streams  and  brooks  through  Spring’s  gentle  reviving  glance.” 

xAll  these  exhibit  outer  changes  conceived  as  processes  of  causality,  the  more 
effective  and  expressive  the  stronger  the  contrasts  that  connect  them.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  one  sees  here,  as  everywhere  in  poetry,  the  inner  life  appear;  in  the  “gentle 
reviving  glance,”  “the  laughing  May,”  “the  songs  of  joy,”  “the  vanishing  of 
snow.” 

Schiller  describes  the  power  of  Charybdis  in  the  following:  “  Ah,  many  a  vessel, 
caught  by  the  whirlpool,  shot  down  into  the  abyss;  and  shattered  keel  and  mast 
alone  arise  from  the  all-devouring  grave.” 

Again,  outer  mechanical  causality.  Great  and  lofty  verses  often  owe  their 
beauty  to  the  apparent  want  of  relation  between  cause  and  effect,  by  creating  an 
enormous  effect  from  an  insignificant  outer  cause,  whereby  the  great  power  of  the 
originator  appears  in  a  bright  light.  To  this  kind  belongs  also  the  famous  line: 

And  God  said,  Let  there  be  light:  and  there  was  light. 

The  simple  word  of  command  is  the  cause.  Haydn  has  so  interpreted  this  pas¬ 
sage  musically  that,  at  the  last  word,  an  immeasurable  fullness  of  tone,  ever 
broader  and  broader  sequent  chords,  signify  the  immensity  of  the  effect  in  con¬ 
trast  to  the  simple  command.  The  opposite  was  done  by  Handel  in  his  admirable 
oratorio  “  Israel  in  Egypt:” 

He  commanded  the  sea — and  it  dried  up. 

Here  the  command  is  all-powerful,  the  effect  “pianissimo,”  the  sea  obeys  humbly. 
Both  composers  intended  to  express  the  same  thing  in  opposite  ways.  Haydn 
describes  the  majesty  of  the  Creator  by  the ‘grandeur  of  the  effect  produced;  Han¬ 
del  through  a  perceptible  minimizing  of  the  effect  which,  yet,  is  perceived  to  be 
immense. 

To  this  kind  of  poetic  expressions  belongs  also  the  passage  from  Homer  in  which 
Zeus  by  the  mere  frown  of  his  dark  eyebrows  and  a  nod  of  his  head  makes  great 
Olympus  shake,  a  passage  which  three  Roman  poets  have  adopted: 

Horace:  “  Cuncta  supercilio  moventis.” 

Virgil:  “Annuit  et  totum  nutu  tremefecit  Olvmpum.” 

Ovid:  “  Concussit  terque  quaterque 

Caesariem  cum  qua  terras,  mare,  sidera  movit.” 

Here,  in  order  that  the  supernatural  strength  of  the  thunderer  be  made  obvious, 
the  mechanical  effect  (effect  of  outer  things  upon  outer  things)  is  presupposed, 


104 


EDUCATION  KEPOET,  1900-1901. 


although  I  do  not  mean  to  deny  that  as  concerns  the  humbly  obeying  sea,  ethical 
motives,  that  is,  a  mythological  style  of  speech,  may  also  be  presupposed.  In  that 
case  it  is  the  living  God  who  has  created  all  and  whose  voice  is  heard  by  the 
trembling  creature,  which  latter  obeys  unconditionally.  If  viewed  in  that  sense 
the  example  may  be  classed  in  the  third  category. 

How  picturesque  is  the  outer  effect  in  the  following  by  Uhland:  “And  the  boat¬ 
man  kneeled  oars  at  rest  until  he  had  softly  said  his  Ave.” 

Can  the  peace  of  eventide  be  expressed  more  beautifully  than  by  saying  that 
upon  the  ever  restless  ocean  the  boatman  may  rest  upon  his  oars  and  kneel  to 
say  a  prayer? 

2.  The  effect  of  the  outer  world  upon  the  inner  world  is  naturally  very  much 
more  frequent  in  poetry,  since  it  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  at  the  disposal 
of  the  poet  in  order  to  put  reader  or  hearer  into  suitable  mood.  When  in  Schil¬ 
ler’s  Diver,  after  a  twice -repeated  summons  of  the  king,  in  presence  of  the  ladies  of 
a  resplendent  court,  “  all  remains  silent  as  before,”  how  can  the  awe-inspiring 
Charbydis  be  described  more  vividly  than  through  this  effect  upon  the  mind? 
How  ancient  Homer  delineates  the  beauty  of  Helen  passing,  by  the  one  cry  of 
rapture  of  the  old  men — the  one  pen  stroke  which  surpasses  all  possible  descrip¬ 
tion — Lessing  has  shown  us.  Such  lines  as,  “And  aery  of  horror  is  heard  round 
about  ”  in  Schiller’s  Diver,  instead  of  “  The  youth  leaps  down,”  “And  all  present 
turn  pale,”  in  The  Struggle  with  the  Dragon,  as  the  master  puts  the  stern,  unex¬ 
pected  question,  are  means  of  poetic  representation  t  equally  eloquent  and  simple. 
This  subject  is  so  extensive  that  it  can  never  be  exhausted  in  this  discussion. 

3.  The  effect  of  the  inner  upon  the  outer  world  can  happen  only  where  sympa¬ 
thy  is  presupposed,  and  is  therefore  closely  connected  with  the  first  category 
(which  is  decisive  everywhere)  as  well  as  with  the  fourth.  When  at  the  sound  of 
Amphion’s  lyre  silently  stone  fits  itself  upon  stone,  or  when  it  is  said  of  Orpheus, 
“Mulcentem  tigres  et  agentem  carmine  quercus,”  material  and  wild  nature  feels 
the  charm  of  the  song,  otherwise  these  miracles  could  not  happen. 

When  Virgil  describes  the  wild  uproar  of  an  enraged  populace  which  subsides 
suddenly  at  the  appearance  of  a  distinguished  man  we  may  consider  this  as  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of  moral  or  spiritual  effect,  very  well  adapted  to 
exemplify  the  appearance  of  a  god  who  commands  repose  to  raging  storms  and 
furious  waves.  Of  similar  sublimity  is  the  passage  in  ‘ 1  The  Struggle  with  the 
Dragon,”  where  the  commotion  of  the  people  who  are  storming  and  raging,  a 
fully  painted  scene,  is  instantly  quieted  by  the  imposing  personality: 

“  Then  the  master  sternly  knit  his  brow 
And  commanded  silence.” 

The  more  imposing  the  outer  appearance  in  which  the  process  takes  place,  the 
more  plainly  is  the  inner  process  demonstrated.  This  third  category  may  best  be 
termed  the  rule  of  expression,  the  second  the  rule  of  impression. 

4.  The  last  category  is  that  of  the  effect  of  the  inner  upon  the  inner  world. 
While  the  first  is  the  only  materiel  of  poetry,  which  can  exist  only  through  illustra¬ 
tion  (Veranschaulichung),  the  fourth  is  the  source  of  poetry,  as  indeed  of  all  art. 
For  in  art  soul  speaks  to  soul,  but  it  is  able  to  do  that  only  through  the  medium 
of  sense  perception,  through  outer  representation.  Speaking  generally,  all  four 
categories  are  effective  in  poetry  simultaneously.  I  have  separated  and  distin¬ 
guished  them  merely  with  reference  to  their  greater  or  less  effectiveness.  Even 
the  purely  objective  process  of  the  first  category  must  interest  from  another  rea¬ 
son  than  the  simple  recognition,  it  must,  at  least,  express  a  mood,  a  disposition, 
hence  be  spiritualized.  The  last  category  is  the  law  of  sympathy. 

It  needs  no  proof  that  all  this,  as  a  last  contrast,  rests  upon  the  relation  of  sub¬ 
ject  to  object.  For  the  inner  world  (we  may  call  it  will,  emotion,  sentiment,  idea, 
or  what  not)  is  always  the  essential  part  of  the  subject,  the  outer  (the  representa- 


Loire’s  log-os  theory. 


105 


tion  in  time  and  space)  the  essential  part  of  the  object.  Hence  there  are  only 
two  conceptions  of  the  world  possible,  one  given  within,  an  ethical,  and  the  other 
determined  from  without,  a  physical  conception.  To  show  how  art  steps  in 
between  and  mediates  is  the  task  of  aesthetics. 

The  whole  presentation  includes,  as  we  see,  the  essence  and  effect  of  modern 
poetry.  If  starts  with  the  presupposition  which  is  the  self-evident  basis  and  law  of 
all  cognition,  namely,  that  the  outer  world  has  an  effect  upon  outer  things,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  law  of  causality.  As  has  been  shown,  poetry  always  deals  with  inner 
motives,  not  exterior  cognition;  it  ever  dives  down  into  the  earlier  sources  from 
which  cognition  itself  has  arisen.  But  to  us  who  are  occupied  with  the  origin, 
the  coming  into  existence  of  cognition,  the  premise  taken  as  self-evident,  namely, 
the  effect  of  object  upon  object,  is  the  problem,  the  end  to  be  sought.  For  we 
know  that  this  apparently  natural  relation  is  the  hard-earned  fruit  of  human 
reason,  for  it  is  by  no  means  simply  a  relation  of  natural  objects,  but  in  truth  the 
“causal  nexus”  of  ideas. 

Much  more  original  and  natural  are  therefore  the  other  links  or  categories  in 
which  the  subjective  essentially  participates,  as  we  see  in  animals  whose  intellect 
never  passes  out  of  the  subjective  sphere,  but  always  perceives  objects  and  causes 
effects  directly.  Our  task,  to  aspire  toward  the  highest  character  of  human  rea¬ 
son,  objectivity,  leads  us  to  develop  the  relation  between  subject  and  object  in 
inverse  succession. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  demonstrate  how  my  theory  of  the  origin  of  language 
embraces  and  connects  this  deepest  contrast  in  its  fourfold  development.  The 
theory  starts  from  the  last  root  of  the  effect  of  the  inner  upon  the  inner  world, 
will  upon  will;  that  is,  the  ethical  element.  Above  all  it  presupposes  sympathy, 
and  explains,  first  of  all,  our  social  relation.  This  sympathetic  subjective  com¬ 
mon  will  becomes  objective,  it  expresses  itself  in  effects  produced  by  common  phys¬ 
ical  powers.  Common  will  becomes  objective  by  common  activity  and  thereby 
becomes  conscious  of  itself;  hence  it  is  the  third  category  (effect  of  the  inner  world 
upon  the  outer),  the  many  wills  attuned  alike,  which  are  here  represented.  It  is 
clear  that  not  the  will  produced  changes,  but  the  physical  being  of  man,  his 
objective  body,  but  that  is  in  this  case  both  will  and  consciousness.  With  the 
production  of  a  lasting  effect,  the  digging  of  a  ditch,  the  braiding  of  the  pliable 
willows,  the  second  category  comes  into  play  also.  The  produced  outer  object 
becomes  the  cause  of  a  common  sense-perception,  a  common  seeing,  a  common 
representation.  How  this  develops  into  an  intellectual  action  through  causality 
which  connects  active  will  with  passive  perception  (the  law  of  expression  and 
impression)  I  have  stated  elsewhere.  Now,  after  these  preliminary  conditions 
the  law  of  causality  appears  in  its  objective  generality  as  a  law  of  cause  and  effect 
between  bodies  in  time  and  space,  and  with  it  the  first  category  steps  into  the  fore¬ 
ground.  But,  with  this,  thought  arises,  the  idea  is  generated.  Idea  is,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  cpm bination  of  two  conceptions  (Vorstellungen)  into  a  unity  through 
necessity  (causality).  This  combination  could  only  occur  where  an  objectively 
conceived  process,  the  digging,  for  instance,  joined  another  objective  conception, 
namely,  the  ditch,  to  form  a  unity  in  thought  through  cooperative  power  of  con¬ 
ception.  That  this  can  take  place  only  in  social  relations  by  means  of  a  percepti¬ 
ble  equivalent, -entirely  independent  of  both  ideas,  i.  e.,  the  sound,  the  word,  needs 
no  new  demonstration  it  is  hoped. 

What  Logos  is,  how  many  contrasts  it  has  to  unite  in  order  to  be  what  the 
name  implies,  has  been  revealed  to  us  plainly.1  Independence,  independent 
existence  of  ideas,  which,  though  defined  in  the  mind  by  sharply  drawn  boundary 
lines,  yet  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  mind,  since  they  may  at  any  time  be  called  up 

1  The  author  presupposes  a  perusal  of  his  previous  chapters  in  which  Logos  is  amply  discussed. 
Translator. 


106 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

through  the  word  and  the  generic  idea — that  is  the  highest  performance  of  Logos. 
Thus  it  originated;  this  ability  to  unite  and  distinguish  is  preserved  m  all  its 
functions  from  the  very  beginning  of  thought  to  the  present  day,  when  the 
immeasurably  involved  operations  of  thought  are  performed  with  an  instinctive, 
lightning-like  swiftness  and  surety,  so  that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  trace  the 
separate  threads.  For  the  purpose  of  giving  greater  clearness  to  my  meaning  I 
shall  by  means  of  an  illustration  show  how  a  single  idea  contains  a  number  of 


simpler  elements  of  thought,  also  ideas,  and  how,  through  their  cooperation  and 
the  assistance  of  others  governed  by  them,  may  result  a  chain  of  thoughts 
which  culminates  in  the  one  from  which  the  others  again  radiate.  I  select  the 
idea  bread.  Toward  the  left  in  our  illustration  the  idea  is  developed  genetically, 
toward  the  right  teleologically.  From  left  to  right  the  idea  becomes  more  and 
more  special;  that  is,  it  absorbs  more  determining  factors;  radiating  from  the 
center  in  ever  more  general  ideas,  which,  all  because  of  their  general  character, 
may  be  brought  into  connection  with  it. 

By  such  an  illustration  it  is  shown  how  for  the  human  being  ideas  may  play  the . 
role  of  real  objects  and  how  he  gains  the  capacity  to  unite  the  most  remote 
objects  in  his  ideas,  and  thus  to  realize  the  great  wonders  of  industry  and  com¬ 
merce.  Without  the  general  ideas  which  give  unity  and  independence  to  his 
separate  concepts  and  make  possible  their  rational  combination,  as  well  as  their 
multiplicity,  such  processes  would  be  impossible.  This  is  the  reason  why  an 
animal  never  goes  beyond  the  concept  of  the  present  time,  and  why  it  can  not 
escape  from  the  limited  sphere  of  its  needs.  Alas,  contrary  to  this  rule,  the  ants 
carry  on  to  this  day  a  regular  systematized  agriculture;  they  have  their  live  stock 
and  servants  as  we  have.  Yea,  they  have  been  detected  in  spending  a  whole 
quarter  of  an  hour  in  gossiping.  May  God  better  it. 

The  idea  of  causality  between  objects  !  It  is  so  simple,  so  plain,  and  withal  so 
clear  and  convincing  a  distinction  of  Logos,  i.  e.,  human  reason,  as  against  all 
animal  instinct,  that  it  appears  incomprehensible  why  this  distinct  and  plain 
dividing  line  has  not  been  observed  and  determined  long  ago.  In  order  that  this 
causality  be  comprehended  by  the  mind,  it  is  necessary  that  in  the  very  beginning 
one  of  the  two  causal  members  be  existent  as  idea,  and  that  the  other  be  produced 
through  the  process  of  thinking.  In  the  expression  “here  somebody  has  been 
digging,”  the  thing  seen  points  to  a  past  activity  as  cause.  In  the  other  expression 
“this  is  to  be  dug,”  it  points  to  a  future  activity  as  an  effect.  Hence  two  ideas 
must  be  present  in  both  cases,  i.  e.,  only  one  of  them  through  representation;  that, 
however,  is  possible  only  through  the  idea,  the  word;  Therefore,  only  man,  and 
never  an  animal,  can  be  found  in  possession  of  a  tool. 

Kant  has  demonstrated,  profoundly  and  convincingly,  that  certain  original  ele¬ 
ments  of  thought  must  be  added  to  give  ideas  reality,  i.  e.,  independence  and 
subsistence.  He  has  been  roughly  criticised  by  Schopenhauer,  unjustly,  I  think; 
for  the  latter  attributes  to  the  animal  likewise  independent,  objective  ideas,  which 
is  a  great  error.  On  the  other  hand,  Kant  rated  sense-perception  too  low,  because 
he  restricted  himself  too  much  to  pure  passivity,  whereby  he  did  not  sufficiently 
consider  that  sense-preception  is  developed  constantly  through  thinking,  and 
especially  in  the  direction  which  Schopenhauer  justly  terms  intellectual  intuition 
(intellectuelle  Anschauung).  This  is,  as  has  been  seen,  the  most  beautiful  and 
ripest  fruit  of  thought;  and  only  man  possesses  it,  whose  capacity  for  sense- 


Loire’s  logos  theory. 


107 


perception  is  only  awakened  through  language,  and  has  developed  through  con¬ 
stant  reciprocal  activity  side  by  side  with  language. 

After  thus  arriving  at  a  clearness  which  enables  us  to  see  that  the  life  of  ideas 
( Yorstellungsleben) ,  both  in  form  and  essence,  constitutes  human  thought,  that 
its  infinitely  increased  activity  and  capacity  causes  the  immeasurable  superiority 
of  man  over  animals,  and  daily  widens  the  unbridgeable  chasm  between  them,  it 
remains,  in  conclusion,  to  follow  the  subject  to  its  last  philosophic  depth  by  investi¬ 
gating  how  the  life  of  ideas  (Yorstellungsleben)  and  the  formation  of  thought  are 
related  to  the  fundamental  faculties  of  man.  For  that  volition,  imagination, 
and  thought  are  equally  participating  in  the  process,  must  have  been  brought  to 
our  attention  at  every  step  of  our  demonstration. 

In  the  foregoing  we  analyzed  perceptive  activity  alone,  as  it  is  met  in  poetry, 
into  its  last  principle,  according  to  which  it  enters  into  combination  with  thought, 
i.  e.,  the  principle  of  causality,  and,  in  doing  so,  we  defined  four  categories.  Now, 
it  remains  to  compare  our  division  with  that  presented  by  Schopenhauer’s  funda¬ 
mental  work,  in  which  he  speaks  of  the  fourfold  root  of  the  principle  of  sufficient 
cause.  We  shall  find  a  marvelous  agreement  in  them,  and,  in  conclusion,  I  sjrall 
derive  the  terms  fitting  my  theory  of  language. 

Like  Kant,  Schopenhauer  starts  from  abstract  cognition  as  it  appears  in  human 
judgment.  In  thi£  he  is  right,  and  therefore  causality  is  with  him  “  der  Satz  vom 
Grunde,”  the  principle  of  cause.  For,  as  we  know,  all  higher  human  cognition 
is  realized  in  judgment,  in  assertion,  in  combination  of  subject  and  predicate; 
hence  the  first  question  we  shall  have  to  ask  is  after  the — 

(1)  1  Cause  of  cognition,  “  ratio  sufficiens,  ratio  cur  sit  verum .”  Why  is  any 
assertion,  any  judgment  true?  The  sources  of  cognition  may  be  whatever  they 
are,  every  judgment  has  to  pass  muster  in  the  forum  of  thought,  and  that  asks  for 
the  foundation  or  cause  of  the  assertion.  The  most  important  source  of  cogni¬ 
tion,  of  course,  is  sense-perception  furnished  by  everything  material,  but  which 
goes  back  to  outer  changes  and  is  therefore  dependent  upon  the — 

(2)  Cause  of  coming  into  being,  the  law  of  cause  and  effect,  be  it  that  we  judge 
from  effect  (upon  eye,  ear,  touch)  back  to  cause  (that  which  is  seen,  heard, 
touched),  or  that  we  judge  from  the  cause  to  the  future  effect,  from  the  blow  to 
the  murder.  'This  is  causality  in  its  purity,  the  fundamental  law  of  all  outer, 
empiric  cognition.  It  consists,  as  stated  before,  only  of  phenomena  in  time  and 
space  and  forms  an  endless  chain  in  these  two  forms.  But  since  this  causality 
is  applicable  only  to  that  which  presents  itself  in  time  and  space,  it  therefore  deals 
exclusively  with  matter  which  itself  is  only  an  idea,  an  objective  action,  as  it 
were.  Schopenhauer  deemed  it  necessary  to  separate  from  it  the  categories  of 
transcendental  forms,  namely  the  uniformly  extended  time  and  space  and  to  define 
them  and  their  legitimacy  by  the — 

(3)  Cause  of  being  in  thought.  This  cause  forms  all  mathematical  judgment. 
Every  Why?  in  mathematics  is  answered  by  the  presumption  of  complete  uni¬ 
formity  of  all  parts  of  time  and  space.  That  this  is  another  Why  ?  than  that  of 
coming  into  being,  is  beyond  doubt,  because  the  latter  is  always  empiric,  while 
mathematics  consists  of  nothing  but  synthetic  judgments  “  a  priori.”  Neverthe¬ 
less,  the  two  classes  are  so  inextricably  interwoven  that  it  does  not  occur  to  many 
why  they  should  be  separated,  the  more  so,  as,  according  to  Kant’s  dictum,  there 
can  be  in  any  branch  of  knowledge  only  as  much  true  science  as  there  is  pure 
mathematics  in  it.  It  is  therefore  best  to  make  it  clear  through  examples,  that 
whenever  the  question  is  one  of  pure  mathematical  quantity,  a  statement  of  time 
or  space  (i.  e.,  a  number)  the  Why?  is  of  quite  a  different  nature  from  the  Why? 
of  real  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  The  originality,  that  is,  the  presupposition  of 

1 1  have  taken  the  liberty  of  changing  the  succession  of  the  four  forms  as  they  are  presented 
in  Schopenhauer's  work.  His  real  views  are  thereby  placed  in  a  clearer  light  and  become  better 
understood. 


108 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

those  statements  of  time  and  space  necessary  for  the  process  of  thought  and  the 
formation  of  empiric  judgment,  is  seen  from  the  fact,  that  a  Why?  can  never 
explain  to  us  how  our  thoughts  are  inseparable  from  these  forms;  nor  will  it  ever 
be  able  to  give  us  the  least  explanation  of  why  our  earth,  our  solar  system,  in 
short,  every  single  phenomenon  exists  here  in  this  particular  part  of  space,  and 
now  in  this  particular  time.  Why  did  Goethe  die  in  the  year  1832  ?  That  is  a 
question  which  has  no  sense,  except  a  mathematical,  because  from  two  state¬ 
ments  of  time  (the  date  of  his  birth  and  his  age)  the  third  is  derived.  Time 
determines  time;  space  determines  space;  time  and  space  determine  each  other 
reciprocally.  That  is  the  foundation  of  all  mathematical,  and  lastly,  of  all 
human  knowledge. 

(4)  The  fourth  division,  finally,  embraces  the  cause  of  action  or  the  motives  of  it. 
While  in  the  former  three  classes  we  dealt  with  intellect,  here  volition  comes  into 
play;  here  perception  and  idea  are  only  means.  As  we  said  before,  man  is  not 
only  a  knowing  being,  but  foremost  and  above  all  a  being  of  volition.  Through 
ideas  and  cognition  our  will  becomes  conscious,  illumined,  our  action  is  the  result 
of  motives.  Hence  Schopenhauer  is  right  when  he  says:  Motivation  is  causality 
viewed  from  within.  What  we  call  in  plants  stimulus  (Reiz) ,  in  animals  impulse 
(Trieb),  is  in  man  the  idea  (Vorstellung),  namely  motive  or  cause  of  action. 

,  But  since  his  ideas  are  infinitely  numerous  and  inextricably  interwoven,  just 
like  the  real  objects  they  represent,  his  actions  are  very  complicated,  and  hence 
circumspect  and  conscious  of  their  purpose.  However,  that  which  really  acts,  is 
as  immediate  and  simple  as  it  is  in  plants  and  animals:  it  is  the  will. 

But  because  the  subject  of  the  will  is  given  immediately  to  self-consciousness, 
it  can  not  be  more  minutely  defined  or  described  what  will  is;  it  is  rather  the 
most  direct  of  all  our  cognitions  whose  uncommunicability  must  throw  light  upon 
all  others  which  are  not  so  direct.1 

To  this  last  sentence  1  have  not  added  a  word  to  furnish  the  proof  of  the  justness 
of  our  method  which  starts  from  that  which  is  certain,  the  will  and  its  expressions. 
Kant’s  and  Schopenhauer’s  procedure  is  analytic,  they  penetrate  from  mere  percep¬ 
tion  to  the  depth;  Kant  does  it  in  transcendental  presuppositions  of  ideas  or  cate¬ 
gories.  Schopenhauer  by  inquiring  into  the  last  root  of  the  fundamental  essence 
of  man.  Our  method  is  deductive  and  genetic;  we  attempt  to  accomplish  what 
Locke  attempted:  a  genesis  of  reason.  Hence,  Schopenhauer’s  fourth  class  becomes 
the  first. 

(1)  The  law  of  motivation  concerns  the  antithesis  and  unity  of  will  and  ideas. 
This  law  we  have  noticed  before  as  the  fundamental  law  of  poetry  and,  we  may 
add,  of  all  art.  Poetry  and  art  appeal  to  man  in  his  totality,  the  willing,  feeling, 
and  thinking  man  in  the  unity  of  his  actions.  Every  action  appears  to  us  by 
means  of  ideas  illumined  by  consciousness;  hence  connected  by  inner  necessity,  by 
motives.  V/ho  would  deny  the  fact  that  the  series  of  ideas  connected  with  the 
will  and  standing  in  close  relation  to  it  must  be  the  most  natural,  the  most  orig¬ 
inal  of  all?  Furthermore,  that  practical  thinking,  so  to  speak — that  is,  thought 
directed  by  interest — based  upon  the  foundation  of  the  will,  must  be  placed  first? 
Is  it  not,  even  to-day,  the  object  of  life  for  most  people?  Liberation  of  thought 
from  desires  and  volition  constitutes  progress  toward  theoretic  knowledge.  This 
proves  that  at  first  thought  was  intimately  connected  with  the  will;  hence  that 
ideas  combined  with  others  in  the  consciousness  of  original  man,  not  in  causal, 
genetic,  and  intellectual  combination,  but  in  form  of  instinctive  impulses,  acci¬ 
dentally  or  through  natural  causes.  The  will  was  autocratic  ruler  for  a  long 
period  of  time.  All  speech  aimed  at  practical  effects,  at  sympathetic  agreement, 
impulsion  to  common  action.  From  the  first  instinctive  expressions  of  will,  which 
may  have  been  sounds  of  incitations  uttered  during  aboriginal  activities,  such  as 

l- 


Schopenhauer,  Vierfache  Wurzel,  sec.  43. 


109 


Loire’s  logos  theory. 

digging,  braiding,  etc.,  up  to  the  inflaming  eloquence  of  the  popular  speaker  who 
kindles  the  souls  of  men  to  enthusiastic  warlike  courage  by  pictures  of  desecrated 
graves  and  temples,  of  destroyed  cities,  of  women  and  children  dragged  into 
slavery,  there  is  active  everywhere  the  same  law — the  effect  of  will  upon  will  by 
means  of  sympathetic  mood  accompanied  by  related  ideas.  There  is  everywhere 
imitation,  activity,  will.  Hence  my  theory  has  justly,  I  think,  been  called 
“  Sympathy-theory,”  because  it  builds  its  superstructure  upon  sympathy.  From 
this  we  arrive  by  means  of  a  narrow  but  firm  bridge  to  our  second  (Schopenhauer's 
first)  class,  namely: 

(2)  The  cause  of  coming  into  being.  This  is  the  important  fundamental  rule  of 
all  outer  and  inner  comprehension,  and  with  it  we  approach  the  intellectual  field. 
For  though  in  the  foregoing  class  an  idea  is  the  cause  of  action  (i.  e.,  an  induce¬ 
ment  for  the  will  to  express  itself) ,  it  need  not  by  any  means  be  an  insight  into 
the  causal  procedure  such  as  is  seen  from  a  burnt  child  dreading  the  fire  as  instinc¬ 
tively  as  the  dog  the  whip,  or  the  bird  the  rifle.  Motivation  is  found  in  all  these 
cases,  but  comprehension  none  or  very  little.  Where,  however,  the  coming  into 
being,  the  change,  is  subject  of  observation  and  contemplation,  there  begins  com¬ 
prehension  of  the  causal  process.  The  narrow  bridge  which  leads  to  this  was  the 
common  self-activity  of  sympathetically  attuned  aborigines.  The  bridge  was 
firm,  because  it  connected  with  the  will  and  the  interest  which  at  every  hour 
controlled  imperiously  the  races  which  were  forming  languages,  and  never 
released  them  from  their  bondage.  Without  this  healthy,  strong,  wild  stem  of 
knotty  hard  wood  the  noble  twig  of  cognition  could  never  have  developed.  Our 
ancient  fathers  were  not  singing  shepherds  or  ambulatory  natural  investigators; 
they  grew  up  in  the  hard  school  of  necessity  and  its  constant  defense,  first, 
through  physical  power  and  then  through  the  increasing  power  of  intellect  and 
comprehension. 

This  category  is  the  true  medium  between  the  first  and  the  third,  for  it  con¬ 
nects  unconscious  will  and  instinctive  action  (of  which  all  organic  life  consists) 
first  of  all  with  comprehension  whose  essence  is  the  insight  into  the  causal 
process,  the  plain  distinction  of  the  two  links  4 4  cause  and  effect.  ”  The  outer  effect, 
while  produced  by  the  changing  activity  of  man  himself,  presented  itself  to  his 
view;  was,  so  to  speak,  produced  from  his  most  ancient  labor  and  artistic  activity; 
that  effect  was  an  important  and  decisive  step  toward  objective  cognition. 
Nevertheless,  this  activity  and  effective  labor  was  to  a  great  degree  unconscious 
or  instinctive,  and  not  until  we  enter  the  fourth  category  will  the  light  of  com¬ 
prehension  beam  brighter  and  brighter,  illuminating  the  causal  process,  thereby 
elevating  and  improving  this  activity  in  the  consciousness  of  the  actively  laboring 
human  being.  According  to  the  process  just  described  my  theory  deserves  the 
name  of  activity  theory. 

(3)  The  principle  now  following  corresponds  to  the  third  class  of  Schopenhauer. 
It  concerns  the  faculty  of  sense-perception  (Anschauungsvermogen)  awakened, 
which  constantly  elevated  and  improved  man’s  own  activity  and  its  effects.  This 
power  derives  its  ultimate  causes  singly  and  solely  from  the  pure  forms  of  time 
and  space.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  seeing  a  circle,  which  should  consist  of  twelve 
nails  placed  at  equal  distances,  but  of  which  one  is  missing,  we  instantly  ask,  Why 
is  that  nail  missing?  The  powerful  ally  of  art  (activity)  and  mind  (logos) ,  namely, 
imagination,  rules  as  supreme  queen  in  this  region.  In  order  that  imagination  may 
not  grow  wild  it  is  bound  to  the  presuppositions  of  art  activity,  and  that  it  may  not 
degenerate  it  is  curbed  by  the  strict  rule  of  thinking  reason.  Placed  between 
these  two,  action  and  reason,  it  tries  at  all  times  to  encroach  upon  them,  now 
tempting  art  to  phantastic  caprices,  then  leading  thought  to  irregular  roving  and 
groundless  suppositions.  Now,  that  to-day  all  things  are  viewed  in  definite  forms 
and  outlines;  that  the  whole  world  is  to  us  not  as  it  is  to  the  animal,  a  confused 


110 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


wild  chaos  without  rule,  order,  and  oversight,  but  a  well-ordered  system  of  objects 
in  strict  regularity  and  engaged  in  incessant  reciprocal  action — that  has  become 
possible  alone  through  imagination.  It  developed  side  by  side  with  language  and 
awakening  thought  from  intellectual  contemplation  of  that  which  was  produced 
by  the  creative  activity  of  the  ancestors  of  our  race.  Hence  a  fitting  name  for 
my  theory  may  be  the  theory  of  sense-perception  (Anschauungstheorie). 

From  the  principles  (2)  and  (3)  there  arose  really,  as  seen  in  Schopenhauer's 
theory,  perfect  causality,  the  comprehension  of  which  would  not  have  been  pos¬ 
sible  without  will  and  activity,  nor  without  the  transcendental  scheme  of  time 
and  space,  the  armor  of  imagination.  This  axiom  of  the  Kant-Schopenhauer 
theory,  so  difficult  for  ordinary  comprehension,  becomes  perceptible  by  the  organs 
of  sense  almost,  through  my  theory  of  the  first  origin  of  reason.  For  there  we 
see  the  active  causality  of  our  will  produce  effects,  create  forms  half  in  dream, 
which  then  perceived  by  the  senses  (passive  causality)  change  into  ideas  and 
subsequently  enter  again  consciousness  as  reflex-activity  of  the  will.  But  that  is 
no  succession  of  acts  or  items,  although  it  appears  as  such,  but  simultaneous 
action,  the  essence  of  causality  and  reason.  Therefore,  one  of  the  most  important 
sides  of  my  theory  may  be  termed  the  causality  theory. 

(4)  But  the  most  important  is  still  missing — the  free,  regular,  well-organized 
combination  of  ideas,  a  combination  which  is  guided  and  illuminated  by  the  light 
of  comprehension,  in  a  word,  the  logos.  For,  despite  all  unity  of  causality  in 
the  cases  heretofore  stated,  the  idea  is  still  closely  connected  with  will,  emotion, 
and  immediate  sense  perception.  To  liberate  the  idea  from  this  bondage  of  coarse 
empiric  reality,  to  lift  it  entirely  into  the  ideal  sphere,  where  it  can  enter  into 
numerous  combinations  with  spiritual  liberty,  to  create  this  miracle,  causality 
must  liberate  itself  and  become  a  powerful  weapon,  an  ever-ready  tool  of  the 
human  mind. 

With  the  production  of  ideas  and  wmrds  causality  became  free.  The  most 
ancient  words — digging,  braiding,  binding,  separating — have  no  other  content 
than  causal  relation,  the  combination  of  two  concepts  formed  by  sense  perception 
which  constitute  the  causal  links,  i.  e.,  the  logos. 

The  causal  relation  contained  in  all  ideas  and  words,  i.  e.,  their  verbal  element, 
which  has  its  true  beginning  in  their  origin  in  activity,  in  connection  with  the 
substantiality  of  the  ideas  themselves,  makes  possible  their  combination. 

Thus  words  and  ideas  unite  to  form  human  judgment,  and  with  that  we  arrive 
at  the  first  (second)  class  of  Schopanhauer’s  classification— abstract  thought  and 
its  ultimate  principle,  the  cause  of  cognition.  But  all  judgments,  be  they  of 
whatever  nature  they  are,  have  as  a  first  presupposition  nothing  but  ideas  derived 
from  sense  perception,  from  which  they  have  risen  and  to  which  they  descend 
again  from  their  abstract  height  where  they  have  to  find  their  application. 

Combinations  of  perceptions  with  perceptions,  of  ideas  with  ideas,  of  judgments 
with  judgments — all  this  is  logos,  and  hence  my  theory  of  language  deserves  the 
name  of  logos  theory. 


XIII.  GOETHE  AND  THE  GREAT  THINKERS. 

[By  Prof.  Rudolf  Eucken  in  Jena.] 

[Note. — In  Die  Zukunft,  a  weekly  in  Berlin,  Prof.  Rudolf  Eucken  published 
recently  an  oration  on  Goethe  and  the  Great  Thinkers  which  he  delivered  before 
the  Goethe  Society  of  Germany.  The  oration  is  so  replete  with  practical  peda¬ 
gogical  allusions  and  delineations  of  psychological  processes  that  it  seems  most 
desirable  to  reproduce  it  in  English  to  make  its  contents  accessible  to  American 
readers.  There  has  hardly  been  another  mind  of  such  magnitude  in  modern  times 
as  that  of  Goethe's,  hence  it  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  see  how  the  great 


GOETHE  AND  THE  GEEAT  THIHKEES. 


Ill 


thinkers  of  all  ages,  especially  of  antiquity,  have  influenced  Goethe;  how  their 
lofty  thoughts  have  entered  his  mind  and  there  abided,  molding  his  aspirations, 
sentiments,  and  judgment,  and  thus  proving  the  sublime  truth  that  the  civiliza¬ 
tion  and  culture  of  any  person  or  of  any  nation  is  inextricably  interwoven  with 
the  civilization  and  culture  of  all  ages  preceding.  The  following  is  Professor 
Encken’s  oration.] 

Last  year  I  had  the  honor  to  address  the  Goethe  Society  on  the  subject  of  Goethe 
and  philosophy.  My  effort  then  was  necessarily  circumscribed  because  confined 
to  the  discussion  of  a  specific  purpose.  It  would  have  led  me  too  far  to  explain 
Goethe’s  relation  to  the  history  of  philosophy  and  his  connection  with  the  separate 
great  thinkers.  This  subject  has  a  peculiar  charm.  It  not  only  allows  us  to 
see  with  great  clearness  what  Goethe  tries  to  find  in  philosophy  and  what  to  him 
appears  great,  but  it  also  reflects  in  characteristic  manner  in  general  his  way  of 
accepting  men  and  things.  It  instructs  us  very  lucidly  as  to  what  position  we 
have  to  take  toward  Goethe  if  that  is  to  be  done  in  accordance  with  his  own  mode 
of  thinking.  To  the  solution  of  this  problem  I  desire  to  add  my  contribution. 

We  know  that  Goethe’s  -world  of  thought  was  not  formed  in  close  adherence  to 
any  philosophic  system,  and,  indeed,  not  out  of  philosophy  at  all,  but  that  it  arose 
from  the  inner  necessity  of  his  own  nature  and  the  experiences  of  his  life.  Still, 
to  an  existence  founded  upon  itself  a  strict  seclusion  is  not  suitable.  Goethe  felt 
that,  for  he  ever  considered  himself  as  one  growing  (ein  Werdender).  As  such  he 
could  seek  the  object  of  his  life  in  becoming  and  being  more  and  more  at  one 
with  himself,  open  to  suggestions,  grateful  for  aid  offered  him.  Freedom  in  this 
case  was  quite  in  harmony  with  honest  reverence  for  everything  great  “which 
lifts  us  above  ourselves  and  like  a  guiding  star  lights  the  way  ahead,  ”  This  great¬ 
ness  Goethe  found,  among  other  sources,  in  philosophy,  especially  in  that  of  the 
leading  philosophers,  who  stood  before  him  in  the  impressive  totality  of  their 
being.  That  which  he  sought  in  them  was  never  mere  information,  but  reanima¬ 
tion  and  increased  vitality  for  his  own  actions.  This  relation  had  throughout  a 
personal  character,  because  in  others  he  always  valued,  and  from  them  he  accepted 
and  acquired,  that  which  promised  aid  to  his  own  process  of  life.  In  so  far  Goethe 
is  an  eclectic;  but  he  is  that  only  in  the  sense  which  he  gives  to  the  term,  since  he 
called  an  eclectic  ‘  ‘  one  who  accepts  of  all  that  surrounds  him  only  that  which  is 
in  accordance  with  his  nature.”  But  Goethe  had  the  advantage  of  a  very  pecul¬ 
iarly  individual  nature  which  saved  him  from  unprincipled  vacillation  and 
allowed  him  above  all  to  develop  his  own  life  in  absorbing  alien  thoughts.  Such 
absorption  was  never  a  passive  process  with  him.  It  seemed  to  him  characteristic 
of  the  living  unity  of  an  entelechy1  that  “  it  accepts  nothing  without  acquiring  it 
by  additional  self-action.”  Thus  to  him  every  recognition  of  the  thoughts  of 
others,  like  a  translation  into  his  own  language,  becomes  thereby  an  inner 
transformation. 

Goethe  was  perfectly  conscious  of  this  personal  nature  of  his  relation  to  the 
great  thinkers.  He  wished  to  delineate  not  only  what  these  thinkers  were- in 
themselves,  but  what  they  were  to  him.  He  never  demanded  that  the  particular 
mode  in  which  they  were  reflected  in  his  mind  should  be  authoritative  for  others. 
He  at  the  same  time  reserved  to  himself  the  fullest  measure  of  freedom  with 
reference  to  the  great  thinkers  and  declined  with  the  greatest  determination  to 
blindly  subject  himself  to  them.  In  point  of  fact,  he  thought  it  quite  impossible 
to  completely  understand  anyone  in  his  own  sense.  Such  sentiments  Goethe 
expressed  frequently  with  the  clearness  so  characteristic  of  him.  While,  for 
instance,  he  recognized  with  grateful  veneration  what  he  owed  to  Spinoza,  he  pro¬ 
tested  at  the  same  time  against  accepting  all  his  works  or  confessing  himself  to  be 
his  disciple:  “For  that  no  one  understands  another;  that  no  one  in  the  same  words 


An  entelechy  is,  according  to  Aristotle,  a  self -active  being  or  soul. — Translator. 


112 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


thinks  what  another  means  by  them;  that  a  conversation,  a  reading,  awakens 
different  thoughts  in  different  persons,  I  had  clearly  understood  long  ago;  and 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  author  of  Werther  and  of  Faust,  deeply  con¬ 
vinced  of  this  disproportion,  would  not  fall  into  such  an  error  as  to  claim  to  have 
completely  understood  any  man.”  Of  Kant,  with  whom  Goethe,  after  some  reser¬ 
vation,  occupied  himself  more  and  more,  he  said:  “I  merely  expressed  what  he 
had  excited  in  me,  but  not  what  I  had  read.” 

One  would  think  that  in  consequence  of  such  personal  manner  of  acquisition 
Goethe  had  abandoned  all  inner  community  with  others  and  that  truth  had  been 
dissolved  in  him  in  an  infinite  number  of  subjective  reflex  pictures,  but  that 
was  not  at  all  his  intention.  His  fundamental  convictions  offered  him  a  firm 
support  against  such  a  destructive  relativism,  for  throughout  his  life  and  work 
he  was  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  as  all  the  fullness  of  individual  forma¬ 
tions  must  be  embraced  by  one  universal  life,  so  all  the  differences  of  individual 
comprehension  can  not  annul  a  common  truth;  on  the  contrary,  they  only  confirm 
it.  Though  everyone  expresses  truth  in  his  own  language  and,  in  fact,  acquires 
it  individually,  it  still  remains  the  same  truth  within  which  we  all  stand  and 
which  we  all  serve.  Thus  individuality  and  universality  are  not  opposed  to  each 
other;  “everyone  can  have  his  own  truth,  and  yet  it  is  the  same  truth.”  In  this 
way  the  thoughts  of  others  may  be  translated  with  perfect  freedom  into  one’s  own 
language  without  abandoning  their  truthful  contents. 

A  lucid  example  of  such  a  weaving  of  alien  and  one's  own  thoughts  is  offered  us 
in  Goethe’s  treatment  of  the  aesthetic  Hemsterhuis.  He  said: 

I  could  not  make  Hemsterhuis’s  philosophy,  his  foundations  and  course'of  ideas, 
my  own  in  any  other  way  than  by  translating  them  into  my  own  language. 
Beauty  and  that  which  delights  us  in  it  is  enjoyed  when  we  can  conveniently 
perceive  and  comprehend  the  greatest  number  of  ideas  in  one  moment,  he 
said;  but  I  should  think  beauty  is  that  in  which  we  recognize  the  life  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual  conforming  itself  with  freedom  to  that  of  the  social  whole  (gesetzmassig 
Lebendige)  in  its  greatest  perfection,  and  are  thereby  induced  to  reproduction,  and 
feel  animated  to  a  like  increased  activity.  Forsooth,  the  one  is  the  same  as  the 
other,  only  expressed  by  different  persons. 

How  much  more  has  Goethe  made  of  Hemsterhuis,  how  has  he  translated  the 
scholasticism  of  his  theory  into  that  which  is  purely  human,  how  has  he  lifted  the 
mere  intellectual  into  general  mentality!  and  yet  there  is  preserved  a  certain 
connection — that  which  is  common  is  noticeable  among  all  differences. 

Such  personal  and  individual  mode  of  treatment  has  undoubtedly  its  limits.  It 
instructs,  strictly  speaking,  less  about  others  than  about  Goethe;  it  results  in  no 
consistent  representation  of  the  history  of  philosphy;  it  is  ever  in  danger  of  miss¬ 
ing  the  core  by  attempting  to  form  a  collective  picture  of  some  captivating  impres¬ 
sions  of  great  personalities.  This  is  seen  from  the  famous  description  and 
comparison  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  in  Goethe’s  history  of  the  theory  of  color. 
When  Goethe  here  makes  Plato,  the  most  fiery  and  combative  of  all  the  ancient 
thinkers,  appear  in  relation  to  the  world  “  like  a  departed  spirit  who  is  pleased  to 
abide  in  it  for  a  while,”  and  when  he  speaks  of  Aristotle,  the  originator  of  syste¬ 
matic  metaphysics,  the  master  of  those  who  know,  as  one  “  who  regards  the  world 
like  an  architect;  one  who  happens  to  be  here  and  is  bound  to  create  and  labor; 
one  who  investigates  the  soil,  but  only  as  far  as  necessary  to  find  bed  rock;  one  to 
whom  all  else  below  down  to  the  center  of  the  earth  is  indifferent,”  his  pictures 
are  distorted,  not  only  in  the  details  of  their  execution,  but  in  their  fundamental 
sketching.  They  are  so  lamentably  out  of  perspective  that  only  the  luminousness 
of  their  coloring  can  make  us  understand  why  even  in  manuals  of  philosophy  they 
are  still  quoted  as  authority. 

Such  errors  arose,  in  fact,  from  the  circumstance  that  Goethe  departed  from  the 
field  in  which  he  demonstrated  his  greatest  strength  and  became  didactic.  When¬ 
ever  he  stayed  within  his  limits  and  presented  the  great  thinkers  in  that  which 


GOETHE  AND  THE  GREAT  THINKERS. 


113 


they  were  to  him  personally  he  stood  on  firm  ground,  and  then  he  offered  some¬ 
thing  incomparably  more  valuable  than  anything  which  customary  dullness 
of  thought  and  life  is  apt  to  praise  as  objectivity.  His  relations  to  the  great 
thinkers  are,  in  the  first  place,  development  of  his  own  being,  confessions  concern¬ 
ing  his  own  aspiration.  We  see  cycles  of  thought  touch  each  other;  see  how 
syntheses  of  beings  arise;  see  how  life  streams  from  one  to  the  other.  The  pecu¬ 
liarity  of  Goethe’s  mode  of  thinking  is  thus  comprehended  in  a  special  subject,, 
but  likewise  the  other  thinkers  are  made  more  comprehensible  through  his  con¬ 
tact  with  them.  While  Goethe’s  penetration  ever  seeks  things  essential,  produc¬ 
tive,  purely  human  in  his  reading;  while  his  seeing  consists  in  discriminating 
simple  principles;  while  his  descriptions  cause  inner  animation,  some  of  this 
reflex  action  in  his  clear  and  subjective  mind  also  throws  back  bright  light  upon 
the  authors  he  reads;  hence  they  appear  in  amplified  and  purer  features  before  our 
eyes.  Now,  let  us  see  whether  the  actual  treatment  of  those  thinkers  who  were 
most  important  to  Goethe  confirms  this  statement. 

Goethe’s  estimate  of  Greek  character  necessarily  made  valuable  to  him  those, 
like  all  the  ancient  thinkers,  who  understood  how  to  express  in  thought  the  pecul¬ 
iarity  of  classic  intellectual  life.  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle — among  them  espe¬ 
cially  Plato — of  course  stand  in  the  foreground.  In  two  respects  Goethe  felt  himself 
attracted  and  benefited  by  them,  first,  by  their  great  simplicity  and  unity  in 
contrast  to  the  ramifications  and  complexity  of  modern  life,  which  made  him  greet 
as  an  event  every  approachment  to  those  three  intellectual  heroes.  As  he  states  it, 
4 ‘We  find  in  them  that  which  we  feel  most  joyfully  and  which  will  promote  our 
education  at  all  times  mo^t  powerfully.”  Yes;  as  a  refuge  from  the  limitless  mul¬ 
tiplicity,  dismemberment,  and  confusion  of  modern  natural  science  the  question 
might  appear:  “  What  attitude  would  Plato  have  assumed  toward  Nature,  as  it 
appears  to  us  in  its  ever-increasing  diversity  despite  all  its  profound  unity?” 

The  second  point  connecting  Goethe  with  the  ancients  is  the  synthetic  man¬ 
ner  in  which  the  close  relations  of  man  and  world  are  expressed  by  them.  That 
famous  saying,  that  the  eyes  should  be  sunlike  (sonnenhaft)  to  enable  us  to  see 
light,  is  not  only  connected  with  Plato  outwardly;  it  is  the  Platonic  conviction  of 
the  essential  relation  between  soul  and  world,  of  a  reunion  of  both  in  cognition, 
which  governed  Goethe’s  thoughts.  In  following  the  ancients  in  this  there  took 
place  at  the  same  time  a  confirmation  of  his  own  essential  being. 

It  requires  traveling  through  long  periods  of  time  to  reach  a  thinker  who  influ¬ 
enced  Goethe  as  much  as  Plato  did,  but  having  found  him  in  Spinoza  we  have 
also  reached  the  zenith  of  the  whole  course  of  Goethes  development,  for  with 
no  one  else  did  he  enter  into  such  intimate  relations  as  with  him;  nowhere  else 
did  the  other  become  so  immediately  present  in  his  own  life’s  process  as  in  this 
case.  Goethe  confessed  more  than  once  that  the  one  thing  which  attracted  him 
to  Spinoza  was  the  peaceful  effect  he  received  from  him — the  atmosphere  of  peace 
that  seemed  to  waft  to  him  from  Spinoza’s  works.  He  derived  from  him  not  only 
invigoration,  but  restoration,  for  he  felt,  especially  during  the  epoch  of  storm 
and  stress,  the  compensating  placidity  of  Spinoza  as  a  most  beneficent  contrast  to 
his  own  all-exciting  aspiration.  In  later  years  likewise-  he  liked  to  flee  from  the 
chaos  of  life  and  disagreeable  impression  of  alien  modes  of  thinking  to  this  “refuge 
of  old.” 

Here  he  found  himself  aided  in  the  desire  to  be  superior  to  all  partial  resigna¬ 
tion  by  means  of  a  placid  and  pure  resignation  in  a  totality;  here  he  was  charmed 
by  an  unlimited  disinterestedness  of  sentiment;  here  he  saw  ideas  of  the  world 
severed  from  the  trifles  of  men;  here  he  found  all  multiplicity  embraced  by  a 
grand,  universal  life,  and  at  the  same  time  he  found  his  deep-rooted  view  con¬ 
firmed  that  the  divine  could  not  enter  the  world  from  without,  but  that  God  was 
to  be  sought  in  nature  and  nature  in  God.  Whatever  there  was  in  Spinoza  unas- 


ED  1901- 


•8 


114 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


similative  to  Goethe  the  latter  simply  severed  and  laid  aside  without  prejudice 
to  his  reverence  for  the  philosopher.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  mathematical  turn 
Spinoza  gave  to  his  thoughts;  thus  the  cumbersome  armor  of  his  argumentation, 
and  everything  which  could  in  any  way  oppose  independence  of  the  individual 
and  freedom  of  movement.  When  Goethe  abstracts  the  great  intuitions  of  Spi¬ 
noza  and  clings  to  them  he  of  course  presents  us  only  with  Goethe’s  Spinoza,  not 
the  universal  Spinoza;  but  is  not  thereby  the  immortal  truth  in  the  philoso¬ 
pher ‘s  life  work  demonstrated  with  especial  clearness? 

Leibnitz  recedes  far  behind  Spinoza;  but  Goethe  did  not  only  grow  up  during 
an  era  which  was  saturated  with  Leibnitz's  thoughts — his  own  nature  contained 
points  of  contact  with  the  great  monadologist.  Especially  is  this  noticeable  in 
his  ^dea  of  individuality  and  that  of  “ being- with-oneself  in  inner  life.”  Who 
else  but  Leibnitz  blazed  the  way  for  the  idea  that  nothing  can  come  into  man’s 
mind  from  without,  since  “  the  monads  have  no  windows;  ”  that,  on  the  contrary, 
all  mental  progress  is  an  unfolding  from  within;  that  man  does  not  live  to  see 
things,  but  himself  in  the  things  that  surround  him?  Likewise,  through  Leibnitz, 
Goethe  certainly  acquired  the  Aristotelian  expression  of  “  entelechy,”  which  is  to 
serve  as  the  vessel  for  that  conviction.  According  to  his  own  methods  of  procedure, 
Goethe  could  accept  that  estimate  of  individuality  and  that  idea  of  the  process  of 
life  without  getting  into  contradictions  with  the  universal  life  taught  by  Spinoza. 
Another  point  of  contact  with  Leibnitz  is  Goethe’s  exalted  valuation  of  the  prin¬ 
ciple  of  constancy  (continuity)  in  nature  and  history.  Leibnitz  had  announced 
this  principle  with  especial  emphasis  as  his  own.  However  much  Goethe  differed 
with  him  in  carrying  out  this  principle,  in  the  fundamental  idea  he  remained  his 
close  adherent. 

Goethe’s  individuality  demonstrates  itself  especially  plainly  in  his  relation  to 
Kant.  The  latter’s  mode  of  thinking  could,  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  contact, 
not  be  sympathetic  for  Goethe;  nevertheless  he  succeeded  in  becoming  familiar 
with  it  and  in  deriving  much  good  from  it,  as  soon  as  a  point  of  contact  was  found. 
After  Kant’s  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  lying  entirely  outside  of  Goethe’s  horizon, 
had  produced  no  strong  effect,  the  point  of  contact  was  found  in  the  Critique  of 
the  Power  of  Judgment.  Preserving  all  his  self-dependence,  Goethe  could  now 
enter  into  inner  communion  with  Kant: 

Although  it  was  not  always  possible  to  adapt  myself  and  my  mode  of  thinking 
to  the  author’s,  missing  a  point  here  and  there,  yet  the  fundamental  thoughts  of 
the  work  were  quite  analogous  to  my  previous  doing  and  thinking.  The  inner  life 
of  art  as  well  as  nature,  their  unfolding  from  within  outwardly,  were  plainly  ex¬ 
pressed  in  the  book.  The  products  of  these  two  infinite  worlds  should  exist  for 
their  own  sake,  and  that  which  stands  side  by  side  should  stand  also  for  each  other, 
but  never  intentionally  opposed  to  each  other. 

After  thus  establishing  inner  communion,  a  more  positive  view  of  the  totality 
of  Kant’s  work  resulted  for  Goethe.  He  welcomed  thereafter  not  only  the  Critique 
of  Pure  Reason,  but  also  partly  Kant’s  Philosophy  of  Nature,  many  ideas  of  which  he 
accepted  gladly.  A  new  epoch ,  a  new  movement,  seemed  to  have  been  inaugurated 
by  Kant,  the  influence  of  which  scarcely  anyone  could  escape  with  impunity. 
Thus  we  see  that  that  which  had  been  repulsed  at  first  became  a  positive  factor 
in  the  life  of  Goethe. 

Of  the  successors  of  Kant  no  one  came  nearer  Goethe  than  Schelling.  Not  only 
did  the  great  poet  praise  in  the  whole  of  Scheliing’s  method  “  the  great  clearness 
despite  its  profound  depth  ”  (an  estimate  which  to-day  is  not  shared  by  many) ,  but 
he  received  the  strongest  impulses  from  Scheliing’s  natural  philosophy.  If  in  later 
years  Goethe  seemed  to  see  a  lack  in  his  former  conception  of  nature — 44  the  idea 
of  the  two  great  driving  wheels  of  nature;  the  ideas  of  polarity  and  growth,  the 
former  of  matter  as  far  as  we  think  it  material,  the  latter  in  so  far  as  we  think  it 
spiritual’’— this  progressive  movement  is  evidently  owing  to  Schelling's  influence. 


ST  ATE  APPROPRIATIONS  FOE  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.  115 

But  also  tla©  general  method  of  Goethe’s  philosophy  is  in  sympathy  with  the 
artistically  inclined  mode  of  thinking  of  Schelling.  For  the  latter’s  way  of  placing 
contrasts  prominently  before  the  eye  and  yet  keeping  them  in  live  relations,  meets 
the  deep-rooted  aspiration  of  the  poet  to  calmly  and  considerately  analyze  reality 
in  a  series  of  contrasts,  to  unfold  the  various  sides  and  bring  them  into  productive 
reciprocal  action.  In  my  lecture  on  Goethe  and  Philosophy  I  have  elaborated 
upon  his  way  of  presenting  reality  in  a  large  texture  of  contrasts  and  complemen¬ 
tations.  With  such  positive  relations  to  Schelling,  Goethe  brushed  aside  other 
things  of  his  which  were  to  him  as  unsympathetic  as  to  us  modern  men;  for 
instance,  the  boldness  of  Schelling’s  speculations  and  the  hasty  superficial  manner 
of  his  work. 

A  review  over  the  manifold  relations  of  the  great  poet  to  the  great  thinkers 
gives  at  the  same  time  a  general  review  of  Goethe’s  thoughts.  From  that  which 
he  seeks  in  others  it  is  plainly  obvious  what  philosophy  is  to  him  as  a  whole.  It 
means  to  him  no  brooding  over  hidden  causes  of  things,  no  stepping  outside  of  the 
world  in  order  to  develop  it  from  his  superior  point  of  vantage,  but  it  is  t©  him  a 
taking  of  an  inventory  in  a  world  surrounding  us  with  inexhaustible  fullness  of 
life.  It  is  to  him  a  clearing  up  of  our  relations  to  ourselves  and  the  world  without, 
and  hence  it  adds  to  human  growth.  This  is  quite  in  harmony  with  his  prevailing 
artistic,  nay,  plastic  mode  of  procedure.  Whether  this  type  of  thinking  may  not 
give  fruitful  suggestions  and  additions  to  philosophy  itself,  whether  it  might  not 
promote  the  scholastic  manner  of  the  philosopher’s  work  by  transforming  it  into 
the  purely  human  (in’s  Reinmenschliche) ,  is  a  question  which  can  not  be  discussed 
here  to-day. 

But  I  should  like  to  say  a  word  or  two  concerning  that  which  Goethe's  attitude 
toward  the  great  thinkers  offers  for  our  own  attitude  toward  them,  namely,  a 
shining  example.  Goethe  occupied  himself  with  the  other  thinkers  only  in  the 
interests  of  his  own  development;  he  accepted  them  no  further  than  they  prom¬ 
ised  furtherance  to  his  own  life;  he  educated  himself  with  them  rather  than 
through  them;  he  always  preserved  his  self-dependence  as  the  most  precious  of 
possessions.  Accordingly,  he  himself  did  not  wish  to  appear  to  others  as  a  master, 
but  as  a  deliverer.  In  this  predilection  he  did  not  mean  to  depreciate  his  own  work. 
Such  a  man  is  not  honored  as  he  wished  to  be  honored  when  he  is  considered  a 
binding  authority  or  a  general  rule,  or  when  his  guiding  idea  is  confused,  namely, 
that  the  highest  effect  of  the  mind  is  to  create  mind,  or  of  individuality  to  awaken 
individuality.  We  shall  only  treat  Goethe  in  the  sense  of  Goethe  when  we  recog¬ 
nize  in  him,  above  all,  a  strong,  incomparable  individuality  and  try  to  assume  an 
independent  relation  to  this  individuality;  when  we  take  him  as  an  aid  to  develop 
in  ourselves  a  clearly  distinct  type.  But  to  do  that  we  must  preserve  the  same 
freedom  toward  him  which  he  preserved  toward  others  and  which  he  by  no  means 
considered  a  privilege  of  genius.  The  urgent  admonition  is  not  superfluous  yet, 
namely,  that  we  should  practice  less  Goethe  worship  and  enter  more  into  fruitful 
relations  to  him,  so  that  we  may  gain  more  furtherance  for  our  own  life. 


XIV.  STATE  APPROPRIATIONS  FOR  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE. 

I.  ANNUAL  BUDGET  OF  THE  MINISTER  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  RUSSIA  FOR  1900. 

The  expenditures  of  the  Russian  Empire  estimated  for  1900  reached  the  large 
sum  1,757,387,103  rubles,  against  1,571,732,646  rubles  in  the  preceding  year,  an 
increaseof  185,654,457  rubles.  The  appropriation  for  educational  institutions,  so  far 
as  they  belong  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  minister  of  education,  amounted  to  33,180,829 
rubles  for  1900.  This  is  an  increase  of  4,419,638  rubles  over  the  previous  y€>ar. 


116  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  following  list 1  gives  an  itemized  account  of  how  the  33,000,000  rubles  are 
divided: 


[One  ruble  equals  51  cents.] 


1900. 

1899. 

Central  administration _ _ _ 

Rubles. 
366, 167 
622, 182 
4, 463, 965 
9, 779. 999 
6,484, 623 
1,269,598 
1, 656, 800 
1,292,708 
1,793,506 
4, 481, 798 
989, 483 

Rubles. 
352,987 
606, 860 
4,108,045 
9,399,510 
5,411,206 
1,237,350 
1,571,399 
1,260,470 
1,372,846 
2,588,214 
852,284 

Administration  of  the  school  provinces _ 

Universities _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Secondary  schools _ _ _ _ _ , _ 

Elementary  schools  - . . . . * _ _ _ 

N ormal  schools . . . . . 

Special  schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Academies  of  sciences  __ . . . . . . . _ . . . 

Preparation  of  professors . . _ . . . . 

School  buildings _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ _ 

Miscellaneous . . . . _ . . . . . 

II.  SWITZERLAND  AND  PRUSSIA  COMPARED. 

In  1898  the  expenditures  for  the  entire  system  of  schools  in  Switzerland  amounted 
to  43,587,000  francs  (1  franc  equals  19.8  cents)  which,  with  a  population  of 
2,917,749,  shows  a  per  capita  of  14.9  francs,  or  11.92  marks  German  money  ($2.84). 
The  expenditures  for  the  primary  schools  alone  amounted  to  28,204,996  francs, 
being  9.7  francs  per  capita  of  the  population.  In  the  Canton  of  Zurich  the  per 
capita  was  19.7  francs,  in  Basel  18.1  francs,  but  in  Valais  only  2.9  francs.  Each 
primary  pupil  cost  58  francs  (or  46.40  marks  or  $11.48).  In  Zurich  the  per  capita 
per  pupil  was  113  francs,  in  Basel  170  francs. 

The  Kingdom  of  Prussia  spent  for  its  elementary  schools  185,917,495  marks  (1 
mark  equals  23.8  cents)  in  1896,  which  is  a  per  capita  of  the  population  of  5.84 
marks  and  a  per  capita  of  the  pupils  of  35.50  marks  ($1.39  and  $8.45,  respectively). 
The  expenditures  for  all  educational  institutions  (elementary,  advanced  elemen¬ 
tary,  secondary,  and  higher,  except  the  various  special  schools)  in  1896  amounted 
to  247,500,000  marks.  The  population  of  Prussia  at  that  time  was  31,885,123; 
hence  the  per  capita  of  the  population,  7.77  marks  ($1.85).  If  Prussia  paid  as 
much  for  education  as  Switzerland  does,  it  would  have  to  spend  379,713,066  marks 
for  all  the  schools  and  247,195,754  alone  for  elementary  schools. — (Padagogische 
Ztg.,  Berlin.) 

III.  ANNUAL  BUDGET  OF  THE  MINISTER  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  PRUSSIA  FOR  1900  AND 

1901. 

The  annual  budget  submitted  to  the  house  of  deputies  and  passed  without  essen¬ 
tial  changes  closes  with  a  sum  total  of  153,468,730  marks  (1  mark  equals  23.8  cents). 
This  shows  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  of  1,359,945  marks.  But  this  sum 
includes  the  appropriations  for  churches,  hygienic  affairs,  universities,  secondary 
schools,  as  well  as  for  elementary  schools.  For  elementary  schools  alone  the 
appropriation  amounts  to  82,074,691  marks,  an  increase  of  373,999  marks  over  the 
preceding  year.  Of  course,  these  82,000,000  marks  represent  only  the  State's  con¬ 
tribution,  not  the  taxes  raised  for  school  purposes  by  cities,  counties,  and  other 
authorities.  The  following  is  an  itemized  statement  of  the  expenditures  contem¬ 
plated  for  1901: 


Marks. 

(1)  Normal  schools . . .  7,020,422 

(2)  Preparatory  schools  to  normal  schools .  920, 625 

(3)  Schools  for  teachers  of  gymnastics _ .  120,605 

(4)  School  supervision . . . . . . .  3, 395, 640 

(5)  Girls’ schools . .  230,000 


1  Zeitschrift  fur  ausland.  Unterrichtswesen. 


STATE  APPROPRIATIONS  FOR  EDUCATION  IN  EUROPE.  117 


Marks. 

(6)  Elementary  schools . _ . . . . . 69,845,147 

(7)  Schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind . . . __  120, 040 

(8)  Orphan  asylums,  etc . . .  125,712 

(9)  Funds  at  the  disposition  of  the  minister .  296, 500 


Total. . . . . .  82,074,691 


For  1901  the  budget  has  been  increased,  as  is  seen  from  the  following  items:  The 
sum  total  for  elementary  schools  is  now  85,265,261  marks,  to  which  comes  a  build¬ 
ing  appropriation  of  13,960,171  marks,  and  other  incidental  expenditures  amounting 
to  about  500,000  marks*  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  various  items  of  the  whole 
budget  of  which  the  foregoing  are  only  parts. 

Budget  of  the  department  of  education,  worship,  and  medical  affairs. 


A.  Permanent  expenses:  Marks. 

Expenses  of  the  department . . . . .  1, 253, 730 

Protestant  consistories . . . . . - .  1, 598, 695 

Salaries  for  pastors . .... .  1,737,918 

Catholic  institutions . . . . . -  1, 256, 300 

Salaries  for  priests . . . - . . .  1, 363, 017 

Old  Catholic  churches . . .  54, 000 

Provincial  school  authorities .  862, 280 

Boards  of  examiners  . . . - . - .  98, 636 

Universities . ... . . . - . . . .  10,707,352 

Secondary  schools . . . . . . ^ .  13, 020, 675 

Elementary  schools . - . .  85, 265, 261 

Art  and  science . . . . .  5 , 041 , 965 

Technological  schools . . . . .  2, 343, 301 

Education  and  worship  combined . .... . .  17,521,199 

Medical  affa  irs . . .  2, 754, 453 

General  funds . - . .  273,655 


Total . . . . - .  145,152,437 


B.  For  buildings  and  incidentals:  * 

For  the  department . . .  1, 454, 250 

For  universities . . . . .  4, 997, 186 

For  secondary  schools . - . .  1,059,120 

For  elementary  schools . . .  13, 960, 171 

For  art  and  science  schools. . . . . . . . .  6,205,049 

For  technological  schools  . . . . .  2, 028, 595 

For  education  and  worship  combined .  500,000 

For  medical  and  sanitary  affairs . . . . . . .  621, 750 


Total.. . . . .  30,826,121 


Grand  total  for  1901 . . .  175,978,588 

Or  an  increase  over  1900  of . .  22, 629, 828 


IV.  COST  OF  PROFESSIONAL  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  IN  SOME  GERMAN  STATES. 

The  following  statistical  data  are  taken  from  the  budgets  of  the  ministers  of 
public  education  of  the  larger  States  of  Germany  for  1900.  The  calculations  and 
comparisons  can  not  lay  claim  to  absolute  exactness,  owing  to  the  variations  in 
the  different  appropriation  bills,  their  nomenclatures,  as  well  as  the  variety  of 
organizations  of  the  school  systems,  which  presupposes  inequality  in  many  ways 
and  makes  uniformity  in  expenditures  as  impossible  as  in  similar  relations  in  the 
United  States.  The  Empire  of  Germany  is  a  federation  of  25  States,  each  one  of 
which  manages  its  schools  independently.  For  rough  calculations,  however,  a 
comparative  review  of  the  following  data  may  suffice.  It  is  a  postulate  of  German 
statecraft  that  the  State  alone  must  support  the  normal  schools,  aside  from  tuition 
fees.  No  communal,  county,  or  provincial  taxation  adds  to  the  income  of  institu¬ 
tions  providing  the  State  with  teachers,  who,  being  indebted  to  the  State  for  their 
professional  education,  are  imbued  with  the  idea  that  they  are  morally  obliged  to 
uphold  the  State. 


118  EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


A. — Grand  totals  of  regular  expenditures  of  ministers  of  worship  and  education. 


Country. 

Expendi¬ 

tures. 

Per  capita  of 
the  popula¬ 
tion. 

Prussia  a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Maries. 
137,619,795 
29,029,320 
19,013, 743 
12,556,396 

Marks. 

4. 32=$1. 03 
4.99=  1.19 
5.28=  1.36 
6.03=  1.44 

Bavaria  ..  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Saxony _ _ _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Wurttemberg _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

B. — Regular  expenditures  for  education  only.  Tlyi  Stdtes,  quota. 


Country. 

Expendi¬ 

tures. 

Per  cent. 

Per  capita  of 
population. 

Prussia  .......  .  _ - _ 

Marks. 

112, 703, 655 
21,393,338 
16,523,858 
7, 440, 095 

81.9 

Marks. 

3. 54=$0. 84 
3. 68=  .  88 

Bavaria.  _ _ _ 

73.7 

Saxonv _ _ _ 

86.9 

4.36=  1.04 

Wurtuemburg _ _ _ _ _ _ 

59.8 

3.57=  .85 

C. — The  States'  quota  for  education  in  detail.  ( h ) 


Country. 

Secondary  schools. 

Normal  schools. 

Elementary  schools. 

Marks. 

Per  cent. 

Marks. 

Per  cent. 

Marks. 

Per  cent. 

Prussia _ _ 

12,355,271 

3,682,837 

3,078,311 

1,708,067 

1,223.890 

11.0 

7,981,048 
1,200, 139 
2,058,124 
388,681 
264,549 

7.1 

74,093,643 
10, 391, 846 
8,025, 847 
2,389,084 
4,946,207 

65.7 

Bavaria _ _ _ 

17.2 

5. 6 

48.1 

Saxony _ _ 

18.6 

12.5 

48  6 

Wurttemburg _ 

23.0 

5.2 

32.1 

53.3 

Baden  c _ _ 

12.2 

2.6 

D. — State  expenditures  for  normal  schools  in  detail. 


Country. 

Salaries. 

Scholarship  and  other 
aids  to  students. 

Buildings  and  equip¬ 
ment. 

Prussia . . . 

Bavaria . 

Saxony . . . . 

W  urttemberg . . . 

Baden  . 

Marks. 

3, 763,776 
827, 229 
1, 454, 865 
224, 225 
167,374 

Per  cent. 
47.2 
68.9 

70.7 

57.7 
69.1 

Marks. 

2, 783,937 
102,135 
116, 760 
133,960 
38,710 

Per  cent. 
34.9 
8.5 
5.7 
34.5 
16.4 

Marks. 
1,433.335 
270, 775 
486, 499 
30,496 
58,465 

Per  cent. 

17.9 
22.6 
23.6 

14.9 
14.5 

E. — Per  capita  for  prof essional  preparation  of  teachers. 


Country. 

Per  capita 
of  popula¬ 
tion  for 
normal 
schools  per 
annum. 

Per  capita  of  students — 

In  prepar¬ 
atory  de¬ 
partment 
per  annum 

In  normal 
schools  per 
annum. 

During  en¬ 
tire  term 
of  prepa¬ 
ration. 

Mark. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Marks. 

Prussia. . 

0.25 

360 

599 

d  2, 889 

Bavaria . . . . 

.21 

338 

505 

2,024 

Saxony . . . 

.54 

(e) 

562 

/  3,372 

W urttemberg  . . . . . . 

.19 

276 

555 

2,217 

Baden . . . 

.14 

217 

450 

1,784 

a  After  deducting  sums  spent  for  medical  affairs. 

b  In  Table  C,  expenditures  for  higher  seats  of  learning,  administration,  etc.,  are  not  specified; 
hence  the  partial  sums  for  the  three  categories  of  schools  are  not  equal  to  the  total  amount 
paid  by  the  State  for  education. 

c  The  regular  expenditures  for  education  amounted  to  9,299,932  marks. 

d  The  assumption  is  that  a  normal  school  student  before  his  admission  has  spent  three  years 
in  the  preparatory  school;  but  many  come  from  secondary  schools,  and  hence  the  quota  for 
preparatory  courses  is  only  11.46  per  cent  of  the  total  costs  of  the  professional  education  of 
teachers  in  Prussia. 

e  Saxony  has  no  preparatory  departments  in  normal  schools. 

/Saxony  pays  comparatively  more  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  than  the  other  States.  The 
course  of  a  normal  school  in  Saxony  is  one  of  six  years,  while  in  the  other  States  it  is  one  of  four 
years. 


EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 


119 


V.  BUDGET  FOR  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  IN  1901. 

The  budget  passed  by  Parliament  for  1901  provides  for  a  total  appropriation  of 
47,334,294  francs,  which  is  an  increase  of  1,651,609  francs  over  last  year.  From 
this  sum  total  should  be  deducted  the  burdens  “del  debito  vitalizio,”  which 
would  leave  44,519,299  francs  to  be  expended.  This  is  equal  to  1.40  francs  per 
capita  of  the  population.  Of  these  expenditures  6.21  per  cent  are  for  administra¬ 
tive  purposes,  26.1  per  cent  for  elementary  schools,  35.5  per  cent  for  secondary 
schools,  18.71  per  cent  for  normal  schools,  3.98  per  cent  for  scientific  purposes, 
10.31  per  cent  for  art  and  archeology,  and  0.18  per  cent  for  unspecified  purposes. 
In  order  to  judge  this  rightly,  it  should  be  stated  that  in  Italy  the  elementary 
schools  are  almost  wholly  supported  by  the  communities,  and  that  the  provincial 
governments  share  in  the  expenses  for  scientific  and  technological  schools. — (Pad- 
agog.  Ztg.,  Berlin.) 


XY.  MISCELLANEOUS  TOPICS. 

Contents:  Health  and  Mortality  of  Teachers.— Continuation  Schools  in  Germany. — Growth  of 
German  National  Teachers’ Union. — Cost  of  Free  Text-books  in  Zurich. — Sons  of  Laborers  in 
German  High  Schools.— Teachers’  Salaries  in  Prussian  Cities.— German  University  Students. 

I.  HEALTH  AND  MORTALITY  AMONG  TEACHERS  IN  BERLIN. 

Dr.  H.  Schroder,  of  Kiel,  an  untiring  worker  in  behalf  of  the  interests  of  high- 
school  teachers  in  Prussia,  has  in  numerous  pamphlets  and  magazine  articles 
referred  to  the  disregard  of  teachers  in  contrast  to  other  State  officers  of  university 
education,  and  makes  a  demand  of  the  State  for  better  pay  and  shorter  hours. 
His  reason  for  the  latter-named  demand  is  the  great  mortality  among  high-school 
teachers.  By  means  of  statistical  tables,  he  proves  that  their  strength  or  vitality 
declines  much  sooner  than  that  of  judges,  army  officers,  etc.  Such  statements 
are  not  easily  prepared,  as  official  statistics  do  not  specialize  the  professions  as  well 
as  might  be  desired.  The  untiring  energy  of  Dr.  Schroder,  therefore,  deserves 
recognition  beyond  what  the  actual  figures  suggest.  Even  if  exact  comparative 
statistics  are  impossible,  a  cursory  comparison  of  the  figures  given  with  those 
applying  to  elementary  school-teachers  proves  conditions  among  the  latter  to  be 
still  more  unfavorable.  Unfortunately,  teachers  have  attached  too  little  impor¬ 
tance  to  this  subject,  and  hence  they  are  now  beginning  in  Germany  to  keep  an 
exact  account  of  the  death  rate  and  pensioning  of  public  school-teachers,  so  as  to 
define  how  soon  their  vitality  is  expended  as  contrasted  with  other  officers  or 
employees  of  the  Government. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  a  distinction  must  be  made  between  cities  and  country. 1 
Large  cities  in  particular  must  be  treated  appropriately  to  their  individual  condi¬ 
tions.  For  Berlin  a  teacher,  Mr.  Gaulke,  has  prepared  a  statement  giving  the 
average  term  of  life,  for  a  number  of  years,  of  principals  and  teachers  deceased. 
The  figures  do  not  refer  to  calendar  but  to  school  years  (May  1  to  April  30) ;  how¬ 
ever,  that  fact  is  of  no  significance,  and  that  the  averages  specified  for  the  years 
1867  and  1871  refers  only  to  the  members  of  the  union  of  communal  teachers  affects 
their  importance  but  little.  Here  is  the  table: 


.  Years. 

1887 .  89 

1868. . 37 

1869  . 38 

1870  .  39 

1871  . 46 

1878. . 41 

1879  .  49 

1880  .  42 

Years. 

1882  . .  42 

1883  . 37 

1884  .  37 

1885  .  44 

1886  .  50 

1887  . 42 

1888  . .  53 

1889  41 

Years. 

1891  . 46 

1892  _ 42 

1893  . 51 

1894  . 48 

1895  . 44 

1896  . !..  . . -  51 

1897  . 51 

1898  -  -  49 

1881 . . 40 

1890 . . . .  47 

1  See  article  on  this  subject  in  Ann.  Report  of  1898-99,  vol.  2,  p.  1488. 


120 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


This  table  proves  in  the  first  place  that  mortality  was  much  greater  in  former 
years  than  now.  From  1866  to  1886  there  is  only  one  instance  of  a  year  in  which 
the  average  age  was  50  years.  The  reason  is  that  mortality  is  less  among  the  pop¬ 
ulation  of  Berlin  in  general,  because  of  improved  sanitary  conditions.  Moreover, 
in  former  years  the  energies  of  teachers  were  used  up  to  a  much  greater  extent  in 
private  schools  with  deficient  hygienic  arrangements. 

Salaries  naturally  exert  an  influence  on  mortality;  the  lower  the  x>ay  the  more 
time  teachers  are  induced  to  devote  to  outside  occupation.  As  a  matter  of  course, 
a  greater  amount  of  vitality  is  thus  expended,  and  those  whose  health  is  not  very 
strong  consequently  die  an  earlier  death  than  they  otherwise  would.  The  moral 
is  self-evident. 

The  foregoing  table  is  deficient  in  the  one  respect,  that  the  calculations  upon 
which  it  is  based  include  only  teachers  who  died  in  office.  Exact  deductions  are 
therefore  impossible.  To  give  the  consumption  of  vitalitjr  with  any  degree  of  defi¬ 
niteness  the  three  following  groups  must  be  considered:  (1)  The  average  age  of 
all  deceased  teachers;  (2)  the  average  age  of  those  who  died  in  active  service,  and 
(8)  the  average  of  those  retired.  The  last  point  is  one  of  great  importance, 
and  would  no  doubt  furnish  astonishing  facts.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  perti¬ 
nent  statistics  of  earlier  decades  are  available.  Late  investigations  define  the 
ages  of  principals  and  teachers  retired  since  October  1,  1896,  with  the  following 
result  : 

One  pensioner  was  between  25  and  34  years  old;  8  pensioners  were  between  '35 
and  44  years  old;  5  pensioners  were  between  45  and  54  years  old;  15  pensioners 
were  between  55  and  64  years  old;  19  x>ensioners  were  between  65  and  74  years  old; 
3  pensioners  were  over  75  years  old. 

According  to  the  pension  law  of  1885,  pensions  can  be  granted  to  teachers  under  65 
years  of  age  only  if  the  school  authorities,  upon  conscientious  investigation, 
decide  that  they  are  permanently  unfit  for  the  duties  of  their  position  because- of 
physical  defects  or  physical  or  mental  infirmity.  Since  October  1,  1896,  58  per 
cent,  or  more  than  half  of  the  number  of  pensioned  teachers  and  principals,  were 
retired  because  of  sickness  before  they  reached  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  life.  Only 
42  per  cent  preserved  their  health  in  active  service  till  their  sixty-fifth  year. 

Even  considering  that  mortality  among  the  entire  population  is  greatest  be¬ 
tween  the  ages  35  and  44,  the  qiroportionately  large  percentage  of  teachers  retired 
at  that  age  is  most  striking.  There  would  be  many  more  instances  of  disability 
on  account  of  failing  health  among  the  teachers  of  Berlin  if  school  boards  were 
not  so  liberal  with  granting  furloughs,  and  were  less  generous  in  decreeing  com¬ 
pulsory  retirement.  According  to  the  official  report  of  the  city  board,  April  1, 
1897,  till  April  1,  1898,  as  many  as  19  principals  and  103  teachers  were  allowed 
longer  summer  vacation  for  reason  of  health.  During  the  same  year  531,  namely, 
23.02  per  cent,  of  2,307  teachers  were  furloughed  for  some  time  on  account  of 
sickness.  The  following  table  gives  the  details  : 


Number  of 
teachers 

ill. 

Per  cent 
of  whole 
of  same 
age. 

Number  of 
days  ill. 

Age  of  teachers 
ill. 

65 

20.06 

1,785 

20-29 

183 

19.78 

6,008 

30-39 

134 

21.54 

5,189 

40-49 

106 

33.72 

3, 711 

50-59 

41 

37. 61 

1, 550 

60  and  oyer. 

In  former  years,  corresponding  figures  showed  the  following  results:  Extended 
summer  vacations  were  granted  on  account  of  health  to  29  principals  and  108 


EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 


121 

J* 

teachers  in  1891-92,  22  principals  and  81  teachers  in  1892-93,  26  principals  and  104 
teachers  in  1893-94,  20  principals  and  109  teachers  in  1894-95,  17  principals  and 
93  teachers  in  1895-96,  18  principals  and  101  teachers  in  1896-97. 

The  following  table  gives  particulars  concerning  furloughs  on  account  of  sick¬ 
ness  during  the  year  when  school  was  in  session: 


Year. 

Teachers. 

Per  cent. 

Aggregate 
number  of 
days. 

1894-95  a . 

490 

23. 25 

18,813 
19, 402 
20, 712 

1895  96 

443 

19.75 

1896-97 . . 

475 

20.86 

1897-98  . . . . 

531 

23.02 

18,243 

a  Reports  of  earlier  years  do  not  include  these  statistics. 


Though  these  figures  prove  that  the  condition  of  health  among  elementary 
teachers  in  Berlin  is  no  worse  than  in  former  years,  still  the  number  of  sick, 
including  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  principals  and  teachers,  is  proportion¬ 
ately  large. 

Diseases  which  may  be  designated  as  diseases  peculiar  to  the  profession  are  dis¬ 
orders  of  the  eye,  throat,  and  nervous  system. 


Year. 

Eye  dis¬ 
eases. 

Throat 

diseases. 

1ST  er  vous 
diseases. 

1894-95 . . . 

Cases. 

16 

Cases. 

68 

Cases. 

76 

1895-96. .. . . . . . . . . _• . 

17 

68 

66 

1896-97 . . . . . . 

13 

109 

89 

1897-98.... . 

17 

109 

74 

The  great  increase  of  throat  troubles  and  laryngitis  is  particularly  noticeable; 
if  the  increase  continues,  the  question  will  naturally  arise  whether  the  evil  is  not 
due  to  existing  school  arrangements.  Meanwhile  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  high  figures  for  the  last  two  years  are  merely  accidental. 

In  conclusion  we  may  consider  the  mortality  among  the  teachers  in  other  Ger¬ 
man  cities.  In  Leipzig,  for  the  year  1897-98,  the  average  age  of  teachers  who 
died  in  active  service  was  40  years;  in  Dresden,  from  January  1,  1883,  to  April  15, 
1898,  it  was  49  years  and  7§-  months;  in  Hamburg,  in  1898-99,  it  was  42  years.  In 
Leipzig  the  average  age  of  pensioned  teachers  for  the  same  period  was  67  years;  in 
Dresden,  53  years.  Further  comparisons  are  unfortunately  impossible.  The  fig¬ 
ures  given  have  been  taken  or  calculated  from  the  teachers’  rolls  of  the  cities 
mentioned.  The  teachers  of  Berlin  are  urging  those  of  other  German  cities  to  rec¬ 
ommend  that  statistics  referring  to  mortality  in  the  teaching  force  be  inserted  in 
the  official  reports.  { 

Since  the  foregoing  was  prepared  the  official  statement  concerning  the  year 
closing  April  1,  1899,  for  Berlin  has  been  published.  The  following  items  are 
taken  to  complete  the  foregoing  statement:  For  considerations  of  health  the  sum-  ! 
mer  vacation  was  prolonged  for  29  principals,  135  male  teachers,  145  female  teach¬ 
ers,  and  21  female  teachers  of  woman’s  handiwork.  Including  furloughs  granted 
duringthe  year  the  numbers  swell  to  575  male  teachers,  inclusive  of  principals;  474 
female  class  teachers,  and  85  female  teachers  of  handiwork;  making  a  total  of  1,134 
teachers  who  were  furloughed  on  account  of  sickness.  The  furloughs  covered 


122  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


42,037  days,  averaging,  therefore.  37  days  to  one  teacher.  The  furloughs  are  dis¬ 
tributed  as  follows: 


Month. 

Male  teachers. 

Female  teachers. 

Handiwork  teach¬ 
ers. 

Number. 

Days. 

Number. 

Days. 

Number. 

Days. 

Anri! 

1898. 

43 

881 

35 

605 

9 

124 

May _ _ _ _ _ 

80 

1,110 

2,073 

3,415 

2,643 

1,707 

1,110 

68 

1,444 

1,871 

2.598 

11 

181 

June.  _ _ 

124 

108 

11 

225 

July . . . . 

110 

85 

11 

330 

August _ _ _ _ _ _ 

184 

66 

2, 783 
1,948 
1,244 
1,069 
1,507 

1,361 

1,803 

1,750 

23 

338 

September _ _ 

87 

95 

11 

195 

October _ _ _ _ 

73 

81 

11 

126 

November _ 

58 

899 

58 

11 

151 

December  -  .  _  _ 

256 

1,137 

1,215 

1,462 

1,740 

67 

11 

249 

•Tannarv . 

1899. 

91 

92 

17 

192 

February  _ 

99 

111 

22 

196 

March 

92 

87 

18 

355 

Total 

19,392 

19,983 

2,662 

The  following  table  gives  the  ages  of  the  furloughed  teachers: 


Age. 

Male 

teachers. 

Female 

teachers. 

Teachers 
of  handi¬ 
work. 

20  to  29 . 

745 

745 

67 

30  to  39 . . . 

842 

595 

175 

40  to  49  . . . 

613 

333 

150 

50  to  59 . . 

246 

112 

74 

60  and  over  . . . . _ . . . . 

81 

20 

21 

The  following  table  states  the  most  prevalent  diseases: 


Disease. 

Male 

teachers. 

Female 

teachers. 

Teachers 
of  handi¬ 
work. 

Throat _ _ _ _ _ _ 

91 

93 

29 

Heart _ _ _ 

21 

3 

Influenza _ _ _ 

87 

85 

23 

Catarrh  of  lungs  -  ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

19 

16 

Catarrh  of  stomach . . . . 

18 

21 

1 

Nervous  disorder  _____  _  , 

99 

79 

28 

Rheumatism . 

25 

28 

10 

EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY, 


123 


II.  CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY. 

Table  showing  population  14  to  18  years  of  age ,  and  attendance  at  continuation 

schools. 


Population  14  to  18  years  of  age. 


Male. 


Female. 


States  and  provinces 
of  Germany. 


bO 

g 

U2 


Prussia . 

East  Prussia . 

West  Prussia . 

City  of  Berlin . 

Brandenburg . 

Pomerania . 

Posen  . . 

Silesia. . . 

Saxony - -- 

Sleswick-Holstein 

Hanover . .. 

Westphalia _ ’.. 

Hesse-Nassau . 

Rhineland . 

Hohenzollern . 


1,257,553 

79,667 
62,096 
51, 750 
102, 969 
66,  111 
79, 671 
178, 171 
105,270 
49, 755 
94, 655 
110, 939 
71, 897 
201,924 
2,687 


344  8 

ITT 
17  .. 
2  .. 

19  .. 
12  .. 
57  2 
40  2 
23  .. 
13  .. 
42  1 
13  .. 
10  .. 
55  2 


Bavaria . 

Saxony _ _ 

Wurttemberg - 

Baden...... . 

Hessia . . . . 

Meek  lenburg- 

Schwerin _ _ 

Sax  e-  W  eimar . . 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz 

Oldenburg . 

Brunswick . 

Saxe-Meiningen . 

Saxe-Altenburg . 

Saxe-Coburg- Gotha .. 

Anhalt . ....... . 

Schwarzb  u  r  g  -  S  o  n- 

dershausen . 

Schwarzburg-Rudol- 

stadt . . . 

Waldeck . 

Reuss,  senior  line . 

Reuss,  junior  line . 

Schaumburg-Lippe  .. 

Lippe-Detmold . . . 

City  of  Liibeck . . 

City  of  Bremen. . 

City  of  Hamburg . 

Alsace-Lorraine . 

The  Empire _ 


229, 675 
143,620 
86, 479 
71, 296 
43,612 

24,314 
13, 282 
4,352 
22,868 
16,891 
9, 466 
7,042 
8, 887 
11,363 


2,994 


3,510 
2,329 
2. 506 
4,994 
1,590 
5,618 
3,390 
8,160 
21,588 
63,303 


2,062,552 


Single. 

Married. 

I  Widows. 

I  Divorced. 

1,042,866 

2,963 

87 

6 

79,111 

299 

10 

T 

61,408 

288 

11 

58,096 

123 

6 

99, 471 

191 

8 

63,346 

130 

2 

80, 402 

442 

15 

1 

180, 290 

469 

16 

2 

102,928 

204 

2 

47, 488 

111 

92, 219 

191 

102, 831 

278 

9 

1 

73, 219 

65 

197,225 

317 

8 

1 

2,923 

2 

234,054 

291 

4 

148, 179 

140 

_ 

89,272 

40 

70,591 

48 

1 

43,415 

69 

22, 817 

54 

13,695 

28 

4, 180 

10 

14, 6.19 

27 

1 

16, 539 

.  26 

1 

9, 638 

20 

6, 968 

15 

8,656 

13 

10, 600 

12 

3,065 

8 

3,341 

5 

2, 463 

4 

2,489 

8 

4,900 

15 

1,545 

17 

5,392 

7 

3,061 

4 

8,313 

7 

23, 360 

75 

1 

63, 798 

124 

3 

- 

2,058,982 

4,182. 

106 

6 

Grand  total,  664,461. 


Number  attending  continuation 
schools,  exclusive  of  those  attend¬ 
ing  secondary  institutions  or  pre¬ 
paratory  schools. 


Industrial. 

Commer¬ 

cial. 

Agricu  1- 

tural. 

General. 

Girls. 

154,297 

17,029 

23,831 

5,000 

14,403 

5,531 

275 

549 

327 

7,626 

469 

472 

285 

21,353 

2,039 

379 

5,000 

7,268 

6,424 

658 

742 

82 

3,619 

351 

430 

158 

5,464 

312 

565 

340 

15, 755 

3,239 

2,234 

919 

12,258 

2, 171 

1,281 

425 

8,006 

463 

827 

770 

15,874 

2,280 

3, 506 

328 

13,415 

1,342 

1,736 

395 

15, 154 

] ,  379 

5,553 

1,785 

24,636 

2,030 

5,020 

1,271 

182 

21 

537 

50 

35,986 

3,024 

7,087 

128, 051 

167,450 

20,779 

4, 871 

691 

76, 994 

4,041 

16,662 

1,938 

366 

31, 176 

54, 016 

9,489 

1,500 

567 

25,649 

13, 611 

.8,976 

865 

307 

25,268 

300 

3,880 

164 

52 

40 

1,884 

226 

90 

5, 152 

46 

1,447 

14 

770 

50 

277 

50 

20 

1,995 

214 

50 

250 

317 

267 

89 

98 

4, 199 

249 

476 

50 

50 

482 

624 

182 

3,720 

317 

1,403 

137 

304 

50 

1,199 

268 

463 

20 

75 

126 

1,094 

350 

70 

821 

198 

120 

294 

174 

30 

65 

722 

1,213 

220 

30 

23 

1,779 

333 

3, 543 

858 

480 

2,908 

590 

416 

1,311 

450 

170,718 

32,672 

34,688 

170,440 

255,943 

III.  INCREASE  IN  THE  NUMBER  OF  WOMEN  TEACHERS  IN  GERMAN  CITIES. 


The  Statistical  Yearbook  of  German  Cities  for  1900  giyes  a  review  of  the  status 
of  women  teachers  in  cities  over  100,000  inhabitants  from  which  the  fact  is  notice¬ 
able  that  the  ratio  of  women  to  men  is  different  in  various  portions  of  the  Empire. 
Catholic  provinces  of  Prussia  and  Catholic  States  outside  of  Prussia  have  many 
more  women  teachers  in  their  city  schools,  while  in  the  Protestant  parts  of  the 
Empire  their  number  recedes.  The  following  table  is  instructive.  Protestant 
cities,  like  Duisburg  in  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Zwickau  and  Plauen  in  Protestant 
Saxony,  have  very  few  women  teachers,  while  Catholic  cities  like  Freiburg,  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  Metz,  Strasburg,  Cologne,  and  others  have  a  good  many.  Thuringia 
has  very  few  women  teachers. 


124 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900=1901. 


Ratio  of  women  teachers  to  men  teachers. 


Low  ratio:  Per  cent. 

Nuremberg . 2.5 

Chemnitz . . .  2.9 

Plauen .  - .  5.0 

Zwickau .  5. 4 

Duisburg . . 5.8 

Medium  ratio: 

Leipzig . . .  10. 7 

Wiesbaden .  10.9 


Medium  ratio:  Per  cent. 

Magdeburg .  18. 0 

Bremen .  19. 7 

Gorlitz . . 23.3 

Barmen . - .  23.3 

Brunswick .  24. 8 

High  ratio: 

Kiel . . .  50.3 

Hamburg _  54. 5 


High  ratio:  Per  cent. 

Aitona  . . 57.4 

Dusseldorf .  81. 8 

Liibeck .  85.2 

Cologne _ _  89.6 

Strasburg . _  90.1 

Metz  . 91.9 

Aix-la-Chapelle .  97. 9 

Freiburg . 134.9 


IV.  GROWTH  OF  THE  GERMAN  NATIONAL  UNION  OF  TEACHERS. 

In  its  yearbook  of  1900  the  German  Teachers’  Union  states  that  the  membership 
has  risen  from  76,523  in  1899  to  80,251  in  1900,  or  about  4.87  per  cent.  The  Prus¬ 
sian  Teachers’  Union,  a  branch  of  the  former,  has  increased  its  membership  dur¬ 
ing  the  same  period  from  48,710  to  51,612,  or  5.96  per  cent.  The  following  table 
shows  the  growth  of  both  associations  during  the  last  decade: 


Year. 

National 

Union. 

Prussian 

Union. 

Year. 

National 

Union. 

Prussian 

Union. 

1890 . _ . 

38,912 
44, 449 
49,636 
53,023 
55,134 
60, 797 

30,450 
35,512 
39,410 
40, 470 
41,081 
42,240 

1896 . 

62, 274 
64, 996 
67, 271 
76,523 
80, 251 

43,082 
44,953 
46, 610 
48, 710 
51,612 

1891  . . 

1897 . 

1892. . . . 

1898 . 

1893  ...  .  ... _ 

1899  . 

1894 . 

1900  . 

1895 _ _ 

The  increase  in  ten  years  in  the  National  Union  amounted  to  41,339  members,  or 
106.24  per  cent;  that  of  the  Prussian  Union  21,162  members,  or  69.49  per  cent.  In 
a  number  of  States  and  provinces  every  teacher  (except  the  women  teachers,  who 
have  a  union  of  their  own)  is  a  member;  in  others  very  few  teachers  are  still  out¬ 
side  the  union.  These  unions  are  not  loose  associations  that  count  as  members 
those  who  attend  annual  meetings,  but  both  are  firmly  organized  into  local  and 
state  associations,  each  of  which  maintains  intimate  relations  with  the  central 
management.  In  annual  or  biennial  meetings  only  delegates  of  state,  provincial, 
and  local  societies  can  vote.  The  influence  of  the  union  upon  school  legislation  has 
greatly  increased.  It  must  be  understood,  though,  that  the  members  of  the  union 
are  only  the  teachers  of  elementary  schools;  secondary  teachers  and  professors 
in  higher  institutions  are  not  members,  nor  do  they  participate  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  union.  Teachers  of  secondary  schools  have  their  own  associations,  one 
representing  classical,  the  other  modern  realistic  high  schools  and  academies. 
Professors  of  universities,  again,  come  together  in  their  association  for  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  science. 

V.  COST  OF  FREE  TEXT-BOOKS  IN  ZURICH. 

The  annual  reports  of  the  school  authorities  of  Zurich,  Switzerland,  give  infor¬ 
mation  concerning  the  cost  of  free  text-books  and  stationery  for  the  pupils  of  the 
lower  city  schools.  In  1896  the  cost  for  each  primary  pupil  was  0.94  franc  for 
text-books  and  1.50  francs  for  stationery  and  drawing  material,  a  total  of  2.44 
francs.  In  the  grammar  schools  the  books  for  each  pupil  cost  5.03  francs,  the 
stationery  and  drawing  material  7.39  francs,  a  total  of  12.42  francs.  In  the  year 
1899  the  cost  for  books  in  the  primary  schools  was  1.23  francs  per  pupil  and  2.74 
francs  for  stationery  and  drawing  material,  a  total  of  3.97  francs.  In  the  grammar 
schools  the  cost  had  increased  to  6.28  francs  for  books  and  7.48  francs  for  the  other 
material,  a  total  of  13.76  francs.  For  material  used  in  the  lessons  in  female 
hand  work  (worsted,  needles,  thread,  shirting,  etc.)  1.86  francs  per  pupil  was 
expended  in  primary  schools,  2.96  francs  in  grammar  schools.  Hence  the  city 
spent  about  3  to  4  francs  for  every  boy  in  primary  schools  and  for  girls  5  to  6 
francs.  In  1899  the  total  cost  amounted  to  103,075  francs  (about  $20,000)  for 
14,833  children  in  the  primary  and  2,471  children  in  the  grammar  schools.  The 


EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 


125 


latter  schools  are  parallel  to  our  seventh  and  eighth  year  grades.  The  expenses 
for  this  purpose  rose  from  88,068  francs  in  1894  to  87,541  francs  in  1895,  87,480 
francs  in  1896,  98,809  francs  in  1898,  and  103,075  francs  in  1899.  Zurich  has  at 
present  a  population  of  between  160,000  and  170,000.  The  elementary  schools  of 
Zurich  are  among  the  best  in  Switzerland.  Hence  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  expenses  for  similar  purposes  in  other  cities  of  the  Republic  are  not  any 
higher  than  in  Zurich.  Both  teachers  and  parents  are  well  satisfied  with  the 
result  of  this  comparatively  new  policy  of  the  school  board,  the  former  because 
they  now  have  a  much-desired  uniformity  in  the  stationery  and  books,  the  latter 
because  the  cost  is  much  decreased  and  is  paid  indirectly  by  all  the  taxpayers. 

VI.  SONS  OF  LABORERS  IN  GERMAN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

Mr.  Bernhard  Harms,  in  Tubingen  (Wurttemberg),  Germany,  has  made  an 
inquiry  (by  circular  letters  to  the  principals)  as  to  the  number  of  students  in  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  in  the  two  Kingdoms,  Prussia  and  Wurttemberg,  whose  fathers  are 
artisans,  i.  e.,  follow  a  trade,  either  as  master  or  assistant.  The  question  is  of 
importance  both  to  the  educator  and  to  the  economist,  inasmuch  as  the  result 
of  the  inquiry  Would  show  the  relative  position  of  the  laboring  people  in  the 
national  aspiration  toward  advanced  education.  Of  600  circular  letters  sent  out 
330  came  back  with  minute  replies.  While  thus  it  would  seem  that  any  tabulation 
of  these  replies  can  only  embrace  a  partial  statement  of  the  conditions  found,  yet  if 
it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  replies  came  from  every  province  of  Prussia  and 
from  every  subdivision  of  Wurttemberg,  and  that  Prussia  represents  the  north, 
while  Wurttemberg  represents  the  south  of  Germany,  it  is  reasonable  to  say  that 
the  results  as  stated  below  are  fairly  representative  for  the  whole  German  Empire, 
especially  since  the  tables  state  the  number  for  twenty-five  years,  i.  e.,  from  1878 
to  1900.  * 

The  results  are  these:  Among  143,135  students  in  high  schools  of  all  kinds  there 
were  15,688  sons  of  tradesmen  (artisans) ,  10.5  per  cent.  While  the  number  of 
sons  of  those  not  following  trades  increased  constantly  and  regularly,  the  number 
of  sons  of  tradesmen  vacillated  according  to  the  condition  of  depression  or  expan¬ 
sion  of  industry.  During  the  period  of  depression  (1881-1885)  a  great  decrease  was 
noticed,  during  the  period  of  great  industrial  expansion  an  enormous  increase. 
Another  difference  is  quite  obvious:  Few  sons  of  tradesmen  enter  the  classical 
(Gymnasia)  and  semiclassical  (Realgymnasia)  high  schools,  but  in  realistic  or 
modern  high  schools  (Realschulen)  the  increase  in  the  number  of  tradesmen’s 
sons  amounted  to  214.3  per  cent  in  recent  years.  A  few  details  are  interesting: 
Sons  of  bookbinders  show  an  increase  of  150  per  cent;  printers,  400  per  cent; 
watchmakers,  337.5  per  cent;  bakers,  288.8  per  cent;  butchers,  211.4  per  cent;  shoe¬ 
makers,  170.4  per  cent;  tailors,  435.3  per  cent;  locksmiths,  466.6  per  cent;  painters, 
481.8  per  cent;  joiners,  425  per  cent;  other  trades,  129.8  per  cent. 

The  general  summaries  of  the  author's  tables  show  that  attendance  at  classical 
high  schools  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  sons  of  artisans  has  decreased, 
but  that  it  has  disproportionately  increased  in  so-called  modern  high  schools  in 
which  modern  languages  have  replaced  the  classical. 

In  Wurttemberg  a  similar  observation  is  made,  only  that  the  number  of  artisans 
sons  is  very  much  larger  in  the  high  schools  of  that  Kingdom,  being  20.6  per  cent 
of  the  whole  number  of  students,  or  about  twice  the  number  of  those  in  Prussia. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  trades  and  home  industry  have  been  preserved  in 
Wurttemberg  better  than  in  Prussia,  where  factories  on  a  large  scale  have  replaced 
home  industries.  Altogether,  it  is  not  a  bad  showing,  for  when  10.5  per  cent  and 
20.6  per  cent,  respectively,  of  the  students  are  sons  of  laboring  people  who  can 
afford  to  send  their  boys  to  the  high  schools,  where  heavy  tuition  fees  are  charged, 
it  is  a  sign  of  healthy  and  worthy  aspiration. 


126 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


VII.  SALARIES  OF'  TEACHERS  IN  PRUSSIAN  CITIES. 

The  following  figures  represent  the  salaries  of  regularly  appointed  elementary 
teachers  in  towns  and  cities  of  over  12,000  inhabitants  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia. 
It  does  not  include  the  salaries  of  principals  of  graded  schools  nor  of  probationers. 
The  numbers  are  grouped  according  to  the  13  provinces  of  the  Kingdom,  Berlin 
being  a  province  of  itself.  The  amounts  stated  are  cash  salaries,  exclusive  of  free 
rent,  or  rent  indemnity,  which  is  usually  valued  at  25  per  cent  of  the  cash  salary 
a  teacher  receives. 


Provinces  of  Prussia. 

Salary  at 
beginning 
of  service. 

More  or 
less  than 
the  aver¬ 
age  in  the 
Kingdom. 

Periodical 

increases. 

More  or 
less  than 
the  aver¬ 
age  in  the 
Kingdom. 

Average 
salary  per 
year  for  25 
years  of 
service, 
including 
columns 
2+4. 

More  or 
less  than 
the  aver¬ 
age  in  the 
Kingdom. 

Averages  for  the  Kingdom. 

$298. 21 

$40. 70 

$474. 81 

Westphalia . 

329. 15 

+$30. 94 

44.03 

+$3.33 

521.22 

+$46.41 

Rhenish  Prussia . . . 

323.92 

+  25.71 

40. 70 

.00 

499. 81 

+  25.00 

Hesse  Nassau _ _ 

317. 26 

+  19.05 

46.65 

+-  5.95 

519. 08 

+  44.27 

Sles  wick-Holstein . 

307.97 

-f  9.76 

43.55 

+  2.85 

•  496. 71 

+  21.90 

Brandenburg  . . 

292.00 

-  6.21 

42.36 

+  1.66 

475. 53 

+  .72 

Hanover . 

290. 12 

-  8.09 

41.18 

+  .  48 

467.  91 

-  6.90 

Posen. ..  . 

285. 60 

-  12.61 

38.32 

-  2.38 

451. 25 

-  23.56 

Berlin  (city) . . . . 

285.60 

-  12.61 

63.55 

+22.85 

560. 73 

+  85.92 

Silesia . . . 

279. 17 

-  19.04 

38.32 

-  2.38 

445.30 

-  29.51 

Pomerania _ _ 

277. 74 

-  20.47 

35.94 

-  4.76 

433. 40 

-  41.41 

Prussian  Saxony _ 

259.42 

-  38.  79 

38.56 

-  2.14 

426. 50 

-  48.31 

West  Prussia . 

259. 18 

-  39.03 

37. 13 

-  3.57 

419. 60 

-  55. 21 

East  Prussia . 

253.23 

-  44.98 

37.13 

-  3.57 

413. 88 

-  60.93 

VIII.  GERMAN  UNIVERSITY  STUDENTS. 

In  all  the  twenty-one  German  universities,  including  the  Academy  of  Munster, 
which  has  only  a  theological  and  a  philosophical  faculty,  there  were  in  1900  (sum¬ 
mer  semester)  no  less  than  34,389  matriculated  students  and  about  10,000  non- 
matriculants  or  hearers;  in  1899,  only  33,563.  This  is  an  increase  which  represents 
almost  exclusively  the  native  contingent,  for  while  the  number  of  foreigners  rose 
from  2,284  in  1899  to  2,322  in  1900,  i.  e. ,  an  increase  of  38,  the  increase  of  native 
students  is  788.  Ten  years  ago,  in  1890,  the  German  students,  not  counting  for¬ 
eigners,  was  27,463;  this  number  decreased  t6  25,553  in  the  winter  of  1893-94;  from 
that  year  on  the  increase  was  steady  and  large.  Taking  the  number  of  1890  as  a 
basis,  it  is  found  that  the  increase  within  ten  years  has  been  16.7  per  cent. 

In  attempting  to  compare  the  attendance  at  the  several  faculties  it  is  necessary 
to  confine  the  calculation  to  the  Prussian  universities.  The  following  review  gives 
for  each  group  three  numbers,  (a)  the  number  for  1890;  (b)  the  numbers  of  1899, 
and  (c)  those  of  1900.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  chief  groups  of  the  philosophical 
faculty  are  separated. 

Students  in  Prussian  universities. 


1890. 

1899. 

.  1900. 

Protestant  theology _ _ _ . _ , _ ...... 

2, 652 
643 

1,429 

950 

1,314 

811 

Catholic  theology  . . . .. . . . . . . . - 

Law . .  ..  ...  .  .  . . . . 

3, 106 
5,172 
1, 534 
1,207 
580 

5,294 

4,410 

2,273 

2,200 

736 

5,580 
4, 158 

Medicine . . . . . . . . 

Philology  an  d  h  i  story  _ .  .  _  _  _ 

2,371 

2,323 

755 

Mathematics  and  natural  science  __  _  _ 

Pharmacy . . . . . . . . . 

Agriculture  a . . . . . . . . . . . . 

386 

521 

535 

Forestry  a _ _ _ _ _  _ 

64 

192 

232 

Dentistry  and  Veterinarv  surgery  a _ _ _ 

268 

298 

323 

15,412 

18,303 

18,401 

a  These  numbers  represent  only  those  who  study  at  the  university.  There  are  independent 
agricultural,  forestry,  and  veterinary  schools  not  affiliated  with  the  universities  in  Prussia  and 
other  German  States. 


EDUCATION  IN  GERMANY. 


127 


The  following  comparison  is  interesting,  owin£  to  the  details  it  offers  for  several 


German  States: 


Students  in  every  100,000  inhabitants . 


States. 

Law. 

Medicine. 

Philology 

and 

history. 

Mathe¬ 
matics  and 
natural 
science. 

"Prussia.  _ _ _ 

17.5 

13.5 

7.4 

7.3 

Ra.varifl,  _ _ _ _ 

18.7 

14.5 

11.1 

7.7 

Savon  y  .  ...  _  _ 

21.2 

11.9 

10.4 

8.1 

Wurttemberg _ _ .  _ _ ...... _ _ _ 

13.9 

12.9 

3.9 

5.7 

The  whole  Empire _  _ _ _ 

18.3 

13.9 

8.4 

7.8 

Prussian  students  studying  in  other  States. 

Medicine . . . . . . 

Pharmacy . . 

Mathematics  and  natural  science 

Law . . . 

Catholic  theology.... . . . 

Protestant  theology . 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  among  the  2,284  foreigners  studying  in  German 
universities,  in  1900,  there  were  about  300  from  America  (not  exclusively  from 
the  United  States),  it  is  of  interest  to  note  an  opinion  expressed  in  the  New  York 
Evening  Post  of  April  22,  1901,  which  refers  to  the  value  of  attendance  at  Ger¬ 
man  universities.  The  article  is  here  quoted  in  full: 

HIGHER  EDUCATION  MADE  IN  GERMANY. 

M.  Gaston  Deschamps,  in  his  very  entertaining  account  of  recent  lecturing 
experiences  in  the  New  England  colleges,  expresses  his  surprise  at  the  depend¬ 
ence  of  American  upon  German  scholarship.  At  Yale,  for  example,  he  found  that 
they  knew  and  used  the  German  standard  text-books  on  all  subjects,  ignoring  the 
French,  and  generally  that  in  all  the  higher  studies  the  university  looked  to 
Germany.  M.  Deschamps  adds,  with  a  certain  bitterness,  that  the  French,  who 
for  a  generation  have  done  nothing  but  advertise  German  methods,  are  to  blame 
for  their  own  lack  of  honor  in  America.  M.  Deschamps  has  correctly  observed 
the  fact.  In  a  score  of  lecture  rooms  to-day  American  professors  trained  in 
Germany  are  lecturing  in  an  English  intelligible  only  on  condition  of  having 
first  learned  German,  and  hundreds  of  incipient  doctors  of  philosophy  are  seek¬ 
ing  their  academic  salvation  in  “  Grundrisse,”  “Abrisse,”  “Aufsatze,”  and 
“Abhandlungen.”  But  the  French  observer  has  curiously  misjudged  the  cause 
and  the  importance  of  this  fact  of  the  partial  Germanization  of  the  American 
university, 

When  Edward  Everett  and  George  Bancroft,  early  in  the  last  century,  went 
to  Gottingen,  they  went  not  so  much  for  definite  facts  as  for  inspiration,  and 
the  movement  of  which  they  were  pioneers  has  been  a  veritable  evangel  of  sound 
learning.  As  Americans,  our  inheritance  was  a  certain  contempt  for- science  and 
an  invincible  confidence  in  rule  of  thumb — “the  English  notion,”  as  Matthew 
Arnold  called  it,  “that  you  can  do  a  thing  right  by  doing  it,  and  not  first  by 
learning  how  to  do  it  right,  and  then  doing  it.”  This  swaggering  insouciance 
our  social  conditions  have  tended  to  exaggerate,  and  if  it  has  been  corrected, 
it  is  largely  due  to  that  spirit  of  disinterested  love  of  science,  and  of  confidence 
in  the  ultimate  value  of  the  orderly  search  for  any  kind  of  truth,  which  America 
has  since  learned  from  Germany.  Professor  Paulsen,  of  Berlin,  says  that  you 
find  in  the  German  university  “the  spirit  of  inwardness — the  calm  delight  in 
her  employment,  the  faithfulness  of  work,  and  the  love  of  truth.”  These  were 
things  worth  studying  and  worth  imitating.  And  it  was  properly  and  worthily 
the  ideal  of  every  young  scholar — American,  French,  or  Italian  (the  English 
only  were  blind) — in  the  fifties,  sixties,  and  seventies,  to  study  in  a  German 
university  and  bring  back  its  degree. 

What  they  sought,  to  be  more  specific,  was  the  vaunted  scientific  method — wis- 
senschaftliche  Methode.  This  formidable  phrase  meant  chiefly  thoroughness,  the 
willingness  to  count  no  fact  small  and  no  effort  great  in  the  search  for  truth.  It 
meant,  besides  unsparing  industry  in  the  mere  accumulation  of  facts,  a  certain 


Per  cent. 

....  37.6  1 

—  ol'l  [A  total  of  29.3  per  cent  (or  13,004)  Prussian 

—  2Q  8  i  students  studying  in  Bavaria,  Saxony, 

—  13  8  Wurttemberg,  Baden,  Hessia,  etc. 

13.6  J 


128 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


constructive  quality  of  mind  which,  mastered  the  facts  and  set  them  in  philosoph¬ 
ical  relations.  These  qualities  the  great  German  scholars,  the  Grimms,  the  Diezes, 
the  Rankes,  had  preeminently;  and  they  held  themselves — their  knowledge  and 
ideals— at  the  disposal  of  every  youngster  who  sought  the  life  of  research.  It  is 
one  of  the  proudest  titles  of  American  scholarship,  that  it  early  recognized  that 
intellectual' good  was  to  be  found  in  Germany;  that  it  sought  it  there  and  brought 
it  back  to  be  a  fruitful  principle  of  our  own  intellectual  life. 

To  deplore  the  fact  that  our  scholarship  has  a  strong  German  tinge  would  be 
like  apologizing  for  the  loins  from  which  we  sprang.  And  yet  it  is  a  question  if 
of  recent  years  we  have  not  followed  German  methods  too  exclusively  and  too 
unintelligently.  You  may  crack  a  filbert  with  a  trip  hammer;  you  may  put  wis- 
senschaftiiche  Methode,  too,  to  the  most  trivial  uses.  The  Germans  themselves 
often  so  misuse  it.  Scholarship  suffers  from  an  enormous  overproduction  of  mon¬ 
ographs  in  which  an  ambitious  method  stretches  a  thin  substance  to  the  cracking 
point.  As  Kant  imagined  a  pure  reason  (reine  Yernunft),  so  we  are  in  danger 
of  coming  down  to  pure  method  (reine  Methode).  There  is  a  craze,  not  to  prove 
something  valuable,  but  merely  to  prove  something.  What  shall  be  said  of  the 
graduate  student  who  sorts  and  weighs  the  descriptive  adjectives  in  a  popular  novel 
of  the  day,  and  proves  that  on  a  basis  of  a  thousand  the  rose  is  red  333  times;  crim¬ 
son,  197;  blushing,  69;  of  him  who  shows  that  the  average  sentence  length  of,  say, 
Thomas  Hardy  was  24.56  at  the  period  of  A  Pair  of  Blue  Eyes,  but  had  risen  to 
25.46  by  Jude  the  Obscure?  Yet  such  things  are  done  among  us  in  the  name  of 
scholarship. 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  hold  the  Germans  wholly  responsible  for  such  caricature 
of  their  method.  But  they  themselves  are  ready  to  acknowledge  a  defect  in  their 
scholarship  which  ours  has  not  escaped.  Large  intelligence  has  always  been  the 
characteristic  of  the  German  scholar.  A  fine  sense  of  form  has  rarely  been  his. 
The  enthusiasm  which  carries  him  to  a  difficult  result  expires  when  the  result  is 
reached,  and  the  scholar  who  will  give  ungrudgingly  a  lifetime  to  the  discovery 
of  a  new  principle  often  grudges  the  time  to  present  that  principle  clearly  and 
attractively  to  his  colleagues— so  much  so  that  it  is  sometimes  as  difficult  to  read 
the  account  of  a  research  as  to  conduct  the  research  anew.  This  comes  partly  from 
a  defect  in  national  temperament,  but  even  more  from  the  fact  that  the  German 
scholar  writes  only  for  scholars,  and  evades  the  discipline  of  writing  for  the  larger 
educated  public.  In  his  scorn  of  the  popular  he  is  likely  to  fall  into  the  obscure. 

Now  the  sense  for  form  is  almost  as  much  a  matter  of  good  morals  as  it  is  of 
good  taste.  French  scholarship  has  it  in  a  high  degree.  Not  only  are  learned 
works  clearly  and  logically  constructed  from  a  scientific  point  of  view  in  France, 
but  the  most  erudite  scholars  write  in  a  style  to  be  read  with  pleasure  by  the  aver¬ 
age  person  of  culture,  and  condescend  to  present  the  results  of  their  investigations 
in  popular  form.  The  result  is  a  type  of  scholar  with  a  juster  sense  of  proportion, 
a  better  knowledge  of  the  world  in  which  he  lives,  and,  without  any  impairment 
of  his  position  as  a  specialist,  with  a  far  greater  influence  than  is  commonly  the 
portion  of  the  German  scholar  of  equal  rank. 

We  have  surely  gone  too  far  the  German  way,  and  when  M.  Deschamps  pokes 
fun  at  the  German  flavor  of  higher  studies  at  Yale,  he  touches  a  sore  spot.  It  is 
well  for  us  that  we  have  made  our  own  everything  that  is  good  in  German  scholar¬ 
ship.  But  loyalty  to  our  foster  fatherland  need  not  extend  to  imitating  its  defects 
and  accepting  its  limitations.  It  is  a  hopeful  sign,  from  this  point  of  view,  that 
our  graduate  students  look  in  increasing  numbers  toward  France.  French  scholar¬ 
ship — and  our  own  traditions  may  well  reenforce  the  lesson — has  this  to  teach  us, 
that  there  should  be  discrimination  even  in  the  ardent  search  for  truth,  and  that 
a  slovenly  presentation  of  results  demeans  the  most  notable  investigation.  Noth¬ 
ing  our  universities  have  learned  from  Germany  is  to  be  disowned:  an  added  grace 
is  to  be  sought— the  admirable  clearness,  intelligence,  and  attractiveness  of  Latin 
scholarship. 


CHAPTER  II. 


A  LEGISLATIVE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL 
SYSTEM  OF  THE  STATE  OF  OHIO. 


[Compiled  from  tlie  Session  Laws  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly.  By  Mary  L.  Hinsdale,.. 
A.  M.,  graduate  student  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  with  historical  notes  by  the  late  B.  A. 
Hinsdale,  Ph.D.,  LL.  D.,  professor  of  the  science  and  the  art  of  teaching  in  the  University  of 
Michigan,  supplemented  by  Mary  L.  Hinsdale.] 


PREFACE. 

What  is  called  the  American  system  of  public  schools  or  of  public  instruction y 
strictly  speaking,  is  rather  an  idea  than  a  fact.  At  most  it  is  a  fact  of  the  human 
mind  and  not  of  history  or  objective  life.  It  is  a  conception  that  combines  the 
essential  or  characteristic  features  of  our  principal  State  systems  of  public  schools. 
This  conception  is  formed  by  the  familiar  processes  of  observation,  analysis,  com¬ 
parison,  and  generalization.  It  is  not  found  pure  and  simple  in  the  system  of 
any  one  State,  but  some  of  these  systems  approach  it  much  more  nearly  than 
others.  We  may,  however,  here  avoid  metaphysical  distinctions  and  speak  as 
though  this  system  had  external  reality. 

This  system  is  a  recent  growth.  There  were,  indeed,  anticipations  of  it  in  a  few 
of  the  States,  beginning  with  early  colonial  days;  but,  generally  speaking,  there- 
is  no  trace  of  it  until  the  present  century.  More  narrowly,  it  is  practically 
the  work  of  two- thirds  of  the  century,  for  it  was  not  until  about  1835  that  the 
great  common  school  movement  in  the  United  States  began. 

To  enter  upon  a  full  account  of  the  origin  and  development  of  this  system 
would  be  to  enter  upon  a  very  difficult  task.  It  would  involve  the  careful  com¬ 
parative  study  of  many  thousand  volumes  of  school  laws  and  reports  and  other 
similar  documents,  together  with  the  personal  history  of  the  principal  men  who 
have  contributed  to  the  work.  A  similar  account  of  the  system  of  a  single  State 
is  at  once  a  far  less  onerous  undertaking,  although  by  no  means  a  slight  one, 
while  it  also  has  some  points  of  superior  interest.  For  one  thing,  the  subject  in 
such  case  is  an  individual,  concrete  reality,  and  is,  therefore,  free  from  the- 
abstractness  of  the  more  general  inquiry.  This  will  appear  in  the  sequel.  The 
present  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  school  system  of  the  great  State  of  Ohio.  It  does 
not  attempt,  however,  to  deal  exhaustively  with  the  origin  and  development  of 
this  system,  since  that  would  include  results  and  much  other  matter  that  it  has- 
been  found  necessary  to  omit.  It  is,  rather,  the  origin  and  development  of  this 
system  as  a  legal  organization.  Again,  it  has  been  found  necessary,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  to  sink  a  vast  number  of  details  of  legislation  in  the  general  account. 
Manifestly,  to  note  each  smallest  forward  or  backward  step  was  as  unnecessary 
as  it  was  impossible.  And  yet  the  facts  used  have  been  so  chosen  and  combined  that 
they  furnish  a  full  and,  it  is  believed,  a  luminous  view  of  the  subject.  The  chap¬ 
ter  rests  immediately  upon  the  enactments  of  the  general  assembly,  and  not  upon. 


ED  1901 - 9 


129 


130 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


secondary  sources  of  information.  As  the  dates  of  the  legislation  described  are 
sure  guides  to  the  session  laws  containing  these  enactments,  it  has  not  been  found 
necessary  to  refer  to  them  by  volume  and  page  in  the  footnotes. 

I.  The  Period  1785-1821. 

The  period  from  1785  to  1821  in  the  history  of  Ohio  includes  within  its  legis¬ 
lative  enactments  measures  that  compose  a  most  interesting  prelude  to  the 
legislative  history  of  public  instruction  in  the  State.  It  was  not  until  the  latter 
year  that  the  first  common  school  law  of  Ohio  was  passed,  while  in  the  former 
year  the  Continental  Congress  passed  the  land  ordinance  in  which  originated 
the  educational  land-grant  policy  of  the  National  Government.  This  ordinance 
decreed  that  the  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  River  ceded  by  the  individual 
States  to  the  United  States,  which  had  also  been  purchased  of  the  Indian  inhab¬ 
itants,  be  surveyed  into  townships  G  miles  square,  and  that  these  townships  should 
be  subdivided  into  lots  1  mile  square;  it  prescribed  an  order  for  numbering  these 
latter  sections,  and  declared  that  the  lot  numbered  16  in  every  township  should 
be  reserved  for  .the  maintenance  of  public  schools  within  that  township.  These 
provisions  were  not  applicable  to  all  the  lands  that  went  to  form,  in  1802,  the  State 
of  Ohio.  In  the  northeast  there  was  the  region  reserved  by  Connecticut  out  of 
her  western  claim,  known  as  the  W estern  Reserve.  Southward,  between  the  Scioto 
and  Little  Miami  rivers,  was  the  district  that  Virginia  retained  for  the  remunera¬ 
tion  of  her  soldiers;  and,  touching  this  on  the  north  and  east,  a  section  appropri¬ 
ated  by  the  United  States  to  the  Revolutionary  soldiers,  who,  under  the  legislation 
of  Congress,  were  entitled  to  land  bounties,  called  the  United  States  Military  Dis¬ 
trict.  Generally  speaking,  about  15,000  square  miles  of  territory  comprised  in 
the  41,000  square  miles  did  not  come  within  the  range  of  the  legislation  of  1785. 

By  the  act  of  April  30,  1802,  which  authorized  the  people  of  Ohio  to  form  a  con¬ 
stitution  and  State  government,  Congress  made  the  people  the  offer  of  section  16 
in  every  township  for  the  use  of  schools.  The  constitutional  convention,  in  accept¬ 
ing  this  offer,  added  the  condition  that  those  parts  of  the  State  to  which  the  exist¬ 
ing  legislation  did  not  apply  should  enjoy  equivalent  advantages  with  the  others, 
namely,  that  Congress  should  donate  to  the  United  States  Military  District  one 
thirty-sixth  part  of  the  lands  thereof  for  the  support  "of  schools;  that  it  should 
similarly  appropriate  unlocated  lands  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  Virginia  Mili¬ 
tary  District;  that  it  should  make  such  provision  as  it  found  expedient  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Western  Reserve,  and  should  donate  for  public  school  purposes 
one  thirty-sixth  part  of  lands  purchased  thereafter  of  the  Indians.  In  reply  to  this 
Congress  passed  an  act  March  3, 1803,  satisfying  all  parts  of  this  request.  But  as  it 
proved  to  be  impracticable  to  execute  the  donation  made  to  the  Virginia  Military 
District,  an  act  was  passed  March  2,  1807,  granting  to  that  division  of  the  State 
18  quarter  townships  and  3  sections.  Still  further,  the  extinction  of  Indian  titles 
so  retarded  an  appropriation  of  school  lands  for  the  people  of  the  Western  Reserve, 
all  of  which  lay  beyond  its  limits,  that  it  was  not  until  1834  that  the  donation  to 
them  finally  amounted  to  one  thirty-sixth  part  of  the  area  of  the  Reserve. 

Congress  also  made  endowment  for  higher  education  at  the  beginning  of  her 
land  legislation  for  the  Northwest.  The  terms  of  the  sale  to  the  Ohio  Company, 
made  July  23,  1787,  stipulated  that  land  amounting  to  not  more  than  two  town¬ 
ships  be  given  perpetually  for  the  purpose  of  an  university,  to  be  laid  off  by  the 
purchasers  as  near  the  center  of  the  tract  as  might  be,  while  the  patent  to  John 
Cleves  Symmes,  September  30,  1794,  declared  that  one  complete  township  should 
be  held  in  trust  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  within  the  area  since  known  as 
the  Symmes  tract,  lying  within  the  two  Miami  rivers,  an  academy  and  other 
seminaries  of  learning. 

The  sum  total  of  the  lands  dedicated  to  the  purposes  of  education  was  about 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


131 


1,100  or  1,200  square  miles  of  the  area  of  the  State.  The  title  to  these  lands  Con-" 
gress  vested  in  the  general  assembly  in  trust  for  the  uses  specified,  and  no  other 
uses,  and  a  large  part  of  the  legislation  which  we  hare  styled  a  prelude  to  our 
proper  subject  relates  to  laying  off  lots,  improvements,  leasing,  sales,  and  pro¬ 
viding  administrators.  The  period  of  sales,  however,  did  not  begin  until  1827. 

The  earliest  law  touching  the  subject  was  enacted  by  the  Territorial  legislature 
November  15,  1799,  and  provided: 

If  any  person  or  persons  shall,  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  under  pretence  of 
any  lease  or  otherwise,  cut,  fell,  bos,  bore,  or  destroy  any  black  walnut,  black, 
white,  yellow,  or  red  oak,  white  wood,  poplar,  wild  cherry,  blue  ash,  yellow,  or 
black  locust,  chestnut,  coffee  or  sugar  tree,  or  sapling,  standing  or  growing  upon 
any  lands  ,within  the  territory  reserved,  appropriated,  or  intended  for  the  use 
and  support  of  schools,  *  *  *  such  person  or  persons  shall  forfeit  and  pay 

for  every  such  tree  or  sapling  so  cut,  felled,  boxed,  bored,  or  destroyed  the  sum 
of  $8. 

If  a  tree  or  sapling  of  any  kind,  not  herein  enumerated,  were  injured,  the  fine 
was  $3.  The  values  here  placed  upon  the  timber  seemed  to  prove  that  the  school 
lands  would  be  exploited  with  an  eye  single  to  the  interests  of  education;  but  time 
was  to  show  that  the  promise  would  be  rudely  broken.  The  legislation  of  the 
general  assembly  on  the  subject  of  school  lands  was  marked  by  great  incompe¬ 
tency  and  unfaithfulness.1 

Before  1802  it  had  become  common  for  the  States  to  incorporate  into  their  consti¬ 
tutions  articles  or  clauses  concerning  education  in  schools.  The  practice  was  not 
universal,  but  Ohio,  made  up  as  her  population  was,  was  not  likely  to  fall  short  in 
the  matter.  These  are  the  educational  clauses  that  the  State  set  in  her  first  fun¬ 
damental  law,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  our  subject. 

Art.  YIII.  8.  *  *  *  But  religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being  essentially 
necessary  to  the  good  government  and  the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and 
the  means  of  instruction  shall  forever  be  encouraged  by  legislative  provision,  not 
inconsistent  with  the  rights  of  conscience. 

25.  That  no  law  shall  be  passed  to  prevent  the  poor  in  the  several  counties  and 
townships  within  this  State  from  an  equal  participation  in  the  schools,  academies, 
colleges,  and  universities  within  this  State,  which  are  endowed,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  from  the  revenues  arising  from  the  donations  made  by  the  United  States  for 
the  support  of  schools  and  colleges;  and  the  doors  of  the  said  schools,  academies, 
and  universities  shall  be  open  for  the  reception  of  scholars,  students,  and  teachers 
of  every  grade,  without  any  distinction  or  preference  whatever  contrary  to  the 
intent  for  which  the  said  donations  were  made.'2 

The  character  of  that  legislation  of  the  period  wThich  pertains  to  education  more 
directly  may  be  inferred  from  the  following  titles:  1802,  January  9,  an  act  estab¬ 
lishing  a  university  in  the  town  of  Athens;  1805,  February  21,  an  act  incorpora¬ 
ting  the  Dayton  Library  Society;  1803,  April  16,  an  act  to  incorporate  the  trustees 
of  the  Erie  Literary  Society;  1808,  February  15,  an  act  incorporating  the  Dayton 
Academy;  1808,  February  18,  an  act  to  incorporate  the  trustees  of  the  Chillicothe 
Academy;  1809,  February  7,  an  act  to  establish  the  Miami  University. 


1  No  small  portion  of  these  lands  was  occupied  at  an  early  day  by  persons  who  settled  on  them 
without  any  other  title  to  them  than  mere  occupancy  gave  them.  These  occupants  made  no 
valuable  improvements  on  these  lands,  hut  they  contrived  in  time  to  obtain  various  acts  of  our 
general  assembly  in  favor  of  such  squatters.  Such  acts  increased  in  number  every  year  until 
they  not  only  had  cost  the  State  large  sums  of  money  for  legislating  about  them,  but  some  entire 
sessions  were  mostly  spent  in  such  unprofitable  legislation.  In  the  meantime  scarcely  a  dollar 
was  ever  paid  over  to  the  people  for  whose  benefit  the  lands  had  been  given  by  Congress.  Mem¬ 
bers  of  the  legislature  not  unfrequently  got  acts  passed  and  leases  granted  either  to  them¬ 
selves,  to  their  relatives,  or  to  their  warm  partisans.  One  senator  contrived  to  get  by  such 
acts  7  entire  sections  of  land  into  either  his  own  or  his  children’s  possession.  (History  of  the 
State  of  Ohio,  Natural  and  Civil.  Caleb  Atwater.  Second  edition.  Cincinnati,  1838,  p.  253.) 

2  Those  parts  of  the  eighth  article  of  the  constitution  that  relate  to  slavery,  religion  and 
schools,  or  education,  were  prepared  and  introduced  into  the  convention  by  Judge  Ephraim 
Cutler,  one  of  the  representatives  of  "Washington  County,  and  a  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  Manassoh  Cutler. 
(Life  and  Times  of  Ephraim  Cutler.  Julia  Perkins  Cutler.  Cincinnati,  1890,  p.  77.) 


132 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


An  act  of  general  application,  to  provide  for  the  incorporation  of  schools  and 
library  companies,  passed  January  24,  1817,  shows  that  there  had  come  to  be  a 
good  deal  of  private  educational  activity  in  the  State.  This  act  runs: 

At  any  time  when  six  or  more  persons  shall  have  associated  themselves  together 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  school  and  building  a  schoolhouse,  or  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  library,  and  shall  have  given  themselves  a  name,  it  shall 
and  may  be  lawful  for  such  person,  to  obtain  letters  of  incorporation,  etc.  *  *  * 
All  existing  associations  for  the  establishment  of  schools  and  library  companies 
may  obtain  letters  of  incorporation  under  this  act. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  down  to  1821,  although  the  State  constitution  said  that  schools 
and  the  means  of  instruction  should  ever  be  encouraged  by  legislative  provision,  the 
State  did  absolutely  nothing  to  carry  out  the  provision,  and  instruction  Was  wholly 
a  voluntary  matter.1 

The  first  public-school  law  passed  by  the  general  assembly,  January  22,  1821, 
was  entitled,  “An  act  to  provide  for  the  regulation  and  support  of  common 
schools.”  It  ordered  that  the  trustees  of  the  several  townships  in  the  State  should 
submit  to  the  people  at  the  next  township  elections  the  question  of  organizing  the 
respective  townships  into  school  districts.  If  the  majority  of  the  householders 
favored  such  organization  the  trustees  should,  within  twenty  days,  lay  off  the 
township  or  any  part  of  it  into  school  districts,  which  should  contain  not  less 
than  twelve  nor  more  than  forty  families  each.  Joint  districts  including  partg 
of  several  townships  might  be  laid  off  by  the  joint  action  of  the  different  boards 
of  trustees,  in  case  the  inhabitants  of  any  neighborhood  wished  it.  The  town¬ 
ship  clerk  should  record  each  district  laid  off.  The  trustees  were  to  have  regard 
for  all  school  companies  incorporated  under  the  act  of  1817,  or  any  other,  by 
including  all  members  of  any  such  company  within  the  same  school  district, 
and  leaving  their  corporate  rights  undisturbed. 

The  remainder  of  the  act  relates  to  the  school  committee,  the  forerunner  of  the 
board  of  education.  It  provides  that  the  householders  in  each  school  district  shall 
meet  annually  on  the  first  Monday  in  May,  ten  being  a  quorum,  and  elect  three 
householders  as  a  school  committee  for  the  district;  also  one  person  to  be  collector 
and  treasurer;  these  officers  to  hold  their  appointment  until  their  successors  should 
be  elected  and  qualified.  The  householders,  assembled  in  district  meetings,  were 
also  to  vote  upon  the  question  of  erecting  a  schoolhouse,  a  majority  of  two-thirds 
being  necessary  to  carry  it.  The  school  committee  were  authorized  to  cause  the 
erection  of  such  schoolhouse  in  some  convenient  place  in  the  district,  and  to  pur¬ 
chase  or  receive  by  donation  land  for  the  purpose,  not  exceeding  2  acres,  the  title 
to  be  vested  in  the  committee  or  their  successors.  The  committee  were  made  a 
taxing  authority,  with  power  to  levy,  upon  all  property  situated  within  the  district 
and  belonging  to  residents  thereof  which  was  liable  to  taxation  for  State  or  county 
purposes,  an  amount  not  to  exceed  in  any  one  year  one-half  of  the  amount  that  the 
law  authorized  for  State  or  county  purposes.  Another  important  function  of  the 
school  committee  was  the  employment  of  a  teacher  or  teachers.  No  provision  was 
made  for  certificating  these  persons.  The  schools  were  to  be  kept  open  to  all 
scholars  of  a  suitable  age  within  the  district.  The  length  of  a  term  was  to  be  such 
as  the  school  committee  judged  to  be  for  the  interest  of  the  district.  Running 
expenses  might  be  assessed  quarterly  by  the  committee  on  the  parents  or  guardians 
of  the  scholars,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  scholars,  it  being  left  to  the  discre¬ 
tion  of  the  committee,  however,  to  remit  assessments  on  persons  unable  to  pay,  and 
to  make  up  any  deficiency  thus  arising  out  of  the  fund  raised  by  taxes.  It  was 

1  Before  the  introduction  of  a  school  system  as  defined  in  the  laws  *  *  *  the  existence  of  a 
school  in  any  neighborhood  depended  solely  upon  the  efforts  of  one  or  more  individuals,  who 
would  take  the  trouble  to  raise  by  subscription  money  to  employ  a  teacher,  and  either  build  a 
house  or  set  apart  a  room  in  their  own  dwelling  for  that  purpose.  (Life  and  Times  of  Ephraim 
Cutler,  p.  172.)  Many  schools  were  taught  in  private  houses.  (Ibid.,  pp.  49,88.) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


133 


the  duty  of  the  district  collector  to  collect  both  taxes  and  assessments.  As  treas¬ 
urer  he  might  be  required  by  the  school  committee  to  give  bonds.  He  was  per¬ 
mitted  to  retain  2  per  cent  of  the  moneys  received  as  his  compensation;  but  all 
other  school  officers  were  forbidden  to  receive  compensation  for  their  services. 
The  concluding  section  of  the  act  provides: 

In  such  townships  as  by  law  are  entitled  to  public  moneys  from  the  rent  of  sec¬ 
tion  number  sixteen  or  other  school  land,  the  trustees  of  such  township  shall  allow 
said  school  district  its  proportion  of  such  money,  to  be  ascertained  and  propor¬ 
tioned  under  such  laws  as  may  be  enforced  at  the  time  application  may  be  made 
regulating  the  application  and  division  of  such  school  fund,  and  the  treasurers  of 
the  several  school  districts  are  hereby  authorized  to  receive  the  same,  for  which 
they  shall  be  accountable  to  said  committee. 1 

II.  The  Period  1821-1825. 

The  school  law  of  1821  was  wholly  inadequate  to  set  going  any  vigorous  com¬ 
mon  school  movement  because  it  was  not  mandatory  but  permissive,  leaving  the 
organization  of  schools  entirely  to  the  will  of  the  householders  of  the  township. 
It  made  possible  a  conflict  of  authorities.  This  brings  us  to  notice  the  dual  town¬ 
ship  system  of  Ohio,  which  has  received  large  recognition  in  school  legislation 
down  to  the  present*  time. 

The  original  surveyed  townships  are  areas  of  land  6  miles  square  that  were  laid 
out  in  obedience  to  the  Congressional  land  ordinance  of  1785,  and  to  other  provisions 
for  the  same  purpose,  except  in  the  Y/estern  Reserve  and  the  United  States  Mili¬ 
tary  District.  Until  1806  these  townships  had  only  a  geometrical  existence.  On 
the  other  hand,  civil  townships  or,  as  the  statutes  of  a  certain  period  describe 
them,  the  organized  townships,  existed  to  meet  the  needs  of  local  government. 
Such  townships  began  to  be  organized  as  soon  as  the  Territorial  government  in 
1790  authorized  the  courts  of  quarter  sessions  to  take  such  action,  while  the  State 
law  afterwards  authorized  boards  of  county  commissioners  to  lay  off  townships. 
The  source  of  confusion  is  that  the  areas  of  the  two  kinds  of  townships  are  not 
always  identical,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  identify  the  school  system  for  pur¬ 
poses  of  administration  with  the  civil  townships,  while  the  educational  land- 
grant  policy  of  the  United  States  gave  the  original  surveyed  townships  a  political 
status  in  the  school  system  on  its  fiscal  side.  The  township  that  had  to  do  with 
the  administration  of  schools  was  not  necessarily  the  township  that  owned  lot 
No.  16.  In  the  early  history  of  the  State  civil  townships  were  large,  often  embrac¬ 
ing  many  original  surveyed  townships.  Laws  passed  in  1806  and  1810  provided 
for  the  organization  of  the  original  surveyed  townships  and  fractional  townships 
in  which  there  were  sections  of  land  reserved  by  Congress  for  the  use  of  public 
schools  therein.  As  soon  as  any  such  township  should  number  20  qualified  voters 
they  were  authorized  to  elect  8  trustees  and  1  treasurer  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  into  their  care  the  section  above  mentioned,  wTho  shall  be  a  body  politic, 
corporate,  etc.  Still  further,  the  acts  provided  for  the  creation  of  school  districts, 
viz,  the  trustees  are  hereby  authorized,  as  soon  as  they  may  think  necessary,  to 
lay  off  said  townships  into  proper  divisions  and  the  same  to  alter  from  time  to 
time  as  they  shall  think  proper  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  schools  therein. 
The  earlier  of  these  two  acts  provided  that  the  divisions  thus  laid  off  should  share 
the  profits  arising  from  their  reserved  section  according  to  the  number  of  inhabi¬ 
tants;  the  later  one,  that  the  schools  thus  established  should  share  according  to 


1  Little  is  known  concerning  the  enactment  of  this  law.  In  1819-20  Judge  Ephraim  Cutler,  the 
author  of  the  educational  clauses  of  the  constitution,  a  determined  advocate  of  public  educa¬ 
tion,  procured  the  passage  of  a  bill  in  the  house  of  representatives  by  a  vote  of  40  to  20;  but 
the  bill  failed  in  the  senate.  This  bill  appears  to  have  been  substantially  the  same  one  tha.t 
became  law  two  years  later,  if,  indeed,  it  was  not  identically  the  same.  (Life  and  Times  of 
Ephraim  Cutler,  pp.  113,115, 122, 123;  History  of  Ohio,  Caleb  Atwater,  p.  254.)  Atwater  says  of 
the  bill  of  1819:  This  bill,  after  being  much  injured  by  amendments,  passed  the  lower  house 
of  the  legislature,  but  was  either  not  passed  by  the  senate  or  so  modified  as  to  render  it  useless. 


134  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

the  number  of  scholars  and  in  proportion  to  the  time  they  had  been  taught  in  the 
schools. 

The  school  law  of  1821  speaks  in  two  places  of  the  trustees  of  townships.  It 
seems  to  have  meant  that  the  trustees  of  the  civil  township  should  organize  school 
districts,  which  was  in  conflict  with  the  act  of  1810  that  was  still  in  force;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  trustees  who  were  ordered  to  pay  over  to  the  treasuries 
of  the  school  districts  the  moneys  arising  from  the  rent  of  township  school  lands 
were  the  officers  of  original  surveyed  townships. 

The  school  law  of  February  5, 1825,  has  been  regarded  as  the  true  beginningof  the 
organization  of  public  schools  in  Ohio,  because  it  was  mandatory.  The  act  of  1817 
to  provide  for  the  incorporation  of  school  and  library  companies  had  been  repealed 
in  1824.  The  law  of  1810  relating  to  original  surveyed  townships  remained  in 
force  till  1829.  The  school  law  of  1825  makes  it  the  duty  of  the  trustees  of  each 
incorporated  township,  meaning  civil  township,  to  organize  school  districts.  The 
law  of  1821  had  pointed  out  the  mode  of  creating  school  districts,  differentiated 
the  school  district  officers,  determined  the  general  nature  of  their  duties,  defined 
their  official  relations  to  the  civil  community,  and  provided  for  conveying  the 
income  from  township  school  lands  into  the  school  district  treasuries.  The  new 
act  retained  these  provisions  for  the  most  part  and  made  important  additions.  It 
created  a  county  school  tax,  which  did  not  disappear  till  1851,  making  it  the  duty 
of  the  county  auditor  to  levy  upon  all  the  taxable  property  of  the  county  half  a 
mill  upon  the  dollar  to  be  appropriated  for  the  use  of  common  schools  within  the 
county.  He  was  to  enter  into  an  account  for  this  fund  with  the  school  districts, 
basing  his  apportionment  upon  an  enumeration  or  list  of  householders.  This  act 
also  made  it  necessary  for  teachers  in  the  public  schools  to  be  examined  and  to  hold 
certificates  of  qualification  and  of  good  moral  character.  The  branches  of  study 
were  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  The  county  court  of  common  pleas  should 
appoint  annually  3  examiners  of  common  schools,  who,  in  addition  to  examin¬ 
ing  candidates  for  certificates,  were  clothed  with  the  function  of  visiting  the  schools 
that  in  many  States  is  intrusted  to  a  county  superintendent.  But  the  exercise  of 
such  power  was  only  permissive  and  not  mandatory.  The  district  meeting  was  to 
provide  fuel  and  the  means  of  erecting  a  schoolhouse.  To  the  payment  of  teachers 
the  revenues  arising  from  the  school  lands  were  to  be  applied;  after  these  had 
been  exhausted,  the  school  directors  were  to  refer  the  teacher  to  the  county  audi¬ 
tor,  who  should  draw  on  the  county  treasurer  not  to  exceed  the  amount  due  there¬ 
from  to  the  district  in  question.  This  act  left  the  rate  bill  or  fee  bill  in  vigorous 
life  as  before. 1 

1  Certainly  little  and  probably  nothing  came  from  the  act  of  1821.  But  now  the  matter  of  pro¬ 
viding  a  system  of  common  schools  for  the  State  was  taken  up  with  a  good  deal  of  earnestness, 
and  we  are,  fortunately,  in  possession  of  material  facts  relating  to  the  enactment  of  the  law  of 
1825.  In  December,  1821,  the  house  of  representatives  appointed  a  committee  of  5  on  schools 
and  school  lands.  Th9  chairman  of  this  committee  was  Caleb  Atwater,  afterwards  an  historian 
of  the  State.  The  report  of  this  committee,  which  was  adopted  by  the  two  houses  in  January  fol¬ 
lowing,  closed  with  a  resolution  authorizing  the  governor  to  appoint  a  commission  of  7 
members,  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  collect,  digest,  and  report  to  the  next  general  assembly  a 
system  of  education  for  common  schools  and  also  to  take  into  consideration  the  state  of  the 
fund  created  by  Congress  for  the  support  of  such  schools.  Atwater  was  the  chairman  of  this 
commission  and  Cutler  was  also  a  member.  The  commission  prepared  free  pamphlets  for  gen¬ 
eral  distribution,  one  showing  the  actual  condition  of  the  school  lands,  one  containing  the  draft 
of  law  to  be  submitted  to  the  assembly,  and  the  third  an  explanation  of  the  system  proposed. 
These  documents  were  freely  circulated  through  the  State  in  tha  year  1823,  but  the  legislature 
was  opposed  to  all  action  and  nothing  was  done  at  the  time.  The  sequel  Mr.  Atwater  relates 
in  this  manner:  “During  the  next  summer  and  autumn  the  contest  about  the  sale  of  the  school 
lands,  the  school  system,  the  canal,  and  an  equable  mode  of  taxation  was  warm  and  animated, 
but  the  friends  of  all  these  measures  triumphed  over  all  opposition  at  the  polls  at  the  October 
election  of  1824.  Large  majorities  were  elected  in  both  houses  friendly  to  these  highly  bene¬ 
ficial  measures.  These  measures  were  carried  through  the  general  assembly,  and  the  greatest 
revolution  politically  was  effected  that  our  history  offers  to  the  reader.  That  legislature  was 
the  ablest  in  point  of  talents  and  moral  worth  that  we  ever  had  in  the  State.”  (P.  262.) 


HISTORY  OP  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


135 


III.  The  Period  1825-1888. 

In  1827  the  general  assembly  began  to  provide  for  the  sale  of  the  school  lands, 
the  leasing  plan  having  failed.  Three  years  earlier  this  body  had  addressed  a 
memorial  to  Congress  on  the  subject,  which  cites  the  original  grants  and  the  pro¬ 
visions  of  the  State  legislature  relative  to  leasing  the  land  and  to  the  distribution  of 
the  rents.  The  memorial  accounts  for  the  failure  of  the  leasing  policy  as  follows: 

By  reason  of  the  facilities  which  the  State  of  Ohio  affords  for  acquiring  a 
property  in  real  estate,  a  necessity  exists  of  leasing  the  lands  in  question  to  persons 
almost  wholly  destitute  of  pecuniary  means  whereby  the  avails  of  those  lands  are 
rendered  at  least  uncertain.  *  *  *  The  great  body  of  those  who  constitute 
the  strength  and  basis  of  every  government  and  who  are  to  be  considered  as 
the  friends  of  good  order  and  public  improvement  are  among  those  who  are  the 
owners  as  well  as  the  occupiers  of  the  soil. 

As  Congress  made  no  reply  to  this  memorial  the  legislature  assumed  that  it 
already  had  the  authority  to  sell  the  lands  and  accordingly  passed  a  series  of  acts 
enabling  the  voters  of  the  townships  and  districts  that  possessed  lands  in  common 
to  decide  whether  the  lands  should  be  put  on  sale,  and  other  acts  defining  the 
method  of  procedure.  This  change  of  policy  gave  rise  to  “  the  common  school 
fund”  of  Ohio.  The  original  law  relating  to  the  subject  was  enacted  January  30, 
1827.  It  orders  that — 

All  moneys  paid  into  th©  State  treasury  arising  from  the  sale  of  any  land  appro¬ 
priated  by  Congress  for  the  use  of  schools  in  any  original  surveyed  township  or 
other  district  of  country  within  the  State  shall  constitute  an  irreducible  fund  for 
the  support  of  common  schools  within  the  township  or  district  of  country  for 
which  such  land  was  originally  appropriated. 

The  act  pledges  the  faith  of  the  State  for  the  annual  payment  of  interest  upon 
this  fund  at  6  per  cent.  It  made  the  auditor  of  the  State  the  accountant  for  the 
fund  and  provided  that  he  should  open  an  account  with  every  township  and  dis¬ 
trict  of  country  for  whose  use  the  lands  were  appropriated,  and  ordered  the  inter¬ 
est  to  be  paid  over  annually  to  the  respective  officers  authorized  by  law  to  receive 
it.  The  act  also  vested  in  the  common  school  fund  any  donation  that  should  be 
made  for  common  school  education.  It  further  created  a  fund  to  belong  to  the 
people  of  the  State  in  common  for  the  support  of  common  schools,  to  consist  of 
the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  salt  lands  which  Congress  had  given  to  the  State. 
There  were  at  the  time  in  the  State  819  townships  and  3  school-land  districts,  namely, 
the  Western  Reserve,  the  United  States  military  lands,  and  the  Virginia  Military 
District.  By  this  legislation  it  will  be  seen  the  school  system  began  to  make  use  of 
the  machinery  of  the  State  government.  It  had  already  become  identified  for  cer¬ 
tain  purposes  with  the  county  and  township.  Henceforth  the  political  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  original  surveyed  township  tended  to  lose  its  importance,  although  the 
statutes  of  the  State  still  authorize  it  to  elect  officers. 

The  act  establishing  the  common  school  fund  was  superseded  March  2,  1831,  by 
another  very  much  like  it,  which  made  the  additional  provision  that  the  interest  on 
the  other  fund  belonging  to  all  the  people  of  the  State  in  common,  which  should 
accrue  from  the  sale  of  the  salt  lands,  be  funded  until  January  1,  1835,  and  there¬ 
after  be  annually  distributed  to  the  several  counties  of  the  State,  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  white  male  inhabitants  above  the  age  of  21  years.  Similarity  of  sub¬ 
ject  makes  it  in  order  to  notice  in  this  place  the  fact  that  this  incidental  fund  was 
increased  in  1851,  March  2,  by  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  the  swamp  lands,  which 
had  been  granted  to  the  State  of  Ohio  by  act  of  Congress,  September  28, 1850.  The 
interest  on  this  money  was  to  be  funded  until  Januar}^  1, 1855.  Thereafter  it  was 
to  be  distributed  on  the  same  basis  as  the  interest  of  the  salt  lands  fund.  The 
legal  status  of  the  salt  land  and  swamp  land  funds  has  at  times  been  laid  open  to 
dispute  by  the  indefinite  attitude  of  the  school  law  towards  them.  They  are,  as 
the  law  now  stands,  distinctly  recognized  as  sources  of  common  school  revenue. 


136 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  interest  on  them  has  come  to  he  distrihnted,  like  other  school  moneys,  on 
the  basis  of  the  enumeration  of  school  youth. 

Between  1825  and  1888  there  were  four  general  school  laws  passed,  their  dates 
being  February  10,  1829,  March  10,  1831,  February  28,  1834,  and  March  12,  1836. 
Each  one  of  these  laws  was  merely  the  combination  of  its  iwedecessor,  which  it 
repeated  in  its  essential  features,  with  two  or  three  minor  amendments  that  had 
been  enacted  in  the  interval.  In  1827  a  supplementary  school  act  provided  that 
each  householder  whose  school-district  tax  would  amount  to  less  than  $1  by  the 
regular  levy  should  be  assessed  $1,  which  might  be  commuted  to  two  days’  labor 
on  the  schoolhouse.  A  similar  provision  for  commuting  the  local  school  tax  re¬ 
mains  in  the  legislation  of  the  State  until  1838.  The  act  of  1827  contained  also 
the  provision  that  all  fines  imposed  and  collected  by  any  justice  of  the  peace  for 
any  offense  or  immoral  conduct  done  or  committed  in  any  school  district  should  be 
by  such  justice  paid  over  to  the  treasurer  of  such  district  for  the  use  and  support 
of  schools  within  the  same.  This  provision  does  not  appear  in  the  school  laws 
proper  later  than  1829,  but  it  comes  to  be  reiterated  in  great  detail  in  the  penal 
law. 

With  the  act  of  February  10,  1829,  begins  a  significant  discrimination,  which 
was  continued  until  the  negro  race  was  finally  put  upon  a  new  civil  footing.  It 
is  to  the  effect  that  nothing  in  the  act  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  permit  black  or 
mulatto  persons  to  attend  the  schools  hereby  established,  or  to  compel  them  to  pay 
any  tax  for  the  support  of  such  schools.  The  rate  of  the  county  tax  is  increased 
to  three-fourths  of  a  mill  on  the  dollar,  and  more  detailed  provisions  are  made  for 
the  district- school  meetings  than  before. 

The  regulations  that  hedge  about  the  assessment  of  schoolhouse  taxes  through 
this  period  are  almost  amusing  in  their  seemingly  petty  complexity  and  bespeak 
considerable  unpopularity  for  these  school- district  levies.  To  vote  these  taxes  the 
quorum  required  at  the  district  meeting  is  larger  than  for  other  business;  the  vote 
must  have  a  larger  majority;  the  maximum  tax  varies,  being  at  one  period  gradu¬ 
ated  to  the  amount  of  taxable  property  belonging  to  residents  of  the  district.  The 
minimum  amount  to  be  assessed  on  any  taxable  person  ranges  from  $1  to  25  cents. 
There  are  provisions  for  commuting  this  tax  into  labor  or  schoolhouse  materials. 
Lands  situated  more  than  3  miles  from  the  site  of  the  schoolhouse  are  exempted 
from  taxation.  Districts  are  to  share  the  rents  accruing  from  the  school  lands  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  families.  The  gradation  of  teachers’  certificates 
begins,  their  time  being  limited  to  one  year  from  date.  The  minimum  period  for 
which  schools  may  be  kept  open  any  year  is  three  months.  Voluntary  subscrip¬ 
tion  or  assessment  upon  parents  and  guardians  is  to  be  resorted  to  if  the  funds 
applicable  to  paying  teachers  are  inadequate.  Those  who  have  studied  the  actual 
working  of  these  early  laws  tell  us  that  the  attendance  fell  off  as  soon  as  the  jrab- 
lic  moneys  were  spent.  We  find  no  provision  of  law  for  commuting  any  part  of 
the  teachers’  compensation  into  boarding  and  lodging  from  house  to  house,  but 
custom  tended  to  establish  and  perpetuate  that  practice.  School  districts  were 
not  to  be  altered  unless  the  trustees  should  make  public  their  intention  to  do  so. 
Joint  districts  are  authorized,  even  when  the  townships  interested  therein  are 
situated  in  different  counties.  By  the  law  of  March  10,  1831,  school  directors  are 
constituted  a  body  politic  and  corporate.  A  very  important  new  feature  of  the 
same  law  is  the  distribution  of  school  funds  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children 
in  the  districts.  This  necessitates  provision  for  an  enumeration  of  children; 
hitherto  there  had  been  only  an  enumeration  of  householders.  In  its  earliest  form 
this  provision  reads: 

The  clerk  of  each  school  district  shall  annually  in  the  month  of  November  take 
a  list  or  enumeration,  in  writing,  of  all  the  white  youth  in  his  district  between 
the  ages  of  4  and  21  years,  not  including  any  who  are  married,  and  shall  return 
the  same  to  the  auditor  of  his  county.  *  *  *  If  any  school  district  shall  be 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


137 

partly  situated  in  an  original  surveyed  township  or  fractional  township  to  which 
belongs  any  section  16,  *  *  *  granted  by  Congress  for  the  use  of  schools  in 
such  township,  or  to  which  belongs  any  interest  arising  from  the  money  for  which 
such  land  has  been  sold,  the  clerk  of  such  district  shall,  in  taking  the  annual 
enumeration  of  youth  therein,  *  *  *  enumerate  separately  those  residing  in 
that  part  of  the  district  situated  in  such  original  surveyed  township  or  fraction 
of  township;  *  *  *  and  where  any  district  comprises  a  portion  of  two  or  more 
civil  townships,  the  clerk  shall  specify  in  his  enumeration  of  the  youth  the  town¬ 
ship  in  which  they  severally  reside. 

The  scheme  of  apportionment  now  established  is  described  as  follows: 

That  the  auditor  of  each  county  shall  *  *  *  apportion  to  the  several  school 
districts  in  such  county  all  the  money  in  the  treasury  of  such  county  for  the  use 
of  schools,  therein,  as  follows,  to  wit:  All  the  money  collected  on  the  tax  duplicate  of 
any  township  for  the  use  of  schools  shall  be  apportioned  to  the  several  districts 
and  parts  of  districts  in  such  township;  all  the  money  received  from  the  State 
treasury  on  account  of  interest  on  the  money  accruing  from  the  sale  of  section  16, 
or  other  land  in  lieu  thereof,  shall  be  apportioned  to  the  several  districts  and  parts 
of  districts  in  the  original  surveyed  township  or  fraction  of  township  to  which  such 
land  belongs;  all  moneys  received  by  the  county  treasurer  from  the  State  treas¬ 
ury  on  account  of  the  Virginia  Military  School  fund  shall  be  apportioned  to  the 
several  school  districts  and  parts  of  districts  within  the  countj^  lying  within  the 
Virginia  military  district;  all  other  money  for  the  use  of  schools  in  the  county 
shall,  if  its  appropriation  is  not  otherwise  directed  by  law,  be  apportioned  to  all 
districts  in  the  county;  and  all  such  apportionments  shall  be  made  to  the  several 
districts  and  parts  of  districts  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  youth  therein  as 
returned  by  the  district  clerks  in  IN  ovember  next  preceding. 

The  law  of  1831  declares  that  no  certificates  of  qualification  shall  be  issued  to 
any  teacher  unless  he  or  she  be  found  qualified  to  teach  reading,  writing,  and  arith¬ 
metic;  but  a  later  amendment  to  this  section  provided  that  whenever  the  inhab¬ 
itants  of  any  school  district  should  be  desirous  of  employing  a  female  teacher  for 
instructing  children  in  spelling,  reading,  and  writing  only,  and  the  directors 
thereof  should  signify  the  same  in  writing  to  the  school  examiners,  it  should  be 
lawful  in  such  case,  for  the  examiners  to  give  such  teacher  a  special  certificate. 
Although  women  did  not  yet  enjoy  their  rights  with  respect  to  school  administra¬ 
tion,  they  seem  to  have  been  compensated,  as  the  phrase  goes,  by  privileges.  The 
school  law  of  1834  makes  it  the  duty  of  the  county  board  of  school  examiners  in 
each  county  to  appoint  one  school  examiner  to  each  township  in  their  respective 
counties  to  examine  female  teachers  only;  but  the  section  quoted  adds  that  these 
examiners  in  granting  certificates  shall  be  governed  by  the  same  rules  and  regu¬ 
lations  as  the  county  board,  and  the  exemption  from  the  examination  in  arithmetic 
is  not  continued. 

The  acts  of  1833-34  suggest  some  of  the  practical  difficulties  attending  the  col¬ 
lection  of  school  taxes  payable  in  goods.  The  former  provides  that  when  the 
inhabitants  of  any  school  district  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  furnish  sufficient  fuel 
for  such  school,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  directors  to  apply  such  sum  out  of  the 
treasury  of  said  district  in  the  purchase  of  such  fuel  as  may  he  necessary  to  obtain 
the  same.  However,  the  pioneer  custom  was  not  readily  abandoned;  for  the 
next  act  declared,  that  it  should  be  the  duty  of  every  person  sending  a  child  to 
any  district  school  to  provide  his  just  proportion  of  fuel  for  the  use  of  such  school  to 
be  determined  by  the  directors  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  sent.  It 
adds  that  if  any  person  liable  to  make  the  contribution  of  fuel  failed  to  provide  it 
after  due  notice  and  warning,  the  director  shall  furnish  the  fuel  and  charge  the 
same  to  such  person.  The  amendment  of  February  13,  1833,  contains  the  first 
reference  to  the  school  term;  it  declares  it  lawful  for  school  directors  to  apportion 
the  school  funds  applicable  to  the  payment  of  the  teacher  to  the  different  terms  or 
divisions  of  the  school  year. 

The  law  of  March  12,  1836,  included  little  that  was  new.  The  rate  of  the  school 
tax  assessed  upon  the  counties  had  been  steadily  increasing.  At  this  time  the 
maximum  was  fixed  at  H  mills  on  the  dollar,  and  county  commissioners  were  ^ 


138 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


authorized  to  allow  an  additional  half  mill.  In  case  they  refused  it  was  made 
lawful  for  any  township  in  the  county  to  have  an  additional  mill  and  a  half 
assessed  upon  itself.  County  auditors  were,  for  the  first  time,  required  to  report 
tli6  enumeration  of  school  children  for  their  respective  counties  to  the  auditor 
of  State.  This  was  to  become  a  matter  of  greatest  importance,  as  the  basis  of 
apportionment  for  such  school  funds  as  should  belong  to  the  people  of  the  State 
in  common. 

The  general  assembly  took  its  first  serious  step  toward  superintendence  in  a 
law  enacted  March  27,  1837,  to  create  the  State  office  of  superintendent  of  common 
schools.1 2  The  incumbent  of  this  office  was  to  be  elected  for  the  term  of  one  year 
by  the  joint  resolution  of  the  two  houses  of  the  legislature.  He  was  to  be  com¬ 
missioned  by  the  governor,  take  an  oath  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties, 
and  receive  the  compensation  of  $500  a  year.  His  duties  had  to  do  largely  with 
statistics.  He  was  to  report  to  the  general  assembly  the  following  matters: 
Number  of  districts  in  each  township  in  each  county;  the  number  of  white  youth 
between  the  ages  of  4  and  21  years,  specifying  the  number  of  each  sex;  the  num¬ 
ber  attending  school  every  year;  the  average  time  of  attendance;  the  time  the 
schools  were  in  session;  distinguishing  the  time  they  were  supported  by  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  irreducible  funds,  the  time  supported  by  taxation  and  the  time  sup¬ 
ported  by  voluntary  subscription;  the  amount  paid  to  teachers  in  each  district, 
township  and  county,  and  from  what  sources  derived;  the  amount  paid  for  build¬ 
ings,  for  repairs,  distinguishing  the  amount  received  from  taxation  from  volun¬ 
tary  contributions.  It  was  also  made  his  duty  to  report  upon  the  condition  of  the 
several  school  funds  and  upon  the  operation  and  defects  of  the  common  school 
system,  and  to  suggest  plans  for  its  better  regulation  and  improvement.  The  law 
authorized  circulars  of  inquiry  to  be  addressed  to  county  auditors  and  to  local 
directors  and  made  it  their  duty  to  assist  the  superintendent  in  securing  informa¬ 
tion.  This  last  clause,  as  carried  out  by  Hon.  Samuel  Lewis,  the  first  and  only 
incumbent  of  the  office,  meant  a  great  deal.  It  was  his  effort,  largely,  if  not 
mainly,  that  secured  the  enactment  of  the  great  school  law  of  March  7,  1838.* 
There  was  a  great  awakening  of  interest  in  common  schools  throughout  the  State  as 

1  The  office  of  superintendent  of  common  schools  is  on©  of  the  results  of  the  exertions  of  the 
College  of  Professional  Teachers  and  Western  Literary  Institute,  established  in  Cincinnati, 
seven  years  ago.  It  has  continued  to  grow  in  talent  and  numbers,  and  is  now  extending  its  vast 
and  benign  influence  in  the  cause  of  education  throughout  the  West  and  South. 

At  the  instance  of  Albert  Picket,  senior  president  of  the  institution,  the  Ohio  directory,  con¬ 
sisting  of  Elijah  Slack,  William  H.  McGuffey,  M.  G.  Williams,  A.  Kinmont,  B.P.  Aydelott,  and 
C.  E.  Stowe,  nominated  adequate  persons  to  represent  the  objects  of  the  College  of  teachers  before 
the  legislature  of  the  State.  The  persons  named  for  that  purpose  were  Samuel  Lewis,  Calvin 
E.  Stowe,  William  H.  McGuffey,  Edward  D.  Mansfield;  men  of  acknowledged  talents,  and  who 
performed  their  duties  with  great  zeal  and  ability.  Their  powerful  appeal  to  the  legislature  in 
behalf  of  education  induced  legislative  action  and  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  superintending 
officer.  Samuel  Lewis,  esq.,  was  selected,  and  we  know  of  no  one  from  whom  the  State  may 
expect  more  untiring  zeal  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  official  duties  than  from  the  object  of 
their  choice.  (The  Western  Academician  and  Journal  of  Education  and  Science,  Edited  by 
John  W.  Picket,  A.  M.,  Cincinnati,  published  by  James  R.  Allbach,  1837-38,  pp.  381-382.) 

2  Comparison  of  the  provisions  of  the  school  act  of  March  7, 1838,  with  the  recommendations  of 
the  first  annual  report  of  Superintendent  Lewis  shows  that  he  fully  deserved  the  honor  of 
having  that  great  law  called  by  his  name.  The  history  of  the  enactment  of  this  law  has  been 
summed  up  thus:  His  report  was  favorably  received  by  the  people,  and  its  suggestions  were 
commended  by  leading  newspapers.  W.  B.  Van  Hook  was  chairman  of  the  school  committee  of 
the  house  of  representatives.  Accepting  Mr.  Lewis’s  views  as  those  of  a  wise  and  well-informed 
man,  he  reported  to  the  committee  a  bill  embodying  nearly  all  of  his  recommendations.  That 
bill  was  introduced  to  the  house  on  the  5th  of  February,  1838.  It  was  discussed  with  earnest¬ 
ness,  and  bitterly  opposed;  but,  on  the  17th  of  February,  passed  by  a  vote  of  46  yeas  to  20  nays. 
After  slight  amendment,  it  passed  the  senate  on  the  3d  of  March  by  a  vote  of  21  yeas  to  13  nays. 
The  house  concurred  in  the  senate  amendments,  and  on  the  7th  of  April,  1838,  the  law  was  in 
force.  (System  of  Common  Schools  in  Ohio,  William  T.  Coggeshall,  published  in  American 
Journal  of  Education,  Yol.  YI,  p.  87.)  The  3d  of  March  seems  to  be  an  error  for  the  7th  of  March. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


139 


the  appointment  of  Prof.  Calvin  E.  Stowe  as  a  State  commissioner  to  report  on  the 
schools  of  Europe  and  the  publication  of  his  report  indicates.  A  resolution  adopted 
in  January,  1888,  directs  that  8,500  copies  of  Professor  Stowe’s  report  on  elemen¬ 
tary  public  instruction  in  Europe  be  printed  and  deposited  in  the  office  of  the 
secretary  of  state,  subject  to  the  future  disposition  of  the  legislature;  also  that 
1 ,000  copies  be  printed  for  the  use  of  members  of  the  general  assembly,  300  for  the 
author  of  the  report,  and  200  for  the  superintendent  of  common  schools. 

The  keynote  of  the  Lewis  Act  is  supervision.  Interwoven  with  the  scheme  to 
establish  local  superintendance  is  an  attempt  to  centralize  school  administration 
by  preferring  township  officers  to  district  officers.  Probably  there  was  no  con¬ 
scious  approach  to  the  township  district  system,  although  the  new  legislation 
suggests  that  system.  Moreover,  there  was  a  partial  return  to  the  old  status  of 
the  district  officers  between  this  date  and  1853.  By  the  act  of  1838,  every  town¬ 
ship  clerk  was  made  superintendent  of  common  schools  within  his  township,  his 
duties  including  visiting  all  the  schools  annually,  inspecting  the  teachers’  records, 
observing  the  management  and  making  suggestions  to  teachers,  filling  casual 
vacancies  in  boards  of  directors,  assuming  directors’  functions  himself  when  boards 
failed  to  serve,  and  taking  the  enumeration  of  school  children,  a  task  which  had 
hitherto  devolved  upon  the  district  clerk  since  1831.  The  minimum  school  year 
being  fixed  at  six  months,  the  township  superintendent  was  directed  to  estimate  the 
amount  of  money  needed  beyond  what  was  available  from  other  sources  to  carry  on 
the  schools,  and  submit  to  the  voters  at  the  annual  township  election  the  question 
of  raising  the  same  by  tax.  The  next  year  there  was  supplied  the  provision  to 
return  to  voluntary  subscription  or  special  assessment  upon  parents  and  guardians 
in  case  the  tax  was  not  voted.  Another  step  toward  identifying  the  district  with 
the  township  was  intrusting  the  township  treasurer  with  the  handling  of  all 
school  funds  distributed  from  the  State  treasury  and  accruing  from  the  county 
and  township  taxes,  leaving  to  the  district  treasurers  only  the  collection  of  the 
district  tax  for  buildings,  fuel,  furniture,  etc. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  directors  as  newly  defined  point  to  the  laying  aside 
of  some  of  the  narrow  district  ideas  and  practices.  Directors  are  authorized  to 
levy  a  tax  for  incidental  expenses  not  exceeding  $20  a  year  without  the  sanction  of 
a  district  meeting.  The  old  limitation  upon  the  district  tax  growing  out  of  the 
nonresidence  of  the  property  holders  disappears.  Not  only  householders  but  all 
voters  have  a  place  in  the  district  meeting.  The  needs  of  schoolhouses  in  the  way 
of  furniture  and  other  appointments  begin  to  be  recognized.  More  important  than 
these  things,  there  is  an  enlarged  conception  of  school  organization  and  of  what  a 
common  school  education  ought  to  include.  Directors  are  authorized  to  determine 
at  what  ages  children  may  attend  the  different  schools  and  during  what  terms; 
also  what  number  shall  be  assigned  to  each  teacher  giving  to  all  in  the  district  an 
equal  privilege.  They  may  determine  the  studies  to  be  pursued  so  that  the  three 
R’s  shall  all  be  taught  in  the  English  language,  and  they  may  permit  the  teaching 
of  other  languages.  Most  significant  of  all  is  the  provision  that  cities,  incorporated 
towns,  or  boroughs  shall  constitute  separate  school  districts  wherein  the  electors 
•  shall  choose  either  3  directors  from  the  district  at  large,  or  1  from  each  subdis¬ 
trict.  Directors  may  divide  such  districts  into  subdistricts  and  may  establish 
schools  of  different  grades  and  ordain  such  rules  for  their  management  and^disci- 
pline  as  they  may  think  conducive  to  their  good.  There  was  a  corresponding 
provision  for  special  taxes. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  however,  that  this  was  the  earliest  response  of  the  leg¬ 
islature  to  the  educational  needs  of  populous  communities  in  the  way  of  graded 
schools,  for  special  laws  authorizing  such  schools  had  already  been  enacted  for 
Cincinnati  and  Zanesville.  In  Cleveland,  however,  the  promoters  of  the  early 
high  school  defended  that  institution  against  unwilling  taxpayers  by  citing  this 
provision  of  the  general  law.  The  visiting  and  advisory  functions  of  the  exami- 


140 


EDUCATION  KEPORT,  1900-1901. 


ners  of  teachers  now  disappeared  before  the  more  systematic  provisions  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  superintendence.  A  new  function,  however,  given  to  these  bodies,  is 
prophetic  of  one  of  the  liveliest  chapters  in  school  history— that  is,  school  exami¬ 
ners  are  given  authority  to  recommend  text-books  to  school  directors.  The  county 
auditor  is  styled  the  county  superintendent  of  schools,  his  school  duties  pertaining 
entirely,  however,  to  accounts  and  statistics.  In  addition  to  the  enumeration  of 
the  school  youth  the  reports  deposited  with  him  and  transmitted  to  the  State 
superintendent  were  to  include  a  school  directors’  report  showing  the  number  of 
schools;  the  number  of  teachers,  male  and  female,  wages  paid  to  each;  length  of 
school  session  in  each  district;  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  male  and  female;  aver¬ 
age  daily  attendance;  houses  built  and  cost  of  each;  value  in  quantity  of  school 
lands  in  or  belonging  to  the  township,  and  its  annual  rent;  and  such  other  infor¬ 
mation  as  might  be  called  important.  The  teacher's  report  was  now  required  to 
be  more  elaborate  than  before,  and  it  was  made  unlawful  for  teachers  to  receive 
more  than  two-thirds  of  their  compensation  until  their  reports  had  been  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  township  clerk. 

i  State  superintendence  was  the  leading  feature  of  the  act  of  1838.  The  act  of  the 
preceding  year  relating  to  the  subject  was  substantially  incorporated  in  it,  while 
additions  were  made.  The  term  of  office  was  lengthened  to  three  years  and  the 
salary  increased  to  $1,200  a  year.  The  duties  of  the  office  included  the  editing  of 
a  periodical  named  the  Ohio  School  Director,  which  was  to  be  published  for  one 
year  at  the  State  capital. 

^  An  important  new  principle  appears  among  the  fiscal  clauses  of  the  act,  viz: 
The  practice  is  established  of  appropriating  State  funds  or  property  to  public 
school  uses.  The  “  State  common  school  fund  ”  is  created.  This  must  not  be  con¬ 
founded  with  the  “  common  school  fund  ”  that  was  created  in  1829,  and  was  more 
permanently  regulated  in  1831.  The  State  common  school  fund,  as  constituted 
by  the  Lewis  Act,  included  interest  on  the  surplus  revenue  at  5  per  cent;  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  salt  lands;  the  State  revenue  from  banks,  insurance,  and  bridge 
companies;  and  other  funds  appropriated,  sufficient  to  make  the  sum  annually  dis¬ 
tributed  equal  to  $200,000. 1 

•  Twelve  days  after  the  passage  of  the  Lewis  Act  a  law  was  enacted  to  levy  the 
first  State  school  tax.  It  declared  that  there  shall  be  levied  annually  for  the  State 
common  school  fund  a  tax  of  half  a  mill  on  the  dollar  of  the  valuation  of  all  prop¬ 
erty  entered  for  taxation  on  the  general  list  throughout  the  State. 

IV.  The  Period  1838-1853. 

The  great  act  of  1838  was  too  generous  to  the  schools;  it  was  not  suffered  to 
stand  in  its  entirety.  An  amendment  passed  the  next  year  authorizes  county 
commissioners  to  reduce  the  rate  of  the  county  school  tax  to  1  mill  on  the  dollar; 
the  limit  had  been  raised  to  2  mills  by  the  preceding  act.  Narrower  limits  were 
also  set  to  the  local  school  taxes.  Neither  was  the  public  ready  for  Superintendent 
Lewis's  conception  of  superintendence  and  local  centralization.  So  the  township 
superintendent  is  excused  from  the  performance  of  some  of  the  duties  most 
characteristic  of  his  office.  Still  more,  in  1840,  when  Mr.  Lewis  resigned  the 
State  superintendency,  the  general  assembly  abolished  the  office  and  imposed 
some  of  its  duties  upon  the  secretary  of  state.  There  are  indications  at  this 
time  of  strife  between  the  English-speaking  and  the  German  elements  of  the 
population  over  the  question  of  language.  The  clause  in  the  law  requiring  that 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  be  taught  in  the  English  language  is  repealed. 

1  The  “surplus  revenue”  mentioned  was  the  portion  of  the  surplus  revenue  of  the  National 
Government  that  was  deposited  in  the  custody  of  the  State  by  direction  of  an  act  of  Congress 
passed  in  1837.  This  fund  is  more  commonly  referred  to  as  the  “United  States  Deposit  Fund.” 
The  total  amount  that  fell  to  Ohio  was  $2,077,260.34.  {The  History  of  the  Surplus  Revenue  of  1837 , 
etc.,  by  Edward  G.  Bourne,  1885,  p.  142.) 


HISTOBY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


141 


German  district  schools  are  recognized.  German  children  residing  in  districts 
where  the  teaching  is  done  in  English  are  permitted  to  attend  in  other  districts 
and  to  draw  at  the  same  time  their  share  of  the  public  money.  Night  schools  are 
first  authorized  at  about  this  period.  The  provision  of  1839  provides  that  in  town 
and  city  districts  evening  schools  may  be  carried  on  for  the  benefit  of  male  youths 
over  12  years  of  age  who  are  prevented  by  their  daily  vocations  from  attending 
day  schools.  In  1842  the  school  district  clerk  had  his  former  functions  relating 
to  the  school  enumeration  restored  to  him.  The  district  also  enjoyed  new  dignity 
in  the  lengthening  of  the  directors’  term  of  office  to  three  years,  the  order  of 
election  being  so  arranged  that  one  director  should  be  chosen  and  one  should 
retire  annually.  It  was  now  eleven  years  previous  to  the  time  when  the  township 
should  supersede  subdistricts  and  the  subdirectors  lose  their  corporate  character. 
In  1847  the  rate  of  the  county  tax  was  reduced  to  two-fifths  of  a  mill  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  increased  value  that  the  tax  law  of  1846  had  given  to  the  general  list 
of  taxable  property. 

It  is  in  order  to  consider  at  this  point  the  extraordinary  development  of  city  and 
town  school  organization  that  set  in  at  the  middle  of  the  century.  A  phrase  in 
the  common-school  law  of  1829  had  suggested  that  populous  communities  ought 
to  be  for  school  purposes  a  thing  apart  from  the  township.  On  February  12  of 
that  same  year  the  legislature  passed  the  first  special  city  school  law.  Its  title 
was:  ‘‘An  act  in  addition  to  the  act  entitled  an  act  to  incorporate  and  establish 
the  city  of  Cincinnati.”  It  made  the  city  council  the  responsible  authority  for 
maintaining  schools,  clothed  it  with  power  to  tax,  vested  in  it  all  titles  to  school 
property,  and  imposed  all  the  necessary  fiscal  duties  and  some  administrative  ones. 
It  was  not  until  1873  that  the  connection  between  boards  of  education  and  munic¬ 
ipal  legislatures  was  dissolved  in  great  city  districts.  The  act  of  1829  created  a 
board  of  trustees  and  visitors,  which  should  consist  of  one  member  from  each 
ward,  elected  by  the  voters.  This  body  was  vested  with  the  appointing  and  organ¬ 
izing  powers,  and  was  responsible  in  financial  matters  to  the  city  council.  A 
third  authority  was  the  “board  of  examiners  and  inspectors,”  whose  members 
were  the  appointees  of  the  board  of  trustees  and  visitors,  to  which  they  reported 
regularly  concerning  the  instruction  given  and  the  government  of  the  schools. 
Examining  teachers  was  one  of  their  important  functions.  The  law  called  for 
brick  or  stone  schoolhouses,  two  stories  high,  and  empowered  the  city  council  to 
borrow  money  to  build  them,  but  it  did  not  grant  any  large  powers  in  the  way  of 
extending  the  range  of  instruction.  As  has  already  been  noticed,  the  general 
school  law  of  1838  made  every  city,  incorporated  town,  and  borough  a  separate 
school  district  and  sanctioned  graded  schools.  In  1839  a  special  law  was  enacted 
for  Zanesville;  in  1845,  one  for  Columbus;  and  in  1848,  one  for  Cleveland.  In  1846 
there  was  a  supplement  to  the  Cincinnati  law  which  was  also  made  applicable  to 
the  schools  of  Dayton.  It  declared: 

1.  The  trustees  and  visitors  of  common  schools  of  the  city  of  Cincinnati,  with 
the  consent  of  the  city  council,  *  *  *  shall  have  power  to  establish  and  main¬ 
tain,  out  of  any  funds  under  the  control  of  said  trustees  and  visitors,  such  other 
grade  of  schools,  than  those  already  established,  as  may  to  them  seem  necessary 
and  expedient  for  the  above-named  purpose;  and  they  are  hereby  authorized  to 
have  taught  therein  such  other  studies  in  addition  to  those  now  taught  in  the 
common  schools  of  said  city,  under  such  regulations  as  said  trustees  and  visitors 
may  from  time  to  time  describe:  Provided ,  That  said  funds  shall  not  be  appropri¬ 
ated  toward  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  such  other  grade  of  schools  so 
as  in  anywise  to  impair  the  efficiency  and  permanency  of  the  common-school  sys¬ 
tem  now  existing  in  said  city. 

The  power  conferred  upon  the  trustees  and  visitors  of  the  common  schools  of 
the  city  of  Cincinnati  in  the  first  section  of  this  act  is  hereby  conferred  upon  the 
managers  of  the  common  schools  of  the  city  of  Dayton. 

In  1850  was  passed  an  act  to  authorize  the  appointment  of  a  superintendent  of 
common  schools  for  Cincinnati.  It  provided  that  the  qualified  voters  of  Cincin- 


142 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


nati  should  elect  annually  in  April  one  superintendent  of  common  schools  for  the 
city.  The  duties  of  this  officer  were  to  visit  all  the  common  schools  in  the  city 
and  establish  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  trustees  and  visitors  a  course  of 
study;  also  to  make  rules  and  regulations  to  promote  the  progress  of  the  schools. 
The  board  of  trustees  was  to  fix  the  amount  of  the  superintendent’s  compensation 
and  had  the  power  to  remove  him  from  office  on  good  cause  shown. 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  observe  that  the  office  of  superintendent  origi¬ 
nated  in  the  specialization  of  administrative  and  not  of  teaching  functions. 
Therefore,  to  vest  in  it,  power  to  appoint  or  at  least  to  nominate  teachers,  is 
entirely  congruous  to  the  nature  of  the  office. 

Cincinnati,  Zanesville,  Columbus,  Dayton,  and  Cleveland  had  entered  upon  the 
organization  of  graded  schools  earlier  than  1847.  But  the  really  great  impetus  in 
this  direction  in  the  State  was  given  by  the  so-called  Akron  law,  which  was  passed 
February  8,  1847.  It  applied  at  first  only  to  Akron  and  Dayton,  but  a  supplemen¬ 
tary  act  extended  its  provision  to  all  cities  and  incorporated  towns,  two- thirds  of 
whose  inhabitants  should  petition  the  town  council  for  its  adoption.  On  Febru¬ 
ary  21,  1849,  a  similar  act  was  passed  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  public 
schools  in  the  cities,  towns,  etc.  This  might  be  adopted  by  any  incorporated 
city,  town,  or  village,  containing  200  or  more  inhabitants  not  governed  as  to 
schools  by  any  special  law,  upon  the  vote  of  the  qualified  electors.  Both  of  these 
laws  x>rovided  for  the  election  of  6  school  directors  in  the  town,  arranging  the 
election  so  that  2  should  be  chosen  annually  for  a  term  of  three  years.  This 
board  of  education  was  constituted  a  body  politic  and  corporate  in  law.  The 
members  were  required  to  organize  by  choosing  from  their  own  number  a  presi¬ 
dent,  a  secretary  and  a  treasurer,  and  to  hold  regular  meetings.  The  Akron  law 
vested  the  title  to  school  property  in  the  town  council  together  with  power  to  sell, 
lease,  and  convey  such  property  with  the  advice  of  the  board  of  education.  It 
also  made  the  council  the  taxing  authority  for  school  purposes,  requiring  the 
board  of  education  to  furnish  an  estimate  of  the  amount  of  money  needed.  The 
next  year  the  rate  of  this  tax  was  limited  to  4  mills.  Such  functions  as  deter¬ 
mining  building  sites,  erecting  schoolhouses,  and  dividing  the  school  year  into 
terms  were  assigned  to  the  board  of  education  and  not  to  the  council  as  they  had 
been  by  the  Cincinnati  law.  The  act  of  1849  for  cities  and  towns  seems  to  have 
given  the  municipal  council  no  place  at  all  in  the  system.  The  board  of  education 
was  made  the  taxing  authority,  but  it  had  to  submit  the  question  to  the  people 
and  the  rate  of  tax  was  limited  to  4  mills.  A  statement  of  finances  and  certain 
other  matters  had  to  be  made  public  at  each  annual  election.  Moreover,  the  board 
of  education  was  given  power  to  borrow  money  for  the  erection  of  schoolhouses 
upon  the  favorable  vote  of  the  electors  of  the  district.  An  act  supplementary  to 
the  Akron  law  passed  at  this  time  made  it  possible  for  districts  organized  under 
it  to  exercise  this  power  also. 

But  the  most  important  feature  of  these  two  laws  is  the  range  of  instruction 
which  they  contemplated.  The  Akron  law  provided  that  the  board  of  education 
should  establish  in  different  parts  of  the  town  corporate  of  Akron,  so  soon  as  they 
should  realize  sufficient  funds,  six  or  more  primary  schools  in  which  the  rudiments 
of  an  English  education  should  be  taught;  also,  that  it  should  establish  a  central 
grammar  school  where  instruction  should  be  given  in  the  various  branches  and 
parts  of  study  not  provided  for  in  the  primary  school  and  yet  requisite  to  a  respec¬ 
table  English  education.  The  law  of  1849  said  on  this  subject: 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  board,  as  soon  as  the  means  for  that  purpose  can  be 
provided,  to  establish  in  said  district  an  adequate  number  of  primary  schools,  to 
be  so  located  as  best  to  accommodate  the  inhabitants  thereof,  and  in  which  the 
rudiments  of  education  shall  be  taught;  and  it  shall  be  the  further  duty  of  said 
board  to  establish  in  said  district  a  suitable  number  of  other  schools  of  a  higher 
grade  or  grades,  wherein  instruction  shall  be  given  in  such  studies  as  may  not  be 
provided  for  in  the  primary  schools,  the  number  of  schools  and  also  of  the  differ- 


HISTOKY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


143 


ent  grades  thereof  to  be  determined  by  said  board;  and  it  shall  be  the  further  duty 
of  said  board  to  decide  what  branches  shall  be  taught  in  each  and  all  of  said 
schools,  provided  that  no  other  language  than  the  English  or  the  German  shall  be 
taught  therein,  except  with  the  concurrence  of  two- thirds  of  said  board. 

The  act  of  February  21,  1849,  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  public  schools  in 
cities,  towns,  etc.,  was  amended  on  March  13  of  the  next  year  so  as  to  give  union 
school  privileges  to  smaller  communities.  The  amendment  declares  that  “the 
act  *  *  *  is  hereby  extended  to  incorporated  townships  and  to  school  districts 
*  *  *  which  shall  adopt  the  same  in  the  manner  specified.”  It  provides,  how¬ 
ever,  that  said  act  shall  not  be  so  extended  to  any  township  or  school  district  con¬ 
taining  less  than  590  inhabitants,  unless  said  school  district  consists  in  whole  or  in 
part  of  an  incorporated  town  or  village. 

The  act  of  February  21,  1849,  shares  with  the  Akron  law  the  honor  of  being  the 
effectual  charter  of  graded  schools  in  Ohio. 1  Both  were  repealed,  together  with 
numerous  other  special  acts,  by  the  school  legislation  of  1873,  when  town  and  city 
districts  were  systematically  classified  and  a  greater  degree  of  uniformity  was 
secured.  This  mass  of  legislation  for  cities  and  towns  brought  with  it  the  regula¬ 
tion  of  some  matters  that  had  never  been  specifically  provided  for  in  the  common 
school  laws.  The  relations  between  teachers  and  pupils  began  to  receive  atten¬ 
tion.  Suspension  and  expulsion,  inflicted  with  proper  deliberation,  were  pre¬ 
scribed  for  the  more  serious  evils  that  had  been  left  by  tacit  understanding  to  the 
rod  and  ferule.  A  larger  publicity  came  to  be  required  of  boards  of  education. 
Much  visiting  of  schools  was  required  of  school  trustees  and  teachers’  examiners. 
There  are  provisions  in  two  or  three  special  laws,  including  the  Cincinnati  act, 
for  a  public  examination  of  pupils  by  these  visitors.  The  city  council  of  Cincin¬ 
nati  by  the  law  of  1829  was  authorized  to  spend  $100  a  year  for  premiums  to  pupils. 

Within  the  six  years  next  preceding  the  passage  of  the  great  act  of  1853,  a  series 
of  brief  statutes2  were  enacted  which  added  entirely  new  features  to  the  body  of 
State  school  legislation.  Some  of  these  were  repealed  as  separate  laws  and  incor¬ 
porated  in  the  act  of  1853;  one  or  two  were  abandoned.  February  28,  1846,  is  the 
date  of  an  act  authorizing  school  districts  to  establish  libraries  for  the  use  of  com¬ 
mon  schools.  All  legally  constituted  school  districts  were  hereby  authorized  to 
expend  for  books  and  apparatus  moneys  not  to  exceed  $30  the  first  year  and  $10 
any  subsequent  year.  These  funds  were  to  be  raised  and  handled  in  the  same 

1  About  70  of  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  State  established  free  graded  schools,  and  of  these 
more  than  50  have  been  organized  within  the  past  three  years  and  by  the  adoption  of  the  law  of 
1849,  for  the  better  regulation  of  public  schools  in  cities,  towns,  etc.  (Report  of  Lorin  Andrews, 
general  agent  of  the  State  Teachers’  Association,  published  in  Annual  Report  of  Secretary  of 
State  on  Common  Schools  for  the  year  1851.) 

2  During  the  period  1840  to  1853  the  secretary  of  state  reported  annually  to  the  general  assem¬ 
bly  concerning  the  condition  of  the  common  schools.  Indeed  one  or  two  of  these  gentlemen 
performed  the  duties  that  had  been  superimposed  upon  the  more  appropriate  functions  of  their 
office  better  than  could  have  been  reasonably  expected.  Nevertheless  the  first  years  of  the 
interval  were  marked  by.retrogression.  For  the  quickened  educational  activity  of  the  years 
1847-1853,  the  highest  credit  is  due  to  the  Ohio  teachers’  association.  Organized  December  31, 1847, 
through  the  private  initiative  of  the  leading  schoolmasters  of  the  State,  this  society  discharged, 
up  to  the  time  when  the  office  of  State  superintendent  of  common  schools  was  restored,  func¬ 
tions  that  appertained  more  suitably  to  the  State  government.  It  sustained  in  the  field  a  gen¬ 
eral  agent  who  did  much  to  prepare  the  public  to  demand  and  support  the  progressive  measures 
that  were  to  come;  it  kept  in  close  totich  with  the  secretary  of  state  and  saw  its  resolutions 
incorporated  into  his  school  reports.  A  parallel  might  be  drawn  between  the  State  teachers’ 
association,,  as  a  force  in  educational  progress  at  this  juncture,  and  the  College  of  Professional 
Teachers  and  Western  Literary  Institute  at  a  similar  time  in  the  preceding  decade.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  statement  was  made  in  1859:  Recommendations  of  the  Ohio  teachers’ association  have 
been  embodied  in  laws  for  teachers’  institutes,  for  school  libraries,  for  high  schools,  for  township 
boards  of  education,  for  a  State  instead  of  a  county  tax,  and  for  a  state  commissioner.  (System 
of  Commop  Schools  in  Ohio,  William  T.  Coggeshall;  published  in  American  Journal  of  Educa¬ 
tion,  Vol.  VI,  p.  553.  ) 


144 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


manner  as  district  taxes.  School  directors  were  to  make  rules  for  the  use  of  such 
books  and  apparatus.  The  school  law  of  1853  was  to  make  a  great  advance  upon 
this.  It  ordered  a  State  tax  of  one-tenth  of  a  mill,  to  he  levied  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  school  libraries  and  apparatus  to  all  the  common  schools  within  the 
State. 

On  February  3,  1847,  the  first  act  relating  to  teachers’  institutes  was  passed. 
It  has  an  instructive  preamble,  which  runs: 

Whereas  it  is  represented  that  in  several  counties  associations  of  teachers  of 
common  schools,  called  teachers’  institutes,  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
mutual  improvement  and  advancement  in  their  profession,  which,  it  is  represented, 
have  already  accomplished  much  to  elevate  the  standard  of  common  school  instruc¬ 
tion  in  their  respective  counties;  therefore,  in  order  to  encourage  such  associa¬ 
tions  and  thus  promote  the  cause  of  popular  education,  be  it  enacted,  etc. 

This  law  provides  for  the  support  of  institutes  by  authorizing  county  com¬ 
missioners  to  apply  to  the  purpose  part  of  the  annual  proceeds  of  that  portion  of 
the  surplus  revenue  which  had  been  deposited  with  the  counties  pursuant  to  an 
act  of  March  28,  1837.  Funds  thus  appropriated  were  to  be  disbursed  by  the 
county  board  of  examiners;  at  least  one-half  was  to  be  expended  to  employ 
instructors  and  lecturers,  and  the  balance  for  a  suitable  common  school  library 
for  the  use  of  the  association.  The  privileges  of  every  institute  were  to  be  free  to 
all  common  school  teachers  of  the  county  and  to  all  persons  within  the  county  who 
intended  to  become  common  school  teachers  within  twelve  months. 

On  February  28,  1847,  was  passed  an  act  to  provide  for  the  appointment  of 
county  superintendents  of  common  schools  in  certain  counties,  which  were  named, 
twenty-five  in  number.  The  superintendents  were  to  be  elected  by  the  clerks  of 
the  school  districts  in  the  county.  They  were  to  be  ex  officiis  chairmen  of  the 
boards  of  school  examiners  and  were  to  sign  all  certificates  issued;  they  had  power 
to  renew  certificates  at  their  discretion,  also  to  annul  them  for  cause,  with  the 
concurrence  of  one  other  member  of  the  board.  They  had  large  duties  as  visitors 
and  inspectors  of  the  county  schools,  and  were  also  to  encourage  teachers’  insti¬ 
tutes  and  educational  societies,  and  to  labor  to  stir  up  popular  interest  in  educa¬ 
tion.  Township  superintendents  were  to  report  to  them  and  they  were  to  report 
to  the  secretary  of  state.  The  act  was  afterwards  made  general,  but  only  one 
county  availed  itself  of  this  privilege,  and  it  was  repealed  in  1853.  The  county  in 
Ohio  has  never  become  an  established  unit  or  district  for  school  superintendence, 
as  it  has  in  nearly  all  of  the  Western  States. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  new  features  of  this  period  appears  in  the  act  of 
February  24, 1848,  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of  common  schools  for  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  children  of  black  and  mulatto  persons.  Since  the  act  of  1829  declared  itself 
nonapplicable  to  such  persons,  the  school  law  had  ignored  them  wholly,  except  to 
protect  their  property  against  taxation  for  school  purposes.  The  new  act  ordered 
taxes  to  be  collected  on  such  property  for  the  support  of  colored  schools.  It 
declared  every  city,  town,  village,  and  township  in  which  there  were  at  least  twenty 
black  or  colored  children  of  any  age  desirous  of  attending  school ,  to  be  a  school  dis¬ 
trict  for  such  children;  audit  made  it  lawful  for  the  colored  persons  residing  in 
such  district  to  assemble  and  organize  themselves,  to  appoint  school  directors  of  their 
own  number,  to  erect  and  repair  a  schoolhouse,  to  procure  suitable  teachers,  and 
to  assume  for  such  purposes  the  same  powers  as  were  possessed  by  white  persons 
under  the  act  of  1838.  Any  colored  district  that  contained  50  or  more  scholars  might 
be  divided  by  its  directors,  provided  no  district  was  made  that  contained  fewer  than 
20  scholars.  The  law  permitted  mixed  schools,  providing  that  in  every  commu¬ 
nity  containing  less  than  20  black  or  colored  children  desirous  of  attending  school, 
it  should  be  the  duty  of  the  directors  of  the  schools  organized  for  white  children 
to  admit  the  blacks  upon  the  same  terms  as  the  whites,  provided  no  written  objec¬ 
tions  were  filed  with  the  directors,  signed  by  any  person  having  a  child  in  such 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


145 


school ,  or  by  any  legal  voter  of  such  district.  The  law  contained  nothing  to  indi¬ 
cate  whether  such  schools  were  already  permitted  to  any  extent  by  the  public 
sentiment  of  the  community.  In  cases  where  the  white  inhabitants  would  not 
tolerate  mixed  schools  and  the  number  of  colored  children  did  not  warrant  the 
establishment  of  a  colored  school,  the  property  of  the  blacks  was  exempted  from 
school  taxes.  The  following  provision  is  of  interest: 

When  schools  for  blacks  shall  have  been  organized  *  *  *  the  children  of 
such  schools  shall  be  enumerated  and  have  the  exclusive  benefit  of  any  donation 
or  grant  of  land  which  shall  be  made  by  any  person  or  persons  or  by  Congress  for 
the  support  of  such  schools,  which  shall  be  vested  in  the  legislature  of  this  State 
and  appropriated  to  such  schools  only. 

In  1853  colored  children  were  included  in  the  general  district  enumeration,  only 
they  were  to  be  distinguished  from  the  white  children.  By  this  time  colored 
children  seem  to  have  become  sharers  in  the  great  school  funds  of  the  State.  The 
act  of  February  10, 1849,  which  repealed  that  of  the  preceding  year,  maybe  inter¬ 
preted  to  indicate  a  larger  tolerance  of  mixed  schools.  It  left  the  establishment 
of  dual  districts  for  white  and  colored  children  to  the  discretion  of  boards  of  edu¬ 
cation.  It  provided  that  such  trustees  and  directors  or  other  officers  having 
authority  in  the  premises  of  each  city  and  incorporated  town  or  village  should  be 
authorized  and  required,  respectively,  in  case  they  should  not  deem  it  expedient 
to  admit  the  colored  children  resident  in  such  township,  city,  town,  or  village, 
into  the  regular  common  schools  therein  established,  to  create  one  or  more 
school  districts  for  colored  persons  in  every  such  township,  city,  town,  or  village, 
which  district  or  districts  should  include  all  the  territories  thereof.  Both  laws 
provided  that  the  school  taxes  on  the  property  of  the  colored  population  in  mixed 
districts  should  be  added  to  the  common  district  fund. 

On  January  21,  1848,  an  act  was  passed  to  secure  the  returns  of  the  statistics  of 
the  common  schools.  This  declared  it  to  be  the  duty  of  the  teacher,  on  presenting 
to  the  township  treasurer  an  order  for  the  payment  of  services,  to  accompany  the 
same  with  an  abstract  of  his  daily  record.  It  further  declared  it  unlawful  for  any 
township  treasurer  to  pay  and  redeem  any  order  to- a  teacher  unless  the  same 
should  be  accompanied  by  the  abstract  required.  It  made  it  the  duty  of  the  town¬ 
ship  treasurer  to  return  such  abstracts  to  the  county  auditor  in  making  his 
annual  settlement,  and  declared  it  illegal  for  the  auditor  to  give  credit  to  the 
treasurer  for  any  order  that  had  been  unlawfully  redeemed.  It  made  it  the  duty 
of  the  several  county  auditors  to  carefully  examine  the  abstracts  and  statements 
of  teachers  thus  returned  to  them,  and  in  their  annual  reports  to  the  secretary  of 
state  to  give  such  a  tabular  statement  thereof  as  the  said  officer  should  require. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  evil  of  defective  returns  from  the  public 
schools  was  not  eradicated  by  this  legislation,  for  it  was  in  1858  that  all  the  coun¬ 
ties  made  for  the  first  time  a  report  of  their  school  affairs.1  An  amendment  to  the 
Lewis  Act  that  was  passed  March  12,  1849,  ordered  that  English  grammar  and 
geography  should  be  taught  in  any  school  upon  the  requirement  of  three  or  more 
of  the  householders  interested.  These  two  subjects  were  also  added  to  the  list  of 
those  in  which  candidates  for  teachers’  certificates  were  re  quired  to  be  examined. 
This  was  the  first  mandatory  advance  beyond  the  three  R’s. 

In  1850,  March  22,  a  law  was  enacted  for  the  appointment  of  a  State  board  of 
public  instruction.  This  was  an  attempt  to  put  in  commission  the  department  of 
State  educational  supervision.  It  created  a  board  of  five  citizens  to  be  appointed 
by  joint  ballot  of  the  two  houses  of  the  general  assembly,  one  annually  for  a  term 
of  five  years.  The  senior  member  was  to  be  styled  the  State  superintendent  of 

1  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Common  Schools,  Columbus,  1859,  p.  3. 


ED  1901 


10 


146 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


common  schools;  the  others,  district  superintendents.  To  the  head  of  this  hoard 
were  assigned  all  the  duties  that  had  attached  to  the  former  office  of  superintend¬ 
ent  of'  common  schools  except  the  inspection  of  schools;  the  other  members  were 
to  attend  to  this  duty,  each  in  the  quarter  of  the  State  assigned  to  him.  The  dis¬ 
trict  superintendents  also  had  duties  in  connection  with  county  boards  of  examin¬ 
ers.  One  of  these  was  to  furnish  for  the  semiannual  examination  of  teachers 
lists  of  questions  which  the  State  superintendent  had  prepared.  This  included  the 
earliest  provision  for  uniform  examination  questions.  A  fee  of  $1  was  imposed 
upon  every  applicant  for  examination,  the  first  instance  of  the  kind  in  any  general 
law  in  the  State:  and  the  fund  thus  accruing  was  to  be  applied  to  the  support  of 
the  State  board.  One  clause  of  the  act  put  rare  faith  in  the  impartiality  of  man; 
it  authorized  the  State  board  to  issue  life  certificates  to  applicants  who  were  rec¬ 
ommended  by  their  proper  boards  of  county  examiners  and  by  their  district  super¬ 
intendents.  But  the  law  was  enacted  too  late  in  the  session  to  permit  the  appoint¬ 
ments  to  be  made,  and  seems  never  to  have  gone  into  operation. 

On  March  24,  1851,  an  act  was  passed  bearing  the  cumbersome  title  “An  act 
providing  for  school  districts  and  school- district  meetings,  prescribing  the  duties 
of  district  officers,  and  clerks  and  treasurers  of  townships,  and  increasing  the  State 
and  county  common-school  funds.”  This  act  restores  the  law  of  1838  in  many 
respects  to  its  original  substance  and  vigor.  That  act  had  made  an  approach  to 
the  township  district  system  established  later,  by  the  act  of  1853,  by  devolving 
important  school  duties  upon  both  the  township  treasurer  and  township  clerk.  A 
series  of  amendments  had  subtracted  from  the  powers  of  these  officers  in  favor  of 
the  district  treasurer  and  district  clerk.  The  act  of  1851  fully  rehabilitated  the 
township  clerk  in  the  capacity  of  township  superintendent  of  schools,  allowing 
him,  moreover,  $1  a  day  for  time  spent  in  visiting  schools.  It  renews  the  distinc¬ 
tion  between  district  taxes  levied  for  building,  repairs,  fuel,  etc.,  and  the  special 
tax  to  make  the  school  session  six  months  long.  It  assigns  the  collection  of  the 
former  to  the  district  treasurer;  the  latter  it  views  as  a  township  rather  than  a 
district  tax  and  limits  it  to  3  mills  on  the  dollar.  On  the  other  hand,  this  law 
stops  short  of  the  enactment  of  1853  in  that  it  makes  very  much  of  district  direct¬ 
ors  and  of  the  annual  district  meetings.  It  increases  the  amount  that  the  direct¬ 
ors  may  levy  without  the  sanction  of  a  school  meeting  to  $50;  it  makes  the  rate  of 
the  county  tax  1  mill  on  the  dollar,  which  had  been  put  as  low  as  two-fifths  of  a 
mill  in  consequence  of  the  tax  law  of  1846,  and  it  orders  that  the  State  common- 
school  fund  be  so  increased  that  the  amount  yielded  for  annual  distribution  shall 
equal  $300,000. 

The  second  constitution  of  Ohio,  which  took  effect  in  1851,  assigned  to  education 
a  stronger  position  than  that  of  1803  had  done.  The  bill  of  rights  contained  the 
following  declaration: 

Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge,  however,  being  essential  to  good  government, 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  general  assembly  to  pass  suitable  laws  to  protect  every 
religious  denomination  in  the  peaceful  enjoyment  of  its  own  mode  of  public 
worship,  and  to  encourage  schools  and  means  of  instruction. 

The  educational  article  runs  as  follows: 

Article  VI. — Education. 

Sec.  1.  The  principal  of  all  funds  arising  from  the  sale  or  other  disposition  of 
lands  or  other  property  granted  or  intrusted  to  this  State  for  educational  and 
religious  purposes  shall  forever  be  preserved  inviolate  and  undiminished;  and  the 
income  arising  therefrom  shall  be  faithfully  applied  to  the  specific  objects  of  the 
original  grants  or  appropriations. 

Sec.  2.  The  general  assembly  shall  make  such  provisions,  by  taxation  or  other¬ 
wise,  as,  with  the  interest  arising  from  the  school  trust  fund,  will  secure  a 
thorough  and  efficient  system  of  common  schools  throughout  the  State;  but  no 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


147 


religions  or  other  sect  or  sects  shall  ever  have  any  exclusive  right  to  or  control 
of  any  part  of  the  school  funds  of  this  State. 1 

The  great  principle  of  free  common- school  education  was  put  into  operation 
under  the  school  law  of  March  14,  1853,  which  left  the  rate  or  fee  biil  to  he  a  thing 


1  Information  at  first  hand  regarding  the  framing  of  these  clauses  is  given  by  James  W. 
Taylor,  as  follows:  Early  in  the  session  of  the  Ohio  constitutional  convention,  which  assembled 
in  Columbus  May  6,  1850,  and  closed  its  deliberations,  after  an  adjournment  to  Cincinnati,  on 
the  10th  of  March,  1851,  the  subject  of  education  was  intrusted  to  a  standing  committee,  com¬ 
posed  of  the  following  delegates:  Harmon  Stiger,  of  Stark;  Otway  Curry,  of  Union;  Samuel 
Quigley,  of  Columbiana;  James  W.  Taylor,  of  Erie;  Jacob  J.  Green,  of  Defiance;  A.  G.  Brown,  of 
Athens,  and  John  A.  Smith,  of  Highland.  On  the  5th  of  July  (the  fiftieth  day  of  the  Columbus 
session)  the  following  report  was  presented  from  the  standing  committee  upon  education. 

Section  1.  The  general  assembly  shall  provide  for  the  election,  by  the  people,  of  a  superintend¬ 
ent  of  common  schools,  whose  term  of  office,  duties,  and  compensation  shall  be  prescribed  by 
law,  a. .d  shall  provide  for  the  election  or  appointment  of  such  assistants  or  other  officers  as 
may  be  found  necessary,  prescribe  their  duty,  term  of  office,  and  compensation. 

Sec.  2.  The  general  assembly  shall  encourage,  by  suitable  means,  the  promotion  of  moral, 
intellectual,  scientific,  and  agricultural  improvement. 

The  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  lands  that  have  been  or  may  hereafter  be  granted  by  the  United 
States  for  educational  purposes,  and  all  lands  or  other  property  given  by  individuals  for  like 
purposes,  together  with  the  surplus  revenue  deposited  with  this  State  by  the  United  States 
(until  reclaimed),  shall  be  and  forever  remain  a  permanent,  irreducible  fund;  the  interest  and 
income  therefrom  shall  be  faithfully  applied  to  the  specific  objects  of  the  original  grant,  gift, 
or  appropriation. 

Sec.  3.  The  general  assembly  shall  make  such  provision,  by  taxation  and  other  means  (in 
addition  to  the  income  arising  from  the  irreducible  fund),  as  will  secure  a  thorough  and  efficient 
system  of  common  schools,  free  to  all  the  children  in  the  State. 

Mr.  Curry  submitted  the  following  minority  report: 

Sec.  1.  Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being  essentially  necessary  to  good  government 
and  the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  instruction  shall  forever  be  encouraged 
by  legislative  provision  not  inconsistent  with  the  rights  of  conscience. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  general  assembly  to  provide  by  law  that  the  principal  of  ail 
funds  arising  from  the  sale  of  lands  heretofore  or  hereafter  granted  or  donated,  from  any 
quarter,  for  educational  purposes,  together  with  the  principal  which  may  be  realized  from 
donations  of  personal  property  and  money  for  like  purposes,  and  the  surplus  revenue  deposited 
with  this  State  by  the  United  States  (until  reclaimed),  shall  be  preserved  inviolate  and  undi¬ 
minished;  and  that  the  interest  and  income  arising  from  such  funds  shall  be  faithfully  applied 
to  the  object  of  the  original  gift  or  grant:  Provided ,  The  general  assembly  may  at  their  discre¬ 
tion  appropriate  all  or  only  a  part  of  the  proceeds  of  the  surplus  revenue  to  educational 
purposes. 

Sec.  3.  The  general  assembly  shall  provide  for  the  election  of  a  superintendent  of  schools  and 
seminaries  of  learning  under  the  care  and  patronage  of  the  State.  They  may  also  provide  for 
the  election  or  appointment  of  such  assistant  superintendents  or  other  officers  as  may  be 
necessary  to  carry  into  effect  a  thorough  and  uniform  system  of  common-school  education;  and 
they  shall  prescribe  by  law  the  terms  of  office,  compensation,  powers,  and  duties  of  all  officers 
elected  or  appointed  under  the  authority  of  this  section. 

Sec.  4.  The  general  assembly  shall  provide  by  law  a  system  of  common  schools,  and  permanent 
means  for  the  support  thereof,  by  which  a  school  shall  be  kept  in  each  school  district  in  this 
State  not  less  than  six  months  in  each  year,  and  which  shall  be  open  to  youth  of  all  classes, 
under  such  regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law:  Provided ,  That  black  and  mulatto  youth 
shall  not  attend  the  schools  for  white  youth,  unless  by  common  consent. 

Sec.  5.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  law  for  the  establishment  and  support  of  as  many  normal 
institutes  as  the  general  assembly  may  find  to  be  necessary  for  the  thorough  instruction  of 
professional  teachers  of  the  common  schools  of  the  State;  and  all  persons  applying  to  any  of 
said  institutes  for  admission  and  instruction  shall  be  required,  before  admission,  to  give  such 
assurance  as  may  be  specified  by  law  of  their  intention  to  devote  themselves  to  teaching  as  a 
profession. 

Sec.  6.  No  religious  sect  or  party  shall  ever  have  exclusive  right  to  or  control  of.  any  part  of 
the  common-school  fund,  or  of  any  of  the  schools,  seminaries,  or  institutions  of  learning  under 
the  care  and  patronage  of  the  State. 

At  the  Cincinnati  session  the  foregoing  reports  were  fully  discussed.  Upon  the  various 
amendments  offered  the  following  points  were  elicited,  indicative  of  the  temper  of  the  body: 

1.  That  it  was  inexpedient  to  limit  the  educational  bounty  of  the  State  to  white  children  by 
any  terms  of  direct  exclusion,  but  how  far  colored  children  should  be  entitled  to  public  instruc¬ 
tion  was  made  a  subject  of  unrestricted  legislative  cognizance. 

2.  Propositions  to  augment  the  State  school  fund  to  a  sum  which  would  produce  a  revenue  of 
about  a  million  of  dollars  and  to  enjoin  a  minimum  of  six  months'  instruction  were  not  adopted, 
some  apprehending  that  the  people  would  not  sustain  such  forward  movements,  while  others 
believed  that  the  Ohio  school  system  would  be  even  more  progressive  than  its  most  sanguine 
advocates  in  the  convention  anticipated.  The  experience  of  a  few  years  has  fully  vindicated 
the  latter  view. 

3:  An  amendment  directing  the  organization  of  normal  institutes  was  lost  by  20  to  57, 

4.  Even  the  clause  establishing,  in  express  terms,  the  office  of  superintendent  of  common 
schools  was  not  retained  in  the  final  action  of  the  convention,  the  precise  methods  of  superin¬ 
tendence  being  lef  t  to  legislative  discretion.  (A  Manual  of  the  Ohio  School  System.  James  W. 
Taylor.  Cincinnati:  1857.  Pp.  211,212-215.) 


148 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  the  past.  This  important  measure  has  been  popularly  called  the  Rice  act.1  Its 
substance  is  well  summed  up  in  its  title,  “An  act  to  provide  for  the  reorganization, 
supervision,  and  maintenance  of  common  schools/’  Under  the  head  of  reorgani¬ 
zation  the  new  law  took  the  first  step  toward  the  fusion  of  the  rural  districts  of  a 
township  into  a  single  township  district,  though  nearly  fifty  years  were  to  elapse 
before  the  work  should  be  completed.  The  partial  consolidation  of  the  act  of 
1853  carried  with  it  the  substitution  of  township  school  taxes  for  the  more  local 
school  taxes  of  the  earlier  system.  The  county  school  tax  disappeared.  Pursuant 
to  the  provision  of  the  new  constitution  of  the  State,  the  sum  raised  for  common 
schools  by  levy  of  the  general  assembly  was  greatly  increased.  Hitherto  the  State 
common-school  fund  had  never  amounted  to  more  than  $300,000.  The  act  of  1838, 
which  created  it,  had  provided  for  only  $200,000.  The  language  of  the  act  of  1853 
on  this  subject  is  as  follows:  “For  the  purpose  of  affording  the  advantages  of  a  free 
education  to  ail  the  youth  of  this  State,  the  State  common-school  fund  shall  here¬ 
after  consist  of  such  sum  as  will  be  produced  by  the  annual  levy  and  assessment  of 
two  mills  upon  the  dollar  valuation  on  the  grand  list  of  the  taxable  property  of  the 
State.” 

Under  the  district  system  for  country  schools,  as  established  in  1853,  the  town¬ 
ship  district  was  composed  of  subdistricts,  which  were  naturally  a  continuation 
of  the  districts  of  the  old  order.  Each  subdistrict  elected  a  school  board  of  three 
members;  one  of  these  was  chosen  clerk  by  his  colleagues;  the  old  district  meet¬ 
ing  survived  in  the  form  of  the  subdistrict  election.  The  school  board  of  the 
township  district  was  composed  of  the  clerks  of  the  subdistrict  boards,  together 
with  the  township  clerk.  The  township  treasurer  was  ex  officio  treasurer  of  the 
school  district.  The  functions  retained  to  the  subdistrict  boards  were  the  employ, 
ment  of  teachers,  inspection  of  schools,  and  contracting  for  buildings,  repairs, 
and  furniture.  The  character  of  body  politic  and  corporate  was  taken  away. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  township  school  board  was  created  such  a  body.  It  was 
made  responsible  for  all  the  school  property  within  the  township  district,  having 
authority  also  to  hold  subdistrict  boards  responsible  to  itself.  Its  ordinary  func¬ 
tions  were  to  estimate  the  school  tax  necessary  to  be  raised  by  the  township  levy 
in  order  to  carry  on  the  schools  seven  months  in  the  year;  to  prescribe  regulations 
for  all  the  schools  concerning  subjects  taught,  text-books,  discipline,  etc.;  to 
assume  the  duties  of  local  directors  in  any  subdistrict  where  failure  or  incapacity 
arose  on  the  part  of  the  regular  officers,  and  to  fix,  under  certain  regulations,  the 
boundaries  of  subdistricts.  Naturally  enough,  cases  of  conflict  arose  between  the 
two  kinds  of  school  boards.  The  reports  of  the  State  commissioners  for  the  next 

1  A  monument  to  Hon.  Harvey  Rice  has  been  erected  in  Cleveland,  one  of  the  inscriptions  on 
which  styles  him  the  “Father  of  The  Common  School  System  of  Ohio.”  All  the  provisions 
of  the  Rice  act  that  were  new  are  to  be  found  among  the  resolutions  of  the  State  teach¬ 
ers’  association  for  the  years  immediately  preceding  its  enactment.  Mr.  Rice’s  relation  to 
the  measure  is  shown  in  the  following  account:  It  devolved  upon  the  senate  of  Ohio,  at  the  first 
session  of  the  general  assembly,  to  initiate  the  very  important  measure  which  is  the  topic  of 
present  consideration.  The  standing  committee  of  that  legislative  branch  to  which  the  subject 
of  “common  schools  and  school  lands’’  was  referred,  consisted  of  Harvey  Rice,  of  Cuyahoga; 
George  Rex,  of  Wayne,  and  Alonzo  Cushing,  of  Gallia.  On  the  29th  of  March,  1852,  they 
reported  the  senate  bill  No.  94,  “  to  provide  for  the  reorganization,  supervision,  and  maintenance 
of  common  schools.’’  It  reached  its  second  reading  April  1,  after  which  it  was  committed  to 
the  committee  of  the  whole  and  made  the  order  for  the  same  day,  but  it  was  not  reached  in 
committee  until  the  13th  of  April.  Its  discussion  continued  until  the  15th,  when  the  committee 
rose,  and  the  bill,  with  various  amendments,  was  tabled  for  the  residue  of  the  session.  *  *  * 
The  interval  between  the  regular  and  adjourned  sessions  of  the  general  assembly  had  been 
improved  by  Mr.  Rice,  the  author  of  the  bill,  for  a  thorough  canvass  of  public  opinion.  The  most 
experienced  teachers  and  careful  legislators  of  the  State  had  been  furnished  with  copies  and 
their  suggestions  invited,  and  probably  no  similar  measure  ever  engrossed  more  anxious 
attention  than  did  the  well-known  “Senate  bill  No.  94,”  from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of  the 
session  of  1852-53.  (A  Manual  of  the  Ohio  School  System.  James  W.  Taylor.  Cincinnati:  H.  W# 
Derby  &  Co.,  1857,  pp.  215,216,220.) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


149 


few  years  say  much  on  the  subject.  A  seemingly  important  provision  of  the  law 
was  the  one  that  authorized  any  board  of  education  to  appoint  one  of  its  members 
acting  manager  of  schools  for  the  township,  with  such  duties  as  the  board  might 
prescribe  with  relation  to  the  management  and  supervision  of  the  different 
schools.  Any  member  of  a  school  board  appointed  to  such  duty  was  to  receive 
compensation  for  his  services.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  acting  mana¬ 
gers  of  schools  were  appointed  to  any  great  extent.1  In  addition  to  the  duties 
enumerated  above,  the  control  of  any  “  central  or  high  school  ”  that  the  township 
carried  on  was  vested  in  the  township  Ijpard.  Authority  was  given  to  establish 
schools  of  a  higher  grade  than  primary  after  the  qualified  voters  of  the  township 
should  have  authorized  the  necessary  steps,  granted  the  taxes,  etc.  In  city  and 
village  districts  school  boards  were  clothed  with  larger  powers  in  the  matter  of 
providing  for  secondary  instruction.2  The  law  authorized  them  to  divide  their 
districts  into  subdistricts,  establish  schools  of  different  grades,  ordain  rules  for 
their  regulation,  etc.  Herein  could  be  found  authority  to  establish  “  central  or 
high  schools  ”  without  submitting  the  question  to  tfie  voters  of  the  district.  The 
law  of  1853  did  not  clear  away  the  existing  mass  of  special  school  systems.  One 
of  its  provisions  was  that  the  new  act  should  not  interfere  with  schools  governed 
under  the  Akron  law  or  the  law  of  1849  for  cities  and  towns.  It  authorized  cities 
and  towns  to  adopt  the  new  law  in  place  of  any  earlier  one  by  vote  of  the  quali¬ 
fied  electors.  The  scheme  which  it  offered  for  the  administration  of  city  and  vil¬ 
lage  schools  was  no  advance  beyond  the  Lewis  act.  The  reports  of  the  State 
commissioners  of  education  give  instances  in  which  boards  of  education  did  not 
know  under  which  law  their  schools  were  organized.  Under  the  head  of  super¬ 
vision  the  new  law  repealed  the  act  to  create  a  board  of  public  instruction.  It 
restored  the  office  of  State  superintendent  under  the  title  of  “State  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Common  Schools.” 

The  regulations  relating  to  this  office  are  that  the  State  commissioner  shall  be 
elected  triennially  for  a  term  of  three  years  by  the  qualified  electors  of  the  State, 
and  shall  give  bond  to  the  State  in  the  sum  of  $10,000.  He  shall  have  an  office  at 
the  seat  of  government.  His  duties  shall  include  encouraging  teachers’  institutes, 
conferring  with  township  boards  of  education,  counseling  teachers,  visiting  schools, 
and  delivering  educational  lectures.  He  shall  spend  at  least  10  days  annually  in 
each  judicial  district.  He  shall  purchase  and  direct  the  distribution  of  the  libraries 
and  apparatus  provided  for  in  this  act,  have  a  certain  supervision  over  the  educa¬ 
tional  funds  of  the  State,  prepare  forms  for  school  reports,  direct  the  printing  and 
distribution  of  school  laws,  and  make  an  annual  report  to  the  general  assembly. 
His  salary  shall  be  $1,500  annually,  to  be  paid  out  of  the  State  treasury. 

Among  the  miscellaneous  provisions  of  this  law  should  be  noticed  the  special 
State  tax  of  a  tenth  of  a  mill  for  the  purchase  of  common-school  libraries;  the 
appointment  of  county  boards  of  examiners  by  the  probate  judge;  the  allowance 
of  $1.50  a  day  to  such  examiners,  to  be  paid  out  of  the  county  treasury;  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  orthography  to  the  list  of  subjects  in  which  examination  was  required,  and 
the  dropping  of  the  sex  qualification  for  admission  to  the  evening  schools.  The 
management  of  colored  schools  was  intrusted  to  the  regular  district  school  board. 
Separate  schools  for  colored  children  might  be  established  if  the  number  of 
colored  scholars  in  any  district  was  equal  to  30.  They  were  to  be  discontinued 
for  a  period  of  six  months  after  the  average  attendance  had  fallen  below  15  for 


1  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  School  Commissioner.  Columbus,  1858,  p.  18. 

2  At  the  commencement  of  1847  there  was  not  a  single  well- organized  public  high  school  in  the 
State.  Now  there  are  more  than  forty  in  which  a  thorough  academic  education  is  given,  besides 
nearly  an  equal  number  in  which  instruction  is  given  in  some  of  the  higher  branches.  (Report 
of  A.  D.  Lord,  1854,  as  general  agent  of  the  State  teachers’  association,  quoted  in  American 
Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  VI,  p.  535.) 


J 


150  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

any  one  month.  The  school  law  of  1853  repealed  a  mass  of  legislation  equal  to  ten 
times  its  own  bulk,  although  it  numbered  69  sections  itself. 

V.  The  Period  1853-1873. 

It  was  natural  that  some  retrogression  should  follow  such  a  long  stride  forward, 
but  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that  almost  all  of  the  thrusts  at  the  new  law  were  parried 
in  the  general  assembly  by  a  wise  majority.  The  rate  of  the  State  school  tax  was 
reduced  to  a  mill  and  a  half  at  the  session  of  1854. 1  The  library  tax  clause  was 
allowed  to  operate  for  the  years  1854,  1§55,  and  1856;  it  was  suspended  for  1857; 
again  for  1858;  it  was  allowed  to  operate  for  1859;  but  in  1860  it  was  repealed. 

Twenty  years  elapsed  before  there  was  further  public- school  legislation  of  very 
great  importance.  The  interval  was  not  so  productive  of  new  features  as  the  fif¬ 
teen  jrears  between  the  Lewis  act  and  the  Rice  act  had  been.  In  1857,  April  17,  a 
mode  of  procedure  was  prescribed  by  which  teachers  who  had  been  dismissed  could 
bring  suit  against  the  district  or  subdistrict.  Provision  was  made  January  24, 
1859,  for  the  school  board  of  any  incorporated  village  to  unite  with  the  board  of 
the  township  in  which  the  village  was  situated  for  the  establishment  and  mainte¬ 
nance  of  a  central  high  school.  On  March  18,  1865,  that  section  of  the  law  that 
related  to  colored  schools  was  amended.  The  amendment  provided  that  all  school 
officers  having  authority  in  the  premises  should  establish  separate  schools  for  col¬ 
ored  children  when  the  whole  number  of  such  children  exceeded  20;  when  the 
number  was  less  than  20,  joint  colored  districts  might  be  formed;  when  distance 
rendered  separate  schools  impracticable,  the  full  share  of  school  funds  belonging 
to  colored  children  was  to  be  set  apart  and  appropriated  each  year  for  their  educa¬ 
tion,  which  indefinite  arrangement  proved  inadequate  in  practice.  On  the  same 
day  the  law  was  passed  that  created  the  State  board  of  examiners.  This  body  as 
originally  organized  consisted  of  three  members,  who  were  appointed  by  the  State 
commissioner  of  common  schools.  It  held  its  first  meeting  in  July  of  1864,  and 
granted  eleven  State  certificates.  It  was  also  provided  at  this  time  that  every 
applicant  for  a  teacher's  certificate  should  pay  50  cents  for  the  privilege  of  being 
examined,  and  that  the  fund  accruing  from  ^his  source  should  be  paid  into  the 
county  treasuries  and  constitute  teachers’  institute  funds.  It  would  have  required 
only  a  little  foresight  to  perceive  that  the  component  parts  of  township  school  dis¬ 
tricts  as  arranged  by  the  law  of  1853  were  not  likely  to  hold  together  in  all  cases, 
with  the  question  of  maintaining  “  central  or  high  schools  ”  left  to  the  vote  of  the 
electors  of  the  township.  The  “special  school  district”  was  added  to  the  types 
that  had  been  differentiated  earlier,  by  an  act  of  April  19, 1867.  This  measure  made 
jt  lawful  for  any  subdistrict  or  group  of  contiguous  subdistricts  which  contained 
not  less  than  275  inhabitants  to  become  a  separate  school  district.  Separate  Ger¬ 
man  schools  were  still  in  vigorous  life,  as  is  shown  by  the  act  of  May  8, 1868.  This 
required  that  all  teachers  employed  to  teach  German  should  be  examined  and 
found  qualified  to  teach  in  that  language  all  the  branches  taught  in  the  common 
schools.  An  act  of  April  16,  1870,  made  the  managing  authorities  of  teachers’ 
institutes  responsible  for  furnishing  statistics  of  such  institutes  to  the  State  com¬ 
missioner  of  common  schools.  A  vaccination  law  was  passed  March  7, 1872.  This 
seems  to  have  been  the  earliest  sanitary  measure  affecting  schools.  March  31, 1871, 
is  the  date  of  the  first  of  that  very  interesting  group  of  laws  which  were  necessi- 

1  According  to  the  best  authority  on  the  history  of  the  Ohio  school  system  for  this  period,  this 
step  did  not  actually  cause  any  loss  to  the  schools.  The  State  school  tax,  at  the  session  of  1854, 
was  reduced  from  two  mills  to  a  mill  and  a  half.  Nevertheless,  in  the  presence  of  a  grand  dupli¬ 
cate  much  enlarged  by  the  revaluation  of  real  estate  in  1852-53  and  the  legislation  pursuant  to  the 
new  constitution,  the  amount  collected  at  the  lesser  rate  was  $1,208,283.84,  against  $1,118,089.02, 
which  was  the  proceeds  of  the  two  mill  levy  of  1853.  (A  Manual  of  the  Ohio  School  System. 
James  W.  Taylor,  p.  233.) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


151 


tated  by  the  activities  of  school-book  publishing  houses.  Its  language  seems  to 
imoly  that  the  book  agent  was  abroad.  Herein  the  following  conditions  were 
imposed  upon  the  changing  of  text-books:  The  expiration  of  two  years  since  the 
adoption  of  the  book  already  in  use,  otherwise  a  three-fourths’  vote  of  all  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  board,  the  action  to  be  taken  at  a  regular  meeting. 

Within  this  interval  of  twenty  years  there  was  special  school  legislation  for  the 
cities  of  Cleveland  and  Cincinnati.  The  Cleveland  law  of  1848  had  silenced  the 
charge  that  the  high  school  of  that  city  was  not  authorized  by  law.  In  1859  a 
much  more  elaborate  school  law  was  enacted  for  Cleveland.  It  provided  that  the 
board  of  education  should  be  elected  upon  the  principle  of  ward  representation. 
It  authorized  the  appointment  of  a  superintendent  of  schools,  with  the  curious 
requirement  that  he  be  appointed  from  the  body  of  qualified  voters  of  the  city. 
This,  however,  was  dropped  the  next  year.  In  its  provision  for  a  superintendent 
of  schools  the  Cleveland  law  had  been  anticipated  nine  years  by  the  Cincinnati 
law.  Three  persons  were  to  be  appointed  in  each  ward  to  act  as  a  visiting  com¬ 
mittee.  The  date  of  the  next  act  applicable  only  to  the  Cleveland  schools  was 
1868.  The  growth  and  increasing  complexity  of  the  school  machinery  are  reflected 
in  the  detailed  character  of  the  provisions  of  this  law.  Hereby  the  board  of  edu¬ 
cation  is  to  consist  of  two  members  from  each  ward,  elected  one  annually  for  a 
term  of  two  years.  Regular  board  meetings  are  to  be  held  once  in  two  weeks. 
The  board  is  empowered  to  appoint  a  secretary,  not  of  its  own  body;  also  an 
overseer  of  buildings.  Compensation  for  services  and  pecuniary  interest  in  any 
contract  on  the  part  of  any  member  of  the  board  are  declared  unlawful. 

The  Cincinnati  school  law  of  1853  differed  greatly  from  the  original  one  which 
had  been  passed  in  1829.  It  declared  that  the  school  board  should  consist  of  two 
members  chosen  from  each  ward.  It  vested  in  this  body,  and  no  longer  in  the 
city  council,  the  functions  of  levying  school  taxes,  providing  schoolhouses,  and 
laying  off  school  districts.  It  required  that  the  school  board  should  sustain  a 
suitable  number  of  German  schools  and  of  colored  schools.  The  next  year  the 
additional  requirement  was  made  that  the  regular  school  board  should  appoint 
colored  directors  for  the  colored  schools.  In  1856  it  was  provided  that  such  direct¬ 
ors  should  be  chosen  by  the  adult  colored  males  of  the  city.  The  different  way 
that  the  race  question  has  operated  on  the  school  system  of  the  two  leading  cities 
of  the  State  and  the  circumstances  which  caused  this  difference  would  be  an 
interesting  subject  for  investigation. 

The  school  law  of  May  1,  1873,  is  the  longest  document  which  the  investigator 
of  the  present  subject  has  to  examine.  It  also  comes  the  nearest  to  being  tedious. 
It  made  no  great  contribution  to  the  principles  that  shape  the  school  system  of  the 
State;  neither  did  it  add  any  important  device  to  its  machinery.  It  repealed 
practically  all  of  the  school  legislation  that  it  found  in  force — some  twenty-six 
laws  and  numberless  amendments.  It  stated  their  substance  anew,  going  back  as 
far  as  the  laws  that  related  to  school  lands  and  to  the  funds  accruing  therefrom, 
but  where  there  had  been  a  confusion  of  schemes,  as  for  cities,  towns,  and  villages, 
it  brought  order  out  of  the  chaos.  This  legislation  is  classed  with  the  epoch- 
making  measures  of  1825,  1838,  and  1853  by  reason  of  its  giving  the  State  a  school 
code  in  a  more  scientific  sense  than  that  in  which  it  had  one  before.1 


1  The  following  is  a  good  specimen  of  the  calls  for  the  codification  of  the  school  law  that  had 
been  heard  for  several  years : 

The  necessity  of  a  codification  of  the  school  laws  was  presented  in  the  last  and  also  in  several 
preceding  reports.  A  codified  bill  was  introduced  in  the  general  assembly  last  winter  which 
was  received  with  great  favor,  but  it  failed  to  become  a  law.  There  are  about  40,000  school 
officers  and  20,000  teachers  in  the  State.  That  they  may  be  enabled  to  perform  their  duties 
understanding^  the  school  laws  should  be  plain  and  definite  in  statement,  so  as  to  reduce  all 
doubts  as  to  their  meaning  to  the  fewest  possible.  A  codified  bill,  it  is  hoped,  will  secure  this 
desirable  result,  as  well  as  furnish  the  occasion  for  making  such  changes  in  our  school  system 
as  may  be  deemed  expedient.  It  is  confidently  expected  that  the  general  assembly  will  pass  an 
act  which  shall  comprehend  the  whole  system  of  the  State,  and  be  easily  interpreted  and 


152 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  new  law  classified  school  districts  as  city  districts  of  the  first  class,  city 
districts  of  the  second  class,  village,  special,  and  township  districts.  All  cities 
having  a  population  of  10,000  or  upward  were  to  constitute  the  first  class  of  dis¬ 
tricts;  those  having  a  population  of  less  than  10,000  the  second  class;  every  incor¬ 
porated  vdlage  a  village  district;  every  organized  township  a  township  district; 
school  districts  which  did  not  correspond  to  any  of  these  districts,  but  were  organ¬ 
ized  by  act  of  the  general  assembly  or  by  vote  of  the  electors  in  accordance 
with  such  act,  were  special  districts.  It  is  noteworthy  that  no  progress  is  herein 
made  in  the  centralization  of  country  schools,  and  that  subdistricts  remain  as  they 
had  been  established  twenty  years  before.  The  schemes  of  administration  for  the 
respective  classes  of  districts  are  as  follows:  In  a  city  district  of  the  first  class  the 
board  of  education  is  composed  of  two  members  from  each  ward,  but  any  such 
district  whose  board  already  consists  of  only  one  member  from  each  ward  may 
remain  as  it  is.  The  term  of  office  is  two  years.  Elections  are  so  adjusted  that 
where  the  two-member  system  is  established  each  ward  shall  elect  one  member 
annually,  and  where  the  one-member  system  is  retained  the  wards  having  odd 
numbers  shall  alternate  with  the  even-numbered  ones  in  holding  school  elections. 
In  city  districts  of  the  second  class,  as  well  as  village  districts,  the  board  of  educa_ 

administered.  (Eighteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Commissioner  of  Common  Schools 
Columbus,  1872,  p.  55.) 

Little  heed  was  paid  to  the  changes  that  had  been  recommended  by  the  educators  of  the 
State.  The  annual  reports  of  Wilson  D.  Henkle  and  Thomas  W.  Harvey,  the  State  commis¬ 
sioners  of  common  schools,  during  the  period  when  the  codification  of  the  school  law  was  being 
agitated,  had  urged  upon  the  general  assembly  the  need  of  provision  for  county  superintend¬ 
ency,  State  normal  schools,  and  township  districts  that  should  be  such  in  fact.  The  Ohio  super¬ 
intendents’  association  resolved,  July  4, 1871,  “That  the  association  approves  the  recommenda¬ 
tions  that  have  been  from  time  to  time  made  by  the  Ohio  teachers’  association  and  the  State 
commissioners  of  common  schools  in  reference  to  engrafting  upon  the  common-school  system  of 
Ohio  the  following  features:  A  judicious  and  efficient  system  of  county  superintendency;  the 
adoption  of  the  township  system  of  school  administration;  an  efficient  system  of  district  normal 
schools.”  (Published  in  Proceedings  of  Ohio  Teachers’ Association,  1888-1875,  p.  82.)  It  was  also 
resolved  by  the  same  body  that  the  constitution  of  the  State  should  be  so  amended  as  to  provide 
for  an  efficient  State  board  of  education,  the  secretary  of  which  should  be  the  State  commis¬ 
sioner  of  common  schools.  {Ibid.) 

A  third  constitution  was  framed  for  the  State  of  Ohio  by  a  convention  that  sat  at  Columbus 
May  13  to  August  18, 1873,  and  at  Cincinnati  December  2,  1873,  to  May  15, 1874,  but  when  it  was 
submitted  to  the  people  for  their  ratification  it  was  rejected  by  a  large  majority.  The  course 
of  the  debate  on  education  may  be  inferred  from  the  character  of  the  resolutions.  On  May  29, 
1873,  a  resolution  was  introduced  to  the  effect  that  the  standing  committee  on  education  be,  and 
hereby  are,  instructed  to  inquire  into  the  expediency  of  making  the  commissioner  of  common 
schools  a  constitutional  officer.  This  was  reported  back  by  the  committee  on  education  without 
recommendation.  Later  a  resolution  was  introduced  to  secure  the  perpetual  maintenance  of 
separate  schools  for  white  and  colored  children,  but  to  permit  the  admission  of  both  to  the 
same  school  upon  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  electors  of  any  school  district.  This  seems  to  have 
attracted  no  further  attention.  The  report  from  the  committee  on  education  was  read  to  the 
convention  on  February  14, 1874.  The  six  members  united  in  the  opinion  that  a  section  3  should 
be  added  to  Article  VI  of  the  constitution  as  adopted  in  1851,  to  wit,  that  women  over  21  years 
of  age  should  be  eligible  to  any  office  under  the  school  laws  of  the  State.  Four  members  of  the 
committee  recommended  the  following  addition  to  section  2  of  Article  VI:  “The  power  of  tax¬ 
ation  conferred  by  this  section  shall  be  limited  to  a  sum  sufficient  to  educate  all  the  children  of 
the  State  in  such  common  and  necessary  branches  of  learning  as  shall  be  provided  bylaw.” 
Another  group  of  four  recommended  the  addition  of  a  fourth  section  to  Article  VI  of  the  con¬ 
stitution:  “The  general  assembly  may,  by  law,  require  that  every  child  of  sufficient  mental  and 

physical  ability  shall  attend  the  public  free  schools  during  the  period  between  the  ages  of - 

and - years,  for  a  term  equivalent  in  the  aggregate  to -  years,  unless  educated  by  other 

means  to  the  same  extent.”  One  member  proposed  to  strike  out  that  clause  of  Article  VI, 
section  2,  which  prohibits  any  religious  or  other  sect  or  sects  from  having  exclusive  right  to  or 
control  of  any  part  of  the  school  funds  of  the  State.  After  the  final  revision  by  the  convention, 
the  education  article  contained  three  sections:  1  and  2,  as  in  the  constitution  of  185i  3,  as  fol¬ 
lows:  “Women  having  such  qualifications  as  to  age,  citizenship,  and  residence  as  may  be  pre¬ 
scribed  for  electors  shall  be  eligible  to  any  office  under  the  school  laws  except  that  of  State  com¬ 
missioner  of  common  schools.”  (Debates  Ohio  Convention,  Cleveland,  1873-74.) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


153 


tion  is  to  consist  of  six  members,  unless  it  has  already  been  established  with  only 
three,  the  term  of  office  being  three  years;  such  districts  may,  however,  adopt  the 
one-member  system  of  ward  representation.  In  township  districts  the  school 
board  is  to  rdinain  as  constituted  by  the  law  of  1853.  In  special  districts  it  is  to 
consist  of  three  members,  elected  one  annually  for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  new 
law  takes  an  important  step  in  separating  school  government  from  the  municipal 
government  by  vesting  in  the  board  of  education  any  property  for  the  use  of 
schools  that  had  hitherto  been  invested  in  the  city  or  town  council.  It  empowers 
the  board  of  education  of  each  school  district  to  appoint  a  superintendent  of  schools 
and  to  fix  his  salary,  which  had  not  been  done  before  except  by  implication.  It  also 
goes  further  than  the  act  of  twenty  years  before  in  its  provision  for  secondary 
instruction;  it  says  that  one  or  more  schools  of  higher  grade  shall  be  established 
whenever  the  board  of  education  shall  deem  it  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
educational  interests  of  the  district. 

The  regulations  for  examining  and  certificating  teachers  were  much  changed  in 
points  of  detail.  The  most  important  new  features  were  the  addition  of  the 
theory  and  the  practice  of  teaching  to  the  list  of  subjects;  the  disqualification  of 
persons  directly  interested  in  normal  schools  as  teachers  for  the  office  of  examiner, 
the  exemption  of  teachers  of  special  subjects  from  the  regular  examination. 
Teachers’  institutes  were  put  on  a  less  voluntary  basis  than  before  by  authorizing 
the  State  commissioner  to  organize  an  institute  association  in  every  county  where 
there  was  none  already  existing.  It  was  made  voluntary  with  city  districts  of 
the  first  class  to  hold  separate  institutes  for  their  teachers.  An  end  was  made  of 
separate  German  schools  by  that  provision  of  the  law  which  required  the  common 
branches  to  be  taught  in  the  English  language.  The  German  language  was  per¬ 
mitted  to  be  taught  as  a  separate  study  at  the  discretion  of  any  school  board,  and 
instruction  therein  was  obligatory  upon  a  sufficiently  strong  petition  from  resident 
freeholders  of  the  district.  The  new  law  raised  the  minimum  legal  school  age 
from  5  years  to  6.  It  defined  the  school  week  as  consisting  of  5  days  and  the 
school  month  of  4  weeks;  it  fixed  the  minimum  annual  session  at  24  weeks  and 
the  maximum  at  44;  it  set  apart  as  legal  school  holidays  New  Year’s  Day,  the 
Fourth  of  July,  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  Christmas.  Finally,  the  fiscal  provisions 
of  the  act  were  that  the  State  common-school  fund  should  consist  of  such  sum  as 
would  be  produced  by  the  annual  levy  and  assessment  of  1  mill  upon  the  dollar 
valuation  on  the  grand  list  of  the  taxable  .property  of  the  State,  and  that  boards 
of  education  might  levy  upon  the  taxable  property  of  their  districts  as  high  as  7 
mills.  Although  the  rate  of  district  taxes  has  been  frequently  restated,  7  mills  has 
usually  been  the  maximum  for  all  districts  except  the  large  cities,  for  which  spe¬ 
cial  rates  are  fixed  by  the  school-tax  laws. 

VI.  The  Period  1873-1900.  / 

Since  the  school  law  w7as  codified  in  1873  there  have  been  additions  of  the  great¬ 
est  interest  and  importance.  Some  of  these  are  compulsory  education,  woman 
suffrage  on  school  questions,  free  school  books,  and  the  centralization  of  country 
schools.  Almost  all  of  these  have  been  made  within  the  last  ten  years,  although 
several  less  novel  changes  were  made  earlier.  In  1875  it  was  made  lawful  for  all 
districts  except  those  of  the  township  class  to  maintain  evening  schools.  The 
same  classes  of  districts  were  given  authority  to  expend  public  money  for  library 
books  and  philosophical  apparatus.  In  1881  authorit}^  to  appropriate  money  for 
library  books  out  of  their  contingent  funds  was  extended  to  all  districts,  as  the  old 
provision  for  a  school-library  tax  that  was  made  in  1853  and  repealed  in  1860  had 
never  been  reenacted. 

Relative  to  the  certificating  of  teachers,  the  legislation  has  been  extensive  and 


154 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


complicated.  In  1882  the  candidate’s  experience  in  teaching  was  made  an  ele¬ 
ment  in  the  grading  of  the  certificate.  In  the  same  year  United  States  history 
was  added  to  the  list  of  subjects;  in  1888,  elementary  physiology.  A  law  of  April 
16.  1S88,  handled  the  subject  of  examinations  in  all  its  parts.  It  declared  that  the 
State  board  of  examiners  should  consist  of  five  members,  residents  of  the  State; 
that  they  should  be  appointees  of  the  State  commissioner  of  common  schools,  and 
that  not  more  than  three  of  them  should  belong  to  the  same  political  party;  it 
authorized  this  board  to  issue  life  certificates  of  three  grades  for  three  different 
grades  of  schools.  N  ew  restrictions  were  imposed  upon  county  boards  of  examiners 
by  this  law.  An  interest  in  any  publishing  or  book-selling  concern  was  made  a 
disqualification  for  membership.  The  grades  of  county  certificates  were  fixed  at 
one,  two,  three,  and  fiye  years.  Hoards  of  city  examiners  were  to  consist  of  either 
three  or  six  persons,  as  the  board  of  education  should  determine;  five  years’ 
experience  in  teaching  was  made  a  qualification  for  eligibility  to  the  position;  but 
in  1891  this  requirement  was  eased  so  that  it  was  necessary  for  only  two  members 
of  the  board  to  have  had  such  experience,  and  the  period  was  reduced  to  two 
years.  The  law  of  1891  on  this  subject  set  up  also  an  experience  qualification  for 
members  of  county  boards  of  examiners.  In  1893,  April  25,  an  important  act  was 
passed  entitled,  “An  act  to  provide  for  a  uniform  system  of  examinations  of  teach¬ 
ers  in  the  State  of  Ohio.”  It  fixed  upon  the  second  and  fourth  Saturdays  of  the  ten 
months  from  September  to  June  as  the  days  upon  which  county  examinations 
should  be  held,  and  ordered  that  the  questions  used  at  these  examinations  should 
be  prepared  by  the  State  board  of  examiners  and  the  State  commissioner  of  com¬ 
mon  schools.  This  act,  however,  is  not  mandatory.  Civil  government  was  added 
to  the  list  of  subjects  by  act  of  February  20,  1896.  On  April  6  of  the  same  year 
certificates  valid  for  eight  years  were  authorized.  The  classification  of  teachers’ 
certificates  as  pertaining  to  counties  was  readjusted  April  13,  1888,  and  now 
stands: 

The  board  may  grant  certificates  for  one,  two,  and  three  years  from  the  day  of 
examination,  which  shall  be  valid  in  the  county  wherein  they  are  issued,  except 
in  city  and  village  districts  that  have  boards  of  examiners,  *  *  *  and  the 
examiners  may  grant  certificates  for  five  years  to  such  applicants  as,  in  addition 
to  the  necessary  qualifications,  have  been  for  three  years  next  preceding  their 
application  engaged  in  teaching,  twelve  months  of  which  shall  have  been  in  one 
place;  and  such  certificates  for  five  years  shall  be  renewable  upon  the  same  con¬ 
dition,  but  without  examination,  at  the  discretion  of  the  examining  board;  and  the 
examiners  may  grant  certificates  for  eight  years  from  the  date  of  examination  to 
such  applicants  as,  in  addition  to  the  necessary  qualifications,  hold  or  have  held 
certificates  for  five  years  and  shall  have  been  for  three  years  next  preceding  their 
application  engaged  in  teaching,  eighteen  months  of  which  experience  shall  have 
been  in  one  place;  and  the  applicants  for  such  certificates  for  eight  years,  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  other  qualifications,  shall  be  required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination 
in  botany,  algebra,  natural  philosophy,  and  English  literature;  and  such  cer¬ 
tificate  for  eight  years  shall  be  renewable  upon  the  same  conditions,  but  without 
examination,  at  the  discretion  of  the  examining  board. 

The  general  assembly  of  1900  authorized  the  board  of  examiners  for  Cincinnati 
to  grant  life  certificates.  It  is  a  noteworthy  matter  that  one  of  the  qualifications 
for  these  certificates  is  the  evidence  of  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
education,  science  of  education,  and  psychology.  In  city  and  village  districts 
which  have  special  boards  of  examiners  the  gradation  of  certificates  has  always 
been  left  to  those  bodies. 

By  acts  passed  in  1885-86  subdistrict  directors  were  authorized  to  provide  fences 
and  trees  for  the  schoolhouse  grounds.  In  1885  an  act  was  passed  enabling  town¬ 
ship,  village,  and  special  school  districts  to  unite  into  one  special  district  for  the 
purpose  of  maintaining  a  high  school  only.  In  the  same  year  that  section  of  the 
law  which  regulated  the  change  of  text-books  was  so  amended  that  the  time  neces- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


155 


sary  to  elapse  after  the  adoption  of  the  book  in  use  was  increased  to  five  years; 
otherwise  there  must  be  favorable  action  by  three-fourths  of  the  school  board, 
taken  at  a  regular  meeting.  By  an  act  of  March  21,  1887,  the  classification  of 
school  districts  into  five  groups  was  so  enlarged  as  to  add  at  the  head  of  the  list 
city  districts  of  the  first  grade  of  the  first  class  and  city  districts  of  the  second 
grade  of  the  first  class;  this  was  a  device  to  put  Cincinnati  and  Cleveland  each 
into  a  class  by  itself. 

An  act  was  passed  April  11,  1888,  to  expedite  the  collection  and  publication  of 
school  statistics.  The  reports  which  are  required  of  the  different  groups  of. school 
officers  culminate  in  the  annual  report  made  by  the  State  commissioner  of  com¬ 
mon  schools  to  the  general  assembly.  The  first  group  of  statistics  required  by  the 
law,  as  it  now  stands,  relates  to  the  enumeration  of  the  school  youth.  This  is  taken 
annually  in  each  school  district,  all  unmarried  persqns  from  6  to  21  years  of  age 
resident  in  the  district  being  included.  The  clerk  of  the  school  board  is  required  to 
transmit  the  district  enumeration  to  the  county  auditor;  the  latter  officer,  to  the 
State  commissioner.  In  the  second  place,  each  board  of  education  is  required  to 
deposit  with  the.  county  auditor  statistics  of  the  following  facts:  Receipts  and 
expenditures  for  the  district;  the  number  of  schools  sustained,  and  the  time  they 
are  in  session;  the  enrollment  of  pupils,  with  average  monthly  enrollment  and 
average  daily  attendance;  the  number  of  teachers  employed;  salaries;  the  number 
of  schoolhouses  and  schoolrooms,  and  such  other  facts  as  are  required  by  the  State 
commissioner.  The  latter  officer  receives  these  reports  through  the  county  audi¬ 
tors.  The  third  group  of  school  statistics  relates  to  teachers’  examinations.  The 
clerk  of  every  county  board  of  examiners  is  required  to  transmit  directly  to  the 
State  commissioner  statistics  of  the  following  matters:  The  number  of  examina¬ 
tions  held  within  the  year;  the  number  of  applicants  examined;  the  number  of 
certificates  granted;  the  amount  of  fees  received,  and  the  amount  received  from 
the  county  treasurer  for  the  services  of  the  board  of  examiners.  In  the  fourth 
place,  each  teachers’  institute  committee  is  required  to  report  directly  to  the  State 
commissioner  the  number  of  teachers  in  attendance,  the  names  or  instructors  and 
lecturers,  the  amount  of  money  received,  etc. 

On  February  22,  1887,  the  “black  laws  ”  were  repealed.  This  included  that  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  school  code  which  authorized  separate  schools  for  colored  children. 

Strange  to  say,  the  subject  of  normal  schools  is  conspicuously  absent  from  the 
statute  books  of  the  State  of  Ohio..1  The  sole  provision  of  this  character  is  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  combined  normal  and  industrial  department  at  Wilberforce 
University,  Greene  County.  This  department  was  established  by  act  of  March  19, 
1887. 

The  law  imposed  a  check  upon  nepotism  in  the  public  schools  in  1889,  April  5, 
by  declaring  it  unlawful  for  any  local  director  or  member  of  a  board  of  education 
to  vote  for  or  participate  in  the  making  of  any  contract  as  a  teacher  with  any 
person  to  whom  he  is  related  as  father  or  brother.  A  penalty  for  the  offense  was 
imposed. 

The  first  compulsory  school  law  was  enacted  April  15,  1889.  Its  title  was,  “An 


1  Extending  over  a  period  of  sixty  years,  the  claims  of  normal  schools  were  never  more  forcibly 
or  intelligently  presented  than  in  Ohio  by  Governor  Worthington  (1817),  Calvin  E.  Stowe  (1837), 
Samuel  Lewis  (1839),  Emerson  E.  White  (1865), and  others.  The  question  can  not  fail  to  occur, 
Why,  then,  has  Ohio  no  State  normal  school  in  this  year  of  grace  1876?  (Delia  A.  Lathrop, 
Normal  Schools,  Education  in  Ohio:  Centennial  Volume,  Columbus,  1876,  p.  285.) 

After  showing  that  every  one  of  these  agitations  proved  to  be  ill  timed,  this  writer  goes  on: 
“The  idea  is  quite  prevalent  among  legislators  that  the  professional  work  demanded  is  being 
satisfactorily  carried  on  by  private  enterprise,  and  if  the  State  does  not  intermeddle,  the  supply 
and  demand  will  in  time  somehow  regulate  themselves.”  (Ibid.,  p.  287.) 


156  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

act  to  compel  children  under  14  years  of  age  to  attend  school  a  certain  length  of 
time.-’1 

The  chief  provisions  are  as  follows:  That  all  parents,  guardians,  and  other  per¬ 
sons  who  have  care  of  children  shall  instruct  them,  or  cause  them  to  be  instructed, 
in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  English  grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic,  and 
that  every  person  having  control  of  a  child  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14  years 
shall  be  required  to  send  such  child  to  a  public  or  private  school  for  a  period  of 
not  less  than  twenty  weeks  in  each  year  in  city  districts,  at  least  ten  weeks  of 
which  shall  be  consecutive,  and  in  village  and  township  districts  not  less  than 
sixteen  weeks,  eight  of  which  shall  be  consecutive.  Authority  to  excuse  children 
from  such  attendance,  upon  its  being  shown  that  their  physical  or  mental  condi¬ 
tion  will  not  permit  it,  or  that  they  receive  suitable  private  instruction,  is  given 
to  school  superintendents  and  boards  of  education.  The  employment  of  any  child 
under  14  years  of  age  by  any  person  or  corporation  is  forbidden  unless  substantial 
proof  be  given  that  the  school  requirement  has  been  complied  with.  The  law 
fixed  a  fine  of  $50  as  the  penalty  for  employing  any  child  contrary  to  this  law.  It 
further  provided  that  all  minors  between  the  ages  of  14  and  16  years  who  can  not 
read  and  write  the  English  language  are  required  to  attend  school  one-half  a  day, 
or  to  attend  evening  school,  or  to  take  regular  private  instruction  to  the  satisfac¬ 
tion  of  the  school  authorities,  and  employers  of  such  youth  are  held  responsible 
for  the  observance  of  this  requirement.  The  penalty  laid  upon  parents  and 
guardians  for  neglecting  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  this  law  was  origi¬ 
nally  a  fine  of  from  $5  to  $20  for  the  first  offense,  to  be  increased  for  later  offenses. 
The  chief  official  responsible  for  the  enforcement  of  the  compulsory  education 
law  is  the  truant  officer.  He  is  vested  with  police  powers,  is  authorized  to  enter 
factories,  workshops,  stores,  etc.,  and  to  perform  such  services  as  the  superin¬ 
tendent  or  board  of  education  may  deem  necessary.  Some  suspension  of  the  law 
at  the  discretion  of  the  proper  authorities  is  provided  for  in  cases  where  the 
employment  of  children  is  found  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  the  family  support. 
If  children  are  proved  to  be  habitual  truants,  the  law  prescribes  their  commit¬ 
ment  to  some  juvenile  reformatory.  In  1890  the  additional  requirement  was 
made  that  the  youth  aged  from  8  to  16  years  must  attend  school  for  the  full  term 
in  their  respective  districts  unless  they  were  engaged  in  some  regular  employ¬ 
ment  or  were  duly  excused.  The  original  act  on  this  subject  was  superseded 
April  25,  1893,  by  the  present  law,  which  is  entitled  “An  act  to  compel  the  ele¬ 
mentary  education  of  children.”  This  repeats  the  main  provisions  of  the  original 
measure;  it  further  establishes  the  right  of  parents  and  guardians  to  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  a  superintendent  of  schools  or  a  board  of  education  to  the  judge  of 
the  probate  court;  and  it  authorizes  the  officers  charged  with  poor  relief  to  give 
aid  in  cases  where  children  are  required  to  be  kept  from  school  for  the  support  of 
the  family.  This  latter  legislation  also  lightened  the  penalties  imposed  for  viola¬ 
tion.  By  virtue  of  a  factory  law  that  was  enacted  April  19,  1898,  the  age  up  to 
which  attendance  at  school  is  compulsory  was  practically  raised  to  15  years. 

1  In  1838  Samuel  Lewis  had  written:  “  It  must  be  admitted  that  education  is  as  important  here 
as  in  Prussia,  but  different  means  must  be  used  to  secure  its  influence.  There  the  King  issues 
his  edict  and  obedience  follows.  It  would  not  be  politic  here  to  make  a  law  compelling  children 
to  attend  school;  but  we  must  exert  some  other  influence.”  (First  Annual  Report  of  the  Super¬ 
intendent  of  Common  Schools,  Columbus,  1838,  p.  31.) 

Among  the  rejected  propositions  for  amendment  to  the  act  of  1853  that  were  offered  while  the 
bill  was  under  consideration  in  the  lower  house  was  one  imposing  a  fine  on  guardians  for  not 
sending  children  to  school  at  least  three  months  in  the  year.  (System  of  Common  Schools  in 
Ohio,  William  T.  Goggeshall,  p.  101.) 

In  1871  a  report  on  compulsory  education  was  read  before  the  State  teachers’  association,  and 
a  resolution  in  favor  of  a  truant  law  was  adopted.  (Proceedings  of  the  Ohio  Teachers’  Associa¬ 
tion  at  its  Twenty-third  Annual  Meeting,  pp.  3,  5.) 

It  has  already  been  noticed  that  this  subject  attracted  some  attention  in  the  constitutional 
convention  of  1873-74. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


157 


In  1892,  April  13,  it  was  enacted  that  training  in  physical  culture  should  be 
given  in  the  common  schools  of  the  city  districts.  On  March  14, 1893,  a  law  was 
passed  to  secure  schoolhouse  sanitation.  It  required  that  school  buildings 
should  be  inspected  at  least  semiannually  by  the  board  of  health.  On  March  23 
of  the  same  year  evening  schools  were  provided  for  on  a  larger  scale  than  ever 
before.  This  gave  authority  to  the  school  boa,rd  of  any  kind  of  a  district  to  estab¬ 
lish  such  a  school  upon  receiving  from  parents  and  guardians  of  school  youth  a 
petition  which  gave  the  names  of  at  least  25  youths  of  school  age  who  desired  to 
attend  school,  but  were  prevented  from  doing  so  during  the  day. 

The  kindergarten  was  authorized  as  a  part  of  the  common-school  system  which 
might  be  established  in  city,  special,  and  village  districts,  by  act  of  April  27, 1893. 
A  special  tax  of  1  mill  was  authorized  for  this  purpose. 

The  act  to  secure  a  voice  in  school  affairs  to  the  women  of  Ohio  on  equal  terms 
with  men  was  passed  April  24, 1894.  It  declares  that  every  woman  born  or  natu¬ 
ralized  in  the  United  States,  21  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  in  the  State  one  year 
and  in  the  electoral  district  the  same  time  as  the  law  requires  for  men,  is  entitled 
to  vote  and  be  voted  for  at  any  election  for  choosing  school  directors,  members  of 
boards  of  education,  or  of  school  councils. 

On  March  25,  1896,  was  passed  the  law  that  requires  the  United  States  national 
flag  to  be  displayed  upon  schoolhouses  during  the  daily  school  session. 

The  undertaking  of  the  State  to  furnish  free  school  books  has  grown  out  of  a 
series  of  steps  to  secure  cheap  school  books. 

The  first  law  on  this  subject  was  enacted  April  22, 1885.  It  authorized  boards  of 
education  to  buy  books  and  school  supplies  directly  from  the  publishers  or  dealers 
at  the  lowest  wholesale  or  contract  price,  drawing  upon  the  contingent  fund  for 
the  purpose,  and  to  furnish  the  same  to  pupils  at  cost  price.  In  1890  a  law  was 
passed  to  create  a  schoolbook  board.  This  body  was  to  consist  of  the  governor  of 
the  State,  the  State  commissioner  of  common  schools,  the  State  superintendent 
of  printing,  one  practical  educator,  and  two  practical  business  men,  one  of  these  to 
be  selected  from  each  of  the  two  leading  political  parties.  Their  duties  were  to 
fix  upon  prices  which  might  be  paid  for  schoolbooks,  which  were  not  to  exceed 
80  per  cent  of  the  lowest  prices  offered  at  the  time  by  publishers  to  dealers;  to 
receive  propositions  from  publishers,  and  to  furnish  boards  of  education  with  lists 
of  books  and  prices  as  agreed  ui>on.  School  boards  were  required  to  adopt  books 
found  on  these  lists  until  they  proved  insufficient.  This  scheme  was  carried 
further  by  an  act  of  May  4,  1891.  This  authorized  the  schoolbook  board,  in  case 
the  publishers’  proposals  proved  to  be  insufficient,  to  contract  with  authors  or 
compilers  for  a  series  of  schoolbooks  for  the  State  of  Ohio.  The  date  of  the  free- 
schoolbook  law  is  May  16. 1894.  Boards  of  education  are  hereby  permitted  to  fur¬ 
nish  the  necessary  schoolbooks  free  of  charge,  and  are  authorized  to  levy  an 
additional  tax  for  the  same.  The  books  are  retained  as  the  property  of  the  school 
district,  being  loaned  to  pupils  on  terms  prescribed  by  the  board. 

Legislation  on  the  interesting  and  highly  important  subject  of  country  school 
centralization  has  been  as  follows:  An  important  act  was  passed  on  March  15, 1892, 
which  declared  that  the  office  of  local  director  in  each  subdistrict  should  come  to  an 
end,  as  soon  as  directors  should  be  elected  and  should  qualify  under  the  new  law; 
that  the  entire  management  and  control  of  the  schools  of  the  township  district 
should  be  intrusted  to  the  township  school  board,  and  that  this  shoald  consist  of 
one  director  elected  from  each  subdistrict  for  a  term  of  three  years,  with  the  town¬ 
ship  clerk  serving  as  clerk  of  the  school  board  but  having  no  vote.  The  same 
assembly,  a  week  later,  March  22,  passed  a  law  that  accomplished  the  articulation 
of  the  country  schools  with  the  ijublichigh  schools.  This  provided  for  the  exami 
nation  of  pupils  in  the  country  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  exami¬ 
ners  for  their  respective  counties  in  all  the  common  branches  of  study;  also  for 


158 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  awarding  of  diplomas  to  successful  candidates,  which  should  secure  their 
admission  to  the  high  schools  of  the  county  without  further  examination.  The 
law  also  permitted  any  hoard  of  education  to  pay  tuition  charges  at  such  high 
school  for  any  pupil  belonging  to  its  district.  A  part  of  this  work  of  centralization 
was  to  be  undone.  The  office  of  subdistrict  director  was  restored  by  actof  March 
11,  1898.  This  put  the  township  school  districts  anew  into  the  plight  of  having 
one  township  board  of  directors  together  with  as  many  subordinate  boards  as  it 
had  subdistricts.  By  the  terms  of  this  act  the  township  board  was  to  be  organized 
into  three  standing  committees  on  the  subjects:  Teachers  and  text-books,  buildings 
and  grounds,  and  supplies.  The  function  of  the  subdistrict  board  was  merely  the 
appointment  of  teachers. 

The  cause  of  country  high  schools  was  advanced  by  an  act  of  April  25, 1898,  which 
enabled  two  adjacent  township  districts  to  unite  in  the  support  of  such  a  school. 
This  act  also  made  it  obligatory  for  a  township  board  to  submit  the  high-school 
question  to  the  voters  of  the  district  upon  the  petition  of  ten  such  persons.  It  also 
authorized  the  discontinuance  of  subdistricts  of  less  than  15  pupils.  Finally,  the 
general  assembly  of  1900  dealt  the  decisive  blow  to  the  subdistrict  system,  or,  more 
accurately,  it  defined  the  nature  of  the  blow,  leaving  the  question  whether  it  should 
be  dealt  to  the  voters  of  the  townships.  The  act  to  provide  for  the  centralization 
of  township  schools  and  provide  a  high  school  for  the  same  was  passed  on  April 
16, 1900.  “  Centralization  ”  is  herein  defined  as  “  a  system  of  schools  in  a  township 

providing  for  the  abolishment  of  all  subdistricts  and  the  conveyance  of  pupils  to 
one  or  more  central  schools.”  By  the  terms  of  the  act  the  question  of  centraliza¬ 
tion  may  be  submitted  by  any  township  board  of  education  to  the  voters  of  the 
district,  and  must  be  submitted  upon  petition  of  one-fourth  of  them.  If  it  fails 
to  carry,  two  years  must  elapse  before  it  is  submitted  again.  If  it  carries,  the 
board  of  education  must  proceed  at  once  to  secure  a  building  site  and  erect  suit¬ 
able  schoolhouses.  The  board  of  the  old  type,  consisting  of  one  member  from  each 
subdistrict,  together  with  the  township  clerk,  gives  place  to  a  board  of  five  mem¬ 
bers.  These  are  elected  for  a  term  of  three  years,  not  more  than  two  members 
being  elected  any  one  year.  The  township  clerk  and  treasurer  are  ex  officiis  clerk 
and  treasurer  of  the  school  board.  Boards  of  education  thus  constituted  are 
required  to  maintain  and  support  a  graded  course  of  instruction,  and  may  include 
a  high-school  course  of  not  less  than  two  years.  They  are  also  required  to  furnish 
transportation  to  and  from  school  to  all  pupils  living  more  than  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  from  the  central  building.  Two  days  later,  on  April  18,  the  assembly  sup¬ 
plemented  the  law  providing  for  the  admission  of  country  school  pupils  to  high 
schools  by  enacting  that  boards  of  education  are  bound  to  pay  the  tuition  charges 
of  pupils  belonging  to  their  districts  unless  the  district  maintains  a  high  school  of 
its  own.  The  operation  of  the  centralization  law  is  bound  to  be  watched  with 
eager  interest.  The  summer  of  1900  saw  considerable  activity  in  the  erection  of 
buildings  for  the  use  of  centralized  schools. 

Another  movement  of  absorbing  interest  in  the  school  legislation  of  recent  years 
is  the  return  to  special  systems  for  the  cities.  The  classification  of  city  school 
districts  was  made  to  follow  that  of  cities  more  closely  than  before  by  act  of 
April  12,  1900.  The  advantage  of  this  device  for  the  purpose  of  special  legislation 
is  obvious.  The  present  Cleveland  school  law  was  enacted  March  8,  1892;  the 
Toledo  law,  March  23,  1898;  Cincinnati  has  a  series  of  special  laws  enacted  March 
21,  1887,  May  17,  1894,  April  14,  1896,  and  April  16,  1900.  The  Cleveland  law 
created  a  double  governing  authority  in  the  form  of  a  school  council  and  a  school 
director.  Both  are  elected  by  the  people.  Members  of  the  council  receive  $260 
annual  compensation.  The  director  is  expected  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the 
duties  of  his  office,  and  receives  a  salary  of  $5,000.  The  ordinary  executive  func¬ 
tions  are  vested  in  the  director;  the  ordinary  legislative  power  in  the  council, 


HISTOBY  OF  THE  OHIO  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 


159 


which  consists  of  seven  members.  The  superintendent  of  instruction  is  appointed 
by  the  director  and  confirmed  by  the  council;  he  is  removable  by  the  director, 
under  certain  conditions.  The  appointment  and  removal  of  teachers  is  vested  in 
the  superintendent,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  council. 

The  Toledo  law  created  a  board  of  education,  consisting  of  five  members. 
These  are  chosen  by  popular  election.  The  superintendent  of  instruction  is  the 
appointee  of  this  body.  He  himself  appoints  and  removes  teachers,  subject  to 
approval  by  the  board  of  education.  The  board  appoints  also  a  business  manager 
to  be  its  executive  agent. 

The  Cincinnati  system  still  retains  ward  representation  as  the  principle  upon 
which  its  board  of  education  is  constituted.  That  body,  after  readjustment  by 
the  acts  of  1887,  1894,  and  1896,  consists  of  one  member  from  each  ward,  elected 
for  a  term  of  three  years.  The  nomination  of  teachers  was  vested  in  the  super¬ 
intendent  of  instruction  by  the  act  of  March  21,  1887.  The  act  of  April  14,  1896, 
developed  an  appointment  schedule,  which  that  officer  is  obliged  to  follow. 
Hereby  a  teacher  after  a  service  of  five  years  in  the  high  school,  or  seven  years  in  the 
elementary  grades,  is  secure  against  removal  except  for  specified  causes.  The 
same  act  created  also  the  teachers’  pension  fund,  with  accompanying  provisions 
for  the  retirement  of  teachers.  The  pensioning  system  was  modified  in  detail  by 
the  act  of  April  16,  1900.  The  fund  is  at  present  maintained  by  deducting  $2  a 
month  from  the  salary  paid  to  every  teacher  in  the  schools  and  by  donations. 
Teachers  may  be  retired  on  account  of  physical  or  mental  disability  after  twenty 
years  of  service,  fifteen  of  which  must  have  been  rendered  to  the  schools  of  the 
city  or,  at  least,  the  county.  Such  retirement  must  be  sanctioned  by  vote  of  the 
board  of  education.  After  thirty  years  of  service,  fifteen  of  which  have  been 
rendered  to  the  city  or  county,  a  teacher  may  retire  at  will.  Beneficiaries  of  the 
teachers’  pension  fund  must  have  contributed  to  that  fund  a  sum  equal  to  $20  for 
each  year  of  service,  but  the  total  contribution  is  never  to  exceed  $600.  The 
amount  of  pension  paid  is  $10  annually  for  every  year  of  service  rendered,  but  in 
no  case  can  it  exceed  $500  a  year.  In  1896,  April  27,  the  law  created  a  school¬ 
teachers’  pension  system  for  Toledo,  and  on  April  10,  1900,  the  same  thing  was 
done  for  Cleveland. 

The  school  law  as  unified  in  1878  can  be  identified  in  the  statute  book,  as  it  reads 
to-day,  only  with  difficulty ,  it  has  been  added  to  or  subtracted  from  in  so  many  parts. 
As  was  the  case  in  the  fifties  and  sixties,  its  most  progressive  portions  are  special 
systems.  It  has  already  been  seen  how  the  centralized  administration  and  large 
privileges  that  were  granted  to  special  cities  and  towns  at  the  middle  of  the  century 
came  within  a  few  years  to  be  the  rule  for  those  classes  of  districts.  It  remains  to 
be  seen  whether  the  special  laws  of  the  close  of  the  century  are  going  to  remain 
only  an  excrescence  upon  the  general  system.  Are  nonpolitical  school  boards,  a 
larger  element  of  one-man  power  with  its  fixed  responsibility,  security  of  tenure 
for  teachers,  etc.,  going  to  become  regular  features  of  the  system?  In  the  light  of 
such  facts  as  the  provision  for  centralized  rural  schools  and  additional  special 
legislation  for  city  schools,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  general  assembly  of  1900  did 
not  complete  the  story  of  the  Ohio  school  laws,  but  left  it  involved  in  new  issues 
of  the  greatest  import  that  must  yet  be  worked  out. 


CHAPTER  III. 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  TRANSPORTATION  OF 

PUPILS.1 


Contents:  A  visit  to  the  centralized  schools  of  Ohio  —Consolidation  of  schools  and  conveyance 
of  children  in  Massachusetts — Transportation  of  pupils  in  Indiana — An  inquiry  regarding  con¬ 
veyance  of  children  in  New  Hampshire. — Transportation  of  pupils  in  Nebraska. 


A  VISIT  TO  THE  CENTRALIZED  SCHOOLS  OF  OHIO. 

[From  a  report  made  by  O.  J.  Kern,  superintendent  of  Winnebago  County  (Ill.)  schools, 

December,  1900.] 

In  company  with  State  Superintendent  Bayliss  and  Supervisor  Black,  of  Owen, 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  education  of  the  Winnebago  County  board,  I  had 
the  great  pleasure  of  visiting  the  centralized  schools  of  northeastern  Ohio  in 
October  last.  It  was  an  extremely  interesting  and  profitable  trip.  So  numerous 
have  been  the  inquiries  for  information  concerning  the  improved  system  for  dis¬ 
trict  schools  in  Ohio  that  as  a  result  this  report  is  given  in  pamphlet  form,  in  the 
hope  that  what  is  herein  described  of  our  visit  to  Ohio  may  lead  to  better  things 
for  Illinois.  *  *  * 

The  first  place  we  visited  was  Perry,  Lake  County,  where  there  is  a  township 
high  school.  The  principal,  Professor  Morrison,  is  a  pioneer  in  the  matter  of  cen¬ 
tralization.  He  assured  us  that  the  experiment  was  no  longer  an  experiment; 
that  the  new  movement  was  the  logical  solution  of  the  country  school  problem, 
and  that  centralization  of  districts  with  transportation  of  pupils  had  come  to 
stay.  It  gave  much  better  schools  with  but  a  slight,  if  any,  increase  in  the  cost 
to  the  township.  The  opposition  to  the  plan  has  long  since  died  out.  This  has 
been  the  testimony  at  every  place  visited  thus  far.  At  this  particular  place,  how¬ 
ever,  there  was  only  one  wagon  drawing  children.  So  we  drove  on  to  North 
Madison,  in  Madison  Township,  where  three  wagons  are  used.  On  our  way  there 
we  saw  the  first  wagon.  We  stopped  at  the  farmhouse  and  talked  with  the 
driver.  He  carried  all  the  children  from  one  district,  about  twenty  in  number. 
His  route  was  5  miles  long.  That  is  to  say,  starting  at  the  first  home  to  pick  up 
a  child  until  he  arrived  at  the  central  school  was  5  miles. 

Then  he  drove  back  home  after  delivering  the  children,  thus  covering  10  miles  in 
the  morning.  Of  course  he  traveled  the  same  ground  after  school,  thus  making 
20  miles  in  all.  He  got  $1.20  a  day  for  his  work.  We  asked  him  if  he  made  any 
money  at  it.  He  said  he  did,  as  he  was  working  a  small  farm  that  did  not  require 
all  the  time  and  labor  of  himself  and  team.  We  asked  him  if  he  had  any  trouble 
with  the  children  and  he  replied  none.  He  said  he  was  employed  by  the  township 

aFor  other  information  upon  this  subject  in  the  Bureau’s  Reports,  see  Rep.  1894-95,  Yol.  2,  pp. 
1469-1482;  1895-96,  Vol.  2,  pp.  1353-1358:  1898-99,  Yol.  1,  pp.  526-529;  1899-1900,  Vol.  2,  pp.  2581-2584. 

ED  1901 - 11 


161 


162 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


board  of  education,  who  put  him  under  bond  to  be  careful  with  the  children;  to 
have  a  safe  team;  to  provide  a  suitable  wagon,  covered  and  provided  with  cur¬ 
tains,  and  containing  soapstones  and  lap  robes  for  the  severest  weather.  We  asked 
what  objections  the  parents  along  the  route  had  to  the  new  plan.  His  reply  was 
that  the  only  objection  was  on  the  part  of  two  or  three  at  the  beginning  of  the  route, 
as  they  had  to  get  their  children  ready  somewhat  earlier  than  they  used  to  when 
they  went  to  the  district  school.  Of  course  the  children  must  be  ready  when  the 
wagon  came.  He  aimed  to  start  at  7.30  and  arrive  at  the  building  not  later  than 
8.45.  Thus  there  were  no  children  tardy;  none  came  with  wet  feet  or  clothing;  the 
attendance  was  greatly  increased  and  much  more  regular.  The  driver  believed 
the  movement  had  come  to  stay;  that  the  people  would  not  consent  to  go  back  to 
the  old  way.  A  short  distance  on  toward  the  centralized  school  we  had  a  very 
interesting  conversation  with  Mr.  Fuller,  a  member  of  the  township  board  of 
education.  Mr.  Fuller  is  a  public  spirited,  prosperous  farmer,  and  believed  in 
giving  the  county  children  the  best  educational  advantages  possible.  And  while 
the  new  plan  did  not  materially  increase  the  cost,  yet  the  amount  of  taxes  was  not 
the  first  consideration.  He  had  four  boys.  One  was  at  home  on  the  farm;  another 
was  in  Delaware  University;  a  third  was  in  school  in  Cleveland,  while  the  fourth 
was  in  business  in  Cleveland.  His  girls  were  in  the  centralized  school.  He  knew 
the  value  of  the  new  plan  and  was  sure  the  people  would  not  go  back  to  the  old 
method.  The  opposition  had  long  since  died  out,  and  the  bitterest  opponents  three 
or  four  years  ago  are  now  the  most  enthusiastic  supporters.  They  have  seen  the 
value  of  a  well-graded  school,  with  good  teachers,  over  an  ungraded  one,  with 
ofttimes  indifferent  teachers.  We  visited  the  sclioolhouse  during  the  noon  hour 
and  did  not  have  time  to  see  the  school  in  operation.  We  next  drove  to  Union  - 
ville,  and  had  a  pleasant  visit  at  a  two-room  school.  The  children  were  fine  speci¬ 
mens  of  the  American  public  school.  The  principal,  Mr.  Adams,  was  township 
superintendent  for  Madison  Township,  and  has  had  considerable  experience  with 
centralized  schools.  His  testimony  as  to  the  value  of  the  new  system  over  the  old 
and  his  belief  in  the  permanence  of  the  movement  was  stronger  if  anything  than 
that  which  we  had  heard  at  Perry  and  North  Madison.  The  cost  had  not  been 
increased. 

We  next  visited  Kingsville,  in  Ashtabula  County,  401  miles  east  of  Chicago. 
This  was  our  farthest  point  east.  Kingsville  is  a  small  village  with  a  township 
high  school.  To  this  school  are  brought  all  the  children  of  the  township,  with  the 
exception  of  two  districts.  Four  wagons  are  used,  at  a  cost  of  $20,  $25,  $24,  and  $28 
per  month,  respectively,  for  a  month  of  twenty  days.  The  school  year  is  nine 
months.  Five  teachers  are  employed  in  the  building.  The  testimony  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  of  the  school,  the  town  clerk,  and  Mr.  Kinneer,  of  the  board  of  education, 
was  that  there  was  an  actual  saving  in  the  total  cost  to  the  township  under  the 
new  plan;  and  while  money  was  expended  for  transportation  of  pupils  it  was 
more  than  saved  in  the  fewer  number  of  schools  operated.  And  as  to  the  increased 
efficiency  of  the  new  centralized  school  over  the  scattered  schools,  that  was 
beyond  a  question  of  doubt. 

It  was  here  that  the  Ohio  plan  of  centralization  had  its  origin  in  1892.  The  erec¬ 
tion  of  a  new  building  in  one  of  the  districts  of  Kingsville  Township  brought  up 
the  question  whether  or  not  it  would  be  better  to  abandon  the  school  in  that  dis¬ 
trict  and  take  the  children  to  the  village  school  at  the  general  expense.  In  this 
first  case  of  consolidation  in  Ohio  the  schools  were  centralized  at  the  village  school, 
a  village  situated  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  railroad.  The  results,  educa¬ 
tionally,  in  the  small  districts  were  far  from  satisfactory.  In  order  to  consolidate 
and  transport  children  at  public  expense,  special  legislation  was  necessary.  So 
the  Ohio  legislature  passed  the  following  bill  April  17,  1894: 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  general  assembly  of  Ohio,  That  any  board  of 
education  in  any  township  which,  by  the  census  of  1890,  had  a  population  not  less 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


163 


than  1,710  or  more  than  1,715;  of  any  county  which,  by  the  same  census,  had  not 
less  than  43,650  nor  more  than  43,660  inhabitants,  may,  at  their  discretion,  appro¬ 
priate  funds  derived  from  the  school-tax  levy  of  said  township  for  the  conveyance 
of  pupils  in  subdistricts  from  their  homes  to  the  higli-school  building  of  such  town¬ 
ship:  Provided,  Such  appropriation  lor  any  subdistrict  shall  not  exceed  the  amount 
necessary,  in  the  judgment  of  the  board,  for  the  maintenance  of  a  teacher  in  such 
subdistrict  for  the  same  period  of  time. 

The  Kingsville  plan  proved  such  a  success  that  on  April  27, 1896,  the  Ohio  legis¬ 
lature  passed  a  bill  for  the  relief  of  the  counties  of  Stark,  Ashtabula,  and  Portage, 
which  provided  that  the  board  of  education  of  any  township  of  those  counties  mayj 
“when  in  its  opinion  it  will  be  for  the  best  interest  of  the  pupils  in  any  subdistrict, 
suspend  the  school  in  such  subdistrict  and  provide  for  the  conveyance  of  said  pupils 
to  such  other  district  or  districts  as  may  be  convenient  for  them;  the  cost  of  such 
conveyance  to  be  paid  out  of  the  contingent  fund  of  said  district:  Provided,  The 
board  of  any  special  school  district  in  any  county  mentioned  above  may  provide 
for  the  conveyance  of  pupils  out  of  the  contingent  funds,  the  same  as  townships 
aforesaid.” 

Since  then  a  general  law  has  been  enacted  permitting  the  people  of  any  town¬ 
ship  at  the  annual  town  election  to  vote  “yes”  or  “no”  on  the  proposition  to 
centralize  the  schools  of  that  township,  i.e.,  to  abandon  the  small  districts  and 
transport  the  children  at  public  expense  to  the  central  school.  Such,  in  brief,  is 
the  history  of  the  legislation.  And  as  to  the  result  of  the  Kingsville  experiment 
I  can  do  no  better  than  to  quote  from  the  Arena  for  July,  1899. 1  It  was  a  beautiful 
day  in  October,  1900,  that  we  visited  Kingsville,  and  our  inspection  of  the  school, 
our  conversation  with  the  teachers  and  school  officers,  our  seeing  the  children 
loaded  into  wagons  and  driven  to  their  homes,  made  a  deep  impression  on  me  at 
least.  But  the  quotation: 

The  residents  of  the  subdistricts  of  Kingsville  Township  which  have  adopted 
this  plan  would  deem  it  a  retrogression  to  go  back  to  the  old  subdistrict  plan.  It 
has  given  the  school  system  of  Kingsville  an  individuality  which  makes  it  unique 
and  progressive.  Pupils  from  every  part  of  the  township  enjoy  a  graded  school 
education,  whether  they  live  in  the  most  remote  corner  of  the  township  or  at  the 
very  doors  of  the  central  school.  The  line  between  the  country-bred  and  the 
village-bred  youth  is  blotted  out.  They  study  the  same  books,  are  competitors  for 
the  same  honors,  and  engage  in  the  same  sports  and  pastimes.  This  mingling  of 
the  pupils  from  the  subdistricts  and  the  village  has  had  a  deepening  and  broaden¬ 
ing  influence  on  the  former  without  any  disadvantage  to  the  latter.  With  the 
grading  of  the  school  and  the  larger  number  of  pupils  have  come  teachers  of  a 
more  highly  educated  class.  Higher  branches  of  study  are  taught;  the  teachers 
are  more  conversant  with  the  needs  of  their  profession;  the  salaries  are  higher; 
the  health  of  the  pupils  is  preserved,  because  they  are  not  compelled  to  walk  to 
school  in  slush,  snow,  and  rain,  to  sit  with  damp  and  perhaps  wet  feet  in  ill- 
ventilated  buildings.  Nor  is  there  any  lounging  by  the  wayside.  As  the  use  of 
indecent  and  obscene  language  is  prohibited  in  the  wagons,  all  opportunities  for 
quarreling  or  improper  conduct  on  the  way  to  and  from  the  scho  1  are  removed. 
The  attendance  is  larger,  and  in  the  subdistricts  which  have  taken  advantage  of  the 
plan  it  has  increased  from  50  to  150  per  cent  in  some  cases;  truancy  is  unknown. 
It  has  lengthened  the  school  year  for  a  number  of  the  subdistricts;  it  has  increased 
the  demands  for  farms  in  those  subdistricts  which  have  adopted  the  plan,  and  real 
estate  therein  is  reported  more  salable.  The  drivers  act  as  daily  mail  carriers. 
All  part3  of  the  township  have  been  brought  into  closer  touch  and  sympathy.  The 
cost  of  maintenance  is  less  than  that  of  the  schools  under  the  subdistrict  plan;  the 
township  has  had  no  schoolhouses  to  build;  it  has  paid  less  for  repair  and  fuel. 
Since  the  schools  were  consolidated  the  incidental  expenses  have  decreased  from 
$800  to  $1,100  per  year  to  from  $400  to  $600  per  year.  In  the  first  three  years 
following  its  adoption  Kingsville  Township  actually  saved  $1,000. 

We  left  Kingsville  feeling  that  we  had  traveled  nearly  500  miles  to  a  good 
purpose.  Before  leaving  we  had  an  amateur  photographer  take  snapshots  of  the 
wagons,  children,  school  building,  and  ourselves  (See  plate  No.  1.) 


1  The  article  in  the  Arena  referred  to  was  reprinted  in  the  Bureau’s  Report  for  1898-99,  Yol.  L, 
pp.  526-529. 


164 


Plate  No.  1.— Central  school  building,  Kingsville,  Ashtabula  County,  Ohio. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


165 


The  schools  we  visited  in  Lake  and  Ashtabula  counties  were  village  schools 
with  the  children  brought  to  these  villages  from  the  outlying  districts.  In  each 
case  there  was  a  saving  of  expense.  Superintendent  J.  R.  Adams,  of  Madison 
Township,  Lake  County,  whose  school  we  visited,  says  that  “under  the  new 
plan  the  cost  of  tuition  per  pupil,  on  the  basis  of  total  enrollment,  has  been 
reduced  from  $16  to  $10.48;  on  the  basis  of  average  daily  attendance,  from  $26.66 
to  $16.07.  The  total  expense  will  be  about  the  same  in  this  district  as  under  the 
old  plan,  but  the  cost  per  pupil  will  be  much  less.”  This  is  easily  explained  when 
one  understands  that  the  school  attendance  has  increased  from  217  to  300  pupils 
since  consolidation  has  been  effected. 

But  we  wished  to  find  centralized  schools  in  a  purely  country  township,  where 
there  was  no  village  or  village  school,  a  place  where  country  life  was  being  pre¬ 
served.  We  went  35  miles  south  from  Ashtabula  and  visited  Gustavus  and  Green 
townships  in  Trumbull  County.  The  first  place  visited  was  Gustavus.  This 
township  is  exactly  5  miles  square,  as  are  all  the  townships  of  the  Western 
Reserve  with  the  exception  of  those  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  In  Gustavus 
Township  the  town  hall  is  situated  exactly  in  the  center  of  the  township,  as  is 
the  case  in  Green  Township.  Here  was  a  church,  the  post-office,  a  country  store, 
and  a  few  houses. 

I  had  a  picture  of  the  centralized  school  of  Gustavus  Township  and  was  anx¬ 
ious  to  see  the  real  thing.  We  saw  it  and  all  was  as  represented.  The  school 
building  is  located  in  the  center  of  the  township.  The  school  has  been  in  opera¬ 
tion  two  years.  It  is  a  four-room  school,  having  a  principal  and  three  assistants. 
All  the  children  of  the  township  are  brought  to  this  central  school  and  nine 
wagons  are  employed  in  the  transportation.  (See  Plate  No.  2.) 

The  wagons  are  provided  with  curtains,  lap  robes,  soapstones,  etc.,  for  severe 
weather.  The  board  of  education  exercise  as  much  care  in  the  selection  of  drivers 
as  they  do  in  teachers.  The  contract  for  each  route  is  let  out  to  the  lowest 
responsible  bidder,  who  is  under  bond  to  fulfill  his  obligations.  The  drivers  are 
required  to  have  the  children  on  the  school  grounds  at  8.45  a.  m. .  which  does  away 
with  tardiness,  and  to  leave  for  home  at  3.45  p,  m.  The  wagons  call  at  every 
farmhouse  where  there  are  school  children,  the  children  thus  stepping  into  the 
wagons  at  the  roadside  and  are  set  down  upon  the  school  grounds.  There  is  no 
tramping  through  the  snow  and  mud  and  the  attendance  is  much  increased  and 
far  more  regular.  With  the  children  under  the  control  of  a  responsible  driver, 
there  is  no  opportunity  for  vicious  conversation  or  the  terrorizing  of  the  little 
ones  by  some  bully  as  they  trudge  homeward  through  the  snow  and  mud  from 
the  district  school.  The  accompanying  diagram  (p.  167)  is  self-explanatory. 

The  average  price  per  day  per  wagon  is  $1.25  and  the  length  of  the  longest  route 
is  4f  miles. 

During  the  school  year  1898-99  there  were  enrolled  in  the  grades  below  the 
high  school  82  boys  and  52  girls;  in  the  high-school  room  17  boys  and  35  girls; 
making  a  total  in  the  building  of  186  pupils.  The  average  monthly  enrollment 
for  the  entire  school  the  past  year  was  163,  while  the  average  daily  attendance  was 
77.4  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment.  This  is  a  fact  of  great  significance.  The 
children  are  regular  and  are  getting  the  benefit  of  such  a  course. 

Keep  in  mind  that  this  school  is  not  in  a  village  and  the  children  are  scattered 
over  25  square  miles  of  territory.  The  children  are  not  tardy.  How  do  they  do 
it?  you  ask.  Well,  they  do  it  and  that  is  enough  for  me.  Anyone  who  stands  in 
that  building,  looks  at  those  children  and  wagons,  must  be  convinced  that  here  is 
the  solution  of  the  country -school  problem,  because  this  problem  is  being  solved 
in  the  country  over  6  miles  from  the  nearest  railroad.  There  is  an  organ  in  every 
room  and  the  walls  are  being  decorated  with  pictures.  They  have  started  a 
library.  In  the  high-school  room  were  52  enrolled,  with  50  present.  Here  was 
an  opportunity  for  the  big  boys  on  the  farm  to  get  higher  education  and  still  be 


166 


Plate  !No.  2.-  Wagons  used  in  the  transportation  of  children,  Gustavus  Township,  Trumbull  County,  Ohio. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


167 


at  home  evenings  secure  from  the  temptations  and  dissipations  of  city  life.  They 
rode  home  in  the  wagons  with  the  children  of  the  lower  rooms  and  thus  were  able 
to  be  of  service  on  the  farm. 


•  r  Farm  house ,  no  children ,  B  -  Abandoned  school.  - »  =  Direction  of  routes. 

x  =  Farm  house,  with  children.  H\-Centra!  school .  *  =  Starting  of  routes. 


Diagram  of  Gustavus  Township,  Trumbull  County,  Ohio,  showing  transportation  routes. 

The  building  is  a  frame  structure  erected  at  a  cost  of  $3,000.  It  is  heated  by 
steam.  The  principal  gets  $80  per  month,  while  his  assistants  each  receive  $27.50. 
The  wages  of  the  assistants  should  be  larger.  The  drivers  receive,  respectively, 
$22,  $30,  $18,  $25,  $30,  $32,  $16,  $30,  and  $17  per  month,  making  an  average  of  $1.25 
per  day.  Before  the  adoption  of  the  centralization  the  average  daily  attendance 
was  125  pupils.  It  has  increased  to  144  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  and  the 
principal  told  us  the  attendance  is  increasing  all  the  time.  Before  the  schools 
were  centralized  the  cost  for  the  entire  township  was  $2,900.  Now  it  is  $3,156, 
being  an  increase  of  only  $256  annually.  And  as  to  the  character  of  the  school, 
who  will  claim  that  the  nine  scattered  schools  were  doing  the  work  of  a  well- 
graded  four-room  school?  There  is  absolutely  no  comparison.  In  order  to  keep 
up  the  school  and  pay  off  the  school  bonds  the  township  board  of  education  made 
a  levy  of  9  mills  on  a  valuation  of  $373,000.  There  was  opposition  to  the  plan  at 
first.  The  people  who  were  opposed  simply  took  the  ground  that  the  thing  had 
not  been  done  and  therefore  could  not  be  done— just  as  there  are  always  people 
opposed  to  any  progress.  When  I  was  a  boy  sensible  people  said  a  man  was  a 


168 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


fool  to  think  about  binding  grain  by  machinery.  They  were  not  ignorant;  they 
were  simply  mistaken.  So  those  who  were  opposed  to  centralization  of  schools 
frankly  acknowledge  their  mistake  and  are  found  among  the  staunchest  sup¬ 
porters.  We  have  found  this  true  at  every  place  we  have  visited. 

A  special  committee  was  sent  from  an  adjoining  county  to  investigate  the  Gus- 
tavus  school.  The  committee  was  composed  of  one  person  opposed  to  the  system 
and  one  in  favor.  They  traveled  over  the  township  and  talked  with  the  people, 
as  we  did.  In  their  report,  out  of  54  families  interviewed,  only  one  person  with 
children  was  opposed;  seven  of  those  in  favor  were  formerly  strongly  opposed, 
while  none  that  were  at  first  in  favor  of  the  system  are  now  opposed.  The  same 
committee  adds:  “Although  the  system  costs  a  little  more  (the  belief  is  that  it  is 
cheaper  after  building  is  paid  for)  yet  the  people  as  a  whole  are  highly  pleased, 
and  are  very  enthusiastic  and  proud  of  their  schools.  Several  of  the  neighbor¬ 
ing  townships,  after  carefully  watching  the  system,  have  decided  to  centralize, 
and  the  growing  opinion  is  that  centralization  is  in  harmony  with  educational 
progress.  ” 

The  committee  s  report  is  certainly  correct.  Bear  in  mind  the  roads  in  this 
township  are  but  a  trifle,  if  anj7,  better  than  the  average  of  Winnebago  County. 
In  fact,  two  or  three  townships  of  our  county  have,  as  a  whole,  better  roads.  The 
people  are  simply  determined  to  have  better  schools,  and  will  not  allow  obstacles 
to  remain  in  the  way  of  their  children’s  fullest  and  freest  development,  even  if  it 
does  cost  a  few  hundred  dollars  more  per  year  for  the  entire  township.  W  hat 
would  $1,000  more  per  year  on  the  $373,000  valuation  of  Gustavus  Township 
amount  to?  The  average  taxpayer  would  not  know  it.  The  testimony  has  been, 
that  after  the  new  school  building  has  been  paid  for,  there  is  an  actual  saving  per 
capita  of  children  of  school  age  in  the  township.  Then  think  of  the  superior  value 
of  the  new  school  over  the  old.  It  can  not  be  a  question  of  a  few  hundred  dollars. 

While  we  were  at  the  Gustavus  school  the  principal  advised  us  to  drive  5  miles 
to  the  west  into  Green  Township,  where  the  people  had  centralized  and  put  up  a 
fine  new  brick  building  at  a  cost  of  over  $8,000.  The  people  of  Green  Township 
had  watched  the  school  in  Gustavus  Township  for  two  years  and  believed  so 
thoroughly  in  the  new  plan  that  at  the  last  April  election  they  voted  to  centralize 
and  bond  the  township  for  a  long  term  to  erect  a  new  building.  The  vote  was  over¬ 
whelmingly  in  favor  of  the  new  school.  We  drove  west  to  the  center  of  Green 
Township,  which  is  5  miles  square.  This  township  is  11  miles  from  one  railroad 
and  6  miles  from  another.  So  it  is  distinctively  rural.  To  be  sure,  there  is  the 
townhall,  a  post-office,  a  church  or  two,  a  country  store,  and  a  few  dwellings. 
That  is  New  England  brought  to  the  Western  Reserve.  We  all  were  enthusiastic 
over  this  building  for  country  children.  We  never  saw  the  like  before  in  the 
country,  to  take  the  place  of  miserable  box-car,  1-room  structures.  And  the  pos¬ 
sibilities  of  such  a  school,  who  can  measure  it?  (See  plate  3. ) 

This  building  stands  in  the  center  of  the  township  in  a  community  distinctively 
country.  There  is  no  village,  beyond  a  store  and  post-office,  a  townhall,  a  church 
or  two,  and  a  few*  dwellings.  It  is  11  miles  from  one  railroad  and  6  miles  from 
another.  It  was  built  in  1900,  at  a  cost  of  $6,000.  There  are  6  schoolrooms,  with 
2  additional,  1  of  which  may  serve  as  a  library  room  and  the  other  as  an  office 
and  reception  room  There  is  a  basement  under  the  entire  building,  part  of  which 
may  be  utilized  for  laboratory  and  gymnasium.  The  building  is  heated  by  steam. 

To  this  building  are  brought  all  the  children  of  the  entire  township.  The  edu¬ 
cational  influence  of  a  building  over  that  of  eight  or  nine  widely  scattered  neg¬ 
lected  district  buildings  is  beyond  controversy,  to  say  nothing  of  the  sanitary 
improvement  in  the  way  of  seating,  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation.  Such  a 
building  may  be  had  in  hundreds  of  townships  of  Illinois.  It  would  not  be  a  bur¬ 
den  to  the  taxpayers  of  any  township  of  W innebago  County.  Bonds  could  be  issued 
for  thirty  years'  time;  money  could  be  borrowed  at  4  per  cent.  The  annual  inter- 


169 


Plate  No.  3. — Central  School,  Green  Township,  Trumbull  County,  Ohio. 


170 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


est  on  $6,000  at  4  per  cent  would  be  $240,  an  amount  no  larger  than  the  repairs  on 
seven  or  eight  district  schoolhouses  from  year  to  year  if  kept  up  as  they  should  be. 
One-thirtieth  of  the  principal ,  or  $200,  plus  the  annual  interest,  $240,  would  make  a 
total  cost  of  $440  for  building  purposes  for  the  first  year,  decreasing  every  year  after¬ 
wards  as  bonds  are  paid  off.  The  total  valuation  of  Owen  Township,  according  to  the 
Winnebago  County  board  of  review  for  1900,  is,  real  estate,  $253,622,  and  personal, 
$310,038,  making  a  total  valuation  of  $563,660.  An  annual  tax  of  $440  for  such  a 
central  building  as  here  shown,  on  a  valuation  such  as  the  township  of  Owen  has,  is 
cheaper  in  the  long  run  than  under  the  present  plan. 

They  began  this  school  in  September  last.  The  enrollment  is  180  over  150  of  last 
year  in  the  scattered  schools.  Four  teachers  are  employed.  All  the  children  of 
the  township  are  brought  to  the  school  and  eight  wagons  are  employed  in  the 
transportation.  The  campus  has  about  three  acres.  Shade  trees,  school  decora¬ 
tion,  library,  etc.,  will  come.  How  that  school  can  be  made  the  social,  literary, 
and  musical  center  of  the  entire  township.  What  an  inspiration  it  must  be  to  a 
corps  of  teachers  to  work  in  such  a  community  as  that. 

In  the  primary  room  were  all  the  little  ones  of  the  entire  township  in  a  beauti¬ 
ful  room,  while  in  the  high-school  room  were  many  large  farmer  boys  getting  an 
education  they  could  not  otherwise  obtain.  On  the  playground  all  the  big  boys  of 
the  township  play  baseball.  Think  what  it  is  to  get  all  the  boys  of  a  township, 
country  boys,  I  mean,  on  one  playground.  There  will  grow  up  a  unity.  Each 
boy,  having  studied  and  played  with  other  boys  of  the  entire  township,  will  be 
stronger  for  it.  When  the  football  team  or  baseball  team  or  literary  contests  of 
Green  Township  compete  with  Gustavus  Township  on  athletic  ground  or  in  town- 
hall,  each  team  will  have  the  backing  of  an  enthusiastic  township.  In  a  great 
many  districts  there  are  hardly  enough  boys  to  play  “two-cornered  cat.”  Can 
you  wonder  that  children  get  tired  of  district  school  after  a  certain  age?  I  am 
not  sure  that  I  have  yet  grasped  the  full  significance  of  what  we  saw  here.  If  that 
is  good  for  Ohio  boys,  why  not  the  same  for  Illinois? 

The  day  spent  at  Gustavus  and  Green  Township  schools  was  by  far  the  best  one 
in  the  Western  Reserve.  As  far  as  educational  matters  are  concerned,  it  was  far 
ahead  of  anything  I  had  ever  seen. 

We  returned  to  Ashtabula  fully  realizing  that  it  was  a  good  day,  well  worth 
our  coming  nearly  500  miles.  Superintendent  Bayliss  and  Mr.  Black  returned 
home  from  here.  I  paid  a  visit  to  Thompson  Center,  Geauga  County.  They  did 
not  have  centralization,  but  the  special  district  plan,  a  modification.  It  is  not 
so  good  as  centralization,  but  much  better  than  the  old  way.  They  now  wish  they 
had  complete  centralization  as  in  other  townships,  but  the  special  district  plan 
was  the  best  they  could  do  then.  Certain  sections  of  the  township  were  jealous 
of  the  other,  and  after  the  most  determined  opposition  those  in  favor  of  better 
schools  at  last,  by  a  decree  of  the  probate  court,  succeeded  in  getting  two  districts 
consolidated.  A  new  schoolhouse  was  built,  a  graded  school  was  organized  with 
three  teachers,  and  the  children  transported  themselves.  Now  instead  of  nine 
small  schools  there  are  five  on  the  special  district  plan.  They  expect  to  reduce 
the  number. 

On  my  return  from  Thompson  Center  I  stopped  at  a  district  schoolhouse  where 
the  school  had  not  yet  been  centralized.  It  was  a  small  building,  with  no  shade 
trees  in  the  yard.  On  entering  the  house  I  found  a  teacher  and  four  pupils. 
There  were  no  more  in  the  district.  I  asked  the  teacher  wh:  this  school  was  not 
centralized.  She  replied  that  it  would  be  next  year.  The  teacher  was  getting  $30 
a  month  to  teach  four  pupils.  She  said  that  for  the  same  money  she  would  rather 
teach  a  room  of  30  pupils  in  a  graded  school  than  to  teach  the  four  she  had. 
Besides  the  possibility  in  the  way  of  enrichment  of  country  life  which  the  cen¬ 
tralized  school  promises,  it  also  will  bring  better  roads. 


School  building  district  No.  6,  Durand  Township,  Winnebago  County,  Ill.  Erected  1899.  School 
directors:  Messrs.  Niles  Patterson,  Alfred  Orth,  and  A.  W.  Goodrich. 


171 


172 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


At  the  Green  Township  central  school,  where  the  new  $6,000. brick  building  has 
been  erected,  I  asked  a  high  school  class  how  the  roads  were  when  they  were  bad. 
A  young  lady  said  they  were  real  bad.  while  a  young  man  said  they  sometimes 
found  it  necessary  to  put  four  horses  to  the  wagon.  The  principal  said  the  people 
were  preparing  to  improve  the  principal  roads  over  which  the  wagons  ran.  Thus 
better  schools  bring  better  roads.  *  *  * 

ADDENDUM. 

This  new  school  building  (p.  171)  was  erected  in  1899  at  a  cost  of  $900.  It  is  the 
best  district  school  building  in  Winnebago  County.  Readers  of  this  pamphlet  are 
requested  to  contrast  the  above  building  with  the  central  school  building  of  Green 
Township,  which  represents  the  best  of  the  new  system  in  Ohio.  The  two  build¬ 
ings  furnish  some  idea  of  the  comparative  cost  of  the  two  systems  as  far  as  build¬ 
ings  are  concerned.  Eight  district  school  buildings,  at  $900  apiece,  is  a  total  cost 
of  $7,200.  The  one  in  Green  Township  cost  $6,000.  The  new  building  in  district 
No.  6  has  a  basement  under  the  entire  building  and  is  heated  with  a  furnace. 
The  furnace  cost  $75.  Such  a  furnace  (from  personal  observation)  will  easily 
heat  a  small  dwelling  of  four  rooms,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  it  could  heat  three 
schoolrooms  of  the  size  of  the  above  building  if  properly  arranged.  It  does  not 
require  very  much  calculation  to  prove  that  one  large  furnace  in  a  central  build¬ 
ing  is  cheaper  than  furnaces  or  stoves  in  eight  different  buildings.  Then  the 
directors  of  district  No.  6  were  compelled  to  sink  a  well,  at  the  cost  of  $110.  Now, 
one  well  at  a  central  building  is  cheaper  than  a  well  at  each  of  eight  different 
buildings.  And  so  on  for  many  other  items  of  expense.  The  above  figures  are 
facts  and  must  appeal  to  every  taxpayer.  Please  contrast  the  best  of  the  old  sys¬ 
tem  with  the  best  of  the  new  as  far  as  material  equipment  is  concerned.  A  fair- 
minded  person  must  come  to  the  conclusion  that  centralization  is  the  best  system 
in  every  respect. 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  CONVEYANCE  OF  CHILDREN. 

[Report  made  by  G.  T.  Fletcher,  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  State  board  of  education.1] 

District  schools  fifty  years  ago. — The  question  of  the  consolidation  of  schools 
has  for  many  years  received  the  attention  of  educators.  Conditions  pertaining  to 
changes  in  the  population  and  the  wealth  of  communities,  as  well  as  the  increasing 
educational  demands  of  the  times,  have  rendered  necessary  a  certain  centralization 
of  forces  for  economy  and  efficiency  in  school  work.  Fifty  years  ago  a  large  per¬ 
centage  of  the  people  of  Massachusetts  belonged  to  the  “original  stock”  and 
lived  in  country  towns.  District  schools  were  numerous  and  large.  Seldom  did 
a  school  register  less  than  25  pupils;  not  infrequently  75  were  enrolled  during  the 
winter  term,  ranging  in  age  from  4  years  to  21.  An  attendance  of  40  or  50  pupils 
was  a  common  occurrence.  Many  of  the  schools  were  taught  in  winter  by  college 
students— often  the  brightest  young  men  from  the  rural  communities,  whose 
example  was  a  stimulus  to  the  boys  of  the  district  to  get  an  education.  In  the 
summer  the  teacher  was  often  a  young  woman  from  the  country  academy,  whose 
scholarship  and  character  were  an  inspiration  to  the  children.  The  district  school 
was  a  center  of  interest  and  influence  in  the  rural  community.  The  range  of 
studies  was  narrow,  but  the  few  branches  then  taught  are  regarded  to-day  as 
fundamental  in  a  broader  system  of  education.  The  independent  thinking  and 
the  individual  doing  of  pupils,  whose  age  gave  maturity  to  mind,  were  educating. 
The  school  was  a  “consolidation”  of  numbers  and  ability  sufficient  for  the  edu- 


62  Mass.  Rep.  (1897-98),  pp.  437-459. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


173 


cational  needs  of  the  times.  Similar  conditions  exist  in  a  few  country  towns  now, 
and  such  schools  may  well  be  nurtured  by  town  and  State  in  the  place  of  their 
native  growth.  A  home  life  of  frugality,  simplicity,  and  industry  is  a  potent 
factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  body  and  mind.  But  there  were  many  poor  schools 
then,  as  there  are  now. 

Changes  that  have  come  to  the  district  schools. — Within  the  last  fifty  years  great 
changes  have  been  wrought  in  social  life  and  conditions.  The  increase  of  popula¬ 
tion  and  wealth  in  centers  of  commerce  and  manufacturing  is  both  a  cause  and  a 
result  of  an  exodus  of  the  farming  population  to  the  cities  and  large  towns. 

In  many  rural  communities  farms  were  abandoned,  or  only  the  “old  folks” 
left  at  home,  to  pass  there  the  remnant  of  their  days,  while  the  farm  constantly 
depreciated  in  value.  The  young,  vigorous  element  of  the  population  left  home 
to  work  in  store  or  factory.  Families  remaining  in  the  “hill  towns,”  or  coming 
to  them,  had  few  children,  and  as  a  result  the  schools  became  small,  the  local 
interest  in  them  often  decreasing  in  the  same  ratio.  These  changes  came  in  differ¬ 
ent  degrees  of  severity  to  different  towns.  Those  most  favorably  situated  for 
farming  purposes  “held  their  own”  to  quite  an  extent,  in  adult  population  and 
wealth,  but  the  number  of  children  constantly  lessened  and  the  schools,  though 
not  generally  reduced  in  number,  were  reduced  greatly  in  attendance.  Occasion¬ 
ally  schools  were  united  to  increase  the  number  of  pupils,  or  a  winter  term  was 
held  at  the  center  of  the  town  for  the  older  pupils  of  all  the  districts.  Just  when 
and  where  consolidation  on  a  small  scale  began  we  can  not  tell.  The  cause  and 
the  fact  of  a  beginning  are  both  evident.  There  came  to  the  people,  slowly  at 
first,  a  realization  that  the  interest,  economy,  and  efficiency  that  had  in  many 
cases  characterized  the  large  schools  of  former  days  were  wanting.  The  struggle 
to  retain  the  same  number  of  schools  as  when  the  adult  population  was  greater, 
the  property  valuation  was  twice  as  large,  and  the  town  had  three  times  as  many 
children  of  school  age  was  as  painfully  evident  then  as  it  is  now.  The  school 
had  been  the  common  center  of  interest,  and  the  thought  of  its  closing  was  a 
shock  to  the  people.  No  wonder  a  deep-seated  feeling  existed,  and  still  continues, 
that  home  interest  and  property  valuation  would  suffer  from  the  discontinuance 
of  the  local  schools.  *  *  * 

Consolidation  as  seen  by  the  State  board  of  education. — In  the  report  of  Agent 
G.  A.  Walton  to  the  State  board  of  education,  in  1889,  consolidation  of  schools  is 
recommended.  In  more  recent  reports  of  the  board  many  facts  and  opinions, 
based  upon  observation  and  upon  information  received  by  the  secretary  and  agents, 
may  be  found.  Some  of  the  reasons  advanced  by  them  for  the  consolidation  of 
schools  and  the  conveyance  of  children  may  be  briefly  stated  in  abridged  form, 
as  follows: 

Diminished  school  population,  rendering  the  schools  small  and  expensive,  mak¬ 
ing  it  difficult  to  secure  competent  teachers  for  the  wages  that  can  be  paid. 

The  cost  in  some  small  schools  of  five  pupils  was  $50  per  pupil,  while  in  schools 
of  25  pupils  the  cost  was  only  $10  per  capita. 

Two  essential  things  must  be  kept  in  view— efficiency  and  economy.  To  secure 
these  there  must  be  comfortable,  convenient  schoolhouses,  necessary  appliances, 
intelligent  teaching,  skilled  supervision,  and  no  more  schools  than  are  needed  for 
the  number  of  pupils. 

In  some  towns  two  or  more  schools  may  be  united,  according  to  convenience  of 
location.  In  others  most  of  the  outlying  schools  can  be  accommodated  at  the 
center  by  transportation  of  pupils. 

In  a  few  towns  of  large  area,  bad  roads,  and  scattered  population,  little  or  no 
combination  can  be  effected.  In  such  cases  the  schools,  small  or  large,  must  have 
such  attention  by  the  town,  and  if  necessary  such  aid  by  the  State,  as  will  make 
them  as  good  as  possible. 

One  of  the  results  that  follow  from  consolidation  is  a  better  grading,  a  better 
classification  of  pupils,  by  placing  them  where  they  can  work  to  the  best  advantage. 

Consolidation  gives  a  better  opportunity  for  special  instruction  in  music,  draw- 


174  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

ing,  and  nature  study,  and  brings  all  the  schools  under  closer  oversight  by  the 
superintendent. 

It  insures  better  school  buildings,  appliances,  and  teaching  force. 

The  money  saved  in  a  small  town  by  reducing  the  number  of  teachers  is  often 
large  enough  to  furnish  better  school  accommodations  to  the  children,  better 
wages  to  better  teachers,  such  transportation  as  consolidation  requires,  and  longer 
schooling. 

Objections  to  consolidation. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that  policies  of  consolida¬ 
tion  are  adopted  without  earnest  discussion.  In  some  cases  the  opposition  has 
been  so  strong  as  to  stave  off  favorable  action  for  years.  Among  the  reasons 
urged  against  consolidation  the  following  may  be  cited: 

Injury  to  the  district  by  removal  of  the  school. 

Risk  to  the  health  of  children  because  of  long  rides  in  cold  and  in  stormy 
weather. 

Association  in  carriages  and  during  the  long  noon  intermission  at  the  schoolhouse. 

Injury  to  health  of  cold  dinners  hastily  eaten. 

Long  absence  of  young  children  from  home. 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  objection  regarding  injury  to  the  property 
valuation  of  the  district  is  a  serious  one.  People  having  children  to  educate  are 
not  slow  to  see  that  educational  advantages  are  not  represented  in  their  fullness 
and  completeness  by  near  schoolhouses.  This  property  objection  is  well  met  in 
the  replies  to  questions  submitted  to  the  towns,  to  which  later  reference  will  be 
made. 

The  objections  to  the  risks  of  conveyance  and  of  the  noon  intermission  are  of 
serious  import,  and  can  be  met  only  by  making  transportation  safe  to  health, 
manners,  and  morals,  as  well  as  comfortable,  and  by  requiring  the  presence  of  a 
teacher  at  the  noon  intermission. 

Are  towns  required  by  law  to  convey  children? — Questions  frequently  come  from 
parents  to  the  secretary  and  agents  of  the  board  as  to  whether  towns  are  required 
by  law  to  convey  their  children  to  school.  All  that  can  be  said  in  reply  is  sub¬ 
stantially  as  follows: 

1.  It  is  made  by  law  the  duty  of  every  town  to  “  provide  and  maintain  a  suffi¬ 
cient  number  of  schoolhouses,  jjroperly  furnished  and  conveniently  located,  for 
the  accommodation  of  all  the  children  therein  entitled  to  attend  the  public 
schools.” 

2.  It  is  recognized  everywhere  throughout  the  State  that  a  schoolhouse  is  con¬ 
veniently  located  if  it  is  within  reasonable  walking  distance  of  its  pupils,  or  if, 
the  schoolhouse  not  being  within  such  reasonable  walking  distance,  the  pupils 
are  conveyed  to  it  at  public  expense. 

3.  The  law  does  not  determine  what  a  reasonable  walking  distance  is;  that 
must  be  decided  by  the  school  committee. 

4.  Whatever  the  school  committee  decides  to  regard  as  a  reasonable  distance 
for  school  children  to  walk,  that  is  the  distance  they  must  walk.  If  a  child  within 
the  compulsory  age  limits  is  not  sent  to  school  on  the  ground  that  the  distance 
prescribed  for  him  to  walk  is  an  unreasonable  one,  it  is  the  legal  duty,  neverthe¬ 
less,  of  his  parent  or  guardian  to  send  him  to  school,  unless  other  legal  provision 
is  made  for  his  education.  Failure  to  do  so,  if  adjudged  by  the  courts  to  be  a 
violation  of  law,  is  punishable  by  a  fine. 

5.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  truant  officers  to  follow  up  such  violations  of  the  law, 
and  of  the  school  committee  to  see  that  the  officers  whom  it  appoints  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  do  their  duty. 

6.  Chief  Justice  Shaw,  speaking  of  the  power  of  school  committees  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  certain  general  duties,  where  there  is  an  absence  of  specific  legislation, 
says  (5  Cush.,  207-209): 

When  this  power  is  reasonably  exercised,  without  being  abused  or  perverted  by 
colorable  pretenses,  the  decision  of  the  committee  must  be  deemed  conclusive. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL.  175 

7.  The  State  board  of  education  is  given  no  authority  to  decide  what  a  reason¬ 
able  walking  distance  is. 

Progress  of  consolidation. — The  progress  of  consolidation  through  transporta¬ 
tion  for  the  last  ten  years  is  indicated  by  the  tabulation  of  expenses,  as  given  in 
the  sixty-second  report  of  the  State  board  of  education: 

Aggregate  cost  of  conveyance  for  the  State.1 


Year. 

Amount 

expended. 

Year. 

Amount 

expended. 

1888-89  . . . 

$22,118.88 
24, 145. 12 
30, 648. 68 
38, 726. 07 
50,590. 41 

1893-94  . 

$63, 617. 68 
76,608.29 
91,136.11 
105,317. 13 
123,032.41 

1889-90 

1894  95 

1890-91 . - . . . 

1895-96 . . . . 

1891-92 

1896-97... . . 

1892-93 

1897-98 . . 

Further  consolidation  needed. — Now  that  the  law  extends  the  minimum  length 
of  the  school  year  to  thirty-two  weeks,  some  small  towns  will  be  obliged  to  reduce 
the  number  of  schools  in  order  to  pay  their  teachers  sufficient  wages  to  make 
them  eligible  to  the  payment  of  $2  a  week  to  teachers  of  exceptional  excellence 
from  the  school  fund,  as  provided  by  a  recent  law.  Quite  a  number  of  these  towns 
are  now  paying  over  $5  a  year  on  $1,000  valuation  for  school  purposes,  and  they 
can  hardly  bear  any  heavier  school  expense.  These  towns  and  the  State  ought  to 
cooperate  to  maintain  good  schools  for  all  the  children.  *  *  * 

Distances. — In  Victoria  the  law  provides  that  the  following  shall  be  deemed  a 
reasonable  excuse  for  nonattendance  upon  the  public  schools: 

That  there  is  no  State  school  which  the  child  can  attend  within  a  distance  of  2 
miles,  measured  according  to  the  nearest  road,  from  the  residence  of  such  child; 
excepting  when  the  child  is  more  than  9  years  of  age,  then  the  distance  shall  be 
within  2i  miles  from  the  residence  of  such  child,  measured  as  aforesaid;  and 
when  the  child  is  more  than  12  years  of  age,  then  the  distance  shall  be  within 
3  miles  from  the  residence  of  such  child,  measured  as  aforesaid. 

Victoria  has  eight  times  the  area  of  Massachusetts,  but  only  half  the  popula¬ 
tion.  Nearly  half  of  this  population  is  rural. 

The  Massachusetts  legislature  has  never  made  any  requirement  about  the  limit 
of  distance  beyond  which  children  should  be  conveyed  to  school  at  public  expense, 
except  in  a  single  instance.  Chapter  541,  Acts  of  1898,  provides  that  the  town  of 
Boxford  may  use  the  Barker  Free  School  as  a  high  school  upon  complying  with 
certain  conditions,  one  of  which  is  that  the  town  shall  furnish  free  transportation 
to  the  school  for  pupils  who  live  more  than  2  miles  away  from  it. 

*  The  following  quotation  is  from  the  fifty-ninth  annual  report  of  Frank  A.  Hill, 
the  present  secretary: 

The  secretary,  when  asked  his  opinion  about  reasonable  distances,  inclines  to 
the  view  of  his  predecessor — that  little  children  should  not  be  made  to  walk  much 
over  a  mile,  although  older  children  of  grammar-school  age  may  walk  a  mile  and 
a  half,  or  even  more.  But  numerous  conditions  may  serve  to  modify  this  opinion. 
If  for  little  children  the  mile  lies  through  lonely,  unfrequented,  wooded,  or  diffi¬ 
cult  roads,  it  would  be  too  great  or  too  dangerous  a  distance  tor  them  to  walk.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  way  lies  over  a  well-traveled  thoroughfare,  with  good  side¬ 
walks  and  houses  all  along  the  road,  it  would  not  be  a  hardship  for  the  children 
to  walk  a  considerably  greater  distance  than  1  mile.  Transportation  should  not 
be  used  to  reduce  sturdiness,  self-reliance,  and  reasonable  self-denial  in  boys  and 
girls.  It  often  has  to  be  partial  for  some,  while  complete  for  others.  In  cases  of 
genuine  doubt,  the  leaning  should  be  toward  the  convenience  of  the  child. 
*****  *  * 


Circulars  of  inquiry. — To  secure  as  complete  information  as  possible  regarding 


In  1898-99  the  amount  expended  was  $127,409;  in  1899-1900,  $141,754. — Ed. 


176 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


the  history,  progress,  means,  and  results  of  consolidation  of  schools  and  convey¬ 
ance  of  children  in  Massachusetts,  circulars  containing  inquiries  regarding  the 
different  phases  of  the  plan  were  sent  to  the  school  officials  of  all  the  cities  and 
towns  of  the  State.  Nearly  200  replies  have  been  received,  representing  condi¬ 
tions  and  practices  in  all  sections  of  the  Commonwealth,  from  the  largest  cities  to 
the  smallest  towns. 

When  their  gist  is  contained  in  a  few  similar  words  or  sentences  these  replies 
are  given  only  in  percentages,  or  in  a  general  way.  Special  facts,  opinions,  and 
suggestions  are  quoted  as  fully  as  space  will  allow.  As  the  circular  calls  for 
information  upon  more  than  twenty  different  phases  of  the  subject,  it  is  not  pos¬ 
sible  in  the  space  allowed  to  this  report  to  name  the  towns  responding.  The 
returned  circulars  are  on  file  at  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  the  State  board  of 
education  in  Boston. 

The  circular  of  inquiry  began  with  the  following  letter: 

Northampton,  Mass.,  December  — ,  1898. 
To  the  chairman  of  the  school  committee  or  the  superintendent  of  schools  of - ; 

Many  inquiries  come  to  the  State  board  of  education,  not  only  from  our  own 
towns  and  cities,  but  from  those  of  other  States,  regarding  the  need,  operation, 
and  results  of  plans  for  the  consolidation  of  schools  and  the  conveyance  of  chil¬ 
dren  that  naturally  accompanies  such  plans.  That  such  inquiries  may  be  answered 
fully  and  intelligently  your  cooperation  is  earnestly  desiied.  Will  you  favor  me, 
therefore,  with  such  information  about  your  own  towns  (city's)  experience  with 
consolidation  and  conveyance  as  is  called  for  under  the  heads  herewith  given? 
Please  forward  your  reply  as  soon  as  possible  to — 

G.  T.  Fletcher, 

Agent  of  the  State  Board  of  Education. 

The  inquiries  are  given  in  full,  as  follows,  the  answers  to  each  inquiry  being 
given  in  immediate  connection  with  it  and  with  various  degrees  of  abridgment: 

I.  GENERAL  CONDITIONS  FAVORING  OR  REQUIRING  CONSOLIDATION. 

Changes  in  population,  property  valuation,  etc.,  that  have  impaired  the  efficiency 

of  your  schools  by  reducing  their  size,  increasing  their  cost,  making  it  harder  to 

get  good  teachers,  etc. 

More  than  50  per  cent  of  the  towns  report  changes  in  population  and  property 
valuation  in  the  towns  as  a  whole,  or  in  sections  of  them,  that  have  affected  the 
school  conditions. 

The  following  statements  are  samples  of  those  coming  from  a  large  number  of 
rural  towns: 

Attendance  of  pupils  reduced;  cost  in  a  small  school  per  pupil  for  a  year,  $46.82; 
in  the  central  building,  $16.30. 

Difficult  to  retain  good  teachers. 

Population  diminished  more  than  a  half  and  property  valuation  more  than  a 
third  since  1875. 

Loss  in  population  and  property  valuation  makes  it  hard  for  us  to  meet  increas¬ 
ing  educational  demands. 

Good  teachers  command  better  wages  than  we  can  pay. 

In  one  district  that  formerly  had  60  to  80  pupils  there  are  now  13.  The  farming 
population  has  disappeared. 

Farming  population  once  over  1,100;  now  only  605.  Valuation  reduced  from 
$375,000  to  $309,000. 

Population  reduced  from  2,300  to  1,400  in  thirty  years;  loss  of  $70,000  in  valua¬ 
tion  in  five  years. 

Farms  abandoned;  not  children  enough  in  any  district  to  keep  a  school. 

In  many  towns  the  loss  in  population  and  wealth  is  only  in  sections,  usually  in 
outlying  districts,  and  so  affects  certain  schools  only.  Many  towns  have  gained 
in  the  villages  as  much  as  they  have  lost  in  the  rural  sections.  Some  towns  and 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


177 


all  of  the  cities  have  gained  in  population  and  wealth;  yet  most  of  them  in  some 
quarters  have  had  to  deal  with  diminishing  schools. 

II.  WHAT  THE  TOWN  HAS  DONE  TOWARD  CONSOLIDATING  ITS  SCHOOLS. 

The  number  of  schools  that  have  been  dosed,  whether  the  consolidation  is  partial  or 

universal;  whether  it  has  gone  on  gradually  or  ivas  brought  about  at  one  stroke; 

whether  any  children  are  sent  to  schools  in  adjoining  towns  or  not;  whether  higher 

grades  are  taken  to  the  high  school  building  or  not,  etc. 

More  than  65  per  cent  of  the  towns  and  cities  reporting  have  found  it  necessary 
or  advantageous  to  close  and  consolidate  some  schools.  Movements  of  population 
within  town  or  city  limits  as  well  as  the  exodus  of  people  from  many  towns  havo 
led  to  the  closing  of  schools,  but  have  not  always  involved  the  transportation  of 
pupils. 

Probably  Quincy  was  the  first  town  to  act  under  the  law  of  1869,  having  closed 
two  schools  in  1874  and  transported  the  children  to  other  schools. 

In  the  year  1893  Seymour  Rockwell,  the  veteran  school  committeeman  of 
Montague,  said: 

For  eighteen  years  we  have  had  the  best  attendance  from  the  transported 
children;  no  more  sickness  among  them  and  no  accidents.  The  children  like  the 
plan  exceedingly.  We  have  saved  the  town  at  least  $600  a  year.  All  these  chil¬ 
dren  now  attend  a  well-equipped  schoolhouse  at  the  center.  The  schools  are 
graded;  everybody  is  converted  to  the  plan.  We  encountered  all  the  opposition 
found  anywhere,  but  we  asserted  our  sensible  and  legal  rights  and  accomplished 
the  work.  I  see  no  way  of  bringing  the  country  schools  up  but  to  consolidate 
them,  making  them  worth  seeing;  then  the  people  will  be  more  likely  to  do  their 
duty  by  visiting  them.  *■ 

This  statement  indicates  that  consolidation  of  schools  was  heroically  completed 
in  Montague  in  1875. 

Consolidation  was  begun  in  Concord  in  1879. 

Prior  to  that  time  and  for  many  years  afterwards  there  was  a  rapid  diminution 
of  school  population  in  the  outlying  districts.  Of  late  the  school  population  of 
these  districts  has  increased.  We  attribute  this  to  the  willingness  of  young  mar¬ 
ried  people  to  settle  on  these  farms,  since  transportation  secures  to  their  children 
educational  opportunities  as  good  as  the  town  provides.  Consolidation,  begun  as 
an  experiment,  was  carried  to  completion  at  the  desire  of  the  population  affected. 

From  another  town  came  this  suggestive  statement: 

Once  when  a  man  wished  to  sell  his  farm  he  advertised,  “A  school  near.’’  Now 
he  advertises,  “  Children  conveyed  to  good  schools.”  Farms  sell  more  readily  now. 

Other  towns  report  as  follows: 

We  have  closed  only  one  school,  and  that  for  two  terms  during  the  year,  as  the 
lot  will  revert  to  the  former  donor  unless  a  school  is  kept  in  the  building. 

The  scattered  population  renders  consolidation  undesirable  in  our  town. 

Planned  at  one  time  to  close  a  school,  owing  to  smallness  of  numbers,  and  con¬ 
vey  the  pupils  to  the  next  village.  After  consideration,  decided  that  only  an 
unwise  parsimony  on  the  part  of  the  town  could  favor  the  project,  and  it  was 
abandoned  forever. 

A  few  years  ago  the  town  tried  to  “double  up”  the  schools  and  convey tho 
pupils,  but  the  people  would  not  listen  to  the  suggestion,  mainly  through  ignorance. 

Attempted  to  build  a  new  schoolhouse  and  grade  the  schools,  but  bitter  opposi¬ 
tion  upon  the  part  of  the  older  people  defeated  the  plan. 

We  believe  in  closing  the  schools  when  it  can  be  done. 

Our  rule  is  to  keep  a  school  as  long  as  there  are  10  pupils  in  it. 

From  one  to  ten  schools  have  been  closed  in  different  towns.  Consolidation  is 
generally  partial;  in  a  few  towns,  complete.  Most  frequently  it  has  been  accom¬ 
plished  gradually;  in  some  instances  at  “one  stroke.”  In  twenty-five  instances 
pupils  belonging  to  higher  grades  are  taken  to  the  high  school  building. 

ED  1901 - 12 


178 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


III.  APPROPRIATIONS  FOR  CONVEYANCE. 

Whether  the  town  raises  money  for  the  purpose  by  a  specific  appropriation  separate 
from  the  regular  school  appropriation  or  by  making  the  regular  school  appropri¬ 
ation  include  transportation. 

About  60  per  cent  of  the  towns  reply,  “By  a  specific  appropriation  separate 
from  the  regular  school  appropriation.”  Forty  per  cent,  “Make  the  regular 
school  appropriation  include  transportation.”  It  seems  evident  that  the  law 
requiring  towns  to  raise  money  for  school  purposes  should  include  in  the  amount 
so  raised  whatever  sum  may  be  needed  for  transportation. 

IV.  DISTANCES. 

( 1 )  The  conveyance  of  children,  whether  they  are  conveyed  all  the  way  to  school  or 
only  a  part  of  it;  whether  the  carriage  goes  to  the  house  in  every  case  or  some 
pupils  have  to  meet  it  at  designated  points ,  etc. 

More  than  50  per  cent  of  the  towns  report  that  they  ‘  ‘  convey  all  the  way  from 
the  home  to  the  school.”  Other  towns  say  that  unless  the  conveyance,  carriage, 
or  car  passes  their  homes  the  children  walk  to  the  main  street  or  to  designated 
points  or  to  the  closed  schoolhouse  or  to  the  streets  through  which  the  electric 
cars  run,  etc.  In  a  few  towns  the  carriage  goes  to  every  home  in  stormy  weather 
to  take  and  leave  the  children.  In  some  towns  conveyance  is  furnished  only  in 
winter  or  in  stormy  weather.  In  some  cases  children  are  conveyed  to  school,  but 
not  from  it  unless  the  weather  is  stormy  or  the  traveling  bad. 

(2)  The  distance  children  are  conveyed,  ivhether  they  are  fixed  absolutely  or  approx¬ 

imately;  what  they  are  and  what  conditions  determine  them,  etc. 

Those  who  interpret  this  question  to  mean  the  distance  within  which  children 
will  not  be  transported  to  school  at  public  expense  make  the  distance  from  1  mile 
to  2  miles.  In  one  town  small  children  will  in  some  cases  be  conveyed  to  school 
if  the  distance  from  home  is  less  than  a  mile.  There  seems  to  be  no  consensus  of 
opinion  regarding  what  is  a  “reasonable  walking  distance.”  Age,  sex,  and 
strength  of  pupils,  nature  of  the  road,  the  amount  of  money  appropriated,  and 
the  disposition  of  the  committee  seem  to  be  determining  factors.  It  is  the  one 
difficult  question  which  committees  must  settle  for  themselves,  making  such  judi¬ 
cious  provisions  as  will  insure  school  attendance  for  all  without  undue  hardship 
to  any. 

The  majority  of  committees  and  superintendents  understand  the  question  to 
refer  to  the  maximum  distance  of  conveyance,  and  reply  that  they  convey  pupils 
“all  the  way  from  home  to  school”  or  “from  the  closed  schoolhouse  to  the  new 
one,”  or  2,  4,  6,  or  8  miles,  as  the  case  may  be. 

(5)  Questions  of  conveyance  and  distances,  whether  in  deciding  them  young  chil¬ 
dren  are  considered  more  than  older  ones;  girls  more  tha?i  boys;  the  lower  schools 
more  than  the  high  school;  ivooded,  lonely,  or  difficult  routes  more  than  open, 
easy,  and  populous  ones,  etc. 

Approximately  45  per  cent  of  the  towns  report  that  they  give  equal  considera¬ 
tion  to  young  children  of  both  sexes. 

Ten  per  cent  report  that  they  give  a  preference  to  girls  in  their  plans. 

In  12  per  cent  of  the  responses  the  character  of  the  routes  was  mentioned  as  an 
important  factor  in  determining  plans. 

Thirty-two  per  cent  make  no  discrimination  as  to  children,  schools,  or  routes. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


179 


V.  PAYMENTS  FOR  CONVEYANCE. 

Whether  payments  for  conveyance  service  are  made  to  the  parents  of  the  pupils  or 
to  persons  hired  for  the  purpose;  whether  they  are  made  by  the  trip,  the  iveek,  the 
term ,  or  the  year ,  with  or  without  reference  to  the  precise  number  carried,  or  in 
accordance  with  a  fixed  charge  per  pupil  or  a  fixed  rate  per  mile  or  some  other 
system;  with  one  or  two  illustrations  of  the  amounts  paid  or  rates  fixed  for  defi¬ 
nite  services. 

Payments  are  sometimes  made  to  parents  for  tlie  actual  attendance  of  their  chil¬ 
dren— so  much  per  day  a  child,  the  teacher  keeping  a  record.  It  is  noticed  in 
such  cases  that  the  attendance  is  very  regular  and  that  the  children  are  able  to 
walk  most  of  the  time.  Payments  are  most  frequently  made  to  persons  hired  for 
the  purpose,  or  in  some  towns  and  cities  to  steam  and  electric  railroad  companies. 
Illustrations: 

One  parent  was  paid  50  cents  a  trip  for  conveying  his  children  3  miles. 

A  parent  carries  his  children  for  $10  a  term. 

A  parent  transports  his  children  2  miles  for  $15  a  year. 

The  foregoing  may  be  cases  in  each  of  which  the  father  takes  his  children  to 
school  as  he  goes  to  his  work. 

Some  parents  carry  the  children  of  several  neighbors  with  their  own  for  a 
moderate  sum. 

Five  cents  a  day  for  each  pupil  attending  school. 

Many  pupils  ride  on  electric  cars  at  half  fare,  tickets  being  furnished  by  the 
school  committee  to  be  distributed  by  the  teachers. 

Carriages  hired  by  the  week:  $9  for  transporting  12  children  2.  miles;  $4  for 
transporting  4  children  If  miles. 

Some  make  yearly  payments  as  follows  to  persons  hired  for  the  purpose: 

Seven  pupils,  3  miles,  for  $75;  29  pupils,  14  miles,  for  $80;  11  pupils,  24  miles, 
for  $85;  7  pupils,  2  miles,  for  $70. 

Six  hundred  dollars  a  year,  without  regard  to  the  number  of  pupils. 

One  school,  one  year,  $175:  another  school,  one  year,  $195. 

Two  hundred  dollars  and  $300  a  year,  without  regard  to  number. 

By  the  week  for  a  certain  number  of  pupils,  one  route,-  $2.10;  another  and 
shorter  route,  $1.30. 

One  route,  $5  a  week;  on  a  bad  road,  two  children,  $8.25  a  week. 

VI.  DETAILS  OF  TRANSPORTATION. 

Persons  'who  are  charged  with  the  duty  of  bargaining  for  and  settling  the  details  of 
transportation;  the  vehicles  selected,  whether  covered  or  otherwise  made  com¬ 
fortable;  the  drivers,  whether  selected  with  reference  to  their  trustworthiness  and 
fitness  to  care  for  children,  etc. 

In  43  per  cent  of  the  towns  the  school  committee  makes  bargains  and  settles 
details;  in  10  per  cent,  a  subcommittee  of  the  school  committee;  in  5  per  cent, 
chairman  of  school  committee;  in  12  per  cent,  the  superintendent  of  schools;  in 
4  per  cent  of  the  towns  arrangements  are  made  by  the  committee  and  the  super¬ 
intendent.  In  about  half  of  the  towns  vehicles  are  covered  and  comfortable;  in 
the  others,  not  covered  excepting  in  bad  weather. 

Nearly  all  of  the  drivers  are  reported  to  be  “  trustworthy.”  Some  are  said  to  be 
“  as  gcod  as  we  can  get.  ”  Some  are  of  “  doubtful  qualifications.  ”  All  committees 
and  superintendents  regard  trustworthiness  and  fitness  in  the  driver  as  of  the 
highest  importance.  One  committee  says: 

Only  such  persons  should  be  employed  as  we  would  trust  with  the  care  of  our 
own  children. 

A  few  committees  say  that  they  have  to  watch  drivers  of  conveyances  and  hold 
them  to  strict  account.  Some  complain  that  children  are  not  under  proper  control 


180 


EDUCATION  KEPOKT,  1900-1901. 


in  the  carriages;  but,  upon  the  whole,  there  seems  to  be  a  good  degree  of  satisfac¬ 
tion  with  such  vehicles  and  drivers  as  have  been  employed. 

VII.  ADVANTAGES  OR  DISADVANTAGES  OF  CONVEYING  CHILDREN  TO  SCHOOL. 

(1)  Effect,  if  any,  on  promoting  attendance. 

The  testimony  upon  this  point  is  nearly  unanimous  that  attendance  is  improved 
by  conveyance  of  pupils.  Some  speak  of  the  increase  as  very  decided;  a  few  say, 
“  No  effect.” 

(2)  Effect ,  if  any,  on  health  of  children  conveyed. 

A  majority  see  “no  effect  upon  health.”  A  large  number  say,  “Effect  good;” 
and  add  that  there  is  less  exposure  to  rain,  snow,  cold  weather,  sloppy  or  muddy 
traveling;  consequently,  fewer  colds.  A  few  speak  of  the  unfavorable  effect  of 
cold  dinners  hastily  eaten.  A  few  others  say,  “Not  healthy.”  Much  depends 
upon  the  vehicle  and  the  driver. 

( 8 )  Any  trend  toward  needlessly  short  distance  for  conveyance  or  toicard  reduced 
self-reliance  and  sturdiness  on  the  part  of  the  children  conveyed ? 

The  larger  number  of  replies  are  to  the  effect  that  no  such  trend  is  noticeable, 
but  about  three-fourths  as  many  replies  are  to  the  contrary  effect.  Comments: 

Depends  upon  the  firmness  of  the  school  committee. 

We  have  a  rule,  and  when  parents  and  children  know  what  it  is,  nothing  more 
is  said. 

We  meet  all  reasonable  demands,  then  stand  firm. 

Pupils  have  so  much  done  for  them  that  they  are  not  willing  to  do  anything  for 
themselves. 

(4)  Effects  as  regards  (a)  the  character  of  the  school  buildings  and  equipment,  ( b ) 

the  classification  or  grading  of  pupils,  (c)  the  quality  of  the  teachers  and,  their 

ivork,  (d)  the  efficiency  of  the  pupils,  and  (e)  the  general  spirit  of  the  school. 

The  larger  number  of  towns  report  under  (a)  an  improvement  in  the  character 
of  school  buildings  and  equipment  resulting  from  consolidation.  Some  say,  “No 
effect  yet.”  Under  the  remaining  subdivisions  of  (4)  there  is  a  very  marked 
accord  that  in  all  respects  improvement  is  very  evident. 

A  few  comments: 

Better  ventilated  rooms,  hence  more  healthful. 

Costs  less  for  repairs;  better  janitor  service. 

Houses  closed  were  in  poor  repair;  good  teachers  would  not  remain  in  them. 

Pupils  better  classified;  3  teachers  do  the  work  of  5  in  ungraded  school. 

Too  strict  grading  not  beneficial. 

Petty  local  jealousies  lost  in  the  larger  school. 

I  question  if  the  too  closely  graded  school  of  50  pupils  reciting  in  one  division  is 
not  inferior,  from  the  pupil’s  standpoint,  to  the  ungraded  school  of  20  pupils. 
Advantage  of  the  ungraded  school  lies  in  the  greater  freedom  of  the  individual 
pupil  to  advance  at  a  rate  best  suited  to  him. 

Pupils  are  more  studious  in  the  graded  schools  with  only  their  classmates  with 
whom  they  must  compete. 

Greater  incentive  and  enthusiasm. 

In  the  graded  schools  pupils  lose  the  personal  oversight  of  the  teacher,  which  in 
small  schools  is  of  so  great  advantage. 

(5)  Any  further  results,  good  or  bad,  to  be  expected  from  the  extension  of  the 

consolidation  policy? 

None  but  good. 

Pupils  become  better  acquainted  with  people,  hence  less  bashful  and  awkward. 

The  time  lost  by  the  superintendent  on  the  road  is  saved  by  consolidation  of 
schools. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


181 


It  becomes  possible  to  give  to  all  tbe  pupils  of  the  town  the  advantages  of  special 
teachers  in  drawing,  music,  etc. 

Real  estate  men  think  it  will  reduce  the  value  of  their  property  in  the  rural 
districts. 

Objection  to  having  small  children  so  long  from  home. 

Our  people  would  as  soon  think  of  having  district  churches  as  district  schools. 

Association  with  others  whose  lives  are  less  restricted  than  their  own  is  a  gain 
in  social  graces. 

Much  is  to  be  expected  in  moral  influences,  as  conditions  are  better  in  the  graded 
than  in  the  ungraded  schools.  This  is  especially  true  as  regards  outbuildings  or 
basements  in  their  sanitary  arrangements,  and  the  oversight  had  in  and  about 
them. 

Economy  and  efficiency. 

I  do  not  favor  too  great  efforts  to  consolidate.  Drivers  are  not  and  can  not  be 
expected  to  be  men  who  can  control  children  and  hold  their  respect. 

A  compact  neighborhood  with  a  good  school  should  be  let  alone. 

( 6 )  The  cost  of  the  schools  after  consolidation,  whether  less  or  greater  than  before , 
or  the  same,  and  whether  with  poorer,  equal,  or  better  results. 

Sixty  per  cent  of  the  towns  report  the  cost  as  less,  but  the  results  as  better;  15 
per  cent  cost  the  same,  but  results  better;  8  per  cent  cost  more,  but  results  better; 
8  per  cent  cost  more,  but  results  not  stated;  8  per  cent  cost  less,  but  results  not 
stated. 

(7)  The  public  attitude  toward  the  policy,  whether  one  of  approval  or  not. 

Reports  of  approval,  in  some  cases  of  modified  approval,  are  related  to  cases  of 
strong  opposition  about  as  70  per  cent  to  30  per  cent.  Comments: 

At  first  opposed;  later  approved. 

Those  favored  by  the  plan  approve  it;  those  not,  oppose  it. 

Sanctioned  when  committee  advocated  it. 

Opposed  to  extension  of  policy. 

No  “public  attitude”  here. 

The  policy  is  never  questioned. 

Opposed. 

Toleration. 


VIII.  CONSOLIDATION  NOT  DESIEALE  OR  FEASIBLE. 

(1)  A  ny  large  rural  schools — schools  of  25  to  4-0  pupils — that  probably  woidd  not  be 
helped  by  processes  of  consolidation ? 

More  than  half  the  replies  indicate  that  there  are  rural  schools  that  would  not 
be  helped  by  consolidation.  Several  towns  report  having  one  or  more  rural  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  20  or  40  pupils.  Some  special  replies: 

Distance  and  size  render  transportation  difficult  and  expensive. 

Retain  such  schools  if  good  teachers  can  be  secured. 

Would  not  consolidate  a  school  of  over  20  pupils. 

One  school  6  miles  from  the  center. 

We  have  a  large  rural  school  of  50  pupils  with  two  teachers. 

I  would  prefer  that  a  child  of  mine  should  be  educated,  up  to  the  high  school 
grade,  in  a  school  of  30  pupils  under  a  superior  teacher  rather  than  in  the  ordinary 
graded  school  with  the  average  classroom  instruction.  I  think  there  is  a  tendency 
to  grade  too  much.  In  a  well-organized,  and  conducted  ungraded  school  there  is 
an  unconscious  review  all  the  time  and  an  anticipation  of  what  is  to  come.  The 
whole  is  there  and  the  part  in  relation  to  the  whole. 

A  good  district  school,  with  25  pupils  and  an  efficient  teacher,  can  be  made  equal 
to  any  closely  graded  school,  and  better  than  most  of  them. 

Consolidation  has  disadvantages  as  well  as  advantages. 

Thirty  towns  report  that  consolidation  would  help  all  of  their  ungraded  schools; 
it  would  provide  better  houses,  appliances,  teachers,  and  superintendence  at  equal 
or  less  expense. 


182 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

(2)  Conditions  that  largely  or  wholly  forbid  consolidation. 

^  About  50  towns  mention  objections  of  varying  degrees  of  seriousness  that  have 
been  urged  against  consolidation: 

Too  long  distances;  bad  roads,  blocked  in  winter  for  weeks. 

Pupils  too  jToung  to  ride  long  distances. 

Lack  of  money  to  pay  the  expense  of  suitable  transportation. 

Strong  opposition  of  the  people  to  the  machine-like  system  of  conveyance  of 
pupils. 

Saloon  at  the  center;  can  not  have  a  schoolhouse  near. 

Invasion  of  individual  rights. 

Belief  of  farmers  that  closing  rural  schools  reduces  the  value  of  their  property. 

Willingness  of  village  people  to  allow  those  in  the  outlying  districts  to  have 
their  own  way.  “Ephraim  is  joined  to  his  idols;  let  him  alone.” 

Not  room  enough  in  the  center  buildings  for  more  pupils. 

IX.  MISCELLANEOUS. 

Any  facts  about  consolidation  and  conveyance  in  your  town  not  directly  called  for 

under  the  foregoing  heads,  or  any  brief  statements  about  school  conditions  that 

need  improving  but  can  not  be  met  by  schemes  of  consolidation? 

Illustrations  of  replies: 

The  greatest  need  is  money  to  pay  higher  salaries  to  teachers.  Must  be  more 
State  aid. 

All  possible  consolidation  of  schools,  also  skilled  superintendence,  should  be 
made  compulsory. 

We  encourage  higher  grades  to  go  to  the  center. 

All  high  school  studies  should  be  eliminated  from  upper  rooms,  that  grammar- 
grade  work  may  be  better  done. 

If  let  alone,  we  are  well  enough.  Too  much  disposition  to  make  our  schools  large 
and  expensive. 

Consolidation  should  be  carried  far  enough  to  warrant  three  rooms  and  three 
teachers  below  the  high  school. 

Partial  consolidation  under  some  conditions  would  seem  to  be  feasible  and 
desirable.  (1)  As  of  adjacent  districts  far  from  the  center  but  not  very  distant 
from  each  other,  a  team  between  the  two  buildings,  placing  the  younger  children 
of  both  districts  in  one  of  these  buildings,  and  the  older  children  in  the  other. 
(2)  If  new  outlying  buildings  are  constructed,  make  them  two-room  buildings, 
on  the  dividing  line  of  two  or  more  districts.  Collect  pupils  by  transportation  of 
those  farthest  away. 

Various  ways  and  means  of  improving  the  schools  are  suggested  in  the  replies 
received.  Approval  and  disapproval  of  theories  and  practices  are  freely  given. 
Results  are  stated.  On  the  whole,  the  smaller  schools  of  Massachusetts  are  gain¬ 
ing  through  consolidation;  they  may  be  made  more  efficient  by  an  earnest  deter¬ 
mination  of  the  people  that  they  shall  be  more  efficient;  but  mutual  concessions 
and  hearty  cooperation  are  essential  to  that  end.  *  *  * 

Conclusion. — While  the  weight  of  opinion  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  consolidation 
of  schools,  as  being  in  the  line  of  economy  and  efficiency,  there  are  strong  argu¬ 
ments  in  favor  of  the  fair-sized,  well-organized,  thoroughly  taught  ungraded 
school.  Small,  isolated  rural  schools  must  exist  in  some  towns  of  the  State  for 
years  to  come.  The  children  are  not  responsible  for  the  unfavorable  conditions  in 
which  they  are  placed,  and  they  are  morally  and  legally  entitled  to  a  good  educa¬ 
tion.  Some  of  these  schools  are  taught  by  women  of  rich  culture,  and  of  large 
previous  experience  in  other  educational  fields.  They  are  now  “home  talent” 
because  of  the  love  and  care  needed  by  aged  parents.  The  teaching  and  the  char¬ 
acter-building  in  these  little  schools  are  of  rare  value.  There  are  other  teachers  of 
exceptional  abilities  who  will  for  a  reasonable  compensation  do  needed  work  in 
communities  thus  situated.  The  State  is  in  duty  bound  to  aid  the  town  in  secur¬ 
ing  to  every  child  good  educational  advantages.  If  such  influences  of  frugality 
and  industry  as  characterized  the  home  life  in  the  country  in  former  days  can  be 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


183 


kept  up  and  supplemented  by  excellent  teaching,  these  isolated  rural  schools  may 
do  good  work,  even  if  they  are  denied  the  advantages  of  consolidation. 

FURTHER  INFORMATION  AS  TO  MASSACHUSETTS— EXPERIENCE  OF  THE  TOWN  QF 

WARWICK.1 

There  has  been  some  extension  of  this  plan  during  the  year  in  towns  more  or 
less  favorably  situated  for  conveyance  of  children.  These  conditions  should 
always  be  taken  into  careful  consideration:  The  size  and  distance  of  schools  from 
some  central  location,  and  the  possibility  of  securing  conveyance  that  is  com¬ 
modious  and  comfortable,  affording  adequate  protection  to  children  in  all  kinds 
of  weather.  Such  conveyances,  if  not  steam  or  electric  cars,  should  be  drawn  by 
good,  safe  horses,  under  the  charge  of  competent  drivers,  who  are  persons  of  good 
manners  and  sound  moral  character.  It  is  the  duty  and  the  right  of  parents  to 
demand  comfort  and  protection  for  their  children  in  the  public  conveyance  to  and 
from  school.  Provision  should  also  be  made  for  the  care  of  children  during  the 
noon  hour  at  the  union  school. 

Consolidation  of  schools  has  not  only  its  advantages,  but  its  difficulties  as  well. 
Perhaps  no  other  rural  town  in  western  Massachusetts  better  illustrates  changed 
conditions  through  consolidation  of  schools  than  Warwick,  in  Franklin  County. 

Six  years  ago  Warwick  maintained  9  schools  twenty-four  weeks  per  year.  The 
average  attendance  of  pupils  in  the  town  was  87.  Teachers’  wages  in  the  8  out¬ 
side  schools  were  $5  per  week;  in  the  center  school,  $8  per  week.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  teachers  were  young  and  without  experience,  educated  in  the  dis¬ 
trict  schools.  Some  were  under  16  years  of  age,  one  term  a  pupil  in  a  school,  the 
next  term  a  teacher.  Occasionally,  in  recent  years,  a  teacher  of  marked  ability 
and  successful  experience  has  been  employed,  but  the  number  of  schools  made  it 
impossible  to  pay  wages  that  would  retain  the  services  of  well-qualified  teachers 
many  terms.  The  schools  were  poorly  supplied  with  books  and  materials. 

Now  all  of  the  pupils  in  town  are  in  three  rooms  of  one  modern,  well-lighted, 
heated,  ventilated  building,  pleasantly  situated  in  the  center  of  the  town.  The 
rooms  are  supplied  with  good  blackboads  and  with  books  and  appliances  for  the 
use  of  pupils.  The  school  has  three  teachers, —  normal-school  graduates  of  excep¬ 
tional  ability.  The  average  wage  paid  is  $9  a  week;  the  school  year  is  thirty-six 
weeks.  Special  teachers  of  music  and  drawing  visit  the  schools  each  week.  Pupils 
are  conveyed  to  the  center  union  school  from  distant  parts  of  the  town.  The 
average  attendance  in  the  fall  term  was  96,  a  gain  over  the  attendance  in  all  of 
the  9  schools  six  years  ago.  The  schools  are  well  graded  from  lowest  primary  to 
highest  grammar  grade,  three  classes  in  a  room.  Teachers  are  selected  whose 
qualifications  are  especially  adapted  to  the  ability  and  needs  of  the  pupils  under 
their  charge.  The  number  of  recitations  being  less  than  in  ungraded  schools,  the 
teachers  and  pupils  do  much  more  effective  work.  The  relation  of  the  teachers 
to  one  another  is  one  of  mutual  helpfulness,  and  the  association  of  so  many 
pupils  in  the  schoolrooms  and  on  the  grounds  under  the  supervision  of  the 
teachers  is  pleasant  and  beneficial. 

As  a  result  of  the  consolidation  of  its  schools  and  a  wise  administration  of 
school  affairs,  the  town  has  in  six  years  lengthened  the  school  year  50  per  cent, 
increased  the  teachers’  wages  75  per  cent,  and  employed  special  teachers  of  music 
and  drawing  without  materially  increasing  the  school  tax  of  the  town.  Because 
of  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  schools  through  consolidation,  the  cost  of 
instruction  by  the  regular  teachers  has  been  lessened.  A  large  increase  in  the 
amount  of  money  received  from  the  income  of  the  State  school  fund  has  been  of 
great  benefit  to  the  schools. 


64  Mass.  Rep.  (1899-1900),  pp.  392-394. 


184 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Much  time  that  would  be  needed  for  travel  by  the  superintendent  and  special 
teachers  in  reaching  many  small  scattered  schools  is  saved  for  profitable  use  in 
the  one  building  of  the  union  school. 

The  citizens  of  Warwick  have  manifested  a  deep  interest  in  their  public  schools 
by  the  employment  of  an  efficient  superintendent,  the  erection  of  a  school  build¬ 
ing  which  is  a  credit  to  the  town,  the  consolidation  of  its  schools,  and  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  efficient  teachers. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  IN  INDIANA.1 

[By  State  Supt.  Frank  L.  Jones.] 

*  *  *  Twenty  years  ago  public  education  in  rural  communities  was  conducted 
upon  a  curriculum  composed  largely  of  the  common  branches.  The  teaching  of 
physical  geography  and  algebra  in  addition  to  the  common  branches  was  not 
uncommon,  though  it  was  not  general.  Great  credit  was  given  a  township  for  its 
progressiveness  and  advancement.  High  schools  were  not  established  except  in 
the  larger  cities.  Young  men  and  young  women  attended  the  rural  schools  until 
they  were  21  years  of  age,  and  repeated  annually  the  work  of  the  advanced  grades, 
thus  often  filling  those  schools  with  as  many  as  75  pupils  under  the  direction  of  a 
single  teacher  whose  business  often  degenerated  into  “keeping  order.”  We  need 
not  turn  to  the  statistical  files  of  the  department  to  prove  that  the  large  rural 
school  was  the  rule  and  not  the  exception,  such  a  condition  being  within  the  recol¬ 
lection  of  all  mature  people. 

In  the  decade  1870-1880  the  average  number  enrolled  in  each  school  district  was 
54.  During  the  next  two  decades  a  constant  decrease  in  the  average  is  reported, 
The  whole  time  of  prominent  educators  was  given  to  the  rural  common  school. 
The  favorite  expression  of  one  of  Indiana’s  foremost  State  superintendents,  in  both 
oral  and  written  statement,  was,  “  Establish  a  rural  school  at  every  crossroads.” 
This  stimulus  to  rural  schoolhouse  construction  multiplied  those  schools  unduly, 
and  many  of  them  need  to  be  abandoned  at  this  time.  With  the  development  of 
the  course  of  study,  the  grading  of  schools,  the  introduction  of  new  methods  of 
teaching,  and  the  growth  of  high  schools,  the  young  men  and  young  women  were 
sent  to  the  new  secondary  schools  in  the  villages,  thus  relieving  the  common 
school  of  many  of  its  students.  Furthermore,  the  growth  of  cities  demanding  and 
attracting  laborers  thereto,  and  the  demand  for  fewer  laborers  on  the  farm  upon 
the  introduction  of  improved  machinery,  reduced  the  number  of  young,  vigorous, 
family-producing  men  and  women  in  the  country.  Again,  it  is  argued  that  there 
are  not  many  large  families  of  children  in  the  country  as  in  former  years,  and  it 
is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  such  is  true.  An  examination  of  a  large  number  of 
school  registers  throughout  the  State  during  the  last  eighteen  months  shows  in 
very  few  instances  more  than  two  pupils  from  one  family,  and  in  only  one  instance 
were  there  as  many  as  four  pupils  enrolled  from  a  single  home.  Two  decades  ago 
the  school  registers  often  contained  the  names  of  five  or  six  pupils  from  one  home, 
and  it  was  not  as  uncommon  to  find  twro  or  more  enrolled  from  a  home  as  it  was 
to  find  only  one.  All  of  these  conditions  and  movements  have  led  not  only  to  a 
lessening  of  rural  school  attendance,  but  have,  in  many  cases,  left  so  few  pupils 
that  we  can  not  maintain  with  profit,  either  financial  or  social,  a  great  many  of 
these  schools.  The  great  evil  of  the  small  rural  school  lies  in  its  nonsocial  char¬ 
acter.  It  is  wholly  unable  to  furnish  each  of  its  pupils  that  educative  influence 
that  comes  from  association  with  many  of  the  same  age  and  same  degree  of 
advancement;  it  can  not  have,  in  many  classes,  enough  of  honest  and  helpful 


‘Ind.  Sch.  Rep.,  1900,  pp.  520-558. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


185 


competition  to  establish  a  standard  to  which  many  a  bright  pupil  would,  raise 
himself,  and  fails  therefore  to  bring  from  him  that  supreme  effort  which  develops 
and  ennobles  and  which  comes  only  from  a  vigorous  contest  with  his  fellows. 
The  humdrum  and  monotony  of  a  recitation  in  a  one-pupil  class  is  discouraging 
to  both  pupil  and  teacher.  Not  only  is  the  mental  work  of  the  school  thus 
impaired,  but  the  lack  of  enough  pupils  to  organize  a  game  on  the  schoolhouse 
yard  prevents  adequate  exercise  and  tends  to  make  morbid,  selfish,  and  pessi¬ 
mistic  all  who  live  in  its  atmosphere — the  deadly  quiet  and  inactivity  of  the  small 
school  kills  the  spirit.  *  *  * 

The  per  capita  cost  in  these  small  schools  is  not  only  much  too  large,  but  is  con¬ 
tinually  increasing.  In  1879  the  cost  of  education  per  capita  was  as  follows: 


In  townships - - - .  - . - . $6.21 

In  towns  ,  . . . . . . . . .  5.21 

In  cities _ _  7.48 

In  1899,  twenty  years  later,  the  cost  was: 

In  townships  (per  capita) . . . . .  $10.  50 

In  towns  (per  capita) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 11.10 

In  cities  (per  capita) . . . . . . .  7. 07 


These  tables  are  of  more  than  usual  interest  on  this  point,  and  present  to  the  tax¬ 
payer  a  strong  argument  for  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  small  school.  It  will 
be  observed  at  once  that  the  per  capita  cost  of  education  is  constantly  increasing 
in  the  country  and  towns  and  decreasing  in  the  cities.  This  condition  in  the  rural 
school  arises  wholly  from  the  prevalence  of  small  schools.  There  were  as  many 
rural  schools  in  1899  as  in  1879;  the  salaries  in  the  former  are  not  substantially 
different  from  those  in  the  latter;  the  investments  in  schoolhouses  and  appliances 
would  about  equal,  but  the  attendance  in  them  has  constantly  decreased.  This 
condition  makes  necessary  an  expenditure  for  teachers,  fuel,  apparatus,  and  repairs 
for  the  small  school  of  to-day  equal  to  that  of  the  large  one  of  two  decades  ago. 
In  the  towns  the  increase  is  due  quite  largely  to  the  establishment  and  equipment 
of  high  schools  of  small  enrollment.  Nearly  all  cities  show  congested  schools, 
making  necessary  many  pupils  under  the  direction  of  each  teacher,  thus  reducing 
the  per  capita  cost.  Add  to  this  a  saving  in  fuel,  repairs,  buildings,  and  appli¬ 
ances,  and  the  reduced  cost  of  education  in  cities  is  explained.  *  *  * 

The  small  schools  are  more  numerous  than  most  citizens  and  schoolmen  know. 
That  there  are  within  the  State  108  schools  with  fewer  than  5  in  average  daily 
attendance;  487  schools  with  fewer  than  10  in  attendance;  1,253  schools  with  fewer 
than  15  in  attendance;  2,332  schools  with  fewer  than  20  in  attendance,  making  in 
all  (including  counties  not  officially  reporting)  more  than  4,200  schools  in  each  of 
which  there  is  an  attendance  too  small  for  vigorous  and  highly  profitable  work,  is 
a  matter  of  no  little  importance,  either  educational,  social,  or  financial.  At  the 
average  rate  of  wages  paid  rural  teachers,  and  for  the  legal  minimum  term  of  six 
months,  the  cost  of  instruction  alone  in  108  schools  is  $48  per  capita;  in  487  schools, 
$24  per  capita;  in  1,253  schools,  $16  per  capita;  in  2,332  schools,  $12  per  capita. 
This  calculation  does  not  take  account  of  the  building  improvements,  cost  of  fuel, 
janitor  service,  repairs,  and  apparatus.  These  items  added  to  the  cost  already 
given  would  increase  the  amount  considerably.  *  *  * 

No  school  can  claim  good  conditions  for  work  if  it  contain  fewer  than  25  pupils; 
nevertheless,  one-half  of  the  rural  schools  of  Indiana  are  in  operation  with  num¬ 
bers  ranging  from  3  to  25  pupils  in  average  daily  attendance. 

The  problem  of  the  small  school,  therefore,  is  a  real  one,  and  each  year  becomes 
increasingly  difficult.  It  is  pressing  itself  more  and  more  upon  our  attention  and 
now  requires  a  solution.  In  these  schools  we  must  lessen  the  cost;  we  must 
enlarge  the  classes;  we  must  improve  the  school  socially  and  athletically.  The 
question  now  arises,  How  shall  we  proceed  to  accomplish  this  much-needed  reform? 


186 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Upon  one  proposition  we  nmst  all  agree  at  once,  namely,  that  our  pupils  must  be 
collected  into  larger  groups.  We  know  that  this  means  the  abandonment  of  many 
schoolhouses,  consolidation  of  the  schools,  longer  distances  to  school,  and  the 
transportation  of  pupils.  It  means  the  abandonment  of  the  traditional  “home 
school.'’  It  does  not  matter  how  much  we  deplore  the  condition  which  makes 
consolidation  of  schools  necessary,  the  fact  remains  that  it  is  the  only  rational 
solution  of  the  question  that  has  been  offered.  Before  entering  upon  the  details 
of  the  problem  of  consolidation  and  transportation  it  might  be  well  to  say  that  the 
thing  most  to  be  avoided  is  the  destruction  of  rural  life  and  the  rural  view.  The 
very  strong  movement  which  leads  to  the  centralizing  of  schools  in  towns  and 
cities  is  to  be  deplored  and  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  The  preservation  of  the 
conservatism  of  the  farm;  the  simplicity  of  its  manners  and  dress;  the  ruggedness 
of  its  life;  the  peace,  quiet,  and  contentment  of  its  homes;  its  formation  of  good 
habits;  its  absence  of  vice;  its  opportunities  for  physical  development,  and  it.3 
making  of  men  and  women  of  clear  consciences  are  items  which  argue  eloquently 
for  rural  life  and  make  its  preservation  of  vital  necessity  to  the  welfare  of  our 
nation.  It  must  not  be  required  that  the  problem  be  solved  by  consolidating 
about  the  towns,  but  that  consolidation  which  is  distinctly  rural  is  expedient, 
economical,  and  wise.  Some  of  the  best  graded  schools  in  the  State  are  at  a  great 
distance  from  either  cities,  towns,  or  villages.  *  *  * 

What  Indiana  is  Doing  in  the  Transportation  of  Pupils. 

In  July,  1900,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  Indiana  sent  to  the 
county  superintendents  the  following  inquiries,  and  below  may  be  found  their 
answers,  all  of  which  gives  in  detail  the  status  of  the  work  in  Indiana.  Forty 
counties  have  already  begun  the  work  of  collecting  pupils  into  larger  groups  by 
transporting  them. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  sentiment  among  your  trustees  relative  to  abandoning  small  schools 
and  consolidating  the  schools  of  the  townships ? 

2.  In  what  toivnships  of  your  county  has  consolidation  been  tried ,  and  with  what 
effects? 

3.  What  do  you  find  to  be  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  the  system, 
if  you  have  tried  it? 

J.  What  do  the  patrons  think  of  the  plan  ivhere  it  has  been  tried? 

5.  How  far  do  you  transport  pupils? 

6.  Give  briefly  the  history  of  any  one  experiment  in  the  transportation  of  pupils. 

7.  General  remarks. 

The  answers  received  were  as  follows: 

ANSWERS. 

Adams  County: 

1.  They  have  talked  the  matter  over  at  different  times.  They  came  to  the  conclusion  that  bad 
roads  in  Adams  County  will  be  a  great  drawback.  I  believe  the  idea  of  consolidation  is  a  good 
one,  and  am  anxious  to  have  it  tried  here.  At  present  the  sentiment  of  trustees  is  somewhat 
against  it  from  the  standpoint  of  bad  roads. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Allen  County: 

1.  We  have  not  discussed  this  subject  in  any  of  our  board  meetings,  but  I  am  sure  that  a 
majority  of  the  trustees  feel  that  we  are  not  yet  ready  to  vacate  very  many  of  our  schools. 
Transportation  depends  so  largely  upon  the  condition  of  roads  that  in  many  places  this  is  not 
yet  feasible. 

2.  Wayne  Township,  Allen  County,  has  transported  children  for  two  years  in  one  district.  It 
is  a  case  in  which  a  small  school  of  about  20  pupils  was  closed  and  the  children  transported  to 
an  adjoining  school,  a  distance  of  2  miles.  I  asked  the  teacher  to  make  a  separate  report  of  their 
attendance.  It  proved  to  be  10  per  cent  better  than  that  of  those  not  transported. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


187 


3.  Our  experience  is  too  limited  to  allow  a  valuable  opinion.  It  seems  to  improve  attendance, 
prevents  tardiness.  The  pupils  are  much  less  exposed  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather, 
being  in  closed  rigs,  which  are  heated  in  severe  weather.  The  saving  amounts  to  about  $1  per 
day. 

4.  They  are  pleased. 

5.  Two  miles, 

6.  Ho  answer. 

7.  lam  of  opinion  that  there  is  danger  in  the  system  when  carried  too  far.  One  township 
grade  school  large  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  children  in  a  township,  in  my  judgment,  will 
embrace  too  much  territory  and  contain  too  many  pupils  for  the  best  results. 

Bartholomew  County: 

1.  Generally  in  favor  of  continuing  local  schools  as  long  as  a  reasonable  number  of  pupils- 
support  the  school. 

2.  Transportation  has  been  tried  in  1  township  only,  Columbus  Township,  with  very  satisfac 
tory  results. 

3.  Pupils  of  1  school  district  transported  to  an  adjoining  school  district.  Advantages:  (a) 
Better  teaching;  (6)  satisfied  pupils;  (c)  satisfied  parents;  (d)  satisfied  school  officials;  (e)  net 
saving  of  about  $35  per  month. 

4.  See  No. 3. 

5.  About  3  miles. 

6.  Experiment  referred  to  in  No.  3  has  been  in  operation  for  the  last  two  years,  with  results 
as  indicated. 

7.  Personally  we  believe  that  local  schools  should  be  continued  so  long  as  enough  pupils  attend 
to  keep  up  a  reasonable  interest  in  the  school.  (The  public  school  as  the  local  institutional  unit 
is  the  hope  of  our  country.)  After  that,  consolidation. 

Benton  County: 

1.  Our  trustees  all  favor  it. 

2.  Bolivar,  Pine,  and  York  townships,  with  good  effects. 

3.  The  advantages  are  that  it  gives  the  pupils  of  the  smaller  schools  better  opportunities  for 
classification,  gradation,  and  instruction,  and  financially  is  a  saving  of  fully  50  per  cent  of  the 
amount  it  would  cost  to  keep  open  the  schools  that  are  closed. 

4.  The.  sentiment  for.  and  against  the  plan  is  about  equally  divided. 

5.  From  24  to  31  miles. 

6.  One  school  that  has  been  closed  for  three  years  formerly  cost  the  township  about  $50  per 
month,  or  $400  for  a  term  of  eight  months,  the  usual  length  of  schools  in  that  township.  The 
schoolhouss  has  been  sold  and  the  pupils  have  been  transported  to  other  schools  for  $25  per 
month. 

7.  It  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  consent  of  the  parents  to  close  schools. 

Blackford  County: 

1.  Favorable  to  it. 

2.  Licking  Township.  Good  effect. 

3.  Avoiding  dead  schools,  as  all  small  schools  are  apt  to  be,  and  a.  financial,  saving  of  $150  per 
year. 

4.  Satisfied. 

5.  Two  and  one-half  miles  the  farthest. 

6  and  7.  No  answer. 

Boone  County: 

1.  I  think  the  sentiment  among  trustees  favors  the  change  mentioned. 

2.  In  none. 

3.  The  county  has  no  examples. 

4.  Have  not  tried  it.  The  patrons  strenuously  oppose  its  inauguration. 

5  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  The  trustees  have  so  far  allowed  the  patrons’  opposition  to  prevent  the  abandonment  and 
consolidation  of  schools.  The  township  reform  law  tends  to  weaken  the  purpose  of  the  best 
and  most  enterprising  trustees. 

Carroll  County : 

1.  It  is  the  prevailing  opinion  among  the  trustees  of  this  county  that  small  schools — those 
with  an  enrollment  of  10  to  15— should  be  abandoned.  They  also  think  that  much  better  school 
work  could  be  done  at  less  expense  by  consolidating  all  the  schools  of  the  township.  I  think 
they  are  in  favor  of  it  only  where  a  graded  school  is  already  established  near  the  center  of  the 
township  and  where  the  roads  are  good. 

2.  Transportation  has  not  been  tried  at  public  expense  at  all.  In  Jackson  Township  several 
families  take  their  children  to  Flora  and  Camden  at  their  own  expense,  and  some  other  families 
are  paid  something  by  the  township.  In  these  instances  the  children  do  not  wish  to  go  again 
to  the  country  nor  do  the  parents  desire  a  change. 

3.  In  the  cases  under  “  2  ”  there  is  a  financial  gain  of  about  $500,  as  2  schools  were  abandoned. 


188 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


Pupils  transferred  to  Flora  cost  about  $75.  I  should  say  there  is  a  gain  of  $400.  The  advantage 
of  the  graded  school  over  the  country  schools  can  not  be  estimated.  It  is  severe  on  these 
children  to  make  the  drive  on  the  extremely  cold  days.  They  don’t  complain  much,  however. 

4.  They  are  in  every  instance  well  pleased. 

5.  From  2  to  4  miles. 

6.  A  school  meeting  was  held  in  a  certain  district  to  see  whether  the  plan  would  be  accept¬ 
able.  Patrons  came  prejudiced,  thinking  we  were  going  to  rob  them  of  their  school  and  build 
up  the  school  at  Camden.  They  were  almost  unanimously  against  us.  We  set  forth  the  plan, 
but  they  raised  all  forms  of  objections  and  never  would  submit.  Some  now  come  to  Camden 
at  their  own  expense  and  are  well  pleased. 

7.  Good  roads  would  make  it  practicable.  The  results  would  be  incalculable  in  the  way  of 
better  training  for  the  children.  It  would  be  a  great  money  saving,  I  think. 

Cass  County: 

1.  I  think  that  there  will  be  at  least  4  schools  abandoned  this  year.  The  trustees  are  nearly 
all  favorable,  but  there  is  some  opposition  among  the  patrons.  It  has  never  been  tried  in  Casa 
County. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Clay  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  is  gradually  growing  in  this  county.  It  is  limited,  however,  to  abandoning 
the  small  schools. 

2.  None  have  tried  it. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  In  many  townships  the  relocating  of  schoolliouses  would  lead  to  a  saving  of  1  or  2  schools 
in  each  township  so  adjusted.  At  this  time  the  above  seems  to  be  the  need  along  the  line  of 
abandoning  schools  in  this  county. 

Clark  County: 

1.  They  are  generally  in  faver  of  it. 

2.  Charlestown  Township.  Good  effects. 

3.  Advantages:  Pupils  have  the  advantage  of  a  longer  term  of  school,  a  better  graded  school, 
and  usually  (not  always)  of  a  better  teacher.  It  is  also  a  financial  saving.  Under  very  unfav¬ 
orable  conditions  it  saved  this  township  $75.  Disadvantages:  It  has  a  tendency  to  make  less 
attractive  and  inviting  the  life  of  rural  people  by  destroying  their  schools. 

4.  They  are  in  favor  of  it. 

5.  Two,  3,  and  4  miles. 

6.  One  school  abandoned  in  Charlestown  Township  and  5  pupils  transported  to  town  of 
Charlestown.  Patrons  pleased;  pupils  in  a  better  school.  Other  township  schools  run  longer. 
Saving  to  township  that  transported 

7.  No  answer. 

Clinton  County: 

1.  Most  of  them  are  in  favor  of  it,  but  only  where  the  roads  are  good;  the  schools  to  be 
abandoned  are  small,  and  all  conditions  favorable.  I  found  3  schools  this  year  with  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  6  pupils.  I  shall  recommend  to  the  trustees  that  these  schools  be  abandoned. 

2.  Owen,  Perry,  and  Ross  townships,  with  very  good  results.  In  the  first  two,  hacks  were 
furnished.  In  Ross  Township  the  trustee  paid  the  parents  to  furnish  conveyance  for  their 
children.  The  latter  plan  seems  to  give  the  better  satisfaction,  as  the  children  can  bundle  up 
and  start  at  once  directly  from  home. 

3.  Advantages:  (1)  Better  school.  There  are  more  incentives  to  study  and  more  rivalry 
among  pupils  in  a  class  of  8  or  10  than  in  a  class  of  1,  and  usually  the  good  teacher  is  selected 
for  the  larger  school,  while  “  any  one  ”  can  teach  a  small  school.  (2)  A  saving  financially.  Count¬ 
ing  interest  on  the  investment,  the  transportation  will  cost  no  more  than  the  running  expenses 
of  the  school,  exclusive  of  the  teacher’s  salary.  Thus  a  saving  of  from  $1.65  to  $2.50  per  day. 

4.  I  have  found  no  serious  objections  to  the  plan.  Some  complaint  has  been  made  that  the 
children  are  exposed  too  much  in  bad  weather.  But  in  the  face  of  this  a  few  families  are  send¬ 
ing  their  children  away  from  a  district  school  (within  three-fourths  of  a  mile)  to  a  graded 
school  nearly  4  miles  away. 

5.  From  2£  to  4  miles. 

6.  A  hack  from  Colfax  made  the  trip  morning  and  evening,  taking  the  pupils  of  a  small  dis¬ 
trict  2  miles  north  of  Colfax  to  another  small  school  4  miles  north  of  Colfax,  thus  combining  2 
small  schools.  Last  year  the  trustee  allowed  the  patrons  of  the  school  2  miles  north  of  Colfax 
to  send  to  either  of  the  other  schools,  and  he  paid  their  transportation,  the  patron  furnishing 
his  own  conveyance.  This  plan  seems  to  be  preferable. 

7.  This  is  a  good  plan  in  some  cases;  but  I  believe  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  the  sentiment  in 
favor  of  the  crossroads  schoolhouses  changes.  When  the  roads  are  good  and  the  school  is  small, 
or  the  pupils  want  high-school  privileges,  the  plan  is  all  right.  But  I  seriously  doubt  whether 
a  radical  change  to  this  system  would  bring  about  generally  good  results. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


189 


Decatur  County: 

1.  There  is  no  active  interest  manifested.  Mr.  O.  B.  Trimble,  of  Clay  Township,  thinks  the 
plan  a  good  one,  and  would  attempt  it  if  he  had  time  to  complete  the  work.  Mr.  C.  C.  Lowe  is 
also  an  advocate  of  the  plan,  but  his  township  is  so  arranged  that  it  is  impracticable.  Roads 
run  to  Greensburg,  with  very  few  convenient  crossroads.  To  consolidate  schools  would  require 
exceedingly  long  drives.  Other  trustees  have  had  no  special  interest  in  a  general  plan  of  “con¬ 
solidation.” 

2.  In  Fugit  Township  1  school  was  abandoned  in  1898-99.  Pupils  were  transported,  but  the 
country  school  is  opened  again  this  year. 

Clay  Township  abandoned  2  schools  in  1898-99,  and  2  in  1899-1900.  No  transportation  was 
needed  except  in  1  school  this  last  year  It  was  offered  there,  but  not  accepted. 

In  Adams  and  Jackson  townships  each  1  school  abandoned,  1898-99.  No  transportation  needed. 

Clinton  Township  abandoned  1  school  1899-1900,  and  provided  transportation  for  from  6  to  10 
pupils. 

(These  conditions  remain  at  present  as  stated  above. ) 

3.  It  has  not  been  sufficiently  tried  to  give  fair  basis  for  judgment. 

4.  There  is  quite  a  general  feeling  among  patrons  of  rural  communities  that  they  are  entitled 
to  school  privileges  at  home.  In  communities  where  schools  are  small  the  people  are  scattered 
over  considerable  territory.  Pupils  would  have  to  walk,  in  some  cases,  about  as  far  to  the 
transportation  wagon  as  they  now  have  to  walk  to  school.  In  two  or  three  of  the  cases  above 
cited  opposition  was  strong.  There  is  a  general  anxiety,  however,  on  the  part  of  trustees  to 
close  the  smaller  schools. 

5.  In  Fugit  Township,  from  2  to  3  miles.  In  the  proposed  plan  for  Clay  Township,  from  3  to  4 
miles.  In  Clinton  Township,  about  3  miles. 

6.  No  answer. 

7.  I  think  the  best  plan  here  would  be  a  gradual  development  of  the  system  in  two  or  three 
townships.  Small  schools  in  a  few  cases  could  be  transported  to  others  without  overcrowding. 
In  three  or  four  townships  a  partial  consolidation  could  be  easily  put  into  effect.  The  condi¬ 
tion  of  roads  has  been  a  hindrance  to  even  fair  consideration  of  the  plan;  but  three  townships 
now  have  petitions  filed  for  extensive  “pike”  systems. 

Crawford  County: 

1.  Consolidation  of  schools  has  never  been  tried  in  this  county.  Two  trustees  have  aban¬ 
doned  a  district  each  and  the  pupils  enter  the  nearest  adjoining  district  without  transportation. 

The  idea  is  considered  a  good  one,  but  not  practicable  in  this  county,  owing  to  poor  roads  and 
so  many  hills  and  small  farms. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  I  believe  if  Crawford  County  could  have  good  graveled  roads,  which  I  think  she  will  have 
before  long,  the  solution  would  be  solved  in  this  county. 

Dekalb  County: 

1.  As  far  as  I  am  able  to  learn  they  favor  it.  I  think  they  would  favor  it  were  it  not  for  the 
expense  of  building  new  houses. 

2.  It  has  not  been  tried,  though  it  has  been  talked  of  quite  favorably  in  a  few  instances.  The 
sentiment  is  growing  in  favor. 

3.  Not  tried. 

4.  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  It  seems  to  me  that  we  are  rapidly  approaching  the  concentration  plan. 

Delaware  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  is  universally  in  favor  of  consolidation  of  small  schools.  There  is  not  a  dis¬ 
senting  voice  in  Delaware  County  among  the  trustees.  The  only  question  to  be  determined  is 
how  fast  to  push  the  plan  in  face  of  some  opposition  among  some  few  patrons  who  are  content 
to  let  matters  rest  where  we  now  have  them. 

2.  In  Hamilton  and  Perry  townships,  with  the  best  results  claimed  for  the  change.  Some 
economy,  regularity  in  attendance,  better  attendance,  better  health  of  pupils,  better  gradation 
and  classification. 

3.  Better  gradation  and  classification,  better  teaching,  better  attendance  among  those  con¬ 
veyed,  better  health  of  children,  due  to  care  in  getting  to  and  from  the  school.  Saving  of 
money  where  two  schools  can  be  changed. 

Three  hundred  dollars  in  1  township,  1  school  abandoned. 

Three  hundred  dollars  in  another  township,  1  school  abandoned. 

Six  hundred  dollars  in  another  township,  2  schools  abandoned. 

In  the  townships  where  there  is  some  conveyance  the  saving  in  teacher  must  be  applied  to 
conveyance.  Where  the  two  schools  are  conveyed  the  saving  is  25  cent3  per  day. 

4.  The  plan  seems  to  give  entire  satisfaction  thus  far. 

5.  Some  are  transported  from  4  to  5  miles. 

6.  Two  schools  abandoned  in  Hamilton  Township  and  children  conveyed.  Pupils  in  each 
school,  10.  Cost  of  transportation,  $1  and  $1.10  per  wagon.  Cost  of  teacher  under  old  plan,  $2.25 
each.  One  additional  teacher  required  at  the  consolidating  point.  Number  of  departments,  3. 


190 


EDUCATION  EEPORT,  1900-19Q1. 


Township  high  school  possible.  Satisfaction  given,  good.  Sentiment  in  township,  very  favor¬ 
able.  Excellent  prospects  for  the  future. 

7.  No  answer. 

Dubois  County: 

1.  They  favor  it,  but  citizens  oppose  it  to  such  an  extent  that  no  trustee  in  this  county  is 
likely  to  move  hastily  in  the  matter. 

2.  None. 

3.  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Fayette  County: 

1.  The  trustees  are  favorable  to  the  above-named  plan. 

2.  In  only  1  township,  Harrison.  The  patrons  of  2  of  the  schools  abandoned  were  very  strong 
against  it  at  first,  but  most  of  them  are  now  satisfied  and  like  the  plan.  If  they  had  school  in 
all  their  buildings,  they  would  have  had  3  schools  with  an  enrollment  of  10  or  12  pupils  each. 
Now  no  school  has  an  enrollment  of  less  than  20.  The  teachers  are  pleased,  and  I  think  the 
schools  better. 

3.  Advantages:  First,  larger  schools,  causing  pupils  and  teacher  to  be  more  interested.  Sec¬ 
ond,  more  regular  attendance.  Third,  patrons  are  not  bothered  with  taking  their  children  in 


bad  weather,  but  have  them  taken. 

Financial  statement: 

Cost  last  year,  6  teachers,  $45  each  per  month,  6£  months . $1, 755 

Cost  this  year,  4  teachers,  $40  per  month  each,  7  months . . . a  1,520 

Cost  this  year,  1  principal,  $80  per  month,  7  months . . . .  560 

Cost  this  year,  2  wagons,  $20  per  month  each,  7  months _ _ 280 

Total . . . .  2.360 


$2,360— $1,755=$605,  extra  cost  to  have  one-half  month  more  school  and  have  a  high  school.  The 
township  did  not  have  a  high  school  until  this  year.  I  do  not  know  whether  there  will  be  any 
savings  in  special  school  money  or  not. 

4.  No  answer. 

5.  Three  miles  is  perhaps  the  farthest  and,  as  the  wagon  takes  all  on  its  road,  some  only  a  short 
distance. 

6.  Pupils  in  district  No.  6,  Harrison  Township,  Fayette  County,  transported  to  district  No.  7, 
in  said  township  and  county.  The  first  day  the  wagon  went  to  the  house  of  the  children;  but  as 
the  parents  were  opposed  to  the  plan,  they  would  not  let  the  children  go  to  school.  The  trustee 
told  the  driver  to  go  after  them  every  day  until  he  told  him  to  stop.  The  trustee  then  came  to 
see  the  county  superintendent,  and  it  was  decided  to  send  the  truant  officer  to  see  the  parents. 
In  the  afternoon  of  the  second  day  the  truant  officer  made  his  visits,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
third  day  all  the  children  rode  to  school  and  have  been  doing  so  all  term. 

7.  First.  It  is  a  good  plan  when  a  township  has  too  many  schools.  Fayette  County  has  about 
10  schools  too  many. 

Second.  It  is  very  difficult  to  get  parents  to  see  the  advantages. 

Third.  Trustees  do  not  care  to  do  what  the  patrons  do  not  want  done. 

Fourth.  I  think  new  trustees  will  be  more  willing  to  act  than  old  ones. 

Floyd  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  is  very  much  in  favor  of  so  doing. 

2.  It  has  not  been  tried  in  this  county. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  This  county  is  so  hilly  and  the  roads  for  the  most  part  are  so  rough  that  I  fear  that  the 
transportation  system  would  not  be  successful.  However,  there  is  a  growing  feeling  that  it 
would  be  best. 

Fountain  County : 

1.  In  favor  of  it  as  far  as  practicable. 

2.  Richland  and  Van  Buren.  Good.  Fulton  will  try  it  next  year  to  their  new  graded  school. 

A  great  many  children  drive  themselves  several  miles  in  all  the  townships. 

3.  There  are  no  disadvantages,  except  bad  roads.  There  is  a  saving,  but  can  not  give  the 
figures. 

4.  They  like  it  after  trying,  but  generally  oppose  it  before  trying. 

5.  Three  and  4  miles. 

6  and  7.  No  answer. 

Franklin  County: 

1.  Trustees  favor  the  plan.  The  people  ax*e  not  so  favorable.  They  have  no  real  reason,  but 
give  the  ‘‘stock”  argument. 

2.  Not  tried. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  The  sentiment  is  growing  in  favor  of  consolidation. 

a  This  should  be  $1,120,  if  the  number  of  teachers  and  their  salaries  are  given  correctly. — Ed. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


191 


Fulton  County : 

1.  Tlie  majority  favor  it. 

2.  None  at  expense  of  county. 

3.  (1)  Better  grading;  (2)  thorough  work;  (3)  the  teaching  of  special  branches;  (4)  better 
teachers;  (5)  large  classes;  (6)  broader  companionship  and  culture;  (7)  better  buildings,  roads, 
apparatus,  etc.;  (8)  creates  a  good  school  sentiment. 

(1)  Lack  of  proper  conveyances.  (2)  Many  patrons  object  to  children  going  so  far  from  home. 
(3)  Riding  in  hacks  with  all  classes  of  children. 

4.  Would  have  no  other.  They  are  well  pleased. 

5.  We  transport  none.  They  all  walk  or  drive.  Five  miles. 

6.  No  answer. 

7.  I  think  the  majority  of  the  people  in  Fulton  County  favor  centralization. 

Gibson  County: 

1.  Favorable.  No  gravel  roads  in  the  county,  and  for  this  reason  the  plan  has  not  been  tried. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  1  believe  the  plan  will  be  satisfactory  in  a  short  time.  Gibson  County  is  now  considering 
the  road  qitestion,  and  as  soon  as  the  roads  will  permit  we  shall  be  ready  to  try  the  experiment. 
Grant  County : 

1.  The  trustees  are  very  generally  in  favor  of  doing  away  with  the  small  district  schools  and 
sending  to  larger  and  more  inspiring  ones. 

2.  In  Franklin,  with  good  success. 

It  places  the  students  in  schools  where  there  are  more  pupils  and  greater  interest.  The 
teacher  seems  to  be  inspired  to  do  better  work.  In  the  small  school  generally  the  interest  is 
dead.  It  is  very  clearly  a  financial  saving  to  the  township.  The  pupils  are  taken  to  school  and 
brought  back  by  a  competent  person,  and  when  so  many  come  together  it  lessens  the  chance  for 
children  to  lower  their  morals.  It  is  unsafe  to  let  a  boy  and  a  girl  of  this  age  walk  home  together 
for  any  length  of  time.  You  see  what  I  mean. 

4.  At  first  they  objected,  but  are  now  seeing  the  benefits. 

5.  Three  miles. 

6.  In  Franklin  Township  the  trustee  did  away  with  3  schools,  and  in  2  of  them  the  pupils  were 
close  enough  to  be  as  well  accommodated  in  regard  to  distance  as  they  were  before  the  abandon¬ 
ment.  One  school  was  out  of  reach  of  others,  and  a  small  village  wanted  a  new  school,  and  it  is 
these  he  hauls  to  a  centrally  located  graded  school.  The  pupils  of  the  other  two  schools  still 
walk  to  the  other  school  districts. 

7.  At  the  next  meeting  of  the  trustees  one  of  them,  Mr.  Slater,  will  read  a  paper  on  the  sub¬ 
ject.  I  think  now  we  will  abandon  a  number  of  our  schools  next  37ear.  We  will  simply  abandon 
them  temporarily.  I  think  the  plan  a  good  one. 

Greene  County: 

1.  Sentiment  not  favorable  to  abandonment. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Hamilton  County: 

1.  We  have  tried  the  plan  in  a  number  of  eases,  and  it  is  very  satisfactory  to  officers  and 
patrons.  Under  the  plan  we  have  vacated  20  little  schools  and  saved  hundreds  of  dollars  of 
expense,  and  the  pupils  had  better  school  privileges.  There  should  be  a  direct  law  on  the 
matter  to  allow  trustees  and  township  councils  to  do  as  they  think  best  in  such  instances. 

2.  Adams,  Clay,  Delaware,  Jackson,  Noblesville,  Washington,  Wayne,  and  White  River.  In 
some  cases  the  trustee  furnished  a  wagon;  in  others  an  allowance  was  given  some  patron  to  do 
the  transporting.  B.  C.  Sherrick,  of  Washington  Township,  has  vacated  4  schools  and  should 
vacate  3  more. 

3.  The  pupils  get  better  schools,  the  expense  is  less,  good  attendance,  no  tardiness,  and  better 
teachers  in  the  schools.  The  pupils  take  more  interest  in  study,  dress,  neatness;  in  short,  con¬ 
clude  school  is  business. 

4.  At  first  seriously  object,  but  afterwards  favor  it.  It  is  an  idea  that  is  growing.  It  can  be 
better  favored  where  there  are  good  roads.  We  have  not  attempted  it  on  dirt  roads. 

5.  From  l£  to  4  miles.  The  nearest  district  house  to  Carmel  graded  school  is  3  miles  away. 
The  parents  do  their  own  transporting  in  most  cases. 

6.  The  trustees  of  townships  where  there  are  stables  pay  liverymen  for  caring  for  pupils’ 
horses.  In  townships  not  so  favored  the  trustees  build  stables.  At  No.  1,  White  River  Town¬ 
ship,  S.  D.  Basey  has  the  whole  school  transported  for  $1  per  day.  At  No.  2,  in  Clay  Township, 
J.  W.  Morrow  transports  for  50  cents  a  pupil,  doing  the  driving. 

7.  To  favor  this  plan,  put  the  very  best  teachers  in  the  center  schools,  give  a  music  teacher, 
furnish  every  encouragement,  and  people  go  there  of  their  own  accord.  The  idea  is  well  sup. 
ported  in  Hamilton  County. 

Hancock  County : 

1.  The  sentiment  of  the  present  trustees  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  above  plan. 

.2.  In  Center  Township;  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  Jackson.  The  effects  have  been  entirely 
satisfactory  to  all  who  comprehend  the  best  interests  of  their  children. 


192 


EDUCATION  EEPOBT,  1900-1901 


3.  The  advantages  are  numerous;  among  them,  greater  class  interest,  by  reason  of  larger 
classes;  promptness  of  attendance;  general  interest,  by  reason  of  better  graded  schools.  There 
has  been  much  financial  saving,  but  I  have  no  statistics  which  would  enable  me  to  give  actual 
figures. 

4.  Most  patrons  who  have  tried  it  are  satisfied.  Some  complain— would  rather  have  their 
children  wade  the  snow  for  a  mile  and  a  half  than  ride  two  and  a  half.  These  are  the  excep¬ 
tions,  however.  Generally  I  have  found  the  patrons  satisfied.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  one 
of  sentiment.  Patrons  do  not  like  to  abandon  their  home  schools,  however  much  time  and 
circumstances  may  have  depleted  them. 

5.  Such  pupils  as  have  been  transported  in  this  county  have  been  taken  from  2i  to  3  miles. 

6.  This  I  am  unable,  at  present  writing,  to  do. 

7.  I  very  much  fear  that  consolidation  is  blocked  for  the  present  in  this  county.  There  is 
even  a  pressure  being  brought  to  bear  to  reestablish  some  schools  long  since  abandoned.  I  am 
combating  this  with  all  my  might,  but  there  is  opposition  to  consolidation. 

Hendricks  County :  \ 

1.  All  my  trustees  feel  that  small  schools  should  be  abandoned. 

2.  Middle,  Liberty,  Guilford,  Eel  River,  all  with  good  effect. 

3.  Betters  the  pupils’  school  privileges  by  placing  them  with  teachers  who  have  fewer  grades 
to  teach.  For  every  school  vacated,  saves  about  $2  per  day.  It  has  so  far  worked  no  disadvan¬ 
tage  of  which  I  know. 

4.  Patrons  are  well  pleased,  because  the  children  are  doing  better. 

5.  Two  and  one-half  to  3£  miles. 

6.  At  first  neither  patrons  nor  pupils  like  it.  But  after  starting  they  do  not  wish  the  school 
reinstated.  We  have  had  no  trouble,  and  in  some  districts  the  patrons  talk  and  apply  for 
abandonment  and  transportation. 

7.  We  have  in  the  last  six  years  consolidated  and  abandoned  about  15  districts  in  the  county, 
and  prospects  are  for  the  abandonment  of  10  more  this  and  next  year. 

Henry  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  is  favorable  to  discontinuing  the  small  schools  so  far  as  most  of  the  trustees 
are  concerned. 

2.  Dudley  Township,  with  good  success.  Harrison  Township,  with  success  not  so  good. 

3.  Advantages:  (1)  Can  procure  better  teachers.  (2)  Longer  term.  (3)  Longer  period  for  reci¬ 
tation.  (4)  Classes  better  and  more  evenly  graded.  (5)  Cheaper  and  better  buildings. 

Disadvantages:  (1)  Pupils  may  have  to  wait  for  hack  on  bad  days.  (2)  Where  hack  is  not 
heated  it  is  too  cold.  (3)  Frequently  too  much  crowded  and  might  tend  to  cultivate  habits 
unfavorable  to  etiquette.  (4)  It  throws  the  good  country  boys  in  association  with  the  uncouth, 
cigarette-smoking  boys  of  the  villages,  since  the  graded  school  is  in  the  village  usually. 

4.  Dudley  Township,  the  patrons  like  it  fairly  well.  Harrison  Township,  not  very  well,  owing 
partly,  I  think,  to  the  prejudice  occasioned  by  opposing  it  in  the  start. 

5.  As  far  as  4  miles. 

6.  In  Harrison  Township  the  patrons  wanted  a  schoolhouse  built  in  the  district.  The  trustee 
thought  there  were  not  enough  scholars  to  justify  it,  and  refused.  He  transported  the  pupils. 
The  pupils  and  patrons  decided  to  oppose  it,  and  have  done  so.  They  call  the  hack  the  “ice 
wagon,'’  although  it  is  well  inclosed.  Other  districts,  fearing  a  trustee  might  do  them  likewise, 
made  it  a  trustee  election  issue  and  won. 

7.  I  am  not  in  favor  of  transporting  good  country  schools  where  they  are  large  enough  to 
keep  up  a  good  interest;  but  am  decidedly  in  favor  of  transporting  small  schools  or  schools  in 
settlements  where  the  patrons  do  not  work  in  harmony  with  the  schools.  It  seems  a  good  thing 
where  it  can  be  done  by  the  consent  of  the  patrons,  but  not  so  good  otherwise. 

Howard  County: 

1.  Nothing  of  the  kind  has  been  done  yet,  but  I  think  it  will  be  tried  in  some  township53  next 
year.  Some  trustees  and  members  of  advisory  boards  think  it  is  the  proper  thing  to  do.  I  am 
encouraging  the  movement  all  I  can,  for  I  have  found  many  schools  too  small  for  good  work. 
I  really  believe  that  better  work  is  done  in  the  overcrowded  school  than  in  the  schools  with  a 
small  enrollment. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Huntington  County: 

1.  Very  favorable. 

2.  (a)  In  Lancaster  and  Polk  townships.  (6)  A  strong  sentiment  against  it  by  the  patrons 
before  being  tried;  but  almost  universal  satisfaction  at  close  of  the  school  term. 

3.  (a)  Regularity  of  attendance,  no  tardiness,  no  playing  “  hooky,  ”  less  or  no  complaint  about 
conduct  of  pupils  in  going  and  returning  from  school,  less  liability  to  colds,  therefore  better 
health;  and  hence  a  much  better  school;  longer  term  of  school.  (6)  Complaint  of  patrons  about 
destroying  the  sacred  “little  red  schoolhouse.’’  No  real  disadvantage,  (c)  In  one  case,  instead 
of  paying  the  teacher  $2  per  day  and  other  necessary  expenses,  pupils  conveyed  for  89  cents  per 
day.  In  the  other  case  a  saving  of  a  little  over  $1  per  day,  besides  the  necessary  expenses  of 
fuel,  etc. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


193 


4.  Universally  favorable  in  Polk  Township.  In  Lancaster  Township  a  few  oppose  it,  but  on.; 
no  legitimate  grounds. 

5.  In  Lancaster  Township,  3  miles.  In  Polk  Township,  about  4  miles. 

6.  At  the  time  of  taking  the  enumeration  the  trustees  secured  the  consent  of  the  majority  of' 
the  patrons,  and  then  let  the  contract  of  conveying  the  pupils  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder- 
soon,  and  made  other  minor  necessary  arrangements.  In  both  cases  trustee  bought  hacks- 
The  drivers  at  first  found  some  trouble  in  discipline  until  the  teacher  and  trustee  gave  the 
pupils  to  understand  positively  that  the  driver  had  the  necessary  power  delegated  to  him  by- 
the  teacher  and  trustee.  No  trouble  afterwards. 

7.  Both  the  trustees  (L.  L.  Ulrich,  of  Lancaster  Township,  address,  River,  Ind.,  and  John  M, 
Rodgers,  of  Polk  Township,  address,  Monument  City,  Ind.)  and  myself  gratified  with  the  results. 
Jackson  County: 

1.  The  trustees  of  this,  county  favor  it  as  far  as  practicable.  In  some  townships  the  roads  wilR 
not  permit  of  it. 

2.  In  Carr  Township,  it  was  a  success.  At  first  the  patrons  objected,  but  after  it  was  tried-; 
they  seemed  to  be  satisfied. 

3.  An  advantage  in  the  case  tried;  was  not  only  a  financial  one,  but  a  great  advantage  to  the- 
pupils.  It  placed  them  in  a  good  graded  school,  one  in  which  there  was  an  interest  manifested, 
in  the  class,  also  on  the  play  grounds,  gave  them  longer  time  for  recitation,  etc.  Financially,  a.-, 
saving  of  75  cents  per  day. 

4.  The  most  of  them  favor  the  plan.  Some  oppose,  to  be  on  the  contrary  side. 

5.  About  3  miles. 

6.  In  Carr  Township  there  is  a  school  about  3  miles  from  Medora,  a  graded  school.  This  school" 
enrolled  about  12  pupils.  The  trustee  hired  a  man  to  convey  them  for  75  cents  per  day.  Ha 
went  out  at  a  certain  time  and  they  were  on  the  road  when  he  arrived.  The  pupils  were  never- 
tardy  and  were  regular  in  attendance. 

7.  No  answer. 

Jasper  County: 

1.  Decidedly  in  favor  of  discontinuing  small  schools.  Under  favorable  circumstances  in  favor* 
of  consolidation. 

2.  Walker.  We  had  a  school  of  about  8  pupils.  It  cost  us  about  $90  to  have  these  taken  to 
another  school.  We  saved  over  $200.  The  pupils  were  better  instructed  and  we  were  well; 
pleased  with  the  result. 

3.  It  increases  the  length  of  school  term.  We  can  pay  more,  and  thereby  secure  better- 
teachers.  It  aids  in  the  supervision  of  the  county  superintendent.  Pupils  were  better  taught. 
We  saved  about  $200  in  one  school  last  year.  (Teacher,  130  days  at  $2  per  day,  $260.  Fuel,  $40/ 
Total  expense,  $300.  Cost  of  transporting,  $90.  Saved,  $210. ) 

4.  Objected  at  .first,  but  were  well  pleased  later.  I  think,  however,  that  patrons  as  a  rule  are^- 
very  largely  opposed  to  the  idea  of  consolidation. 

5.  Two  miles. 

6.  We  had  a  school  of  about  8  pupils.  They  lived  about  2  miles  from  another  school.  We  hacfe 
been  having  a  very  poor  school  here,  and  decided  that  it  would  be  best  to  take  them  to  the^ 
other  school.  The  year  before  our  school  cost  us  about  $300.  We  took  these  pupils  to  the  other- 
school  for  $90  and  gave  them  a  much  better  school. 

7.  The  great  barrier  in  our  way  of  consolidation  is  “bad  roads.” 

Jay  County: 

1.  There  isn’t  much  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  plan,  except  in  the  case  of  very  small  schools/- 
There  has  been  but  1  school  abandoned  in  Jay  County  in  the  past  three  years.  That  one  was  in  - 
Richland  Township.  Former  pupils  of  that  school  are  now  sent  to  adjacent  schools  in  the 
same  township  or  are  transferred  to  Dunkirk. 

2.  There  has  been  but  one  attempt  at  transportation.  That  was  in  Penn  Township,  Granville  - 
Phillips,  trustee.  He  had  planned  to  discontinue  2  of  his  smallest  schools  and  transport  the 
pupils  to  Pennville,  but  when  school  was  about  to  open  such  strong  opposition  was  manifested* 
by  the  patrons  that  he  thought  best  not  to  attempt  it. 

3.  4,  5,  6  and  7.  No  answer. 

Jefferson  County. 

1.  The  question  of  abandoning  the  small  schools  and  consolidating  the  schools  in  the  various  - 
townships  of  this  (Jefferson)  county  has  been  discussed  at  the  meetings  of  the  board  of  educa^ 
tion  for  the  past  few  years,  but  thus  far  no  definite  action  has  been  taken.  They  are  fully  alive 
to  the  merits  of  the  plan,  but  are  not  ready  to  pronounce  it  feasible  on  account  of  many  of  the* 
township  roads  being  almost  impassable  during  certain  periods  every  year. 

2.  It  has  not  as  yet  been  tried. 

3.  4,  5  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  Several  small  schools  have  been  abandoned  in  this  county  during  the  past  three  yearsy. 
resulting  in  quite  a  material  saving  financially  and  in  strengthening  the  other  schools- 
without  working  any  great  hardships  on  the  pupils  in  the  districts  temporarily  abandoned„- 

ED  1901- - 13 


194 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  roads  are  becoming  much  better  year  by  year,  but  at  present  the  plan  of  consolidating  the 
weaker,  or  all  of  the  schools  of  the  townships,  is  almost  impracticable. 

Jennings  County: 

1.  Except  in  1  township  (Spencer)  there  has  not  been  any  sentiment  on  part  of  trustees.  In 
township  named,  with  20  miles  of  new  pike  road,  the  trustee  has  abandoned  3  country  schools, 
and  children  attend  the  Central  Township  school  at  Hayden.  There  are  other  country  schools 
yet  in  township,  but  I  do  not  think  they  will  be  abandoned. 

2.  In  none. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  I  have  been  working  on  trustees  and  patrons  along  the  line  of  consolidation  in  some  locali¬ 
ties,  but  as  yet  we  have  not  been  able  to  overcome  the  prejudices  against  the  idea.  I  believe, 
however,  with  better  roads,  we  are  soon  to  be  able  to  abandon  quite  a  number  of  small  schools. 
Knox  County: 

1.  The  trustees,  as  a  rule,  think  favorably  of  the  plan  and  have  discussed  it  freely.  The  condi¬ 
tions  in  this  county  are  unfavorable  to  carrying  into  effect  this  plan.  We  have  no  good  roads 
in  this  county  at  present,  but  elections  have  been  held  in  2  townships  this  month  and  good 
roads  were  voted.  For  the  past  three  months  the  roads  have  been  impassable. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Lagrange  County: 

1.  They  are  in  favor  of  consolidation  so  far  as  the  size  of  the  school  will  permit  economy  and 
the  topography  of  the  country  does  not  interfere.  The  probabilities  in  this  county  are  for  lim¬ 
ited  consolidation. 

2.  Springfield,  Bloomfield,  Johnson,  Clay,  and  Van  Buren.  The  parties  transported  are  gen 
erally  well  pleased.  All  complaints  come  from  unsatisfactory  conveyances. 

3.  I  do  not  have  the  figures,  but  trustees  are  largely  figuring  on  whether  they  can  heat,  repair 
the  house,  and  pay  teachers  so  cheaply  as  to  secure  transportation  elsewhere  with  its  teaching. 
Half  of  the  transportation  is  to  neighboring  district  schools.  The  cost  is  about  two-thirds  of 
the  old  rate  for  a  small  school. 

4.  The  graded  schools  in  most  cases  are  not  sufficiently  well  equipped  to  make  their  superior¬ 
ity  apparent  to  all.  The  parents,  as  well  as  pupils,  like  increased  numbers  and  better  organiza¬ 
tion,  but  resident  taxpayers  generally  work  against  the  abandonment  of  a  school. 

5.  From  l£  miles  on  the  route  to  the  extent  of  said  route,  about  4  miles  or  more  from  the 
schoolhouse . 

6.  Transportation  in  this  county  is  in  its  infancy,  as  fully  half  of  the  transporting  was  begun 
this  year.  They  add  one  school  at  a  time  generally,  but  the  additions  remain,  although  the 
process  is  not  very  rapid.  Johnson  doubled  the  number  of  wagons  to  two  schools  in  1899-1900. 
Same  of  Bloomfield.  Van  Buren  began,  and  so  did  Clay. 

7.  It  seems  that  consolidation  will  gain  ground  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  new 
houses  demanding  reconstruction,  as  few  or  no  new  structures  will  be  placed  near  graded 
schools  already  established. 

Lake  County: 

1.  They  think  good  roads  must  be  secured  first.  The  people  are  against  it,  and  the  trustees  do 
not  care  to  antagonize  them  too  much. 

2.  Hobart  Township.  This  was  only  for  high  school  pupils,  and  sixteen  were  transported  4 
miles  with  apparent  satisfaction. 

3.  Have  never  tried  it  in  country  schools. 

4, 5,6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Laporte  County: 

1.  The  matter  of  consolidation  of  schools  has  received  much  attention  in  this  county  within 
the  last  three  years,  and  trustees  are,  so  far  as  I  am  able  to  learn,  unanimously  in  favor  of 
abandoning  small  schools  and  transporting  pupils  at  public  expense  to  village  schools  or  other 
schools  in  the  townships. 

A  resolution  by  the  county  board  favoring  the  abandonment  of  all  the  schools  with  an  enroll¬ 
ment  of  less  than  9  pupils  was  spread  upon  the  record  of  March  6, 1899. 

2.  (a)  Galena,  Kankakee,  Center,  Johnson,  Noble,  and  Hanna  townships.  (6)  Has  given  general 
satisfaction  to  patrons  and  school  officers,  and  made  a  saving  to  the  townships  of  over  half. 

3.  I  would  consider  the  following  advantages:  (a)  Much  cheaper,  saving  in  heat,  school  appa¬ 
ratus,  and  repairs  of  buildings  in  case  schools  had  been  opened  in  the  abandoned  districts.  The 
saving  must  be  greater  in  case  several  schools  are  abandoned  in  the  same  township.  (6)  Attend¬ 
ance  has  been  increased  and  cases  of  tardiness  reduced,  (c)  Pupils’  health  has  not  been  impaired 
by  wet  feet, etc.,  and  better  sanitary  conditions  have  been  possible  in  the  school,  (d)  I  believe 
better  roads  will  follow,  (e)  It  will  give  a  longer  term  of  school  under  better  conditions.  (/) 
Closer  and  more  efficient  supervision,  (p)  It  will  give  a  graded  instead  of  an  ungraded  school, 
where  each  pupil  will  have  the  advantage  of  personal  contact  with  his  instructor,  and  the  inter¬ 
est  and  emulation  accruing  from  larger  classes  instead  of  being  a  member  of  one  of  eight  divi- 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


195 


sions  under  the  same  teacher,  and,  as  in  many  cases,  the  only  member  of  his  class  in  the  school. 
(7t)  It  will  give  each  teacher  an  opportunity  to  specialize  in  her  particular  grade;  give  her  a 
chance  to  select  the  work  which  she  best  likes  and  is  most  efficient  in.  (i)  Make  a  united 
whole  of  township  schools  and  bring  them  more  nearly  on  a  standard  with  city  schools. 

I  would  consider  long  distance,  in  some  cases,  and  bad  roads  in  some  localities,  as  disad¬ 
vantages. 

In  no  case  have  all  the  schools  of  a  township  been  consolidated  in  this  county.  Transportation 
for  the  small  schools  has  cost  from  $75  to  $160.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the  abandoned  schools 
would  have  cost— teacher,  $320;  fuel,  $25;  apparatus  and  repairs,  $35;  total, $380. 

4.  Patrons  as  a  rule  remonstrated  against  the  plan  at  first,  but  in  no  cases  have  substantial 
complaints  been  made.  After  the  plan  is  once  in  operation  and  patrons  see  its  advantages  they 
show  a  disposition  to  advance  the  cause. 

5.  Pupils  have  not  been  transported  more  than  3  miles  in  this  county  at  any  time. 

6.  Worden  school,  in  Noble  Township,  was  closed  last  fall  and  a  team  hired  to  transport 
pupils  a  distance  of  about  3  miles  for  $1  per  day.  The  wagon  used  was  to  be  covered  and  to  run 
on  schedule  time.  Patrons  were  generally  pleased  until  a  boy  or  young  man  was  hired  as  driver. 
Young  man  proved  incompetent  and  a  man  was  employed.  In  this  particular  case  had  the  driver 
been  competent  from  the  first,  and  the  wagon  been  better  equipped,  the  plan  would  have  been 
highly  successful.  All  is  running  smoothly  at  this  time,  and  more  schools  in  the  same  township 
will  probably  be  closed  in  the  near  futhre. 

7.  I  think  we  can  safely  say  that  consolidation  is  the  order  with  our  trustees,  and  small 
schools  will  continue  to  be  abolished  as  rapidly  as  it  is  possible  for  us  to  do  so.  We  aim  to  make 
the  change  gradually  at  first. 

Lawrence  County: 

1.  They  generally  oppose  it,  but  it  is  because  the  patrons  object  to  it. 

2.  Not  tried. 

3,4,5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  There  are  many  places  in  this  county  where  schools  could  be  consolidated  and  the  schools 
would  be  made  better  and  money  would  be  saved. 

Madison  County: 

1.  The  old  trustees  (now  in  office)  are  in  favor  of  it;  but  they  are  afraid  to  attempt  anything 
now,  as  we  have  so  many  good  single  rooms. 

2.  They  transport  about  twelve  from  Rigdon  to  2  miles  into  Boone.  The  result  was  not  the 
best  because  it  crowded  the  school  where  they  went.  It  would  have  been  better  perhaps  to 
transfer  and  send  them  to  Grant  County. 

3.  No  answer. 

4.  Don’t  like  it. 

5.  Two  miles. 

6.  No  answer. 

7.  It  has  not  been  sufficiently  tested  in  this  county  to  reach  any  conclusions  in  the  matter. 
Marion  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  among  trustees  is  strongly  in  favor  of  abandoning  the  small  schools.  In 
some  instances  trustees  have  attempted  the  same,  but  have  met  with  opposition  from  parents. 

2.  Transportation  (limited  scale)  in  Washington  and  Decatur  townships.  In  the  first  instance, 
the  patrons  much  pleased;  in  the  second,  township  patrons  dissatisfied  and  demanded  the 
reestablishment  of  the  school. 

I  am  of  the  opinion,  however,  that  this  dissatisfaction  arises  from  the  desire  to  have  a  certain 
teacher  obtain  a  school,  regardless  of  advantages. 

3.  Advantages:  Closer  grading;  broadening  of  pupils  from  association;  less  exposure  in  bad 
weather.  Disadvantages:  I  have  observed  none. 

I  can  not  give  figures,  as  a  portion  of  this  was  barter  between  trustee  and  parent. 

4.  See  statement  No.  2. 

5.  Greatest  distance,  3  miles. 

6.  Too  irregular  to  give  incident. 

7.  We  have  had  no  regular  work  in  transporting  pupils;  in  one  case  trustee  transported  a  part 
of  the  year  and  parents  a  portion  of  the  year.  In  some  instances  parents  transported  their  own 
children  and  those  of  one  or  two  other  families.  The  work  in  this  line  here  is  irregular.  We 
meet  with  much  opposition  from  the  older  inhabitants;  the  younger  element  favor  the  idea. 
Marshall  County: 

1.  Favorable. 

2.  We  have  not  transported  pupils,  but  have  abandoned  a  few  small  schools  where  the  pupils 
would  not  have  to  walk  more  than  2  miles  to  reach  another  school. 

3.  Makes  weak  schools  strong  and  is  less  expensive.  Can  not  give  figures. 

4.  Educated  people  can  see  the  benefit  of  the  combination,  thus  giving  better  instruction. 

5  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  We  do  not  transport  any  pupils,  but  I  think  if  we  can  get  our  patrons  to  see  the  advantage 


196 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  closing  the  smaller  schools  and  uniting  them  with  the  larger  ones,  we  will  get  the  advantage 
of  graded  work  at  a  less  expense. 

Martin  County: 

1.  In  the  affirmative.  Public  sentiment  is  growing  in  favor  of  it. 

2.  Not  one. 

3.  Our  disadvantages  would  be  bad  roads  and  number  of  streams  that  cut  up  the  county. 

4.  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  The  physical  geography  of  Martin  County  would  make  it  impossible  to  carry  the  concentra¬ 
tion  as  far  as  in  a  more  level  country.  We  shall  have  to  have  more  schoolhouses  than  a  more 
level  one,  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Miami  County: 

1.  Trustees  are  in  favor  of  consolidating  schools  and  are  doing  so  as  far  as  practicable. 

2.  None. 

3.  Better  schoolhouses. 

4.  Favorable. 

5.  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Newton  County: 

1.  In  a  few  townships  the  trustees  favor  consolidating  schools,  but  in  most  townships  the 
roads  are  too  bad  during  the  winter  months. 

2.  In  McClellan  and  Lake.  Lake  has  not  tried  it  extensively,  and  trustee  says  but  little  for  or 
against  it,  but  I  think  it  will  be  quite  popular  in  the  near  future.  Trustee  Elmer  Skinner,  of 
McClellan,  says:  “Increased  attendance,  little  or  no  tardiness,  better  work,  better  teachers  at 
advanced  wages,  longer  school  term,  better  libraries,  better  supervision.  ” 

3.  Schools  were  consolidated  from  6  to  3.  Mr.  S.  pays  liberal  salaries,  pays  special  music 
teacher,  etc.,  and  finds  a  net  saving  of  $708  per  year. 

4.  Mr.  S.  states:  “First,  only  objections,  dislike  to  send  pupils  so  far  from  home;  second,  local 
jealousy  and  a  natural  dislike  to  getting  out  of  the  old  ruts.  The  patrons,  with  few  exceptions, 
are  at  present  pleased  with  the  change.” 

5.  All  pupils  outside  of  a  2-mile  limit. 

6  and  7.  No  answer. 

Noble  County: 

1.  Our  trustees  are  now  discussing  the  subject.  Some  favor  and  some  oppose  it. 

2.  In  Orange  Township  with  excellent  and  satisfactory  effects. 

3.  Advantages:  Better  schools,  larger  classes  in  certain  grades,  better  grading,  gives  teachers 
a  better  chance,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  have  so  many  grades  to  the  room,  and,  in  fact,  I  approve 
of  it  in  every  way  where  roads  permit  of  the  consolidation. 

In  some  parts  of  our  county  the  roads  are  bad  during  a  portion  of  the  year.  I  can  not  give 
figures  of  saving,  but  the  trustee  of  Orange  Township,  W.  W.  Williams,  can. 

4.  I  believe  the  patrons  are  delighted  after  having  tried  it.  Of  course  there  was  some  grum¬ 
bling  and  “  kicking  ”  at  first. 

5.  I  think  4  miles  is  the  farthest. 

6.  Mr.  Williams  will  be  able  to  do  this  far  more  intelligently  than  I  can. 

7.  No  answer. 

Ohio  County: 

1.  They  are  very  much  in  favor  of  abandoning  small  schools  and  consolidating  when  it  is 
practicable. 

2.  In  Randolph  Township,  and  has  been  satisfactory. 

3.  Better  school,  and  saving  of  about  $150  in  the  one  case  where  we  have  transported  pupils. 

4.  Some  favor  and  some  oppose  it. 

5.  Two  and  one-half  miles. 

6.  Have  only  had  one,  from  which  I  have  given  the  preceding. 

7.  No  answer. 

Orange  County: 

1.  In  townships  where  the  roads  are  graveled  and  coitntry  is  fairly  level  it  is  favorably  con¬ 
sidered  by  the  trustees,  and  I  believe  will  be  tried  before  long. 

2.  None  as  yet. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  One  township  in  Orange  County  is  ripe  for  the  experiment,  and  I  think  there  would  be 
nothing  in  the  way  of  successfully  putting  the  plan  into  operation  in  this  township  in  the  near 
future.  The  people  have  been  talking  it,  and  some  of  the  country  schools  adjacent  to  Orleans 
are  almost  deserted,  as  the  children  are  going  2  and  3  miles  to  town,  by  reason  of  good  roads 
and  superior  school  advantages. 

Perry  County: 

1.  Two  trustees  have  made  an  effort  to  abandon  small  schools.  Oil  Township  has  abandoned 
3,  and  a  fourth  will  be  this  year.  Union  will  unite  2  this  year.  I  am  going  to  try  to  reduce  the 
number  in  Clark.  Other  trustees  are  afraid  of  their  popularity. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL, 


197 


2.  Have  never  tried  it.  Can  not  interest  anyone  in  it. 

3.  We  have  a  few  localities  where  this  plan  is  practicable. 

4.  Don’t  think. 

5.  Condition  of  our  roads  will  make  this  impossible  in  most  parts  of  Perry  County. 

6.  No  answer. 

7.  Tobin  Township  presents  the  best  opportunity  for  a  trial  of  transporting  in  this  county. 
Pike  County: 

1.  We  have  discussed  the  matter  but  little.  There  are  a  few  trustees  who  will  have  to  trans¬ 
port  or  build  new  houses.  Our  trustees  are  in  favor  of  that  measure  that  will  make  our  schools 
better.  Will  discuss  that  subject  at  our  next  meeting— May  1. 

2.  None. 

3.  Don’t  know. 

4.  They  know  nothing  about  it. 

5  and  6.  None. 

7.  No  answer. 

Porter  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  is  strong  among  trustees,  but  the  people  of  the  smaller  districts  object,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  lead  them  to  see  the  benefit. 

2.  In  Union  Township  we  are  transporting  one  school,  and  with  good  effect,  but  we  had  much 
trouble  to  start  them.  Now  they  do  not  desire  to  go  to  the  old  school. 

3.  No  disadvantage  whatever.  To  say  nothing  of  the  $240  saved,  the  advantage  of  having  the 
children  in  larger  classes  and  having  access  to  a  better  library  and  school  apparatus  can  not  be 
estimated. 

4.  As  I  stated  under  No.  2,  the  parents  fought  the  movement  at  first.  They  furnished  all  kinds 
of  objections,  but  found  by  trial  that  their  objections  were  not  well  founded. 

5.  Two  miles. 

6.  We  had  a  school  of  nine.  The  parents  objected  on  the  ground  that  if  the  school  was  closed 
they  would  never  have  a  school  again.  They  threatened  to  take  it  to  the  courts,  but  the  school 
officials  were  willing  to  do  so,  and  finally  the  parents  submitted  and  are  now  well  pleased. 

7.  I  think  as  soon  as  we  have  the  road  problem  settled  we  can  save  much  money  by  having  all 
our  smaller  schools  transported. 

Posey  County: 

1.  Generally  they  are  in  favor  of  holding  to  the  small  schools.  The  idea  is  a  new  one,  and  the 
township  trustees  of  this  county  are  afraid  that  siich  consolidation  would  be  condemned  by  the 
school  patrons  of  their  townships.  The  subject  has  been  much  discussed  at  the  county  teachers’ 
associations  and  also  at  the  farmers’  institutes.  The  farmers  of  the  county  are  of  the  opinion 
that  the  driver  of  an  ambulance  conveying  children  from  one  school  district  to  another  in  the 
winter  season  would  probably  find  a  Posey  County  mud  hole  that  would  block  the  entire  scheme. 

2.  None. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  It  is  my  opinion  that  the  idea  is  a  good  one;  but  with  the  consolidation  of  schools  must  also 
come  improved  and  better  country  roads.  I  am  also  of  the  opinion  that  the  saving  in  the  salary 
of  teachers,  improvement  of  school  houses,  together  with  the  better  culture  that  would  be 
afforded  by  consolidation,  would  be  in  a  great  measure  sufficient  to  improve  the  roads.  I  am 
heartily  in  favor  of  the  scheme,  but  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  will  be  many  summers  and  winters 
before  it  can  be  realized  in  this  county. 

« 

Putnam  County: 

1.  A  few  trustees  think  it  would  be  best  to  abandon  a  few  schools,  but  feel  that  until  the  senti¬ 
ment  of  the  patrons  favors  such  a  course  no  work  in  this  line  can  be  done. 

The  patrons  soon  learn  the  law  when  they  are  requested  to  agree  to  have  their  school  discon¬ 
tinued  and  refuse  to  do  so.  They  have  refused  transportation  when  offered  them.  Nothing 
can  be  done  here  until  the  law  bearing  on  the  subject  is  changed. 

2.  Has  been  refused  in  Clinton,  Russell,  and  Floyd. 

3.  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Randolph  County: 

1.  No  effort  has  been  made  in  the  direction  indicated,  which  would  imply  that  they  are  unfa¬ 
vorable  to  the  plans. 

2.  In  no  townships  worthy  of  noting. 

3.  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Ripley  County: 

1.  They  are  not  favorable  to  it.  In  two  different  townships  one  school  has  been  adandoned  on 
account  of  average  attendance  being  very  small— only  about  six  for  the  term. 

2.  It  has  not  been  tried. 

3.  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 


198 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


Rusli  County: 

1.  Favorable,  but  hesitating  to  breast  the  opinion  of  some  people  called  the  “public.”  A  few 
can  make  a  great  noise. 

2.  Jackson  Township  tried  this  during  the  school  year  1898-99. 

(a)  The  roads  were  so  bad  in  the  locality  in  which  it  was  tried  that  it  was  almost  ixnpossible 
for  the  driver  to  carry  out  his  contract,  so  it  was  continued  about  two  months. 

(b)  The  children  transported  at  public  expense  belonged  exclusively  to  poor  families,  and  a 
vigorous  protest  was  made  by  heavier  taxpayers. 

3.  (a)  The  pupils  were  always  on  time. 

(b)  The  condition  of  the  roads  was  a  decided  disadvantage. 

(c)  In  this  instance  there  was  no  saving  of  expense. 

4.  Those  receiving  the  benefit  were  well  pleased.  The  others  were  greatly  opposed. 

5.  This  experiment  was  made  for  21  miles.  It  was  a  little  town — Henderson — which  was  con¬ 
veyed  to  an  adjoining  district. 

6.  In  Washington  Township  the  pupils  transport  themselves.  Some  twenty  years  ago  the 
trustee,  W.  S.  Hall  (he  is  the  original  promoter  of  concentration  of  schools  in  Indiana),  rear¬ 
ranged  the  schoolhouses,  making  the  number  5  instead  of  8,  and  started  a  graded  school.  The 
township  is  6  miles  square,  so  that  some  pupils  must  drive  4  miles  to  reach  the  graded  school. 
He  was  bitterly  opposed  by  a  majority  of  his  people,  but  by  his  tireless  energy  and  determina¬ 
tion  arranged  the  township  so  that  money  has  been  saved  to  the  people,  and  they  can  maintain 
seven  months  of  school  with  a  low  levy.  The  diagram  at  the  close  of  this  section  will  show  the 
location  of  the  schoolhouses.  The  truant  officer  has  little  to  do  in  this  township,  as  there  is  a 
splendid  school  sentiment.  Some  patrons  are  now  sending  their  children  past  other  schools  to 
get  them  into  the  graded  school  of  three  rooms  and  two  years  of  high  school.  All  eighth -year 
pupils  except  two  in  the  township  have  attended  the  graded  school  during  the  past  year,  thus 
relieving  the  county  teacher  of  some  work. 

7.  No  answer. 

Scott  County  : 

1.  The  sentiment  is  strongly  in  favor  of  abandoning  small  schools  and  making  the  districts 
larger,  but  is  not  much  in  favor  of  the  one  schoolhouse  idea. 

2.  Transportation  has,not  been  tried. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  I  do  not  think  the  time  has  yet  come  in  this  county  for  the  abandonment  of  district  schools 
in  general,  and  believe  that  any  attempt  at  general  consolidation  will  be  viewed  with  suspicion 
by  the  people. 

Shelby  County: 

1.  I  have  brought  the  matter  before  my  trustees  several  times,  and  they  consider  the  matter 
very  favorably. 

In  view  of  the  new  township  law,  however,  they  are  very  doubtful  whether  it  can  now  be  done 
very  easily. 

2.  It  has  been  tried  in  Hanover  Township,  Shelby  County.  It  was  very  satisfactory  to  the 
patrons  after  it  had  been  instituted,  but  it  received  their  hearty  disapproval  at  the  time  the 
trustee  had  the  move  under  consideration. 

3.  By  this  system  the  pupils  were  enabled  to  secure  the  graded  work;  they  were  in  classes  that 
were  larger,  thus  securing  a  better  class  enthusiasm;  it  brought  the  country  pupils  in  close 
touch  with  the  high-school  pupils,  creating  in  the  country  pupils  a  desire  for  high-school  work. 

I  do  not  remember  the  exact  saving,  but  the  cost  per  pupil  in  the  transferred  school  was 
decreased  about  ©ne-half . 

4.  As  I  understand  it,  the  patrons  like  the  plan  very  much.  The  trustee  of  this  township 
intended  to  consolidate  all  the  schools  of  his  township  this  year,  but  he  had  an  advisory  board 
not  in  sympathy  with  his  plans;  hence  he  let  the  matter  drop. 

5.  In  this  case  the  pupils  were  transported  about  4  miles,  I  think. 

6.  During  the  last  school  year  William  Patterson,  trustee  of  Hanover  Township,  decided  to 
transfer  the  school  just  north  of  Morristown  to  the  town  of  Morristown.  He  secured  a  closed 
hack  for  the  purpose,  secured  a  hackman  for  the  sum  of  $1  per  day,  and  gave  the  plan  a  trial. 
Mr.  Patterson  will  be  glad  to  correspond  with  anyone  that  has  a  move  like  this  under  consider¬ 
ation.  As  I  have  said,  however,  the  arrangement  was  entirely  satisfactory  in  every  particular. 

7.  This  plan  demonstrates  that  there  are  a  large  number  of  schools  being  conducted  at  an 
expense  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  cost  of  maintaining  other  schools  that,  from  the  large  num¬ 
ber  accommodated,  are  far  more  succcessful  schools;  that  it  gives  to  the  children  of  the  remote 
districts  an  opportunity  of  attending  the  graded  schools,  thereby  having  an  opportunity  for 
more  extended  work  than  in  the  districts  that  work  under  more  competent  instructors.  The 
plan  recommends  itself  to  every  school  man,  but,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  it  does  not  at  first  appeal  to 
the  mass  of  school  patrons. 

Spencer  County: 

1.  There  is  a  tendency  here  to  abandon  small  schools.  I  think  all  the  trustees  would  encour¬ 
age  consolidation  enough  to  have  all  the  buildings  of  at  least  two  rooms. 


TRANSPORTATION  OP  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL, 


199 


2.  The  townships  have  not  transported  any. 

3,  4,  and  5.  No  answer. 

6.  At  one  place,  Lake,  some  pupils  go  several  miles,  using  their  own  means  of  transportation, 
and  all  interested  parties  see  it  is  the  best  thing  to  do  at  present. 

7.  No  answer. 

St.  .Joseph  County: 

1.  With  regard  to  the  report  for  transportation  of  children,  will  say  that  it  has  not  been  tried 
here  enough  to  tell  how  it  would  work.  One  township  is  transporting  some  pupils  to  prevent 
transfers,  and  so  far  it  works  very  well.  The  cost  is  a  little  less  than  to  transfer,  and  it  makes 
what  was  a  small  school  large  enough  to  make  a  good  school.  I  think  that  more  of  this  will  be 
done  each  year,  and  some  small  schools  maybe  closed  by  this  means  next  year. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Steuben  County: 

1.  This  has  been  done  but  little  in  our  county.  At  present  we  have  but  two  abandoned  schools. 
The  pupils  belonging  to  these  districts  were  accommodated  without  transportation.  When  the 
attendance  is  but  four  or  five  pupils  the  trustees  generally  abandon  the  school. 

2.  Transportation  has  been  tried  once  in  the  county,  in  Jackson  Township.  Schoolhouse 
burned,  and  trustee  transported  pupils  to  his  township  graded  high  school.  Attendance  was 
fairly  good,  but  not  as  good  as  in  the  home  district. 

3.  In  the  one  case  the  saving  was  about  one-half.  Do  not  know  exact  figures.  The  trustee  did 
not  have  any  extra  expense  except  the  transportation*  He  did  not  add  to  his  teaching  force  in 
he  high  school. 

4.  The  patrons  who  sent  children  accepted  tlje  situation,  but  preferred  the  school  nearer  home, 
so  the  trustee  built  new  house. 

5.  About  4  miles  was  the  farthest  in  the  case  mentioned.  No  transportation  has  been  done 
for  over  a  year. 

6.  I  believed  have  given  enough  data  so  that  you  may  know  the  general  nature  of  the  exper¬ 
iment.  I  have  given  all  I  know. 

7.  No  answer. 

Sullivan  County: 

1.  We  are  trying  to  disband  the  small  schools  where  the  pupils  can  be  accommodated  at  some 
other  place.  In  the  last  two  years  we  have  abandoned  2.  I  think  we  will  abandon  2  more  the 
coming  year. 

2.  None. 

3.  4, 5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  I  have  been  trying  especially  to  get  country  schools  discontinued  where  the  school  is  located 
near  some  town.  Our  roads  are  just  beginning  to  get  in  shape  to  think  about  transportation  of 
pupils.  We  have  had  no  gravel  roads  until  the  last  three  years.  We  have  more  single  schools 
than  we  need  if  we  can  once  get,  them  properly  located. 

Switzerland  County: 

1.  All  school  officials  of  this  county  know  that  the  plan  would  not  only  be  universally  unpop¬ 
ular,  but  also  appreciate  the  fact  that  to  consolidate  the  schools  by  township,  with  the  view  of 
transportation  of  pupils  would  not  be  practicable,  but  absolutely  impossible,  because  of  the 
rough  and  uneven  surface  of  the  country,  the  irregularly  and  imperfectly  laid  out  system  of 
roads,  and  in  the  winter  time  the  absolutely  impassable  condition  of  the  roads. 

2,  3,  4,  and  5.  No  answer. 

6.  The  experiment  has  not  been  tried,  but  the  experience  of  the  superintendent  in  visiting 
schools  this  winter  is  conclusive  evidence  to  his  mind  that  the  plan  would  be  a  complete  failure. 

Personally  the  county  superintendent  favors  the  plan  in  such  counties  where  the  roads  and 
the  other  conditions  would  make  the  plan  practicable,  or  even  possible. 

7.  No  answer. 

Tippecanoe  County: 

1.  The  trustees  in  this  county  are  agreed  that  something  should  be  done,  as  indicated  above, 
but  I  think  it  will  be  difficult  to  accomplish  much  this  year,  for  political  reasons.  We  have 
about  25  schools,  the  enrollment  of  which  is  less  than  15, 

2.  It  has  not  been  tried  in  this  county.  I  am  trying  to  get  this  started  in  4  townships  for 
next  year.  It  would  be  a  mistake  and  defeat  the  project  here  if  we  were  to  try  to  make  this 
general  throughout  the  county.  If  we  can  start  it  in  a  few  places  and  show  that  it  can  be 
accomplished  and  carried  on  successfully,  then  we  can  make  it  general.  County  especially  well 
situated  for  consolidating  schools.  High  schools  in  every  township  and  good  gravel  roads. 

3.  No  answer. 

4.  Has  not  been  tried. 

5  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  If  there  were  some  law  to  warrant  trustees  to  close  schoolhouses,  much  could  be  done.  But 
as  long  as  trustee  has  to  obtain  consent  of  patrons  he  can  not  accomplish  very  much.  A  law  to 
this  effect  would  work  well  here:  The  county  superintendent,  the  county  truant  officer,  and 


200 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


the  trustee  in  his  respective  township  to  constitute  a  commission  with  power  to  close  school- 
houses  and  school  distance  to  he  4  miles  when  conveyance  is  provided. 

Tipton  County: 

1.  All  the  trustees  are  in  favor  of  abandoning  small  schools  and  placing  the  children  in  the 
graded  schools  wherever  it  can  be  done. 

2.  In  Jefferson  Township  this  plan  has  been  in  operation  for  the  past  three  years. 

One  school  of  about  10  pupils  was  abandoned;  a  hack  used  for  transportation  of  pupils  to  the 
Kempton  graded  schools.  In  Wildcat  Township  no  transportation  has  been  done  or  schools 
abandoned  by  the  trustee,  but  a  great  many  eighth-year  pupils  in  a  radius  of  4  to  5  miles  have 
been  driving  in  buggies  in  order  to  get  the  better  advantages  offered  in  the  Windfall  schools. 

3.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  in  the  cases  above  named  is  they  receive  superior  instruction; 
another,  they  are  given  more  attention.  From  a  financial  standpoint  it  is  a  great  saving  to  the 
township.  The  year  just  closing  Jefferson  Township  had  120  days  of  school. 


Teacher’s  salary,  at  $2  per  day . _ . .  $240 

Cost  of  fuel . . 22 

Repairs,  etc . . .  . - . -  10 

Total . 272 

Cost  of  transportation . . . - . .  100 

Saving  in  one  year.. .  172 


4.  Where  it  has  been  tried  patrons  are  in  favor  of  the  plan. 

5.  Four  miles  one  way. 

6.  Three  years  ago  Mr.  A.  H.  Hinkle,  trustee  ofe  Jefferson  Township,  Tipton  County,  was  con¬ 
fronted  with  the  problem  either  to  build  a  new  school  building  or  transport  the  pupils  to  the 
Kempton  schools,  a  distance  of  4  miles.  He  chose  the  latter  plan,  although  meeting  with  some 
opposition  from  the  patrons.  The  plan  has  been  in  operation  for  three  years,  and  the  patrons 
are  now  favorably  impressed  with  it,  having  seen  the  better  advantages  their  children  are 
receiving  in  the  graded  schools,  as  well  as  the  financial  saving  of  about  $175  each  year  to  the 
township. 

7.  Attempts  will  be  made  in  other  townships  next  year  to  consolidate  some  of  the  smaller 
schools,  and  unless  we  meet  with  too  much  opposition  there  will  be  2  schools  abandoned  in 
Cicero  Township,  2  in  Jefferson,  and  1  in  Liberty. 

Vanderburg  County: 

1.  Generally  speaking,  our  trustees  believe  in  the  abandonment  of  small  schools. 

2.  Transportation  has  been  tried  in  Knight  Township,  2  colored  schools  having  been  consoli¬ 
dated,  1  school  being  abandoned.  The  conditions  in  this  case  were  peculiarly  favorable  to  the 
scheme,  all  the  children  living  almost  in  one  house,  the  distance  of  transportation  being  about 
3  miles  and  the  roads  good.  Naturally  it  has  been  a  success. 

3.  There  could  be  but  one  advantage  in  this  case,  and  that  a  financial  one.  It  saved  Knight 


Township  one  teacher’s  salary  minus  cost  of  transportation. 

Previous  salary  paid  to  teacher  of  abandoned  school  for  month .  $40 

Coal,  brooms,  etc.,  per  month,  probably .  2 

Total .  42 

Cost  of  transportation  per  month . .  15 

Amount  saved  to  township  per  month . —  27 

4.  Patrons  a^^prove  the  plan. 

5.  Transport  pupils  about  3  miles. 

6.  No  answer. 


7.  Plan  demands  good  roads  and  good  vehicles;  stoves  needed  for  winter.  Outside  of  incon¬ 
veniences,  such  as  getting  children  ready  for  school  very  early,  bad  roads,  etc. ,  the  plan  of 
course  secures,  as  a  result,  all  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  graded-school  system 
and  loses  all  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  district  system. 

Vermilion  County: 

1.  One  township  trustee  is  trying  to  do  this,  All  agree  that  it  should  be  done. 

2.  One  township,  Helt,  has  offered  this  in  one  instance,  but  the  patrons  would  not  accept. 

3, 4, 5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  The  patrons  of  a  small  old  school  cling  tenaciously  to  that  school  apparently  for  what  it 
has  been.  They  object  to  transportation  for  various  reasons,  such  as  “  too  cold,”  “too  crowded,” 
“danger  of  runaways,”  “  too  far,”  etc.  Prejudice  and  selfishness  would  probably  cover  ground 
of  objections. 

Vigo  County: 

1.  The  trustees  favor  consolidation,  but  have  been  slow  to  act  because  the  roads  have  been  so 
poor  that  it  has  been  thought  to  be  impracticable  at  present.  An  extensive  system  of  gravel 
roads  is  now  in  course  of  construction,  which,  when  completed,  will  remove  the  difficulty  of 
transportation. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL, 


201 


2.  In  Otter  Creek  Township;  failure. 

3.  No  answer. 

4.  Patrons  were  opposed  to  the  plan. 

5.  No  answer. 

6.  The  trustee  of  Otter  Creek  Township  attempted  to  abandon  a  school  whose  enumeration 
was  about  30.  The  patrons  of  the  school  employed  attorneys  to  bring  action  against  the  trustee. 
Before  the  suit  was  filed  the  trustee  reestablished  the  school. 

7.  No  answer. 

Wabash  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  among  trustees  is  a  great  deal  stronger  than  it  is  among  the  patrons.  I  do 
not  mean  the  making  of  just  one  School  for  the  township,  but  the  throwing  together  of  two  or 
three  district  schools. 

2.  We  have  not  tried  transportation  except  the  transporting  of  a  few  pupils  who  happened  to 
live  more  than  2  miles  from  any  school. 

3, 4, 5,  and  6.  No  answer. 

7.  Personally  I  am  very  much  in  favor  of  throwing  as  many  small  schools  into  one  as  possible. 
We  have  fairly  good  pikes,  and  I  am  inclined  to  the  belief  that  consolidation  would  be  possible 
in  parts  of  our  county  and  better  results  could  be  had  for  the  amount  of  money  expended. 
Warren  County: 

1.  On  account  of  bad  roads  the  majority  of  the  trustees  and  people  do  not  favor  the  plan. 

2.  No  answer. 

3.  We  have  not  tried  the  system  as  yet. 

4.  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Warrick  County: 

1.  Our  trustees  will  not  talk  of  such  a  thing,  much  less  can  I  get  them  to  try  it.  Our  roads 
are  20  feet  wide  and  2  feet  deep  during  most  of  the  winter,  and  it  is  next  to  an  impossible  thing 
to  get  children  to  school  a  distance  of  1  mile  during  a  part  of  the  year.  It  has  not  been  tried  in 
any  of  our  townships,  and  from  present  outlook  it  will  not  be  tried  for  a  number  of  years,  or 
until  the  law  compels  it.  People  are  wanting  schoolhouses  on  every  160  acres  of  land. 

2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  No  answer. 

Wayne  County; 

1.  Abandon  whenever  possible  and  consolidate.  In  the  past  ten  years  we  have  abandoned  27 
schools.  We  expect  to  abandon  3  more  this  year. 

2.  Boston,  Clay,  Franklin,  Green,  Jefferson,  New  Garden,  Perry,  and  Webster.  Very  satis¬ 
factory  results. 

3.  Advantages:  Either  graded  work  or  longer  school.  We  have  1  school  abandoned— the  pupils 
were  divided — a  part  of  whom  were  within  2  miles  of  another  school;  the  remainder  we  haul  to 
another  school  at  a  total  cost  of  $20 — saving  $330.  Our  hacks  cost  from  $85  to  $120  in  the  other 
cases.  Counting  advantages  of  graded  school  work  we  save  at  least  $3,000  a  year. 

4.  At  least  95  per  cent  of  patrons  would  not  go  back  to  the  old  plan. 

5.  From  2  to  4  miles. 

6.  When  the  Ballenger  school,  Green  Township,  was  abandoned,  the  patrons  protested  in 
strongest  terms,  threatened  litigation,  etc.  The  year  following  one  among  the  first  questions 
asked  the  trustee  when  taking  the  enumeration,  “What  are  you  going  to  do  with  our  children 
this  year?”  The  trustee  wisely  asked:  “What  is  your  wish?”  The  answer:  “Give  us  the 
hack  and  graded  work;  we  were  mistaken  last  year.” 

7.  “Consolidation ”  is  the  only  solution  of  strengthening  our  schools  and  reducing  the  cost,  at 
the  same  time  furnishing  better  teachers  at  better  salary.  (See  plan  of  Webster  Township, 
p.  2G3.) 

Wells  County: 

1.  The  trustees  of  Wells  County  are  conservative  on  this  question.  There  has  been  but  1 
school  abandoned  and  those  pupils  are  hauled  to  a  township  graded  school.  The  principal  of 
that  school  joins  me  in  making  this  report. 

2.  Chester  has  abandoned  1  school  and  pupils  are  transported  to  graded  school.  Other  districts 
desire  transportation  to  this  school. 

3.  This  is  the  third  consecutive  year  pupils  have  been  transported  from  District  No.  8,  Chester 
Township,  to  the  Keystone  Township  graded  school.  The  advantages  are  more  numerous  than 
the  disadvantages. 

Advantages:  (1)  Pupils  are  never  tardy.  (2)  Attendance  is  better.  (3)  Pupils  reach  school 
building  with  dry  clothes  and  are  not  tired.  (4)  Better  teachers.  (5)  More  time  for  recitation. 
(6)  More  pupils  in  class,  hence  better  discussions  in  recitation.  (7)  The  expense  is  cut  down  at 
least  one-third.  (8)  Better  discipline. 

Disadvantages:  (1)  Pupils  living  near  their  proper  district  are  compelled  to  prepare  for  school 
earlier.  (The  advantages  are  so  great  we  seem  inclined  to  omit  any  disadvantages.)  (2)  Bad 
roads. 

4.  The  patrons  are  highly  pleased  with  the  plan  as  long  as  the  driver  of  the  transportation 


202  EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

wagon  is  qualified  and  good  order  is  kept  along  the  road.  The  pupils  should  be  held  responsible 
for  their  conduct  by  the  principal  of  school.  The  patrons  will  be  satisfied  as  long  as  transpor¬ 
tation  is  conducted  properly,  just  as  they  would  be  satisfied  with  the  proper  teacher  at  their 
home  district.  Patrons  are  not  satisfied  with  a  disorderly  school;  neither  are  they  satisfied 
with  an  unsystematic  carryall  system. 

5.  In  district  No.  8.  Chester  Township,  we  make  a  trip  of  8  miles  morning  and  evening,  or  16 
miles  per  day.  It  takes  about  one  hour  and  fifteen  minutes  to  make  the  trip. 

6.  September  19, 1898,  district  No.  8,  Chester  Township,  Wells  County,  Ind.,  was  transported  for 
the  first  time  to  Keystone  Township  graded  school.  At  first  it  was  a  novelty  to  pupils,  patrons, 
and  school  officers.  The  children  were  not  orderly,  probably  due  to  lack  of  government  in  their 
former  district  school.  The  order  gradually  grew  better,  but  the  climax  was  not  reached  until 
two  pupils  were  punished  by  principal  of  school  for  misconduct.  Since  that  time  everything 
moves  off  nicely  and  pupils  do  not  care  to  return  to  the  district  school. 

7.  No  answer. 

White  County: 

1.  First  class. 

2.  Jackson,  Liberty,  Union,  and  Big  Creek. 

The  “transportation  ”  of  Jackson  Township  was  fairly  satisfactory  to  all— will  try  it  again 
this  year  on  additional  schools.  One  school  in  Liberty  Township  has  been  transported  four 
consecutive  years  and  will  be  continued.  Union  Township  transported  1  school  last  year  and 
will  transport  3  this  year.  Big  Creek,  good. 

3.  (a)  Better  classification,  more  time  for  recitation,  breaks  up  feuds,  and  physically  better 
for  pupils;  also  better  teacher. 

The  only  disadvantages  are:  Residence  far  apart  and  muddy  roads  on  the  prairie.  The  sav 
ings  per  school  are:  Jackson,  $150;  Liberty,  $180;  Union,  $165;  Big  Creek,  $220. 

4.  At  first  they  object,  but  one  year  will  win  over  four-fifths  of  them.  Our  first  effort  in 
Jackson  Township  met  with  stout  resistance,  but  last  year  the  objectors  asked  to  have  the 
school  transported  the  next  year. 

5.  Varying  from  3  to  5  miles. 

6.  Our  first  effort  was  made  in  Liberty  Township,  1896-97.  The  house  in  District  No.  7  was 
unfit  for  use;  the  trustee  had  no  funds  to  rebuild  that  fall,  and  the  only  way  out  was  to  take  the 
pupils  to  a  two-room  school  in  Buffalo.  When  the  trustee  took  the  enumeration  in  1897  the 
patrons  insisted  on  being  transported  again  the  next  year,  and  the  next,  etc.  In  my  opinion, 
there  will  never  be  another  school  taught  at  No.  7. 

7.  In  addition  to  the  townships  mentioned  in  No.  2  (each  of  which  will  transport  from  1  to  3 
new  schools  next  year),  Prairie  Township  will  transport  4  schools  to  Brookston  next  year; 
Princeton  Township,  2  to  Wolcott,  and  I  think  others  will  join  the  procession  later  in  the  year. 

Centralization  by  means  of  transportation  gives  the  country  folk  an  equal  chance  and  advan¬ 
tages  with  the  towns,  and  costs  less  in  taxes.  The  system  deserves  to  be  worked  hard  and  live 
always. 

Common  wagons  and  open  carriages  should  not  be  used  to  transport  pupils.  Children  have 
fallen  out  of  these  open  rigs  and  received  severe  injuries. 

The  common  “fair-ground  hack  ”  is  more  convenient,  bars  accidents,  and  protects  the  pupils 
from  sun  and  storms. 

Whitley  County: 

1.  The  sentiment  of  abandoning  small  schools,  especially  where  they  are  located  less  than  2 
miles  apart,  prevails. 

2.  In  Union  and  Etna  townships  the  results  are  satisfactory.  School  work  is  more  interesting. 

3.  Advantages:  A  larger  school  with  its  consequent  inspiration  to  both  teacher  and  pupils.  It 
is  economical.  Last  year  teacher  in  one  school  that  is  now  abandoned  received: 


$36  per  month  for  7  months . . . . $252 

Additional  expenses — wood,  supplies,  etc . . . . - .  40 

Total . . . . . .  292 

Cost  of  transportation,  140  days . . . . .  140 

Financial  saving .  152 


This  is  a  fair  example  in  Whitley  County.  The  saving  in  finance  is  usually  added  to  the  salary 
of  the  other  teachers,  giving  the  trustee  an  advantage  in  securing  good  service. 

4.  Patrons  at  first  are  not  enthusiastic.  It  is  not  a  popular  move  to  take  the  schoolhouse  out 
of  a  man’s  dooryard.  However,  whenever  it  has  been  judiciously  tried  it  has  proven  satisfac¬ 
tory.  In  one  school  the  trustee  provided  transportation  the  first  year;  the  second  year  people 
were  so  well  pleased  that  they  furnished  their  own  transportation.  We  are  particularly  care¬ 
ful  to  secure  a  good  teacher  in  the  school  to  which  transportation  is  made. 

5.  From  2  to  3|  miles. 

6.  See  No.  4. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


203 


7.  We  have  abandoned  3  schools  In  Whitley  County,  and  expect  to  abandon  4  more  next  fall. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  consolidate  all  the  schools  of  a  township  at  the  center. 


Township  Line- North 


Plan  of  Webster  Township,  Wayne  County,  Ind.  Complete  Consolidation  of  Schools. 


CONSOLIDATION  IN  WEBSTER  TOWNSHIP,  WAYNE  COUNTY. 

The  accompanying  figure  gives  the  township  plan  of  transportation  of  Webster 
Township,  Wayne,  County,  Ind.  In  this  township  there  has  been  complete  con¬ 
solidation  of  schools  for  several  years.  I  made  a  personal  visit  to  the  township 
and  found  the  citizens,  pupils,  and  teachers  pleased  with  the  plan.  They  have  a 
well  graded  school,  good  teachers,  three  years  of  high  school  work,  and  good 
society.  Compared  with  the  old  order,  there  is  a  financial  saving,  though  a  longer 
school  term  and  high-school  advantages  are  secured  by  consolidation  of  the  schools. 

CONSOLIDATION  IN  WASHINGTON  TOWNSHIP,  RUSH  COUNTY. 

Washington  Township,  Rush  County,  Ind.,  is  6  miles  square.  The  ordinary 
arrangement  of  rural  schoolhouses  in  a  township  of  this  size  would  require  9 
schoolhouses.  Mr.  William  S.  Hall,  the  original  promoter  of  consolidation  in 
Indiana,  made  a  rearrangement  of  the  township  plan  during  his  trusteeship  so  that 
only  5  buildings  are  required — one  in  each  corner  of  the  township,  1  mile  from 
the  township  lines,  and  a  graded  school  building  in  the  center  (see  plan  on  follow¬ 
ing  page). 

The  central  school  has  4  teachers,  three  years  of  high  school  work,  and  111 
pupils,  distributed  as  follows: 


Grades  1  and  2 . . . . . . . . . ... . . 28  pupils. 

Grades  3, 4,  and  5 . . . ... . . . . 30  pupils. 

Grades  6  and  7 . . . . . . . 25  pupils. 

Grades  8, 9,  and  10 . . . . . 28  pupils. 


204 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Sixty-eight  pnpils  transport  themselves  without  expense  to  the  county.  A  barn 
was  built  on  the  school  grounds,  and  pupils  who  drive,  stall  and  feed  their  horses 
without  expense. 

The  4  country  schools  of  the  township  have  an  enrollment  of  102  pupils. 
The  truancy  officer  has  made  only  one  visit  to  the  township  during  the  three  years 
of  the  operation  of  the  law. 


0) 


N 

Hi 

'Co 


The  system  adopted  in  the  township  is  a  good  one.  It  is  economical;  it  makes 
possible  better  supervision;  it  provides  a  high  school,  and  organizes  the  educa¬ 
tional  forces. 


SiX  MiLES. 


Plan  of  consolidation  in  Washington  Township,  Rush  County,  Ind. 


AN  INQUIRY.  REGARDING  CONVEYANCE  OF  SCHOLARS  IN  NEW 

HAMPSHIRE.1 

[By  State  Superintendent  Channing  Folsom.] 

*  *  *  The  school  board  is  a  court  of  last  resort  iu  deciding  what  schoolhouses 
shall  be  used  for  school  purposes.  If  this  power  is  used  arbitrarily  it  may  do  more 
injury  than  the  best  schools  can  counteract;  if  used  tactfully,  if  pains  be  taken 

1  From  the  Fifty  first  N.  H.  School  Report  (1899-1900),  pp.  271-292. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


205 


before  discontinuing  the  use  of  a  school  house  to  show  the  parents  that  the  children 
will  be  benefited  by  the  proposed  course,  the  prompt  closing  of  a  large  number  of 
schoolhouses  and  the  conveyance  of  the  children  to  other  buildings  would  undoubt¬ 
edly  result  to  the  educational  advantage  of  the  State. 

It  is  unquestionably  true  that  children  can  be  better  taught  in  schools  of  medium 
size  than  in  extremely  small  ones.  It  is  poor  economy,  both  educationally  and 
financially,  to  conduct  a  school  of  four  or  five  pupils,  when  another  school  exists 
within  2  or  3  miles  to  which  the  children  may  be  conveyed.  The  only  exception  to 
be  admitted  in  applying  this  principle  should  be  caused  by  the  inconvenience  of 
sending  very  young  children  of  different  families  away  for  the  entire  day,  when 
there  are  no  older  members  of  their  respective  families  to  care  for  them  during  the 
noon  intermission. 

The  law  requires  that  children  of  all  parts  of  the  district  shall  be  furnished  with 
“equal  school  privileges,  as  far  as  practicable.”  It  is  manifestly  impossible  under 
any  system  that  all  should  live  at  equal  distance  from  a  schoolhouse.  The  framers 
and  enactors  of  the  law  provided  against  a  too  long  walk  for  children  by  allowing 
the  school  board  to  expend  25  per  cent  out  of  the  appropriation  for  schools  in 
transportation.  The  district  has  no  right  to  vote  that  no  money  shall  be  expended 
for  this  purpose,  and  such  a  vote  in  the  district  meeting  has  absolutely  no  binding 
force  upon  the  school  board.  The  law  commits  the  matter  entirely  to  its  discretion, 
and  the  district  may  not  give  instructions. 

The  objections  usually  urged  by  the  residents  of  rural  sections  against  public 
conveyance  in  lieu  of  a  local  school  are: 

1.  That  the  closing  of  the  local  school  tends  to  the  depreciation  of  farm  property. 

The  public  school  was  not  established,  nor  is  it  demanded  by  our  State  laws,  for 

the  purpose  of  enhancing  the  value  of  property  in  the  vicinity  of  the  schoolhouse. 

As  evidence  of  this  alleged  fact,  the  objectors  point  to  the  abandoned  farms  and 
cite  the  small  number  of  children  in  many  towns  where  the  system  of  conveyance 
prevails.  Such  people  are  disingenuous  or  ignorant.  A  study  of  conditions  for 
the  last  fifty  years  would  show  the  confusion  of  cause  and  effect.  A  schoolhouse 
on  every  farm  would  not  repopulate  the  rural  sections  of  our  State.  If  this 
repopulation  ever  comes,  it  will  be  due  to  different  influences  than  those  of  the 
small  rural  school. 

Much  of  the  opposition  based  upon  this  objection  is  probably  really  due  to  the 
conservatism  of  our  rural  population  manifesting  itself  in  opposing  the  full  fruition 
of  the  town  system. 

When  it  is  shown,  however,  that  transportation  has  in  many  sections  tended  to 
build  up  the  rural  sections  of  the  town;  that  under  this  plan  the  number  of  fam¬ 
ilies  sending  children  to  school  and  the  number  of  children  attending  school  have 
steadily  increased  since  transportation  has  been  substituted  for  the  local  school, 
this  objection  loses  what  little  weight  it  ever  had  as  an  argument. 

2.  It  is  said  that  a  ride  of  several  miles  every  day  to  and  from  school  is  too  hard 
for  children. 

In  reply  to  this  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  easier  for  child  or  adult  to  ride  3  miles 
than  to  walk  1,  and  that  in  stormy  or  cold  weather  the  ride  entails  less  discomfort 
and  subjects  the  rider  to  less  exposure  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  pedestrian. 

Records  show  that  punctuality  and  regularity  of  attendance  have  been  mate¬ 
rially  increased  by  a  well-appointed  system  of  transportation.  An  actual  com¬ 
parison  of  school  registers  proves  that  some  children  have  attended  school  twice 
as  much  during  a  school  year  when  carried  in  a  comfortable  conveyance  to  a  dis¬ 
tant  school  as  the  same  children  did  when  attending  their  local  school. 

If  a  contract  for  conveyance  is  made  by  the  school  board  with  some  person  other 
than  the  parent  of  the  children,  the  responsibility  rests  with  the  board  to  see  to  the 
proper  character  of  the  driver,  the  team,  and  the  vehicle. 


206 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


3.  It  is  objected,  generally  by  people  living  in  close  proximity  to  the  local  school- 
house,  that  children,  particularly  very  young  ones,  should  not  be  sent  away  from 
parental  care  for  the  entire  day. 

This  is  the  objection  of  the  most  weight  among  those  usually  urged  against  con¬ 
veyance.  Care  should  be  taken  by  school  boards  to  guard  against  evils  that  may 
arise  under  this  head.  When  children  of  the  rural  sections  are  gathered  in  the 
village  schools,  a  matron  should  be  employed  by  the  board  to  take  charge  during 
the  teacher's  absence  at  the  noon  intermission.  This  is  demanded  by  the  welfare 
of  the  school  and  protection  of  school  property,  as  well  as  for  the  care  of  the  chil¬ 
dren.  Pupils  remaining  at  noon  should  be  as  absolutely  in  charge  of  the  matron 
during  the  intermission  as  they  are  in  charge  of  the  teacher  during  the  school. 
Their  moral  and  physical  well-being  demand  this.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to 
roam  about  the  streets  at  will,  but  should  be  required  to  remain  upon  the  school 
premises  unless  a  written  request  is  received  from  their  parents  for  different 
treatment. 

When  this  course  is  not  practicable,  teachers  must  be  impressed  with  their 
responsibility  for  a  proper  control  during  the  noon  hour. 

The  advantages  to  be  obtained  from  discontinuing  small  schools  and  conveying 
children  at  the  expense  of  the  district  are: 

1.  Economy. 

Transportation  can  be  informed  usually  at  less  expense  than  a  good  teacher  can 
be  employed,  and  the  money  thus  saved  may  be  applied  to  making  the  enlarged 
school  better  in  furnishings,  in  equipment,  in  teaching. 

2.  Better  teachers  and  equipment. 

The  best  teachers  can  not  be  induced  to  accept;  positions  in  the  three- scholar  or 
the  five-scholar  schools,  even  when  public  sentiment  allows  the  school  board  to 
seek  for  them  with  the  offer  of  sufficient  salary.  The  doctrine  prevails  that  “  any¬ 
body  can  teach ”  the  small  school.  This  theory  places  the  small  rural  school  in 
charge  of  untrained,  inexperienced  teachers,  many  of  them  of  small  scholastic 
acquirement  and  no  professional  ambition,  who  “keep  school”  until  it  is  “the 
turn  ”  of  some  other  local  favorite  of  the  same  kind.  Consolidation  enables  the 
board  to  pay  better  wages,  and  hence  to  employ  better  teachers. 

3.  Better  supervision. 

Consolidation,  by  lessening  the  number  of  schools  to  be  visited,  enables  the 
supervisor,  school  board,  or  superintendent  to  make  more  frequent  visits  and  to 
get  into  closer  touch  with  pupil  and  teacher. 

4.  Regularity  of  pupils’  attendance. 

With  a  comfortable  and  regular  conveyance  the  weather,  temperature,  and  bad 
roads  cease  to  be  important  factors  in  causing  absenteeism. 

5.  Better  educational  spirit. 

The  pupil  of  the  small  school  lacks  that  emulation  and  competition  so  essentially 
necessary  to  progress  which  will  be  afforded  by  contact  with  a  larger  number  of 
children.  This  is  true  even  when  the  teachers  are  equally  competent.  It  has 
double  weight  wThen  we  consider  that  the  better  teachers  are  almost  uniformly 
in  charge  of  the  larger  schools. 

In  March,  1900,  a  letter  of  inquiry  containing  the  following  questions  was  sent 
to  every  school  board  in  the  State: 

1.  What  per  cent  of  money  appropriated  for  schools  is  used  for  conveying 
scholars  to  and  from  schools,  under  authority  granted  by  chapter  92,  section  1,  of 
the  public  statutes? 

2.  What  is  the  least  distance  that  any  scholar  is  conveyed  at  public  expense  in 
your  town? 

3.  The  greatest  distance? 

4.  Have  you  any  rule  or  regulation  governing  amount  to  be  paid  or  distance  of 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


207 


conveyance;  or  do  yon  deal  with  individual  cases  according  to  circumstances? 

'  State  your  regulation,  if  any. 

5.  How  does  the  cost,  to  the  district,  of  conveyance  compare  with  that  of  main¬ 
taining  local  schools? 

6.  What  are  the  advantages  of  conveyance? 

7.  Advantages  of  the  local  schools? 

8.  In  your  opinion,  would  a  more  general  adoption  of  public  conveyance  result 
to  the  educational  advantage  of  the  State? 

9.  How  do  the  people  of  your  town  generally  view  the  matter? 

The  answers  to  questions  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  8,  and  9  are  here  tabulated: 1 

Question  1.  Per  cent  of  school  money  used  for  conveyance. 

There  are  58  towns  that  use  less  than  5  per  cent;  53  towns  from  5  to  10  per  cent; 
14  towns  from  10  to.  15  per  cent;  5  towns  from  15  to  20  per  cent;  4  towns  from  20 
to  25  per  cent;  and  1  town  the  full  legal  limit  of  25  per  cent. 

Questions  2  and  3*.  The  least  and  the  greatest  distance  that  any  scholar  is  con¬ 
veyed. 


Distance 

Number  of  towns. 

Distance 
in  miles. 

Number  of  towns. 

in  miles. 

Least. 

Greatest. 

Least. 

Greatest. 

1 

3 

21 

8 

17 

i 

2 

1 

2f 

1 

1 

16 

6 

3 

6 

37 

11 

2 

2 

31 

2 

u 

42 

9 

31 

1 

11 

if 

1 

4 

10 

i| 

4 

41 

1 

44 

29 

5 

3 

21 

1 

51 

1 

21 

3 

10 

6 

1 

21 

1 

Question  4.  General  rule  or  regulation,  or  dealing  with  individual  cases. 

In  133  towns  individual  cases  are  dealt  with;  10  have  a  rule,  and  1  both. 

Question  5.  Cost  of  conveyance  compared  with  that  of  maintaining  local  schools. 

In  118  towns  the  cost  is  reported  less;  in  5,  the  same,  and  in  1,  greater;  of  the 
towns  that  report  the  cost  less,  26  give  it  as  £  that  of  maintaining  local  schools; 
8  give  £;  7  give  f ;  3  give  4,  and  1  each  give  £,  f,  f ,  and  f. 


Question  8.  In  your  opinion,  would  a  more  general  adoption  of  public  convey¬ 
ance  result  to  the  educational  advantage  of  the  State? 

One  hundred  and  twenty-four  school  boards  answer  “  yes;”  50  answer  “no.” 

Question  9.  How  do  the  people  of  your  town  generally  view  the  matter? 

In  49  towns,  favorably;  in  82,  they  are  opposed;  in  8,  divided;  in  2,  indifferent. 

The  following  verbatim  extracts  from  answers  to  questions  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9 
are  made  to  show  the  trend  of  opinion  among  members  of  school  boards  and  com¬ 
munities: 

Question  4.  Have  you  any  rule  or  regulation  governing  amount  to  be  paid  or 
distance  of  conveyance;  or  do  you  deal  with  individual  cases  according  to  cir¬ 
cumstances? 

We  pay  5  cents  a  mile  each  way  for  distance  over  1£  miles. 

Six  cents  per  mile  for  ail  distances  over  14  miles  and  less  than  2  miles;  8  cents 
per  mile  for  2  miles  and  less  than  2£  miles;  10  cents  per  mile  for  2£  and  less  than  3 
miles;  12£  cents  per  mile  for  3  miles  and  over,  for  each  scholar  conveyed  to  and 


1  Summaries  are  here  given  of  the  detailed  tables  which  appear  in  the  report  from  which  this 
inquiry  is  taken.— Ed. 


208  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

from  school,  the  attendance  to  be  shown  and  settlement  made  by  the  school  reg¬ 
ister  at  close  of  term. 

We  recognize  no  demand  for  carriage  if  distance  is  less  than  2  miles,  but  the 
rule  is  not  arbitrary. 

The  Cheshire  County  convention  of  school  boards  thought  5  cents  per  mile  in 
excess  of  2  miles  was  fair  pay,  and  we  shall  probably  pay  at  that  rate  if  we  are 
called  upon  for  payment,  but  we  have  no  scholars  to  convey  now  unless  we  can 
consolidate  the  schools,  which  ought  to  be  done. 

Two  and  one  half  cents  per  mile  each  way,  based  upon  actual  attendance,  and  in 
some  cases  special  arrangement.  No  ironclad  rule. 

We  pay  10  cents  a  mile. 

Do  not  usually  pay  for  transporting  under  2  miles.  A  few  special  cases. 

Our  custom  for  the  last  few  years  has  been  to  pay  5  cents  per  mile  each  way  for 
each  scholar  living  at  any  distance  over  1£  miles  from  the  school,  and  they  furnish 
their  own  conveyance.  In  some  cases  it  is  advisable  to  pay  a  little  more  than 
named. 

Usually  about  25  cents  per  day  has  been  allowed  to  the  parents  for  conveyance. 

The  scholars  are  carried  by  the  lowest  bidder. 

The  town  decided  the  rate  of  mileage,  which  is  4  cents,  going  and  coming  to 
school;  so  the  scholar  that  lives  3  miles  from  school  is  paid  6  cents  in  coming  and 
6  cents  on  returning,  making  1 2  cents  per  day. 

Have  heretofore  paid  50  cents  per  scholar  per  week.  The  town  voted  at  the  last 
annual  meeting  to  pay  4  cents  a  mile  for  distance  over  miles,  distance  reckoned 
both  ways. 

We  tried  a  mileage  system,  allowing  3  cents  per  mile  each  way  for  distance 
traveled  beyond  1£  miles,  but  found  we  could  not  follow  it  in  all  cases,  so  we  fol¬ 
low  it  in  part,  and  for  the  rest  we  make  the  best  trade  for  conveyance  we  can, 
according  to  circumstances. 

Question  5.  How  does  the  cost,  to  the  district,  of  conveyance  compare  with  that 
of  maintaining  local  schools? 

It  costs  about  33^  per  cent  of  the  expense  of  maintaining  those  schools  which 
are  discontinued  on  account  of  such  conve.yance. 

There  are  several  old  school  districts  in  this  town  where  there  are  only  2  or  3 
scholars  in  each.  We  find  it  much  cheaper  to  carry  those  scholars  to  the  adjoin¬ 
ing  school. 

It  costs  about  $170  a  year  to  maintain  a  school  in  the  outside  districts.  We  have 
conveyed  from  3  to  5  scholars  at  an  expense  of  $69  for  the  year. 

As  far  as  we  have  gone,  the  cost  of  conveyance  has  not  been  more  than  one- 
third  that  of  maintaining  a  school. 

It  costs  about  one-half  as  much  to  convey. 

Much  less,  being  about  one-lialf. 

Conveyance  in  nearly  all  cases  costs  less  than  harf  the  exx>ense  of  maintaining 
schools. 

It  costs  not  quite  one-half  as  much  to  convey  the  scholars  as  it  would  to  main¬ 
tain  a  school. 

From  one-third  to  one-fourth  the  cost  of  a  school. 

Should  say  as  a  rule  it  would  be  less  than  one-half.  Some  years  ago  we  consoli¬ 
dated  two  schools  for  a  term,  carrying  the  scholars  of  one  school  at  an  expense  of 
about  40  per  cent  of  cost  of  running  a  school. 

Question  6.  What  are  the  advantages  of  conveyance? 

Pupils  in  small  ungraded  schools  are  placed  in  competition  with  pupils  in  graded 
classes  of  from  30  to  45  pupils,  thus  stimulating  them  to  greater  effort. 

Economy  in  expenditure,  more  interesting  schools,  enlarging  and  extending  the 
general  knowledge  of  the  child  by  association  with  more  children,  from  whom  they 
learn  as  readily  as  from  their  elders. 

Better  schools,  better  teachers,  greater  inspiration  for  the  scholars. 

The  scholars  get  benefits  of  graded  schools. 

Better  interest,  improved  methods  and  facilities,  more  experienced  and  better 
teaching  force. 

Less  cost,  better  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  than  in  very  small  schools, 
more  money  to  lengthen  schools. 

It  assembles  more  scholars  together,  thus  causing  more  competition  in  scholar¬ 
ship;  costs  less  when  there  are  but  few  scholars;  can  give  them  better  instructors; 
more  weeks  of  schooling  generally. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


209 


In  our  case,  better  school  privileges;  in  general,  one  school  of  25  scholars  is  bet¬ 
ter  than  3  of  8,  or  2  of  12. 

It  gives  more  weeks  of  schooling.  Two  of  our  schools  are  quite  small,  there 
being  onlj  1  pupil  in  many  of  the  classes.  We  think  they  do  not  have  the  ambi¬ 
tion  to  try  to  ad vance  as  they  do  in  larger  schools. 

Many  of  our  schools,  if  we  did  not  close  them,  would  have  only  1  or  2  scholars, 
consequently  conveyance  saves  money  and  gives  us  more  weeks  of  school. 

Better  teachers,  more  interesting  schools,  less  money  expended  for  wood  and 
repairs  on  schoolhouse. 

Larger  schools  and  more  interest. 

More  interest  in  larger  classes  in  the  combined  schools.  Scholars  benefited  by 
contact  with  larger  number  of  their  fellows. 

Have  larger  and  better  graded  schools  and  a  higher  grade  of  teachers  better 
paid.  A  school  of  6  pupils  and  a  $5  teacher  is  no  school. 

Better  schools,  better  teachers,  more  interest  taken  by  the  pupils. 

It  gives  us  thirty  weeks  of  school  each  year,  for  the  past  four  years,  against 
nineteen  when  they  were  not  conveyed,  and  better  instruction  in  the  school  to 
which  they  are  sent. 

We  have  some  local  schools  with  only  2,  3,  or  5  scholars  in  them.  The  advan¬ 
tage  is  in  making  larger  schools  and  more  interest  with  better  teachers,  conse¬ 
quently  a  better  education. 

The  child  has  more  incentive  to  work  in  larger  schools,  takes  less  fuel,  saves 
janitors’  fees,  provides  a  small  salary  to  some  needy  farmer  for  carrying,  and  the 
child  will  attend  more  regularly. 

Scholars  can  have  better  advantages  for  acquiring  an  education  in  schools  that 
are  graded  than  they  can  in  the  ungraded  district  school. 

We  get  better  attendance. 

Putting  the  scholar  who  has  been  alone  in  his  classes  in  with  a  class  rouses  his 
ambition,  awakens  his  interest,  and  is  a  stimulus  in  many  ways. 

It  gives  the  scholar  better  advantages  than  to  have  so  many  small  schools. 

Less  expense;  better  schools  for  those  conveyed.  Combining  schools  aids  in 
grading  schools.  Longer  school  year  for  all  pupils.  Better  school  supervision. 

Better  schools  and  better  teachers. 

Graded  schools;  better  teachers;  better  appliances. 

Question  7.  Advantages  of  the  local  schools? 

None,  where  transportation  is  feasible. 

Better  average  attendance. 

Scholars  are  nearer  home.  Parents  claim  they  “  Do  not  have  to  dress  them  so 
well.”  Local  school  holds  up  price  of  real  estate. 

Community  pride.  Don’t  want  to  see  the  schools  going  away  from  them. 

Easier  for  small  children. 

We  avoid  criticism  and  friction. 

The  teacher  can  give  each  pupil  more  time. 

The  children  are  not  so  much  exposed  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  and  unless  we 
build  new  schoolhouses  are  better  accommodated. 

No  advantages.  These  schools  are  so  small  that  experienced  teachers  will  not 
engage  them. 

Convenience  for  people  in  the  vicinity. 

None,  as  compared  with  the  larger  schools. 

Only  to  gratify  those  who  want  schools  near  home. 

More  convenient  and  satisfactory  to  parents,  and  generally  greater  improve¬ 
ment  by  scholars. 

The  school  work  is  more  personal. 

Pupils  live  nearer  local  schools,  and  parents  usually  have  more  oversight  of 
children. 

None  that  I  know  of. 

None  in  particular. 

None  except  to  very  small  children. 

Better  instruction  and  more  regular  attendance. 

Short  terms  and  few  pupils.  Some  schools  as  small  as  2  or  3  scholars,  and  not 
much  interest  taken. 

Better  in  winter  months. 

W  hen  the  scholars  are  very  young  and  small,  it  is  better  for  them  to  be  nearer 
home  and  not  have  to  ride  a  long  distance  in  cold  and  stormy  weather. 

Local  schools  satisfy  the  people,  build  up  local  pride  in  their  schools,  help  to 
build  up  personal  responsibility,  thus  making  strong,  needed  citizens. 

ED  1901 - 14 


210 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


There  are  rone,  unless  the  cost  of  conveyance  amounts  to  much  more  than  the 
cost  of  maintaining  a  school,  and  not  then  if  the  number  of  pupils  is  less  than  10. 

I  see  none. 

Only  to  satisfy  prejudices  of  parents. 

There  seem  to  be  none. 

Don't  learn  so  much  mischief. 

I  think  the  local  school  system  for  the  country  towns  is  all  right.  What  we 
need  is  more  money. 

When  there  are  a  number  of  small  scholars  and  the  distance  is  great,  possibly 
it  might  be  advantageous  to  run  local  schools. 

Keeps  peace  between  the  parents  and  the  school  board. 

I  do  not  know  of  any. 

Little  advantage,  owing  to  small  number  of  pupils;  small  classes;  difficult  to 
arouse  enthusiasm  or  interest. 

More  individual  attention  from  teacher;  interest  that  always  centers  in  a  local 
institution. 

The  child  can  do  many  little  things  to  help  the  parents  and  learn  habits  of  use¬ 
fulness  that  will  be  of  great  value  to  it  in  lire;  the  teacher  can  direct  the  individu¬ 
ality  of  the  child  more.  There  are  many  things  of  more  importance  to  a  child 
than  mere  book  learning;  there  is  too  much  time  between  the  teacher  and  the 
parents,  too  little  time  to  work,  when  the  child  is  carried  to  school,  to  form 
habits  of  industry. 

The  teacher  has  more  time  to  give  the  scholars  in  small  schools.  The  residents 
think  that  to  close  a  school  in  a  given  district  results  in  a  depreciation  of  real 
estate. 

Question  8.  In  your  opinion,  would  a  more  general  adoption  of  public  convey¬ 
ance  result  to  the  educational  advantage  of  the  State? 

Possibly,  as  it  would  bring*  on  a  better  system  of  grading  in  country  schools. 

I  think  it  would.  Advanced  scholars  should  be  conveyed  to  a  central  high 
school  in  every  town. 

Yes;  it  would  give  scholars  now  attending  small  district  schools  better  oppor¬ 
tunities  for  acquiring  an  education. 

Be  of  very  great  advantage.  This  town  ought  to  support  only  4  schools 
instead  of  8. 

Yes.  Generally  a  school  with  less  than  10  pupils  is  necessarily  less  interesting 
than  one  that  is  larger. 

In  our  town  I  would  like  to  see  all  the  7  schools  united  in  2  schools,  and  think 
the  advantages  would  be  much  better. 

Yes;  our  schools  would  be  from  two  to  three  weeks  longer  if  the  scholars  were 
conveyed  where  they  ought  to  be,  with  the  same  money. 

Yes;  most  decidedly,  from  the  very  fact  that  our  ungraded  schools  can  not  keep 
pace  with  our  graded  schools. 

I  am  most  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  it  would  be. 

I  am  in  favor  of  having  the  scholars  come  to  the  center  of  the  town  and  have  a 
graded  school  with  only  2  teachers.  There  are  only  about  75  or  80  scholars  in 
town  of  school  age. 

Question  9.  How  do  the  people  of  your  town  generally  view  the  matter? 

Favorably.  This  is  being  tried  in  our  own  town  this  term  for  the  first  time  and 
seems  to  be  the  only  thing  to  be  done,  and  the  prospect  is  that  the  results  will 
justify  the  course  we  have  taken. 

Some  families  object  to  conveyance,  while,  others  appreciate  it  as  an  advantage 
to  the  children.  Others  say  it  lessens  the  value  of  real  estate  to  have  the  local 
schools  closed*  Opinion  is  divided,  but  it  seems  to  grow  in  favor  of  transportation. 

In  the  case  tried,  and  the  one  to  be  tried,  the  parents  are  well  pleased. 

They  had  rather  have  a  school  with  three  pupils  in  the  woods  somewhere  and 
hire  a  teacher  for  them  than  to  pay  §1  a  week  to  have  them  carried  to  a  large  school. 

A  good  many  would  like  pay  for  carrying  scholars  to  and  from  school.  The 
school  board  have  to  put  up  a  big  fight  with  some  of  the  parents. 

There  is  a  divided  opinion.  Some  are  very  anxious  to  have  scholars  conveyed 
to  another  school  and  others  oppose  it. 

The  people  who  reside  in  divisions  where  small  schools  are  maintained  are  very 
much  opposed  to  closing  such  schools  and  object  to  having  small  children  carried 
a  distance  from  home.  At  the  present  time  we  have  four  schools  in  town  which,  in 
my  opinion,  should  be  closed.  We  can  not  afford  good  teachers  for  these  schools. 
The  people  generally  have  several  times  expressed  themselves  on  this  matter  in 
favor  of  the  school  board  doing  as  they  deemed  best  for  these  schools.  The  school 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


211 


board  have  not  closed  these  schools  because  the  people  would  not  like  it,  and  they 
would  gain  ill  will,  etc. 

Every  scholar  in  town  should  have  the  advantage  of  our  town  graded  schools. 

About  one-third  of  the  town  want  one  graded  school.  The  rest  wish  to  main¬ 
tain  good  local  schools. 

Those  living  near  the  large  schools  have  no  sympathy  whatever  with  those 
living  farther  away. 

The  townspeople  think  that  every  child  old  enough  to  become  a  scholar  should 
be  sent  to  school.  If  the  parents  can  not  convey  them,  or  the  distance  is  too  great 
for  them  to  travel,  they  should  be  carried  at  public  expense. 

The  people  generally  do  not  like  the  idea  of  conveying  children  out  of  the  home 
districts. 

Only  as  they  can  see  pecuniary  gain  to  themselves. 

We  think  the  method  of  conveyance  should  be  systematized,  and  a  regular 
mileage  paid  to  all  scholars  (not  tardy)  according  to  distance  traveled  per  term, 
and  made  uniform  throughout  the  State. 

They  are  very  rebellious.  But  by  perseverance  we  have  converted  some.  They 
are  willing  to  admit,  after  a  fair  trial,  that  their  children  improve  rapidly.  In 
all  instances  we  convey  our  scholars  to  the  village  schools. 

They  do  not  favor  the  idea.  To  express  it  as  one  of  the  parents  did  to  me  when 
I  was  trying  to  unite  two  schools  of  five  or  six  scholars  each:  ‘‘If  you  convey  the 
scholars,  you  will  have  to  take  the  parents  with  them.” 

A  good  many  think  the  children  might  walk,  the  same  as  they  used  to  do, 

I  think  the  general  view  is  for  larger  schools  and  better  teachers. 

The  more  intelligent  people  of  the  town  believe  that  something  should  be  done 
in  this  matter. 

We  think  there  are  more  in  favor  of  conveyance  than  otherwise. 

The  majority  believe  in  general  adoption  of.  public  conveyance. 

The  districts  that  have  been  willing  to  adopt  it  seethe  advantage,  I  think;  other 
parts,  where  it  ought  be  adopted,  object.  I  think  the  people  generally  favor  it. 

We  think  there  is  quite  a  difference  of  opinion.  However,  we  think  a  large 
majority  favor  conveying  scholars  in  preference  to  maintaining  local  schools 
where  there  are  but  a  small  number  of  scholars. 

Believe  in  having  schoolhouses  within  lawful  distance,  and  in  furnishing  funds 
to  support  them. 

The  people  in  the  back  districts  stick  for  their  schools.  Remove  the  schools 
from  these  districts  and  property  decreases  in  value.  For  instance.,  if  a  man  is 
buying*  a  home  he  won't  pay  nearly  as  much  for  one  with  school  miles  away,  if  he 
buys  it  at  all.  It  would  be  better  for  the  towns  and  better  for  the  State  to  build 
up  the  rural  districts  than  to  break  them  down. 

Their  opinion  or  view  is  generally  based  on  what  they  regard  as  their  individual 
interest,  local  pride,  and  a  desire  to  preserve  the  old  landmarks. 

They  are  not  in  favor  of  having  their  children  carted,  for  miles  and  being  exposed 
to  the  weather. 

Divided,  but  the  feeling  is  growing  for  establishing  a  graded  school.  We  live 
in  hopes  of  better  days. 

I  think  our  people  are  generally  opposed  to  the  matter,  because  we  have  not 
given  it  a  fair  trial.  We  shall  reduce  our  schools  by  one  this  year  to  try  it. 

I  think  they  are  m  favor  of  having  schools  united  and  conveying  scholars. 

They  want  the  scholars  conveyed. 

Mot  of  them  approve  of  our  course  in  conveying  children. 

The  better  element  favors  transportation,  but  a  few  families  are  found  in  nearly 
all  divisions  that  are  so  intensely  jealous  of  and  spiteful  toward  the  village  that 
any  attempt  to  consolidate  is  productive  of  a  great  deal  of  friction. 

Village  people  and  those  not  interested  in  education  vote  and  talk  against  pay¬ 
ing  fair  prices  for  conveyance. 

We  get  rid  of  conveying  pupils  in  various  ways.  We  shut  up  schoolhouses  and 
have  small  schools  in  private  houses.  We  have  hired  mothers  to  teach  their  chil¬ 
dren  at  home,  and  sent  children  to  near  schools  in  another  town.  We  believe  that 
in  every  instance  of  this  kind  we  have  done  the  best  thing  for  the  children,  and 
we  have  saved  the  town  many  dollars. 

It  does  meet  with  favor. 

Not  very  favorably  at  first,  but  after  a  while  thought  better  of  it. 

The  parents  in  outlying  districts  generally  favor  transporting.  Others  do  not 
seem  to  care. 

It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  fewer  and  better  schools  would  be  for 
the  interest  of  the  towns  and  the  pupils. 

Not  favorably.  If  our  parents  could  see  the  advantage  of  uniting  some  of  our 
schools  it  would  be  the  best  plan  we  could  adopt. 


212 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Getting  fairly  contented  with  the  children  being  carried,  especially  along  the 
line  of  the  electric  road,  where  children  are  picked  up  at  the  door  and  left  within 
an  eighth  of  a  mile  of  the  schoolhouse.  Of  course  there  are  some  who  object 
strongly  to  carrying  the  children. 

In  different  ways,  as  is  the  case  in  all  country  towns,  but  the  majority  of  think¬ 
ing  people  would  come  to  favor  the  consolidation  of  the  schools. 

Majority  in  favor  of  conveyance. 

Most  of  them  heartily  sympathize  with  it.  A  few  cases  are  obstinately  offended, 
but  only  a  very  few.  We  closed  up  three  schools  and  ought  to  close  two  more. 

They  are  conservative.  But  I  have  been  doing  personal  work  with  the  people 
of  one  of  my  small  districts,  and  nearly  all  have  of  their  own  accord  sent  their 
children  to  the  graded  schools  some  2  miles  away,  so  it  is  only  a  question  of  a 
short  time  when  we  shall  have  no  pupils  left  going  to  the  district  school.  I  advo¬ 
cate  transportation  in  my  annual  report. 

Public  opinion  has  changed  very  much  in  the  last  few  years  in  regard  to  the 
matter  in  this  town.  The  people  are  more  willing  to  let  their  children  come  to 
the  village  to  school  than  formerly. 

They  insist  on  having  a  school  in  every  district,  and  will  not  put  the  schools 
together  until  the  State  legislates  on  the  subject. 

Many  with  disfavor.  As  many  prefer  to  do  just  as  they  did  forty  years  ago. 

If  an  annual  appropriation  from  the  State  could  be  had,  I  think  our  people 
would  be  well  pleased  with  one  school  at  the  center  of  the  town,  with  three  grades, 
three  teachers,  and  convey  all  children  there. 

Probably  the  majority  of  the  people  in  the  rural  districts  would  be  opposed  to  the 
system  of  conveyance,  but  there  is  a  considerable  number  in  its  favor,  and  that 
number  is  increasing. 

With  a  death  grip  on  their  pockets  and  a  jealous  eye  on  any  one  supposed  to 
have  a  little  advantage  in  distance  or  other  privileges.  We  ought  to  have  two 
graded  schools  in  town  and  bring  all  pupils  to  them. 

They  are  in  favor  of  having  schools  in  every  schoolhouse  in  town.  Only  in 
individual  cases,  where  they  are  getting  good  prices  for  conveying,  are  they 
pleased.  This  business  of  conveying  scholars  is  more  trying  to  the  disposition  of 
the  people  than  all  other  things. 

On  the  part  of  most  where  they  have  had  the  local  school  they  are  opposed  to 
closing  it,  fearing  it  will  lessen  the  value  of  property,  and  because  of  the  small 
children.  Where  the  transporting  has  become  a  regular  thing,  and  comfortable 
and  safe  transport,  the  objection  grows  less. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  IN  NEBRASKA  AND  INSTRUCTION  IN 
NEIGHBORING  DISTRICT.1 

[By  State  Supt.  William  R.  Jackson.] 

In  order  to  ascertain  what  is  being  done  with  reference  to  this  matter,  the  fol¬ 
lowing  letter  of  inquiry  was  sent  to  the  county  superintendents  of  those  counties 
in  which  the  law  is  applied: 

State  of  Nebraska, 
Department  of  Public  Instruction, 

Lincoln ,  November  27, 1900 . 

Dear  Superintendent:  From  your  annual  report  I  learn  that  last  year - — 

districts  took  advantage  of  section - ,  Subdivision  V,  of  the  school  laws  of 

1899.  I  shall  be  pleased  to  have  you  inform  me  without  delay  concerning  the  fol¬ 
lowing  points: 

1 .  The  number  of  pupils  transported  under  section  4b. 

2.  The  cost  of  such  transportation. 

3.  The  number  of  pupils  attending  school  under  section  4c. 

4.  The  number  of  months  attended. 

5.  The  total  cost  of  such  attendance. 

6.  Do  you  consider  the  law  beneficial? 

7.  What  are  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  more  general  observance  of  the  law? 

8.  Remarks. 

The  importance  of  the  subject  calls  for  all  the  information  we  can  gather,  and 
I  shall  appreciate  your  careful  consideration  of  the  above. 

Very  respectfully, 

W.  R.  Jackson, 

Superintendent  Public  Instruction. 

1 16  Bien.  Neb.  Rep.  (1899-1900),  pp.  40-43. 


TRANSPORTATION  OF  PUPILS  TO  SCHOOL. 


213 


Twenty-one  counties  contain  schools  in  which,  one  or  both  features  of  the  law 
have  been  tried.  Four  furnished  transportation  only,  4  transportation  and 
instruction,  and  13  furnished  instruction  alone. 

Replies  £rom  part  of  the  21  superintendents  show  that  57  pupils  were  trans¬ 
ported  under  the  provisions  of  section  4b,  at  a  cost  of  $560.  One  hundred  and 
fifty-eight  pupils  attended  school  in  adjoining  districts,  under  the  provisions  of 
section  4c,  for  an  average  of  seven  months,  at  a  total  cost  of  $1,471.40.  Those 
making  the  report  are  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  the  law  is  beneficial.  Fol¬ 
lowing  are  some  of  the  replies  to  the  seventh  question: 

Not  fully  understood  by  people. 

Local  prejudice;  ignorance  of  the  true  working  of  the  law;  object  to  sending 
small  children  in  care  of  driver. 

Most  of  our  school  districts  are  large,  so  that  distance  to  school  would  be  too 
great  for  further  consolidation. 

Generally  the  board  wishes  to  furnish  employment  to  some  relative. 

Law  not  explicit  enough. 

To  induce  the  school  boards  to  properly  make  and  sign  the  contract.  So  much 
easier  to  neglect. 

The  law  has  not  generally  been  understood. 

None;  but  too  great  distance. 

Difficulty  of  transporting  very  small  children  in  bad  weather.  Desire  of  some 
people  to  be  exclusive. 

Under  “Remarks”  are  found  the  following  statements: 

The  law  is  a  great  blessing  to  our  people,  and  14  out  of  36  pupils  were  trans¬ 
ported  by  their  parents  free  so  as  to  get  to  a  better  and  larger  school. 

I  think  the  law  will  be  very  popular  in  this  thinly  populated  county. 

It  has  provided  school  for  children  in  districts  which  could  not  maintain  school 
otherwise,  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  pupils,  or  because  of  great  indebted- 
ness  of  the  district,  thus  enabling  the  district  to  conduct  a  school  and  at  the  same 
time  reduce  indebtedness. 

Mrs.  Stelle  Smith,  county  superintendent  of  Hitchcock  County,  says: 

It  furnishes  larger  associations  and  better  instruction  for  the  pupils.  Finan¬ 
cially,  is  more  economical.  The  objections  I  have  met  are  in  regard  to  trans¬ 
portation;  some  argue  that  it  would  be  too  expensive  and  impracticable  in  the 
thinly  settled  districts;  but  I  find  that  as  the  people  get  a  better  understanding  of 
the  law  they  are  favorable  toward  it. 

Supt.  W.  H.  Rhodes,  of  Thayer  County,  offers  the  following: 

The  children  in  district  No.  96  received  nine  months  instruction  at  a  cost  of  but 
$190.  It  would  have  cost  $270  for  a  teacher’s  wages  alone  if  they  had  maintained 
their  own  school.  Both  schools  were  helped  because  of  increased  attendance,  and 
consequent  interest  and  emulation.  District  No.  96  lies  never  built  a  schoolhouse. 
The  concentration  of  school  districts  must  come  in  the  future,  and  it  is  now  a 
question  of  molding  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  same,  so  that  a  law  may  be  passed 
which  will  make  it  easier  to  concentrate.  Under  our  present  system  (without 
township  organization)  no  district  wishes  to  yield  right  of  way  to  others,  which 
is  necessary  in  order  to  put  the  combination  into  effect.  The  Kingsville  plan  is 
O.  K.,  and  works  out  very  easily  when  one  board  has  contract  of  a  township. 

The  department  has  repeatedly  urged  superintendents  and  school  officers  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  provisions  of  this  law,  but  the  inclination  to  be  independent  in 
fact  as  well  as  in  name  no  doubt  is  the  strongest  barrier  to  overcome.  The  diffi¬ 
culty  in  inaugurating  any  new  system  where  prejudice  and  long-established 
usages  prevail  is  met  here  as  well  as  in  other  matters.  We  believe,  however,  that 
the  plan  is  a  good  one,  and  shall  continue  to  advocate  it.  In  time  the  people  who 
now  hold  so  tenaciously  to  the  little  inadequate  home  school  will  find  that  they 
can  be  better  served  and  at  less  expense  by  taking  advantage  of  the  provision  for 
uniting  with  another  district.  This  will  lead  ultimately  to  the  consolidation  of 
districts  and  the  maintaining  o:  a  system  of  graded  schools  in  rural  districts. 


CHAPTER  IT. 

AMERICAN"  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION:  WHAT  SHALL  IT  BE? 


[Preliminary  report  of  a  committee  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education, 
made  at  the  Kew  York  meeting,  held  July  2^-3,  1900.] 


To  the  president  and  the  members  of  the  society . 

Gentlemen.  Yotir  committee  on  industrial  education  was  appointed  to  make  a 
report  upon  the  educational  means  and  methods  which  thej^  are  prepared  to  recom¬ 
mend  as  best  adapted  to  advance  the  general  cause  of  industrial  education  in  this 
country.  By  industrial  education  we  here  mean  that  education  which  specifically 
fits  one  for  an  industrial  vocation  or  profession.  This  report  has  no  reference  to 
educational  methods  in  general,  nor  to  those  special  kinds  of  training  leading 
toward  the  fine  arts  and  to  the  learned  professions,  other  than  engineering.  Our 
problem  is:  What,  in  addition  to  the  work  that  is  now  done  in  our  primary  and 
secondary  schools,  is  it  wise  for  us  to  attempt  to  do  in  schools  of  various  sorts  for 
those  young  people  who  are  looking  for  employment  in  our  manufacturing  indus¬ 
tries,  or  in  commercial  houses,  or  with  our  great  transportation  companies,  or  in 
those  new  or  more  or  less  original  adaptations  of  material  means  to  social  ends, 
which  are  the  peculiar  problems  of  the  engineering  profession? 

If  the  American  people  can  agree  substantially  on  what  ought  to  be  done,  they 
can  doubtless  find  the  ways  and  means  for  doing  it.  The  object  of  this  report  is 
to  bring  the  members  of  this  society  into  substantial  agreement  as  to  what  is  best 
to  do. 

Your  committee  are  of  the  opinion  that  heretofore  we  all  have  relied  too  much 
upon  the  common  schools  and  upon  native  ability.  We  have  also  conceived  the 
generic  American  boy  or  girl  as  conditioned  in  a  single  way,  and  then  have  pro¬ 
vided  educational  means  and  methods  to  fit  this  particular  condition.  But  the 
average  or  generic  boy  is  no  particular  boy,  and  his  average  condition  fits  few 
particular  cases.  We  forget  that  they  are  particular  boys  who  are  to  be  trained 
to  do  the  business  of  the  coming  generation,  and  these  particular  boys  are  of  all 
ages,  conditions,  tastes,  and  capabilities.  Your  committee  are  quite  agreed  that 
in  America  every  boy  should  find  his  career  entirely  open  at  the  top.  Society  here 
is  not  to  be  stratified  horizontally,  but  rather  vertically.  Our  educational  ways 
and  means,  therefore,  must  be  planned  for  the  purpose  of  helping  every  boy  or 
man  to  make  the  most  of  himself,  and  hence  to  return  to  society  the  most  he  is 
capable  of. .  But  educational  benefits  can  not  be  conferred  upon  unwilling  sub¬ 
jects,  neither  does  the  wish  always  bring  the  opportunity.  Our  industrial  educa¬ 
tional  advantages  and  opportunities,  therefore,  should  be  both  attractive  and 
available  to  all  classes  and  to  all  ages.  Any  person  wishing  to  improve  himself, 
and  to  make  of  himself  a  more  useful  citizen,  should  find  an  opportunity  for  grati¬ 
fying  this  high  ambition.  There  are  now  in  this  country  only  the  beginnings  of 
systematic  educational  opportunities  for  young  people  to  learn  the  theory  and 
practice  of  particular  employments  for  which  they  are  fitted  by  nature  and  in 
which  they  long  to  become  engaged.  We  have  an  excellent  system  of  public  and 
endowed  schools,  in  which  are  more  or  less  well  taught  the  elements  of  knowledge 
and  in  which  a  very  considerable  mental  capacity  is  developed. 


215 


216 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


After  leaving  these  schools  our  hoys  know  something,  so  far  as  knowledge  can 
be  gained  from  books  and  oral  instruction,  but  they  can  do  little  or  nothing. 
This  mental,  abstract,  and  memoriter  education  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  a 
manual,  industrial,  industrial  art,  commercial,  or  engineering  education  if  the 
boy  is  to  become  a  doer,  or  a  director.  He  then  not  only  knows  something,  but  he 
can  do  something,  and  because  he  can  do  something  he  is  worth  something  to 
society.  However  much  a  man  knows,  he  is  a  drone  in  the  hive  if  he  can  not  do 
something  for  the  common  good.  It  must  be  understood  we  are  not  asking  for 
utilitarian  education  in  place  of  a  mind-informing  and  mind-developing  educa¬ 
tion,  but  to  supplement  such  cultural  education  as  the  boy  or  girl  has  been  able  to 
obtain.  Neither  do  we  care  to  insist  upon  young  people  availing  themselves  of 
this  utilitarian  education.  We  are  only  concerned  that  it  should  be  offered,  and 
we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  the  facilities 
will  outrun  the  pressing  demand  for  any  kind  of  education  which  will  enable  a 
man  to  rise,  in  honor  and  in  usefulness,  in  his  chosen  calling.  We  are  not  con¬ 
cerned  to  find  the  pupils,  we  are  only  concerned  to  provide  the  schools. 

W e  are  now  to  try  to  agree  upon  the  various  and  sundry  classes  of  theoretical 
and  practical  schools  which  are  needed  in  every  populous  center  in  this  country 
in  order  to  meet  all  the  educational  demands  now  existing,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
great  increase  in  such  demands  as  soon  as  we  begin  to  meet  them.  While  your 
committee  may  not  quite  agree  in  regard  to  the  relative  importance  of  the 
several  classes  of  schools  hereinafter  discussed,  they  are  in  substantial  accord  in 
affirming  that  all  have  their  place  in  any  thorough  and  general  scheme  of  techni¬ 
cal  education  for  American  youth.  These  classes  of  schools  will  now  be  described 
and  discussed  separately. 

I.  THE  MANUAL-TRAINING  SCHOOL. 

There  has  probably  never  been  a  movement  in  American  educational  methods 
which  has  effected  such  great  changes  in  so  short  a  time  as  this  manual- training 
school  movement.  Growing  out  of  the  Russian  educational  exhibit  at  Philadel¬ 
phia  in  1876,  and  out  of  regular  class  shop  instruction  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti¬ 
tute  of  Technology,  and  still  earlier  class  instruction  in  shops  at  the  University 
of  Illinois,  at  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  and  in  the  Engineering  School 
of  Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  the  movement  was  given  its  American  name, 
form,  and  significance  as  a  means  of  general  secondary  education  in  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  St.  Louis  Manual- Training  School  in  1880.  To  Dr.  C.  M.  Woodward, 
a  member  of  this  committee,  is  due  the  credit  of  both  the  name  and  the  school  as 
we  know  it  in  this  country.1  He  also  was  the  chief,  and  at  times  it  seemed 
almost  its  only,  advocate  and  defender.  He,  more  than  any  other,  has  fixed  it  in 
America  as  a  part  of  the  general  secondary  educational  training  of  a  large  propor¬ 
tion  of  our  boys  who  are  not  drawn  especially  toward  the  so-called  classical 
courses  of  instruction. 

These  schools  need  not  be  here  described  in  detail.  Suffice  it  to  say  they  are 
intended  for  boys  from  14  to  18  years  of  age,  and  they  offer  three  or  four  years’ 
courses.  The  time  is  divided  about  equally  between  manual  exercises,  drawing, 
and  laboratory  work  on  the  one  hand  and  regular  academic  class-room  work  on 
the  other.  No  pretense  is  made  of  fitting  for  particular  employments,  and  in 
point  of  fact  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  their  graduates  become  and  remain 
artisans.  A  very  large  proportion  of  them  go  into  higher  education,  a  majority 
of  these  very  naturally  taking  the  engineering  courses. 


1  It  hardly  need  be  said  that  Dr.  Woodward  is  not  responsible  for  the  insertion  of  the  above 
claim  in  this  report.  One  member  of  the  committee,  also,  objects  to  the  mention  of  any  nam9 
in  this  connection.  The  precedents  as  to  shop- work  instruction  as  here  stated  are  more  extended 
than  they  were  in  the  report  as  read  at  the  New  York  meeting.  Hence  much  of  the  discussion 
which  followed  on  this  point  does  not  exactly  fit  the  text  as  given  above.  *  *  *  J.  B.  J. 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


217 


The  arguments  in  favor  of  these  schools  are,  first,  that  they  at  present  draw 
their  students  very  largely  from  those  who  otherwise  would  leave  school  altogether 
at  about  the  age  of  14  or  earlier;  and  second,  that  for  a  very  large  proportion  of 
city  boys  this  is  at  present  the  best  kind  of  a  school  they  can  attend  at  this  age, 
no  matter  what  they  expect  to  do  subsequently.  For  boys  who  expect  to  follow 
any  industrial  or  commercial  vocation,  and  who  have  grown  up  with  little  manual 
culture,  as  is  the  case  with  most  city  boys,  the  manual-training  school  offers  real 
and  permanent  advantages.  Here  the  whole  boy  is  sent  to  school  and  not  merely 
his  head,  as  Dr.  Woodward  has  so  tersely  expressed  it. 

While  these  schools  can  not  be  called  industrial,  since  they  fit  for  nothing  in 
particular,  they  belong  to  the  industrial  class,  because  the  graduates  from  these 
schools  are  well  fitted  to  go  at  once  into  any  practical  trade  or  business  and  learn 
it  quickly  and  effectively.  The  boys  from  these  schools  are  not  too  old  or  too 
lofty  to  enter  the  industries  in  the  most  humble  positions;  in  this  particular  they 
have  some  advantages  over  the  graduates  from  our  high-grade  engineering  schools. 
While  many  of  them  may  begin  as  artisans,  they  soon  come  to  be  foremen,  drafts¬ 
men,  salesmen,  superintendents,  and  the  like,  so  that  a  census  taken  at  any  time 
will  show  very  few  of  them  in  the  artisan  class.  This  fact,  which  is  greatly  to  the 
credit  of  such  schools,  is  frequently  cited  by  shallow  critics  in  disparagement  of 
them;  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  also  gained  for  them  the  logical  support  of  the  arti¬ 
san  class,  who  at  first  were  inclined  to  oppose  them.  Your  committee  are  in  sub¬ 
stantial  accord,  therefore,  in  their  belief  in  and  in  their  support  of  the  manual- 
training  schools  as  now  organized  and  operated.  They  would  like  to  see  these 
multiply  until  every  boy  can  have  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  this  kind  of  edu¬ 
cation  free  of  charge.  The  work  should  be  adapted  to  girls  as  well  as  to  boys. 
Thus  for  girls,  cooking,  domestic  economy,  sewing,  dressmaking,  etc,,  are  intro¬ 
duced  to  offset  the  shop  work  of  the  boys.  Whenever  manual  training  is  made 
a  fixed  part  of  the  public-school  system,  however,  they  most  earnestly  recommend 
to  all  public-school  boards  a  further  development  of  the  system  as  described  under 
the  title  of 

II.  MANUAL  TRAINING  AND  ART  EDUCATION  AS  A  PART  OF  ALL  PUBLIC-SCHOOL 
EDUCATION,  FROM  THE  KINDERGARTEN  THROUGH  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

This  we  conceive  to  be  the  ideal  method  of  introducing  both  manual  and  art 
training  into  the  public  schools.  In  two  or  three  of  the  lower  grades  sloyd  work 
and  simple  hand-tool  work  might  be  employed  alike  for  both  boys  and  girls. 
Free-hand  drawing  also  should  be  taught  alike  to  all,  and  this  should  develop  into 
graduated  exercises  of  simple  art  designing,  modeling,  carving,  water-color  paint¬ 
ing,  carpet,  wall  paper,  and  furniture  patterns,  etc.  Elementary  needlework, 
cooking,  and  the  methods  of  good  plain  housekeeping  can  be  taught  successfully 
to  girls  of  the  seventh  and  eight  grades.  If  suitable  manual  work  be  distributed 
over  the  entire  public-school  period,  it  would  occupy  but  a  very  small  part  of  the 
average  daily  programme,  and  all  such  work  would  come  as  a  rest  and  a  recreation 
from  the  intellectual  tasks  assigned,  so  that  instead  of  being  a  hindrance  it  would 
in  fact  be  a  stimulus  and  a  substantial  help  in  the  regular  class  work.  The  bring¬ 
ing  of  these  exercises  into  the  regular  school  course  would  serve  also  to  hold  vast 
numbers  in  the  schools  who  now  lose  interest  and  drop  out  for  all  sorts  of  frivo¬ 
lous  reasons,  which  may  be  summed  up  in  the  two  words,  “  lost  interest.”  Some 
of  our  public  schools  are  already  moving  in  this  direction.  Perhaps  the  school 
which  has  realized  this  idea  as  completely  as  any  is  the  Central  School  at  Menom- 
onie,  Wis.  Here  the  management  has  had  the  wise  counsel  and  the  financial  aid 
of  a  generous  citizen,  the  Hon.  J.  H.  Stout.  He  erected  and  equipped  most 
liberally  the  necessary  buildings,  and  has  continued  to  pay  the  annual  deficits  in 
the  expense  accounts,  but  the  city  will  doubtless  soon  be  able  to  bear  the  entire 
expense,  as  the  school  has  the  loyal  and  enthusiastic  support  of  the  entire  popula- 


218 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


tion.  Both  the  appliances  and  the  instruction  in  this  school  are  of  the  highest 
order,  and  the  results  are  wall  calculated  to  astonish  anyone  who  has  never  seen 
this  system  of  public  instruction  in  successful  operation  from  the  kindergarten 
through  the  high  school. 

This  we  conceive  to  be  the  ideal  public  school  for  America.  It  is  expensive,  for 
three  reasons:  The  buildings  and  equipments  cost  large  sums:  the  instruction  is 
of  a  high  order  and  must  be  well  paid  for;  and  more  than  both  these,  the  attend¬ 
ance  will  be  greatly  increased  in  the  last  six  of  the  twelve  years  of  the  course,  thus 
requiring  additional  buildings,  plant,  and  teaching  force  for  these  grades.  To 
fully  carry  out  these  ideas,  therefore,  will  greatly  increase  the  running  expense  of 
the  schools  as  well  as  the  building  and  equipment  account.  And  yet  your  com¬ 
mittee  believe  that  this  is  the  goal  which  we  should  strive  to  reach.  We  must 
learn  first  to  spend  wisely  the  money  now  raised  in  our  cities  for  public-school 
purposes,  and  then  we  must  almost  double  the  amount. 

America  is  far  behind  Europe,  and  particularly  France,  in  all  matters  pertain¬ 
ing  to  either  fine  or  industrial  art.  The  highest  industrial  rewards  come  for  new 
labor-saving  devices  and  for  new  art  industrial  designs.  In  the  former  we  already 
lead  the  world,  but  in  the  latter  we  are  far  behind.  Art  can  only  thrive  under 
conditions  of  general  comprehension  and  appreciation.  We  need  an  art  atmos¬ 
phere.  This  requires  time  in  which  to  educate  the  whole  people  along  these  lines, 
and  to  effect  this  the  work  must  be  done  in  the  public  schools.  Even  such  artists 
as  we  have  find  a  scant  support,  because  the  masses  of  the  people  can  not  distin¬ 
guish  between  good  and  poor  art,  and  furthermore  they  care  little  for  art,  either 
good  or  bad.  We  are  coming  to  be  the  richest  nation  in  the  world  and  can  well 
afford  to  enjoy  the  highest  fruits  of  wealth,  one  of  which  is  beautiful  and  aesthetic 
surroundings. 

But  this  aesthetic  argument  will  have  less  weight  with  our  people  at  this  time 
than  will  the  economic  argument  which  goes  with  it.  The  world  is  now  so  far 
advanced  in  its  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  that  good  art  pays  wherever  it  is 
coupled  with  the  useful.  Artistic  design  doubles  the  value  of  the  product,  while  it 
may  not  appreciably  add  to  its  cost  of  production.  Almost  all  our  artistic  indus¬ 
trial  designers  now  come  from  Europe.  France  fixes  the  fashions  of  the  world 
because  she  is  the  acknowledged  authority  in  art,  and  her  supremacy  in  art  is  the 
very  essence  of  all  her  material  prosperity.  But  America  is  rapidly  adjusting  her¬ 
self  to  this  demand  for  more  artistic  productions,  and  the  time  is  ripe  for  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  this  art-industrial  education  in  both  our  public  and  in  our  privately 
endowed  schools. 

III.  THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  AND  MECHANICAL  COLLEGES. 

These  schools  are  now  found  in  one  form  or  another  in  nearly  every  State  in  the 
Union.  Established  originally  under  the  several  land-grant  bills,  most  of  them 
are  now  liberally  supported  by  direct  State  aid,  and  they  serve  a  very  large  con¬ 
stituency  in  the  fields  of  agriculture,  the  mechanic  arts,  and  engineering. 

While  the  original  purpose  of  the  national  appropriations  was  doubtless  to  train 
young  men  for  actual  practice  in  scientific  farming  and  in  other  industrial  pur¬ 
suits,  the  students  from  these  schools  hitherto  have  very  largely  developed  into 
civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engineers.  Comparatively  few  of  them  have  re¬ 
turned  to  the  farms,  but  many  of  them  are  found  in  the  management  of  our  manu¬ 
facturing  industries.  These  schools  all  give  regular  four- year  college  courses  in 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  but  some  of  them  have  established  short  courses 
in  agriculture.  In  Minnesota  and  in  some  other  States,  to  the  “  agricultural  col¬ 
lege’ has  been  added  an  “agricultural  school.”  This  is  a  true  secondary  indus¬ 
trial  school  in  which  the  art  and  science  of  farming  are  taught  to  both  boys  and 
girls.  It  teaches  suitable  English  studies,  physics,  chemistry,  the  raising  of  crops, 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


219 


the  use  of  fertilizers,  animal  husbandry,  butter  and  cheese  making;  cooking,  sew¬ 
ing  and  household  economy  to  the  girls,  etc.  This  course  is  wonderfully  success¬ 
ful.  Most  of  these  schools,  however,  have  not  entirely  fulfilled  the  hopes  of  their 
founders  in  supplying  the  much-needed  school  training  to  farmers  and  artisans, 
which  was  the  primary  and  original  purpose  of  these  enactments.  Many  of  them 
do  form  a  most  important  class  of  engineering  schools,  since  they  accept  students 
from  the  leading  high  schools  of  their  respective  States,  and  give  them  a  sufficient 
scientific  and  practical  training  to  make  most  useful  members  of  the  engineering 
profession  in  those  grades  which  make  up  the  great  body  of  practicing  engineers. 
They  are  near  to  the  people,  are  comparatively  inexpensive,  and  are  very  largely 
attended.  These  schools  have  thus  more  than  justified  their  cost,  though  many 
of  them  are  not  altogether  fulfilling  the  purposes  contemplated  in  the  original 
enactments.1 

IV.  THE  HIGHER  ENGINEERING  COLLEGES. 

These  are  strictly  professional  schools  of  a  high  grade,  which  teach  both  pure 
and  applied  science,  and  which  rank  with  the  best  of  their  class  in  any  country. 
Many  of  them  are  privately  endowed  and  others  are  under  the  fostering  care  of 
the  State,  either  as  departments  of  the  State  universities  or  otherwise.  In  the 
training  of  professional  engineers  they  are  about  all  that  could  be  desired;  and 
they  are  now,  and  have  been  for  many  years,  graduating  young  men  who  are  as 
well  equipped  in  both  theory  and  practice  as  can  be  found  perhaps  anywhere  in 
the  world.  These  are  to  be  the  future  leaders  in  the  new  adaptations  of  the  laws, 
the  forces,  and  the  materials  of  nature  to  the  service  of  man.  These  are  the  men 
who,  after  some  years  of  practice,  can  safely  be  intrusted  to  solve  new  problems 
both  successfully  and  economically.  They  are  the  safe  counselors  and  guides  of 
the  capitalist  in  all  new  mechanical  ventures,  and  they  should  be  in  constant 
demand  by  public  officials,  by  boards  of  direction,  and  by  individuals  in  all  cases 
where  large  expenditures  are  to  be  made  or  where  important  definite  results  are 
imperatively  required.  The  scope  and  purpose  of  these  schools  are,  however,  well 
understood  by  our  people  and  they  need  not  be  further  elaborated  here. 

V.  MONOTECHNIC  OR  TRADE  SCHOOLS. 

These  schools  are  comparatively  new  to  the  American  people.  They  have  long 
been  in  operation  abroad,  and  are  most  fully  developed  in  Germany.  But  the 
foreign  pattern  is  not  well  suited  to  American  needs.  There  a  boy’s  career  can  be 
marked  out  for  him  in  advance.  If  he  is  to  be  an  artisan  he  is  expected  always  to 
remain  an  artisan.  The  particular  trade  which  he  is  expected  to  learn,  also,  is 
fixed  for  him.  It  is  commonly  that  of  his  father  before  him  or  that  of  the  pre¬ 
vailing  industry  of  the  locality.  He  is  at  best  a  sort  of  machine,  an  automaton, 
worked  for  what  he  is  worth  to  the  family  or  to  the  community  and  the  State. 
His  own  individual  development  is  not  in  question.  Most  commonly  he  is  not 
even  consulted  in  the  matter.  His  future  is  his  fate,  and  he  yields  to  it  as  grace¬ 
fully  as  he  can.  He  has  little  opportunity  to  rise  above  the  station  in  which  he 
finds  himself.  His  career  is  closed  in  at  the  top.  Society  is  stratified  horizontally. 
He  finds  such  solace  and  comfort  as  he  can  by  ministering  to  his  bodily  comforts 
and  his  domestic  joys,  and  frets  not  over  vain  ambitions.  In  fact,  ambition  is  a 
word  of  little  meaning  to  him  since  it  can  have  for  him  no  satisfactory  fruition. 
In  these  foreign  countries,  therefore,  the  trade  school  is  primarily  a  means  of  more 
efficient  and  more  economic  production  and  only  incidentally  is  it  a  means  of  per¬ 
sonal  development.  Your  committee  believes  that  this  result  of  trade-school 
instruction  abroad  is  very  largely  due  to  the  character  of  the  people  themselves 
and  should  not  be  charged  against  the  schools. 


1  As  to  the  purpose  originally  contemplated,  see  Rep.  Com.  Ed.,  1889-1900,  VoL  2,  Chap. 
XXIV.— Ed. 


220 


EDUCATION  REPpRT,  1900-1901. 


In  America  all  schooling  should  lead  primarily  to  the  elevation  and  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  individual,  and  only  secondarily  to  a  greater  material  prosperity.  It 
is,  doubtless,  through  a  mistaken  notion  that  the  trade  school  does  not  do  this, 
that  this  class  of  schools  has  made  so  little  headway  in  this  country.  If  we  teach 
a  boy  a  trade  it  is  not  only  that  he  may  practice  it,  but  that  he  may  become  a 
master  workman,  an  employer,  a  contractor,  a  manufacturer,  a  proprietor,  a 
leader  in  his  calling,  and  withal  an  influential  citizen  and  a  participant  in  public 
affairs,  That  a  properly  conducted  trade  school  would  lead  to  these  results  in 
this  country  can  not  be  doubted.  We  should  teach  our  boys  many  things  besides 
the  mere  manual  performance  of  a  trade.  In  the  trade  school  should  always  be 
taught  some  of  the  scientific  theory  which  accompanies  and  underlies  such  per¬ 
formance.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  teach  all  these  related  subjects  in  the 
trade  school.  We  shall  continue  to  rely  upon  the  public  schools  for  the  general 
education.  The  trade  school  with  us  must  supplement  this  and  not  displace  it. 
It  remains  for  us  to  work  out  a  system  of  trade  schools  suited  to  our  needs. 

The  need  for  industrial  training  in  the  various  practical  vocations  and  trades  is 
becoming  daily  more  apparent.  Not  only  are  most  vocations  becoming  more 
scientific  and  less  traditional  in  their  practice,  but  the  wholesale  introduction  of 
labor-saving  machinery  and  the  abandonment  in  large  measure  of  the  apprentice¬ 
ship  system,  leaves  our  boys  and  young  men  almost  without  opportunity  or 
resource  in  entering  successfully  any  of  these  practical  callings.  In  addition  to 
these  inherent  obstacles,  the  rules  of  the  trades  unions  by  which  the  admission  of 
learners  is  limited  to  a  very  insignificant  number,  still  further  shut  out  young 
men  from  all  lines  of  productive  employment.  In  very  many  cases  not  even  the 
proprietor’s  son  is  allowed  to  learn  the  business  practically,  or  if  perchance  the 
permission  of  the  union  be  extended  to  him  to  enter  the  works  as  a' learner,  he 
must  beware  of  his  steps,  for  pitfalls  may  be  set  for  him  at  every  turn  and  some¬ 
times  even  his  life  may  be  in  danger. 

It  has  come  to  such  a  pass,  in  fact,  that  the  avenues  by  which  American  youths 
can  learn  almost  any  practical  calling  in  all  its  details  are  often  absolutely  sealed 
up.  The  only  recourse  is  the  teaching  of  all  these  trades  and  employments  in 
especially  equipped  schools.  If  the  would-be  apprentice  hopes  to  become  anything 
more  than  an  average  workman  he  must  learn  the  scientific  and  practical  ele¬ 
ments  of  his  trade  somewhere,  and  it  is  well  established  that  he  can  learn  them 
most  successfully  in  properly  operated  schools.  These  schools  should  not  indi¬ 
vidually  attempt  to  teach  too  much;  they  should,  however,  teach  the  underlying 
scientific  principles  of  one  or  two  trades  thoroughly,  as  well  as  the  most  improved 
commercial  practice.  The  practice,  however,  is  the  most  difficult  to  teach  in  the 
school.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  hard  to  find  persons  having  both  the  practical 
knowledge  and  the  teaching  ability.  To  impart  practical  knowledge  rationally 
one  must  rest  it  on  some  scientific  or  rational  basis,  and  not  simply  upon  the  dic¬ 
tum  of  tradition.  This  rational  basis  of  trade  practices  is  commonly  either 
entirely  wanting  or,  if  it  exists  at  all,  it  is  quite  unknown  to  the  practitioner.  His 
reasons  for  his  doing  a  thing  so  and  so  are  usually  far  from  sound.  Competent 
instructors  in  the  practical  trades  are,  therefore,  very  difficult  to  find. 

In  spite  of  all  these  difficulties,  very  efficient  trade  schools  are  established  and 
others  are  called  for  by  the  proprietors  and  managers  of  various  industries.  At 
the  last  meeting  of  the  American  Foundrymen’s  Association,  held  in  Chicago,  June 
5-7,  1900,  a  resolution  was  adopted  calling  for  high-grade  industrial  schools  to 
teach  the  science  and  art  of  founding.  The  school  in  clay  industries  started  a  few 
years  ago  at  the  Ohio  State  University  has  already  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  new  ceramic  works  of  very  great  promise.  As  a  rule  the  expense  of  establish¬ 
ing  and  maintaining  these  schools  should  be  met  by  industrial  corporations,  or  by 
individuals,  or  by  the  joint  action  of  manufacturers,  locality,  and  State.  Some  of 
the  more  important  industries  now  requiring  such  schools  will  be  named. 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


221 


1.  The  textile  industries  are  among  those  which  most  readily  submit  themselves 
to  monotechnic  or  trade-school  instruction.  Trade  schools  in  these  industries  have 
long  been  common  abroad,  and  a  most  successful  one  has  been  in  operation  for 
many  years  in  Philadelphia  and  one  for  a  shorter  period  in  Lowell,  Mass.  A  num¬ 
ber  of  new  ones  have  recently  been  established  in  New  England.  The  State  of 
Massachusetts  makes  a  standing  offer  of  $25,000  assistance  to  any  city  or  corpora¬ 
tion  in  the  establishment  of  a  textile  school  which  complies  with  certain  require¬ 
ments.  In  the  higher  textile  schools  the  science  of  dyeing  and  the  art  of  design¬ 
ing  are  taught  as  well  as  the  practice  in  weaving  and  finishing  all  grades  of  fabrics. 
These  higher  courses  are  several  years  in  length,  and  are  best  pursued  after  taking 
a  high  school  or  manual  training  school  course.  Even  a  college  or  an  art  school 
or  an  engineering  school  preparation  before  one  enters  the  textile  school  is  none 
too  much  if  one  wishes  to  fully  master  the  industry,  to  understand  mechanical 
and  the  power  plants,  and  also  to  become  familiar  with  the  business  departments 
of  the  manufacture  and  the  sale  of  textile  fabrics  on  a  large  scale.  Many  of  the 
highest  and  latest  developments  of  the  science  of  chemistry  find  their  application 
in  the  dyeing  of  yarns  and  fabrics,  and  the  large  dyeing  and  printing  works  in 
Germany  have  many  chemists  constantly  engaged  in  studying  new  ana  improved 
applications  of  chemical  knowledge  to  the  textile  industries. 

2.  The  machine  trades  are  at  the  basis  of  all  manufacturing,  and  superiority  in 
these  very  largely  sustains  our  modern  national  prosperity.  The  fundamental 
principles  and  most  of  the  practice  of  these  industries  can  best  be  taught  in  schools 
having  proper  equipments.  Formerly  a  great  deal  of  hand  work  was  done,  and 
every  journeyman  in  the  shop  was  expected  to  be  able  to  perform  any  task  in  the 
ordinary  routine  of  shop  duties.  This  demanded  a  long  apprenticeship  in  actual 
shop  practice  and  the  acquisition  of  a  high  degree  of  manual  skill. 

The  recent  general  introduction  of  automatic  and  labor-saving  machine  tools, 
and  also  tools  of  extraordinary  size,  has,  however,  created  a  demand  for  an  entirely 
new  class  of  workmen.  Now  the  average  workman  in  our  large  shops  is  only  a 
machine  attendant,  and  he  is  kept  employed  with  a  single  class  of  machine  tools. 
His  business  is  to  learn  the  capacities  of  these  tools  and  to  get  the  most  work  out 
of  them  of  which  they  are  capable.  In  fact  some  of  our  most  progressive  super¬ 
intendents  affirm  that  they  prefer  these  narrow  specialists  to  the  old-fashioned  all- 
around  machinists.  For  a  tool  attendant  of  this  class  very  little  general  training 
of  any  kind  is  required.  With  good  instructions  he  will  learn  in  a  few  days,  or 
perhaps  hours,  to  operate  a  machine  intelligently,  and  very  soon  he  will  be  work¬ 
ing  it  to  its  full  capacity.  Trade  schools  are  not  a  necessity  for  these  men.  This 
system  carries  in  it,  however,  the  seeds  of  its  own  destruction.  By  this  system  no 
one  man  is  learning  the  business  in  its  entirety,  and  hence  no  one  is  being  trained  to 
superintend  or  manage  the  business  both  theoretically  and  practically.  The  grad¬ 
uates  of  our  colleges  of  mechanical  engineering  -would  make  the  most  capable 
men  for  these  higher  positions  of  superintendence  if  they  could  be  given  an  oppor¬ 
tunity  after  leaving  the  schools  to  learn  all  the  practical  details  of  the  business. 
It  has  not  been  possible  hitherto  to  secure  such  men  in  sufficient  numbers.  On 
the  one  hand  the  managers  of  works  have  not  been  fully  informed  as  to  the  bene¬ 
fits  of  such  a  course,  and  on  the  other  the  graduates  of  our  schools  of  mechanical 
engineering  are  not  always  willing  to  begin  at  the  bottom  to  learn  the  business. 
Failing  of  these,  the  graduates  of  our  manual-training  schools  would  serve  very 
well  for  these  positions  of  trust  and  supervision.  These  are  more  ready  to  enter 
the  lower  ranks  of  mechanical  employment  and  work  their  way  to  the  top.  By  a 
special  kind  of  apprenticeship  in  the  shops  some  of  these  young  men  would  rapidly 
develop  into  very  good  foremen,  superintendents,  and  managers.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  trade  unions  would  seriously  interfere  with  any  free  application  of 
this  sort  of  a  programme. 

Again,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  many  of  our  most  ingenious  and  capable 


222 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


machinists  and  mechanical  inventors  who  have  become  the  proprietors  of  the  finest 
machine  tool  works  in  the  world  have  had  no  special  technical  education,  but  have 
come  up  through  the  old  system  of  apprenticeship.  To  save  this  class  of  talented 
young  men  to  the  business  and  to  enable  them  to  more  fully  master  an  industry 
now  that  the  apprenticeship  system  has  been  practically  abandoned,  some  means 
should  be  j)rovided  for  giving  them  what  the  former  system  gave  and  which  the 
technical  and  industrial  schools  are  giving  to  their  students.  These  men  will  not 
leave  their  employment  and  go  back  to  the  schools.  Such  schooling  as  they  are 
ever  to  receive  must  be  brought  to  them.  It  is  probably  true  that  many  of  the 
most  capable  of  this  class  will  now  find  some  means  of  acquiring  a  technical  edu¬ 
cation  before  entering  upon  industrial  employment,  whereas  formerly  apprentice¬ 
ship  was  the  only  way  open  for  entering  these  industries. 

It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  only  a  few  of  the  untrained  workers  in  the  shops 
to-day  will  care  to  avail  themselves  of  any  school  opportunities,  however  con¬ 
venient,  but  these  few  are  the  ones  who  would  profit  most  by  such  training,  and 
whom  society  can  least  afford  to  lose  from  its  high  service.  These  may,  with 
some  technical  instruction,  become  leaders  and  directors  of  their  fellows  and 
founders  of  new  industries,  and  the  rest  may  remain  automatic  attachments  to 
their  mechanical  tools  if  they  choose,  without  seriously  impairing  the  success  of 
the  works  and  the  local  and  general  prosperity  resulting  therefrom.  This  is  the 
hardest,  though  not  the  largest  and  most  important  problem  your  committee  has 
had  to  struggle  with.  How  are  we  to  furnish  adequate  instruction  to  those  young 
men  who  will  have  had  no  opportunity  to  secure  a  technical  training,  but  who, 
after  entering  upon  some  industrial  calling,  wish  to  remedy  this  defect  of  early 
education?  Such  answers  as  we  are  able  to  make  are  contained  in  the  next  section 
of  this  progress  report.  Since  nearly  all  industrial  production  to-day  is  mechan¬ 
ical,  the  solutions  which  are  offered  for  the  technical  training  of  machinists  will 
apply  very  largely  to  the  workers  in  all  lines  of  mechanical  production. 

VI.  SUPPLEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  WORKERS. 

These  are  schools  for  those  bright  and  promising  boys  and  young  men  who  have 
from  choice  or  from  necessity  already  gone  to  work  in  some  industrial  calling 
with  little  or  no  scientific  or  technical  schooling,  as  well  as  for  those  boys  who 
can  be  reached  by  no  other  class  of  industrial  or  technical  schools.  The  present 
demand  for  these  supplementary  schools  is  very  large,  but  with  the  general  intro¬ 
duction  of  manual,  scientific,  and  art  education  into  the  public  schools  the  demand 
for  such  supplementary  schools  will  be  very  greatly  reduced.  The  most  promis¬ 
ing  foundations  for  the  organisation  of  these  schools  your  committee  believe  to  be 
the  following: 

1.  Proprietary  trade  schools  in  connection  with  industrial  icorks. — Nearly  all 
lines  of  production  are  now  organized  into  a  few  great  manufacturing'  centers, 
and  all  the  factories  of  any  one  class  in  the  whole  country  are  more  than  likely  to 
be  operated  by  a  single  joint  stock  company.  This  company  shapes  the  industry 
over  the  whole  American  continent.  We  believe  that  it  will  be  profitable  in  all 
these  great  industries  to  establish  industrial  schools  in  connection  with  all  their 
large  factories  in  which  a  few  of  their  brighter  workmen  can  be  educated,  not 
only  in  all  parts  of  their  business,  but  in  the  underlying  and  related  sciences,  in 
order  to  become  capable  foremen,  superintendents,  and  inventors.  These  are  at 
least  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  men  to  whom  the  stockholders  must  look 
for  continued  improvements,  for  skillful  management,  and  for  economic  operation. 
After  we  have  passed  through  the  stock-jobbing  stages  of  these  new  and  mam¬ 
moth  combinations,  we  shall  surely  come  around  to  this  basis  of  most  economic 
production  and  safe  business  management.  The  machine  attendants  will  com- 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


223 


monly  be  taken  from  the  ranks  of  unskilled  labor.  These  can  be  taken  on  and 
put  oft  at  pleasure,  and  they  will  be  found  in  that  large  class  of  happy-go-lucky 
individuals  who  find  self-improvement  too  laborious  and  confining,  and  who  feel 
that  sufficient  to  the  day  are  both  the  good  and  the  evil  thereof.  In  those  indus¬ 
tries  where  perfection  of  workmanship  is  a  prime  essential,  even  the  machine 
attendant  must  be  a  bright,  skilled,  thoughtful,  attentive  man  or  woman;  and  in 
these  works  some  educational  stimulus  and  some  rewards  for  acquired  skill  and 
for  fertile  suggestions  will  be  found  to  be  not  only  fair  dealing,  but  a  most  profit¬ 
able  business  policy. 

We  are  now  passing  rapidly  through  an  evolutionary  if  not  a  revolutionary 
stage  in  these  matters,  and  our  general  managers  of  large  works  are  coming  to 
realize  the  necessity  of  an  educational  side  to  their  business.  It  is  said  of  Ameri¬ 
cans  that  they  are  quick  to  see  opportunities  of  improving  their  business  and  are 
ready  to  adopt  any  measure  which  promises  a  sufficient  return  for  the  outlay. 
Your  committee  feel  that  these  proprietary  schools  in  connection  with  industrial 
works  will  make  their  own  way  in  this  country  without  any  organized  campaign¬ 
ing,  but  some  systematic  effort  to  present  their  advantages  will  hasten  their  gen¬ 
eral  introduction.  Whether  these  schools  take  the  form  of  night  schools,  of  half¬ 
time  day  schools,  or  of  financial  aid  to  the  brighter  lads  to  attend  some  specific 
courses  in  a  technical  school,  or  all  of  these  combined,  is  not  now  material.  That 
all  of  our  large  industrial  works  and  combinations  of  works  should  be  brought  to 
see  it  do  their  interests  to  furnish  supplementary  school  facilities  to  their  brighest 
boys  is  the  problem  which  now  presents  itself  to  those  who  wish  to  further  the 
course  of  industrial  education  in  this  country.  It  may  well  be  that  many  manu¬ 
facturing  establishments  will  find  it  to  their  interest  to  work  in  conjunction  with 
a  correspondence  school  as  described  in  the  next  section.  Railway  corporations, 
and  large  mechanical,  electrical,  and  chemical  manufacturing  companies,  will 
probably  draw  all  their  technically  trained  men  from  the  regular  engineering 
schools  in  preference  to  establishing  technical  apprentice  schools.  These  are  then 
given  a  few  years  of  systematic  shop  and  laboratory  experience,  which  serves  as 
their  industrial  apprenticeship.  Some  of  our  railway  companies,  however,  are 
introducing  elementary  apprentice  school  instruction  into  their  large  construction 
and  repair  shops. 

A  Correspondence  technical  schools. — These  have  sprung  up  like  magic  in  Amer¬ 
ica  in  the  past  ten  years,  and  are  now  thought  by  many  to  be  serving  a  great 
need.  Whether  they  will  remain  in  demand,  or  are  only  a  passing  phase  of  educa¬ 
tional  opportunity,  may  be  a  question.  Until  other  opportunities  of  acquiring  a 
technical  training  become  practically  universal,  however,  it  is  very  clear  that 
they  will  find  a  great  work  to  do.  The  fact  that  a  single  one  of  these  schools  (the 
oldest  one)  is  now  carrying  on  its  roll  of  students  over  200, 000  names  is  the  best 
proof  in  the  world  of  the  great  demand  for  technical  education.  These  schools 
supply  their  students  with  specially  prepared  texts  and  have  systematic  corre¬ 
spondence  methods  of  imparting  instruction.  If  the  student  is  willing  to  do  his 
part,  he  may  obtain  in  this  way  a  very  fair  substitute  for  a  school  training.  He 
lacks  the  stimulus,  however,  of  a  direct  personal  contact  with  a  teacher  and  with 
other  workers  in  the  same  subjects.  This  advantage  can  be  partly  supplied  by  a 
little  encouragement  from  employers.  Some  establishments  are  now  supplying 
rooms,  fitted  with  drawing  tables,  warmed  and  lighted,  where  the  correspondence- 
school  students  among  their  employees  can  spend  their  evenings  in  study. 
Where  the  numbers  are  sufficient  the  correspondence  schools  may  eventually  find 
it  to  their  interest  to  supply  local  teachers.  This  would  vigorously  supplement 
the  work  of  the  correspondence  school  where  it  is  now  weakest.  The  entire 
absence  of  laboratory  and  shop  instruction  in  correspondence  courses,  however, 
is  a  serious  disadvantage,  particularly  in  technical  instruction. 


224 


EDUCATION  EE  PORT,  1900-1901. 


An  overwhelming  majority  of  the  students  who  begin  these  correspondence 
courses  become  discouraged,  or  find  themselves  overburdened,  or  else  have  not  the 
requisite  application,  and  so  stop  work  in  the  early  stages  of  their  correspondence 
courses.  This  is  not  surprising  when  the  persistent,  systematic,  and  seductive 
methods  of  obtaining  subscribing  students  are  fully  understood.  Still  the  truth 
remains  that  if  a  young  man  really  wishes  a  technical  education  and  is  willing 
to  do  his  part,  he  can  get  a  great  deal  of  elementary  assistance  in  this  way,  be 
he  in  the  slums  of  a  large  city,  or  on  a  cattle  ranch  in  Tesas,  or  in  the  South  Afri¬ 
can  gold  mines.  And  these  necessities  of  the  isolated  learners  will  probably 
always  make  a  large  demand  for  correspondence  instruction,  no  matter  how  gen¬ 
eral  other  means  of  acquiring  a  technical  education  may  become.  These  schools 
are  but  another  evidence  of  the  quick  initiative  of  Americans.  The  demand  was 
no  sooner  felt  than  the  supply  was  forthcoming  in  this  new  and  original  kind  of 
a  school.  Such  schools,  however,  can  never  supply  the  place  of  any  of  our 
regularly  organized  and  equipped  day  or  even  of  our  evening  technical  schools. 

3.  City  and  endowed  evening  schools. — These  are  designed  to  serve  young  men 
who  are  employed  throughout  the  day.  They  are  quite  similar  to  such  schools 
abroad,  most  of  the  so-called  technical  schools  of  England  being  of  this  class. 
The  student  comes  two  or  three  evenings  a  week  from  7  or  8  to  10  o’clock.  He 
comes  more  or  less  worn  out  by  his  day's  toil,  and  he  reaches  home  long  after  his 
usual  retiring  hour,  practically  exhausted.  His  mind  can  not  be  alert  with  his 
body  in  a  fagged-out  condition,  and  hence  this  class  of  instruction  is  at  once  a 
great  hardship  and,  in  comparison  with  day  schools,  it  is  of  relatively  little  profit 
Men  who  are  engaged  in  any  kind  of  actual  manual  labor  through  the  day  are 
greatly  handicapped  in  their  attendance  upon  such  schools.  They  are  most  valu- 
ble  for  clerks,  bookkeepers,  draftsmen,  and  the  like.  They  can  never  become 
a  very  substantial  element  in  the  technical  education  of  the  industrial  classes. 

But  besides  the  inherent  weakness  of  these  night  schools,  we  find  that  many  of 
them  are  not  well  taught.  The  teachers  are  changed  from  year  to  year,  and  there 
is  no  fixed  policy  or  line  of  study.  The  teachers,  also,  are  not  commonly  experi¬ 
enced  in  imparting  instruction,  and  the  whole  atmosphere  of  these  schools,  espe¬ 
cially  in  our  city  evening  schools,  is  apt  to  be  very  far  from  stimulating  and 
invigorating. 

A  Y.  M.  C.  A.  evening  schools  and  Sunday  technical  schools. — The  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
evening  schools  are  now  being  organised  under  a  competent  central  supervision 
and  are  pursuing  fixed  courses  of  study  under  much  more  competent  and  continu¬ 
ous  instruction  than  formerly.  These  schools  now  instruct  some  26,000  students 
in  the  United  States,  with  a  high  average  attendance.  Their  finishing  certificates 
are  accepted  as  evidence  of  sufficient  preparatory  work  in  about  100  institutions 
of  college  grade.  Notwithstanding  this  proof  of  the  great  importance  of  these 
schools,  their  work  is  more  with  the  mercantile  than  with  the  manufacturing 
classes. 

Sometimes  Sunday  technical  schools  have  been  tried,  but  they  are  not  likely  to 
be  very  largely  introduced  or  patronized  in  this  country.  Professor  Woodward, 
who  tried  for  four  years  in  St.  Louis  the  experiment  of  a  “  Sunday  morning  tech¬ 
nical  school,”  is  of  the  opinion  that  such  schools  could  be  made  very  successful  if 
properly  equipped  and  made  permanent  in  any  industrial  community;  but  an 
American  community  must  first  get  used  to  the  idea. 

These  supplementary  evening  and  Sunday  technical  schools,  therefore,  can  never 
serve  as  an  adequate  means  for  giving  to  young  men  in  America  a  high  technical 
development  or  in  preparing  them  for  a  great  technical  service  to  the  manufactur¬ 
ing  industries.  They  are  the  only  resource  for  a  large  class  of  wage-earners,  and 
they  should  be  encouraged  and  well  supported,  but  they  are  at  best  a  poor  substi¬ 
tute  for  day  schools,  and  they  can  not  be  regarded  as  anything  like  an  adequate 


AMERICAS'  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


22& 


means  of  self-improvement  for  onr  industrial  workers.  They  are  more  efficient^ 
when  properly  conducted,  than  the  correspondence  schools,  but  they  can  not  reach 
the  isolated  student  as  the  correspondence  school  does.  Where  the  evening  school 
is  available.,  as  it  is  in  all  our  larger  cities,  it  should  be  preferred  to  the  corre¬ 
spondence  school. 

5.  Half-time  self-supporting  trade  schools. — This  class  of  schools  has  recently 
|  been  ably  advocated  by  Mr.  M.  P.  Higgins  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  American 

Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.  Mr.  Higgins  was  for  twenty  years  in  charge  of 
the  shop  instruction  given  in  the  Polytechnic  Institute,  of  Yforcester,  Mass.  Ho- 
states  that  the  experience  of  that  institution  justifies  the  claim  that  well-equipped 
and  officered  industrial  works — as,  for  instance,  large  machine-tool  or  engine^ 
works — joined  to  good  technical  schools,  could  be  made  to  pay  a  very  large  pro¬ 
portion,  if  not  all,  of  the  shop  expenses.  In  such  a  school  the  boys  would  spend, 
half  the  day  in  the  school  and  the  other  half  in  the  shop.  They  would  pay  little 
or  no  tuition,  but  they  would  receive  nothing  for  their  work.  The  school  would 
be  divided  into  two  sections,  and  these  would  alternate  in  school  and  shop  work.. 
A  sufficient  number  of  expert  machinists  would  be  regularly  employed  to  oversee- 
the  shop  work  of  the  boys  and  to  impart  the  shop  instruction,  while  the  theoretical, 
or  school  work  would  be  given  also  to  both  forenoon  and  afternoon  sections  by 
another  set  of  technical  instructors.  In  this  way  very  nearly  actual  shop  condi¬ 
tions  could  be  introduced,  and  the  advantages  of  the  old  apprenticeship  system 
could  be  retained  in  addition  to  the  further  benefit  of  a  regular  school  training. 

If  such  a  system  of  trade  schools  be  practicable,  they  may  go  a  long  way  toward, 
furnishing  a  final  solution  to  the  great  problem  of  the  industrial  training  of  the 
rising  generation.  It  is  to  be  hoped  Mr.  Higgins  will  find  the  means  of  embodying, 
his  ideas  in  an  actual  combined  shop  and  school  as  he  proposes,  and  so  proving  the 
practicability  and  efficiency  of  his  plans  by  an  actual  test.  For  such  a  trial  the 
most  favorable  conditions  should  be  secured,  the  most  competent  instruction, 
obtained,  and  the  best  possible  shop  equipment  purchased.  It  is  vitally  important* 
that  the  first  trial  of  such  a  plan  should  be  given  every  fair  advantage  to  prove, 
its  worth.  If  it  succeeds,  as  its  chief  advocate  promises  that  it  will,  it  may  mark. 
the  beginning  of  as  great  a  movement  in  industrial  education  as  the  manual- train¬ 
ing  school  has  done  in  general  education.  There  is  no  middle  ground  between  the. 
expert  machinist  and  the  mechanical  engineer.  The  difference  is  one  of  degree 
rather  than  of  kind.  These  half-time  schools  would  turn  out  expert  machinists,, 
many  of  whom  might  become  skillful  mechanical  engineers.  Your  committee 
fear,  however,  that  in  some  localities  the  opposition  of  the  trade  unions  would, 
prove  fatal  to  all  such  schools  engaged  in  regular  manufacturing. 

6.  Public  libraries,  and  scientific,  technical,  and  trade  journals . — We  must  not 
forget  that  every  man  who  has  come  to  anything  is  almost  wholly  a  self-made 
man.  This  is  particularly  true  in  America,  and  applies  to  mental  as  well  as  to- 
material  acquisitions.  The  mental  atmosphere  which  pervades  our  great  indus¬ 
trial  works  is  always  bracing  and  sometimes  stimulating.  If  free  public  libraries- 
are  not  conveniently  available,  a  free  proprietary  library  and  reading  room  at  the 
works  can  readily  be  established.  Here  all  the  current  technical  and  trade  jour¬ 
nals  can  be  kept  on  file,  and  those  employees  who  are  capable  of  a  large  develop¬ 
ment  will  find  here  their  mental  nourishment.  It  is,  we  fchink,  not  too  much  to 
say  that  in  almost  every  industry  there  are  now  books,  technical  and  trade  jour¬ 
nals,  and  catalogues  of  a  very  high  educational  value,  which  can  be  continually 
added  to  at  a  small  cost.  If  these  reading-room  facilities  are  wanting,  therefore,, 
any  ambitious  boy  or  man  can  take  one  or  more  of  these  journals,  and  by  studying 
them  and  a  few  well-  selected  books  he  can  acquire  a  very  fair  scientific  knowledge 
of  his  calling.  A  generation  ago  these  also  were  almost  entirely  wanting,  so  that 
then,  with  neither  schools,  nor  books,  nor  journals,  the  only  possible  means  of" 

ED  1901 - 15 


226 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


acquiring  a  knowledge  of  any  industry  was  through  a  long  apprenticeship  in  the 
business  itself.  But  now,  if  both  the  systematic  apprenticeship  and  the  technical 
schooling  be  wanting,  there  still  remains  a  flood  of  printed  matter  in  books  and 
journals  from  which  a  young  man  can,  if  he  will,  obtain  a  very  fair  theoretical 
grounding  in  the  manufacturing  or  commercial  industry  in  which  he  is  engaged. 

VII.  HIGHER  COLLEGES  OF  COMMERCE. 

These  are  common  upon  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  have  never  obtained  recog¬ 
nition  in  England  or  America.  They  are  now  being  strongly  urged  upon  our 
people,  and  a  number  are  likely  to  be  established  in  the  immediate  future.1  In 
these  a  full  four  years’  course  of  instruction  of  college  grade  will  be  given.  The 
work  will  include  a  writing  and  speaking  knowledge  of  one  or  two  foreign  modern 
languages;  a  wide  acquaintance  with  commercial  geography  and  the  materials  of 
commerce;  full  courses  upon  means  and  methods  of  transportation  and  the  ship¬ 
ping  regulations  of  various  countries;  commercial  law  and  customs  regulations, 
both  foreign  and  domestic;  the  laws  and  practices  of  banking  and  exchange; 
political  and  economic  science;  mediseval  and  modern  history;  the  history  of  com¬ 
merce  and  manufacture;  consular  duties,  regulations,  and  reports;  international 
business  law,  and  other  subjects  which  can  be  taught  and  which  will  help  to 
qualify  a  young  man  for  a  responsible  position  in  a  large  business  having  foreign 
relations  or  as  a  United  States  consul.  It  will  be  to  men  having  such  an  educa¬ 
tion  that  we  must  look  for  a  successful  competition  with  Germany  in  our  foreign 
commerce.  But  we  have  already  seen  the  necessity  for  these  schools,  and  we  may 
confidently  anticipate  their  rapid  and  successful  establishment.  We  must  guard 
against  making  the  mistake  of  merely  grouping  together  a  series  of  subjects  now 
taught  in  our  schools  and  calling  that  “a  course  in  commercial  education.”  The 
work  must  be  technical  and  immediately  available  and  useful  rather  than  general 
and  cultural.  The  subjects  must  be  taught,  therefore,  in  a  way  quite  different 
from  that  employed  in  our  literary  colleges.  This  will  require  separate  class 
organizations  and  very  largely  separate  instructors  when  the  school  of  commerce 
is  made  a  part  of  an  existing  college  or  university.  These  schools  will,  therefore, 
be  expensive.  There  should  also  be  in  connection  with  every  such  school  a  well- 
equipped  commercial  museum,  in  which  are  kept  for  examination  and  study  nearly 
all  the  ordinary  articles  of  commerce  in  both  the  raw  and  the  manufactured  state. 
These  schools  would  then  stand  in  a  supplementary  relation  to  the  higher  indus¬ 
trial  and  engineering  schools.  While  the  latter  train  the  captains  of  industry, 
the  former  train  the  men  to  exploit  the  products  of  these  industries  in  ail  foreign 
countries.  In  the  development  of  our  foreign  commerce  one  is  as  essential  as  the 
other.  With  both,  our  material  supremacy  is  assured  for  all  time. 

The  above  is  offered  as  a  hasty  and  provisional  review  of  the  field  of  industrial 
education  in  America  and  as  a  progress  report  of  your  committee.  The  commit¬ 
tee  has  had  to  do  all  its  work  by  correspondence,  several  of  its  members  being  out 
of  the  country  at  the  time  of  this  meeting.  If  the  society  decides  to  continue  the 
committee,  they  will  try  to  make  a  more  mature  report,  with  recommendations, 
at  a  later  meeting  of  the  society. 

To  assist  them  in  their  work  they  hope  to  secure  at  this  meeting  a  general  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  views  of  the  ftembers  and  of  others  who  are  exceptionally  well-informed 
in  these  matters  and  whom  the  committee  has  invited  to  be  present  at  this  session 
and  to  participate  in  the  discussion.  The  duties  of  the  committee  are  not  clearly 
defined,  but  we  have  assumed  them  to  be  the  critical  analysis  of  existing  and  pro- 

1  Such  schools  have  now  (Oct.,  1900)  been  established  in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
Madison. 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION.  227' 


posed  methods  of  industrial  education  at  home  and  abroad  and  the  indorsement  of 
those  which  seem  to  be  best  suited  to  American  needs. 

Respectfully  submitted. 


J.  B.  Johnson, 

Dean  of  the  College  of  Mechanics  and  Engineering , 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison ,  Wis. 
C.  M.  Woodward, 

Professor  of  Mechanics  and  Director  of  the  Manual  Training  School, 

Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
R.  H.  Thurston, 

Director  of  Sibley  College,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

H.  T.  Eddy, 

Professor  of  Engineering  and  Mechanics,  University  of  Minnesota, 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
George  F.  Swain, 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering ,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 

Boston,  Mass. 
Edgar  Marburg, 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Pennsylvania , 

Philadelphia,  Pa. , 
Committee. 


Extracts  from  the  Discussion. 

President  Mendenhall  (by  letter)  stated  that  he  *  *  *  thought  that  the 
committee  had  made  an  extremely  interesting  and  important  report  and  that,  in 
the  main,  he  could  subscribe  cordially  to  every  proposition.  The  principal  danger 
which  has  to  be  confronted  in  this  matter,  and  which  apparently  the  committee 
has  fully  recognized,  is  that  of  magnifying  the  importance  of  what  we  may  call 
the  materialism  of  the  twentieth  century.  Every  effort  seems  to  be  pointed  toward 
training  young  men  and  young  women  to  acquire  wealth,  and  this  necessarily 
means  less  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  those  finer  qualities  that  contribute,  after 
all,  more  to  the  happiness  of  this  life.  However,  this  is  a  very  large  subject  and 
no  doubt  it  has  received  the  committee’s  careful  consideration.  His  own  desire 
would  be  to  guard  very  closely  the  real  functions  of  the  public  school,  which  are 
considered  by  him  not  to  include  training  for  special  occupations,  but  rather  the 
preparation  for  citizenship,  which  is  apparently  so  much  lacking  in  these  days. 

Mr.  H.  G.Prout,1  said  that  there  were  two  objections  to  the  theory  of  special 
training  or  industrial  education,  one  of  them  being  that  it  will  divert  young  men 
from  following  carefully  and  thoroughly  the  broader  and  more  complete  education 
which  they  would  get  in  the  technical  and  classical  schools  now  established.  A 
certain  number  of  young  men  would  be  diverted,  probably,  because  they  could  get 
more  easily  a  certain  kind  of  education  which  promises  quick  returns.  This,  per¬ 
haps,  is  not  a  very  important  point,  because  for  every  young  man  diverted  in  that 
way  there  would  be  two  or  three  or  a  half  dozen  young  men  who  would  be  tempted 
to  take  this  industrial  course  who  would  otherwise  get  no  education  beyond  that 
given  in  the  high  or  primary  schools.  *  *  .  * 

Another  objection  which  we  will  hear  raised  to  this  kind  of  training,  is  that  it 
will  turn  out  upon  the  world  many  young  men  and  young  women  who  really 
think  that  they  are  fit  to  do  something,  and  who  are  so  far  artisans  spoiled,  and 
have  stopped  short  of  being  engineers,  or  whatever  else  is  chosen.  That  is  all 
true,  too,  but  that  charge  is  brought  against  all  schools;  and,  furthermore,  it  is 
not  a  very  serious  objection  in  this  country  of  ours,  where  effectiveness  is  a  matter 


Editor  of  the  Railroad  Gazette. 


228 


EDUCATION  EEPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  course,  and  where  the  ineffective  man  disappears  pretty  promptly,  or  finds  out 
that  he  is  ineffective.  Of  course,  the  committee  are  absolutely  right  in  saying,  as 
they  do,  and  bearing  down  upon  the  point,  that  the  main  thing  for  all  who  are 
instructing  is  to  continue  to  open  up  channels  by  which  somebody  will  be  educated 
who  is  not  now  definitely  following  any  channels;  that  is,  to  open  up  a  variety  of 
ways  of  doing  this  thing.  The  great  difficulty  has  been  the  belief  that  human 
history  began  with  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  that  the  capacity  to  do 
something  then  descended  upon  every  American.  If  in  any  way  the  necessity  for 
precise  training  toward  definite  ends  can  be  urged  upon  the  people  a  great  deal 
will  have  been  accomplished.  Therefore  it  seemed  to  him  that  the  whole  move¬ 
ment  should  be  encouraged. 

The  speaker  supposed  that  probably  he  was  expected  to  say  something  as  to 
what  the  railroads  have  done.  He  replied  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  have 
practically  done  nothing  in  this  line.  About  twenty-five  years  ago  the  Lake  Shore 
Railroad  started  four  schools  for  apprentices,  but  they  were  night  schools  and 
open  to  the  recognized  objections.  Only  here  and  there  would  there  be  one  select 
fellow  who  had  unusual  ability  and  good  physique,  who  could  do  anything  valuable 
at  it.  The  Michigan  Central  also  started  something  of  this  sort.  They  have 
several  schools  where  they  teach  the  boys  something;  they  teach  them  drawing 
and  simple  mathematics,  and  try  to  give  them  a  point  of  departure  from  which 
to  go  on  and  make  master  mechanics  of  themselves  if  they  have  the  ability. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  went  into  an  ambitious  scheme  of  this  sort,  which 
collapsed  with  the  failure  of  that  company.  A  good  school  of  this  sort  that  is 
closely  allied  to  the  railroads  is  that  of  the  Brooks  Locomotive  Works,  established 
in  1883  by  the  public  spirit  of  Mr.  H.  G.  Brooks.  They  have  quite  a  liberal  method 
of  helping  their  boys  and  the  sons  of  men  employed  in  the  works,  and  it  is  believed 
to  be  doing  a  great  deal  of  good.1 

In  conclusion,  the  speaker  wished  to  add  that,  during  the  last  three  to  five  years, 
it  has  been  his  good  fortune  to  see  a  good  many  of  the  engineering  colleges  of  the 
country,  and  that  he  was  amazed  to  see  the  splendid  work  they  are  doing;  it  has 
been  a  liberal  education  to  him.  They  are  doing  a  grand  work  all  over  this 
country  in  the  way  of  bringing  up  young  engineers,  and  the  effect  of  this  work 
upon  our  country  in  the  next  fifty  years  is  something  that  none  can  conceive  or 
exaggerate. 

Mr.  M.  P.  Higgins  said  that  this  report,  so  ably  and  clearly  covering  the  field 
of  industrial  education,  was  of  special  interest  to  him,  and  that  he  had  read  it 
with  keen  appreciation  and  great  profit. 

He  believed  that  educators,  engineers,  and  manufacturers  will  generally  agree 
that  no  more  important  topic  of  education  has  ever  been  before  the  American 
people  than  the  consideration  of  the  future  and  immediate  schooling  and  training 
of  mechanics  and  workers  below  the  grade  of  engineer,  who  are  to  carry  on  our 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries.  By  “mechanics”  he  meant  all  who 
are  engaged  in  the  production  of  things  useful. 

The  country  is  not  likely  to  suffer  through  the  lack  of  the  highest  scientific 
knowledge  and  ability  of  American  engineers,  but  one  can  not  speak  so  confi¬ 
dently  regarding  the  rank  and  file  of  our  workmen,  machinists,  etc.  This  lack  of 
confidence  exists  despite  the  fact  that  American  boys  are  superior  in  native  ability, 
in  skill,  method,  and  invention,  and  this  lack  is  solely  because  no  adequate  effort 
has  been  made  to  bring  the  best  boys  into  the  trades  or  to  train  them  so  that  our 
country  can  hold  the  supremacy  in  machine  building,  in  manufacturing,  and  in 
other  lines  of  industries. 

The  common-school  system  seems  to  be  nearly  perfect  for  taking  the  boys  up  to 

1  See  in  this  connection  “  Educational  training  for  railway  service,”  by  J.  Shirley  Eaton,  Rep. 
Com.  Ed.  1898-99,  Vol.  1,  pp.  871-955.— Ed. 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


229 


the  high  school  period,  but  from  this  point  up  to  the  engineering  schools  the  great 
masses  of  our  boys  who  ought  to  be  trained  as  superior,  thinking  mechanics  are 
drifting  aimlessly,  and  our  shops  and  factories  are  being  unsatisfactorily  filled  by 
foreign-born  boys,  whose  mechanical  ability  is  not  equal  to  that  of  our  native 
boys. 

It  is  evident  in  the  great  industrial  battle  for  future  supremacy,  under  the 
inevitable  system  of  intensified  production,  that  our  best  boys  with  the  best  possi¬ 
ble  training  will  be  needed;  but,  aside  from  this  necessity,  there  is  no  field  so 
promising  and  attractive  as  this  for  an  unlimited  number  of  educated,  skilled 
workmen. 

In  our  common  schools  there  is  the  important  element  of  manual  training,  but 
this  training,  as  the  committee  truthfully  says,  makes  no  pretense  of  fitting  boys 
for  particular  employments.  There  must  be  training  schools  for  special  employ¬ 
ments,  a  training  in  skill  and  experience  that  shall  be  braced  or  supplemented  by 
a  good,  liberal  education  and  a  degree  of  culture  such  as  will  develop  the  indi¬ 
vidual  and  attract  our  better  talent  into  mechanical  work.  All  this  is  possible  by 
the  cooperation  of  educators  and  business  men  in  organizing  a  suitable  system. 

President  Tucker  says  that  the  next  advance  in  education  must  come  from  with¬ 
out  the  schools.  The  speaker  thought  it  better  to  say  that  it  will  come  through 
the  cooperation  of  those  without  and  those  within  the  schools. 

The  mechanical  schools,  engineering  colleges,  and  State  universities  have  been 
so  successful  that  they  have  gone  above  the  needs  of  the  people  for  industrial 
education. 

The  committee  has  said:  “While  the  original  purpose  of  the  national  appro¬ 
priations  was  doubtless  to  train  young  men  for  actual  practice  in  scientific 
farming  and  in  other  industrial  pursuits,  the  students  from  these  schools 
hitherto  have  very  largely  developed  into  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engi¬ 
neers.”  They  have  not,  therefore,  fulfilled  the  hopes  of  their  founders.  This  is 
because  the  working  mechanic  is  not  reached  by  these  schools,  and  the  speaker 
deemed  it  the  object  of  this  report  to  find  a  plan  to  give  this  important  force  of 
mechanical  workers  an  education,  a  training,  and  a  degree  of  culture  commen¬ 
surate  with  their  needs  and  commensurate  with  the  imperative  future  needs  of 
the  mechanical  industries. 

The  report  says:  “The  machine  trades  are  at  the  basis  of  all  manufacturing, 
and  superiority  in  these  very  largely  sustains  our  modern  national  prosperity.” 
The  speaker  thought  this  to  be  true,  and  he  wished  that  he  had  time  to  show 
the  comparative  importance  of  the  machine  trades  and  why  this  must  be  the 
basis  of  all  industrial  training. 

Then  comes  a  part  of  the  report  which  he  thought  was  wrong,  or  at  least  mis¬ 
leading.  It  reads  as  follows:  “Now,  the  average  machinist  is  only  a  machine 
attendant.  ”  In  fact  the  machine  attendant  is  not  a  machinist  at  all,  and  a  machin¬ 
ist  is  not  usually  employed  as  a  machine  attendant,  though  he  could  do  it  much 
more  effectively,  and  it  might  pay  to  employ  him  if  he  were  available. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  and  one  that  no  person  must  be  led  into,  to  suppose  that 
intensified  production  by  modern  methods  (by  automatic  machines,  piecework, 
and  what  not) ,  does  in  any  way  reduce  the  demand  for  the  skilled  machinist  or 
the  high  qualify  of  his  skill.  No,  it  increases  the  demand  and  positively  advances 
the  requirements  for  his  skill,  as  well  as  for  his  scientific  and  technical  knowledge. 

In  referring  to  the  machine  operative,  also,  the  report  says:  “Trade  schools 
are  not  a  necessity  for  these  men.”  Now,  this  ought  not  to  be  said;  or  at  least 
if  it  is  done  it  must  be  because  their  needs  must  be  postponed,  because  the  classes 
ranking  as  machinists  are  so  much  more  imperative  in  their  needs  and  demands 
for  immediate  trade-school  education. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  machine  operator,  even,  needs  an  education  and  a  train¬ 
ing,  and  it  will  pay  to  give  it  to  him,  and  he  will  have  an  opportunity  to  obtain  it 


230 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


some  time  provided  American  educators  recognize  American  needs  and  Ameri¬ 
can  chances  for  industrial  supremacy. 

Again,  the  report  says:  “The  graduates  of  our  colleges  of  mechanical  engineer¬ 
ing  would  make  the  most  capable  persons  for  these  higher  positions  of  superin¬ 
tendents  if  they  would  be  willing  to  enter  the  shops  after  graduating  from  the 
schools  and  learn  all  the  practical  details  of  the  business.  ” 

Now,  in  general,  this  is  not  reasonable  to  expect.  In  many  cases  the  graduate 
thinks  he  can  do  better.  In  most  cases  he  has  been  educated  away  from  such 
shopwork  for  the  sake  of  knowledge;  in  fact,  he  is  rather  too  old  and  advanced 
for  that  sort  of  thing.  A  foundation  can  be  put  under  a  structure  after  it  is 
erected,  but  the  best  time  is  at  the  time  of  its  building. 

The  speaker  wished  to  assure  the  educators,  who  are  so  ably  equipped  to  con¬ 
sider  such  a  subject,  that  they  will  be  surprised  and  gratified  when  they  come  to 
gather  up  all  the  advantages  of  real,  productive,  commercial  shop-practice  and 
machine-building  experience  as  an  integral  part  of  an  educational  course.  Its 
intrinsic  value  is  enough  to  introduce  it  at  almost  any  cost;  its  educational  value, 
as  a  means  of  strengthening  the  judgment  and  disciplining  the  mind,  is  of  equal 
or  greater  value. 

The  report  still  further  says:  “The  graduates  of  any  manual- training  school 
would  serve  very  well  for  these  positions  of  trust  and  supervision.”  *  *  * 
“These  young  men  would  readily  develop  into  very  good  foremen,  superintend¬ 
ents,  and  managers.”  But  there  is  a  gigantic  IF  in  the  way.  IF  they  would  enter 
the  shops  and  learn  the  trade  by  “systematic  apprenticeship.”  But  there  is  no 
“systematic  apprenticeship,”  and  can  never  be  in  our  system  of  American 
production.  Therefore,  because  the  manual  training  high  school  does  not  teach 
and  does  not  profess  to  teach  any  special  trade  work  and  skill,  it  of  course  falls 
short  of  meeting  the  demands  for  a  trade-school  system. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  report  regarding  night  schools  fully  corresponds  with 
the  estimate  of  any  careful  observer.  The  night-school  system,  upon  which  Eng¬ 
land  has  relied  and  failed,  is  entirely  inadequate  to  American  needs,  and  is  only 
a  poor  crutch  to  help,  save  in  a  few  special  cases. 

The  speaker  had  more  hope  in  the  principle  of  the  correspondence  system.  In 
good  hands  and  under  good  control  this  system  is  capable  of  great  results  among 
thousands  who  want  training  and  who  can  not  have  the  benefits  of  a  real  course  in 
a  trade  school.  In  the  city  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  there  are  over  1,200  boys  and 
men  devoting  their  evenings  and  their  money  to  this  system.  It  certainly  indi¬ 
cates  a  desire  for  learning,  even  if  the  plan  is  not  the  best  one.  He  said  that 
among  his  own  men  and  foremen  great  progress  in  sound  learning  is  being  made 
with  this  system. 

In  this  report  there  is  a  statement  that  is  refreshing:  “  Your  committee  are 
quite  agreed  that  in  America  every  boy  should  find  his  career  entirely  open  at  the 
top.”  The  speaker  liked  that  “entirely  open  at  the  top.”  It  suggests  upward 
draft  and  feeding  at  the  bottom.  In  this  way  the  importance  may  be  seen  of  verti¬ 
cal  circulation  versus  horizontal  stratification. 

Herein  lies  the  greatest  hope,  our  greatest  advantage  in  the  industrial  world 
when  the  great  just  conflict  of  competition  is  fully  upon  us — the  conflict  for 
supremacy  through  intensified  production.  But  this  is  a  subject  for  a  whole  paper, 
and  not  merely  for  a  few  remarks  upon  the  general  subject. 

The  speaker  referred  to  one  more  thing  in  this  report  which  shows  the  recogni¬ 
tion  of  a  fundamental  truth.  He  left  the  mention  of  this  idea  to  the  last,  because 
he  thought  it  the  newest  and  best.  It  is  as  follows:  “The  mental  atmosphere 
which  pervades  the  great  industrial  works  is  always  bracing  and  sometimes 
stimulating.  Upon  this  basis  he  had  founded  his  estimate  of  the  great  value  of  a 
new  and  most  important  feature  in  our  future  industrial  school  system,  viz,  the 
shop  lecture  room. 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


231 


The  idea  of  the  shop  lecture  room  does  not  confine  itself  simply  to  haying  snch 
a  room  in  the  shop  building,  but  carries  the  idea  of  teaching  much,  if  not  all 
things,  to  the  pupil  in  the  shop,  and  while  he  is  at  his  work,  and  in  intimate, 
applied  connection  with  his  work. 

The  speaker  declared  its  possibilities  to  be  more  than  he  had  time  to  even  men¬ 
tion. 

The  outlining  of  such  a  school  plan  as  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers1  is  the  result  of  the  speaker’s  study, 
experience,  and  observation  for  the  past  thirty  years.  He  thought  that  it  is  calcu¬ 
lated  to  better  meet  our  American  needs  than  any  plan  he  had  found  in  this  coun¬ 
try  or  in  Europe.  The  half-time  school  is  intended  to  solve  the  important  question 
in  the  family,  “  What  shall  we  do  for  our  boy?  ”  This  question  arises  thus:  John 
is  14  years  old;  he  has  completed  the  grammar  school.  If  he  enters  the  high 
school  it  means  four  years  more.  This  is  often  a>  very  important  question.  The 
mother  sees  that,  if  John  goes  to  work  with  a  doubtful  chance  of  learning  thor¬ 
oughly  any  trade,  he  practically  shuts  the  door  against  future  liberal  education 
and  culture.  The  father  is  earnest  and  willing  to  sacrifice  heroically,  so  that  John 
can  go  on  for  four  years  in  the  high  school,  although  he  does  not  know  what  the 
four  years  more  in  school  will  do  for  him;  and  so,  in  his  perplexity,  he  says:  “Yes, 
John,  we  can  get  on,  I  think,  for  four  years  in  the  high  school.  You  will  then  be 
a  strong  man  of  18.  What  will  you  do  then?  ” 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  answer  to  this  question  is  not  a  simple  one.  although 
it  is  a  very  important  one.  Now,  imagine  that  John  is  able  to  say,  “Father  the 
problem  is  solved.  The  half-time  school  is  now  opened.  In  it  I  will  become  a 
skillful  machinist,  able  to  earn  more  than  a  living  immediately  upon  graduation, 
and  I  will  also  have  all  the  benefits  of  a  high-school  education  at  the  same  time.” 

The  fondest,  though  hitherto  the  faintest,  hope  for  a  broad,  liberal,  scientific 
education  dawns  in  view;  bright,  real,  and  possible,  without  charity  or  indebtedness; 
for  John  will  be  nearly  or  quite  fitted  for  the  technical  or  engineering  school, 
which  possibly  he  may  enter  at  the  age  of  18,  or  after  a  year  or  two  of  money 
earning  in  a  machine  shop.  This  certainly  would  be  a  new  and  bright  outlook  to 
thousands  and  thousands  of  homes  throughout  our  land. 

Whatever  success  may  be  ascribed  to  the  present  methods  of  technical  education, 
the  speaker  was  confident  that  all  who  will  study  the  subject  will  admit  that 
something  else  is  demanded;  a  system  that  will  reach  the  greater  number  of  our 
sons  who  should  become  working  mechanics.  This  greater  number  can  be  reached 
by  the  proposed  half-time  school;  a  system  that  is  recommended  and  urged  because 
it  will  not  conflict  with  present  good  working  systems,  because  it  will  not  dupli¬ 
cate  the  present  common-school  system,  but  will  supplement  it  in  a  most  practical 
and  economical  and  effective  way.  And  by  this  system  it  is  confidently  hoped  to 
avoid  what  is  the  most  obvious  danger,  viz,  a  failure  to  enlist  and  hold  our  better 
American  youth  to  our  mechanical  and  manufacturing  industries  instead  of  allow¬ 
ing  these  industries  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  others  less  able  to  advance  them. 

Prof.  R.  S.  Woodward  said  that  it  appeared  to  him  that  this  report  makes  an 
era;  that,  as  far  as  he  knew,  it  was  the  first  report  brought  to  his  .attention  that 
distinctly  recognizes  that  there  may  be  many  kinds  of  education.  Many  will 
remember  that,  thirty  years  ago,  there  was  only  one  kind  of  education  that  was 
recognized.  Men  who  had  been  educated  in  the  school  of  experience,  from  which 
there  are  no  graduates,  were  looked  down  upon,  and  yet  to-day  the  authors  of  the 
report  under  discussion  have  directed  special  attention  to  the  names  of  two  indi¬ 
viduals  who  are  not  college  graduates,  but  who  will  be  admitted  by  all  to  be  very 
highly  educated  men. 

1  Papers  by  Mr.M.P  Higgins,  Nos.  850  and  864.  Transactions  American  Society  Mechanical 
Engineers,  Yol.  XXI. 


232 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Another  point  which  struck  the  speaker  as  remarkable,  is  that  the  authors  of 
the  report  are  willing  to  recognize  that  there  is  more  than  one  kind  of  liberal  edu¬ 
cation.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  thought  that  there  was  only  one  kind  of  liberal 
education,  and  there  are  a  good  many  people  to-day  who  assume  to  be  able  to  draw 
the  line  very  definitely  between  what  is  liberal  and  what  is  illiberal  education. 
The  speaker  remarked  that  during  the  past  two  or  three  years  he  had  met  these 
people,  and  had  sought  to  determine  what  their  definition  of  a  liberal  education 
is,  and,  as  far  as  he  could  find  out,  it  is  this— “The  sort  of  education  I  have  had.” 
And  the  man  who  uses  this  definition  is  the  man  who  has  had  a  classical  educa¬ 
tion.  Certainly  it  is  not  to  be  said  that  the  classical  education  is  not  eminently 
valuable  and  to  be  commended,  but  it  is  not  well  for  any  kind  of  education  to 
secure  predominance,  and  the  splendid  thing  about  the  report  under  discussion  is 
that  it  recognizes  that  there  may  be  various  kinds  and  degrees  and  forms  of  edu¬ 
cation  in  our  own  line  which  are  all  good  as  far  as  they  go.  *  *  * 

Mr.  Richard  P.  Rothwell1  wished  to  express  his  admiration  for  the  report  which 
had  been  made,  and  proceeded  to  speak  about  correspondence  schools.  One  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  education  which  an  engineer  receives  is  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  his  material  where  it  will  produce  the  maximum  useful  effect.  The  edu¬ 
cation  which  produces  the  greatest  effect  in  the  aggregate  is  the  education  for  the 
masses,  for  the  artisans  and  workers.  There  is,  of  course,  no  comparison  between 
the  numbers  who  are  comparatively  uneducated  and  those  who  are  able  to  follow 
the  higher  branches  of  engineering  or  mechanics.  The  masses — the  artisans  and 
'workers — are  not  able  to  attend  schools  after  they  have  passed  through  the  public 
school.  Their  first  object  is  to  earn  their  living  by  work  in  some  useful  occupa¬ 
tion,  and  they  find  this  to  be  so  engrossing  that  they  usually  have  no  opportunity 
to  study  where  they  have  the  desire  to  do  so.  How  to  reach  these  people,  how  to 
make  them  more  efficient  workmen,  and  through  them  to  benefit  the  entire  indus¬ 
trial  position  of  the  country,  is  to  my  mind  the  greatest  problem  of  the  age. 
There  is  no  question  that  the  greater  intelligence  of  the  working  classes,  the  higher 
will  be  their  efficiency  and  the  better  and  cheaper  will  be  the  product  of  their 
labor.  The  quality  and  economy  of  the  products  of  industry  are  the  foundation 
of  national  prosperity,  and  therefore  it  is  desirable  to  commence  with  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  artisan  and  the  mechanic. 

There  is  nothing  which  so  interests  anyone  as  the  occupation  by  which  he  earns 
a  living.  If  one  can  show  a  man  that  if  he  does  this  or  that  he  will  be  a  more 
efficient  worker  and  will  earn  a  larger  income  from  his  labor,  it  will  have  a  direct 
interest  for  him  that  no  urging  which  he  may  get  in  the  general  school  or  college 
to  acquire  abstract  information  or  knowledge  will  ever  have.  It  is  one  thing  to 
say  to  a  young  man,  “  Now  learn  this,  for  you  will  probably  need  it  one  of  these 
days,”  and  another  thing  to  say  to  the  man  at  work,  “  Learn  this  and  you  will  be 
more  efficient  and  will  earn  more  wages.”  There  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  proper 
means  are  brought  to  the  working  classes  of  the  country  a  greater  useful  effect 
will  be  produced  than  by  educating  the  higher  classes,  while,  of  course,  nothing 
is  to  be  said  against  that.  The  speaker  remarked  that  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 
study  engineering  iq*  the  best  schools  of  two  continents,  and  appreciates  this  fully. 
Yet  when  it  comes  to  the  question  of  producing  the  maximum  useful  effect  with 
the  means  at  command,  greater  results  can  certainly  be  secured  by  educating 
the  masses  than  in  educating  the  small  number  in  the  higher  department^  of 
engineering. 

The  correspondence  school  has  one  of  the  objections  that  have  been  pointed  out, 
that  it  is  a  money-making  institution,  but  this  does  not  appear  to  the  speaker  to 
be  a  drawback.  It  is  well  known  that  when  one  undertakes  to  furnish  something 
that  people  may  take  or  leave,  if  he  does  not  give  the  worth  of  their  money  he  will 


President  of  the  United  Correspondence  Schools  of  New  York. 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


233 


lose  his  own,  for  people  will  not  buy  his  goods.  Now,  the  fact  that  a  correspond¬ 
ence  school  is  under  bond  to  the  amount  of  its  investment  to  furnish  value  for 
what  it  gets  and  will  lose  its  investment  if  it  does  not,  is  certainly  a  strong  guar¬ 
anty  that  it  will  furnish  more  useful  information  than  will  the  endowed  school 
which  furnishes  free  instruction ,  and  that  goes  on  whether  it  hits  the  mark  or  not. 

There  are  not  a  few  of  our  large  colleges  whose  courses  are  designed  by  gentle¬ 
men  of  great  learning,  but  who  have  never  had  to  earn  their  living  by  labor  in  the 
occupations  they  are  teaching.  These  gentlemen  evolve  more  or  less  from  their 
inner  consciousness  what  a  young  man  or  woman  should  learn,  and  not  infrequently 
when  these  young  people  get  out  in  life  and  have  to  earn  their  living  they  find  that 
they  should  have  learned  something  very  different.  The  best  way  to  know  what 
ought  to  be  taught  in  any  subject  is  to  go  to  the  men  who  are  earning  their  living 
in  that  occupation  and  ascertain  what  will  enable  them  to  earn  more.  Teach 
them  what  will  make  them  better  workmen  and  able  to  earn  higher  wages. 
When  you  begin  here  and  work  from  the  bottom  up  I  think  it  will  be  almost  as 
much  more  efficient  as  the  heating  of  water  from  the  bottom  up  is  more  successful 
than  trying  to  heat  it  from  the  top  down. 

The  correspondence  school  is  founded  upon  supplying  the  needs  of  the  people 
who  are  taught,  and  any  occupation  can  be  taught  by  correspondence.  It  says  to 
the  workman,  “  If  you  knew  more  about  your  work,  if  you  studied  the  reasons 
for  what  you  are  doing,  you  would  be  a  more  efficient  worker,  and  you  would  be 
worth  and  would  receive  higher  wages.  Here  are  the  means  of  acquiring  that 
knowledge.  It  will  cost  you  but  little,  and  the  payments  are  so  distributed  that 
they  are  easy  to  make,  even  for  the  low- wage  mechanic.” 

I  firmly  believe  that  what  men  get  for  nothing  they  value  lightly,  and  that 
where  they  have  free  schools  they  do  not  profit  by  them  as  if  they  had  to  pay 
something  for  their  education.  The  speaker  declared  that  a  short  time  ago  a 
gentleman  who  is  much  interested  in  educational  matters  said  that  he  would  like 
to  devote  a  certain  amount  of  money  to  free  scholarships.  He  was  answered: 
“Sir,  we  don’t  want  them.  If  you  will  establish  prizes  for  the  student  who  makes 
the  most  progress  in  a  given  time,  that  is  another  matter,  but  our  experience  is 
that  a  free  scholarship  does  not  make  a  good  student.  ” 

The  teaching  of  the  industrial  classes  is  not  difficult  if  one  commences  at  the 
right  end,  by  getting  down  among  the  workers  and  finding  out  what  is  actually 
needed  to  make  them  more  efficient.  With  women  the  first  essential  is  house¬ 
keeping.  No  class  of  mechanics  ever  struck  for  an  advance  in  wages  that,  if  they 
gained  it,  would  have  been  nearly  as  important  to  them  as  it  would  be  to  have  their 
wives  and  daughters  taught  how  to  keep  house.  Here  is  one  great  field  for  a  cor¬ 
respondence  school,  for  these  women  can  not  go  to  school,  but  they  can  learn  by 
correspondence  how  to  keep  house. 

The  methods  of  teaching  should  be  adapted  to  the  people  taught.  The  speaker 
doubted  whether  the  very  learned  and  able  gentlemen  who  are  teaching  in  Colum¬ 
bia  University,  and  there  are  no  better  in  the  world,  would  at  all  make  a  success 
of  correspondence  education.  To  do  this  one  must  understand  the  people  who  are 
being  taught.  The  secret  of  success  is  to  find  the  men  who  can  teach  the  industrial 
classes.  These  teachers  should  have  been  brought  up  with  them  and  have  learned 
how  to  teach  them;  should  have,  as  it  were,  their  range  and  be  able  to  hit  them. 

The  courses  of  most  of  the  correspondence  schools  are  good,  some  of  them  better 
than  others,  and  all  are  bound  to  be,  in  the  future,  a  great  deal  better  than  they 
are  now.  This  is  a  very  new  departure,  and  yet  the  correspondence  schools  of 
this  country,  which  were  started  yesterday,  as  it  were,  are  teaching  more  students 
to-day  than  all  the  universities  of  the  country.  He  sai  l  that  the  particular  school 
with  which  he  is  associated,  The  United  Correspondence  Schools  of  New  York, 
has  already  far  more  students  on  its  rolls  than  has  Columbia  University  in  all  its 


234 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


departments;  and  yet  it  is  but  just  beginning.  No  one  would  pretend  to  say  that 
the  education  of  the  correspondence  school  is  as  high  as  that  of  some  other  schools, 
but  each  is  adapted  to  its  environment.  The  correspondence  school  commences 
with  the  assumption  that  the  student  in  many  courses  knows  only  how  to  read 
and  write.  The  instruction  papers  are  prepared  in  direct,  simple  language,  and 
are  very  accurate',  for,  with  students  by  tens  of  thousands,  each  one  of  whom 
wants  to  know  why,  the  answering  of  questions  that  a  small  number  of  errors 
would  bring  would  swamp  a  school.  The  aim  is,  therefore,  to  have  everything 
accurate.  The  assumption  is  that  the  students  are  ignorant  people,  who  have 
studied  little  beyond  English  reading  and  writing,  the  beginning  for  nearly  all 
being  arithmetic.  They  go  on  with  a  certain  amount  of  mathematics  and  then 
branch  off  into  different  specialties.  If  a  man  wants  one  line,  he  is  instructed  in 
that  and  nothing  else.  The  instruction  papers  are  sent  to  the  students  after  they 
have  paid  their  first  installment,  and  each  paper  has  a  certain  number  of  exami¬ 
nations  in  it.  The  students  have  to  answer  the  questions  in  writing,  and  the 
answers  are  criticised  and  returned,  with  explanations  to  the  student.  The  same 
with  the  drawing.  It  would  surprise  most  of  the  members  of  this  society  to  see 
the  high  quality  of  the  drawing  done  by  students  at  these  schools.  The  drawings 
given  them  as  models  are  very  well  done;  the  machine  drawings  especially  are 
done  in  the  very  best  style. 

The  method  of  getting  these  students,  to  which  the  report  made  some  reference, 
is  itself  somewhat  unique,  and  to  some  may  seem  undignified.  It  is  the  method 
adopted  by  the  insurance  companies.  That  is,  in  addition  to  the  regular  advertis¬ 
ing,  solicitors  are  employed  to  secure  students.  They  are  of  the  class  of  book 
agents;  very  glib  of  tongue  and  usually  quite  well  educated  and  are  very  persua¬ 
sive.  They  post  themselves  upon  the  subjects  taught  by  the  school,  and  as  they 
get  their  living  by  securing  students  they  are  ready  to  convince  those  they  address 
of  the  great  importance  to  them  of  study  and  the  value  of  knowledge  in  increasing 
their  earning  power.  This  may  be  undignified,  possibly,  but  it  is  a  remarkably 
effective  means  for  spreading  knowledge  and  inducing  those  to  study  who  other¬ 
wise  would  never  do  so. 

After  he  has  secured  a  student  the  solicitor  will  keep  him  studying,  because  if 
he  does  not  study  he  usually  ceases  to  pay  his  installments  and  then  the  solicitor 
loses  his  commission.  The  way  this  often  works  may  be  described  as  follows: 
This  glib-tongued  school  “  fiend, ”  who  persuades  the  workman  that  he  can  not  live 
or  die  without  the  knowledge  he  has  to  sell,  has  to  deal  perhaps  with  a  fireman  on 
a  tugboat,  who  had  not  the  faintest  idea  of  studying  anything  before  he  met  this 
agent;  but  the  agent  got  him  worked  up  and  the  man  paid  his  fee  of  $2  for  enroll¬ 
ment.  The  next  month  the  solicitor  comes  around  and  finds  that  this  man  has 
not  made  much  progress,  and  is  disinclined  to  continue,  saying,  44 1  cannot  under¬ 
stand  that;  I  can't  make  anything  out  it.”  So  the  agent  whose  commission  is  at 
stake  says,  44  Why,  what  is  the  matter  with  it?”  and  he  sits  down  with  Jim  and 
instructs  him.  It  is  always  in  arithmetic  that  the  difficulty  comes.  After  the 
student  has  gotten  over  a  few  difficulties,  even  the  most  ignorant  student  can 
understand  the  rest;  but  the  beginning  is  difficult  for  a  man  who  has  not  studied 
for  a  number  of  years.  Very  many  of  them  find  it  very  difficult  and  stop  there, 
but  if  this  number  were  even  larger  in  proportion  than  it  is  the  number  of  those 
taught,  and  those  who  are  induced  to  study  who  would  never  otherwise  do  so, 
leave  the  balance  altogether  to  the  credit  of  the  system.  It  may  not  be  dignified, 
but  it  is  efficient,  and  that  is  better.  On  the  whole  the  correspondence  school  is, 
in  my  opinion,  the  most  important  development  of  modern  educational  methods.1 

*As  to  the  methods  and  courses  of  study  of  railway  corx’espondence  schools,  see  Rep.  Com.  Ed., 
1898-99,  Vol.  1,  pp.  903-907.— Ed. 


CHAPTER  Y. 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY,  OR  SELF-GOVERNMENT  IN 

SCHOOL. 


The  pathological  side  of  education  receives  more  and  more  atten¬ 
tion  as  civilization  progresses.  While  formerly  education  for  the 
masses  consisted  in  the  acquisition  of  elementary  knowledge  and  the 
training  of  children  normally  endowed,  it  directs  its  attention  now 
also  to  the  unfortunate,  the  weak  and  depraved,  and  tries  to  save 
those  for  a  life  of  usefulness  who  were  formerly  treated  as  criminals. 
Numerous  institutions  of  recent  origin,  all  having  pathological  pur¬ 
poses,  bear  witness  to  this  benevolent  educational  movement.  It  is 
not  only  the  blind  and  the  deaf-mutes  wTho  are  now  treated  rationally 
in  State  institutions,  but  mentally  wTeak  children,  though  gifted  with 
the  five  senses,  are  in  many  places  in  Europe  and  America  singled  out 
and  educated  to  the  limits  of  their  capacity.  There  is  a  double  pur¬ 
pose  in  this:  First,  proper  treatment  is  given  to  these  children,  who 
would  otherwise  sink  back  under  neglect  into  confirmed  idiocy;  and, 
second,  the  schools  are  freed  from  an  incubus  that  tends  to  retard  the 
progress  of  all  the  pupils,  since  a  teacher  does  not  then  need  to  waste 
much  of  her  time  on  hopeless  cases. 

Other  agencies  are  awakening  to  the  necessity  of  healing  and  pre¬ 
venting  social  diseases  rather  than  punishing  and  incarcerating  dan¬ 
gerous  elements  that  cause  the  disease  or  are  subject  to  it.  This  is 
done  by  reform  schools  and  other  institutions,  such  as  children’s  courts 
and  homes  of  refuge  for  children  in  disgrace  or  distress.  All  this  is 
analagous  to  the  progress  of  physical  hygiene.  Formerly  the  State 
rather  stamped  out  disease  with  fire  and  sword  than  prevented  the 
spread  of  disease  and  epidemics  by  quarantine  and  actually  prevent¬ 
ive  agencies,  as  is  done  now.  This  prevention  of  social  disease 
assumes  a  variety  of  forms.  In  the  last  Annual  Report  of  this  Bureau 
an  account  was  given  of  public  playgrounds  in  city  parks  and  of 
summer  play  schools  designed  to  keep  children  from  the  influence  of 
the  slums,  and  to  awaken  in  them  higher  and  nobler  ideals  of  life. 

Viewing  the  efforts  at  pathological  education  in  the  various  civilized 
countries,  one  can  not  help  noticing  how  th6  form  of  government  of  a 
nation  and  its  social  ideals  have  a  direct  influence  even  upon  these 
institutions  of  benevolent  purpose.  In  Germany,  for  instance,  where 
social  classes  still  exist  and  a  segregation  into  classes  is  promoted 

235 


236 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


by  the  very  organization  of  the  schools,  the  most  popular  remedy  is 
found  in  separating  the  intellectual  and  moral  weaklings  and  training 
and  teaching  them  in  separate  classes  and  schools.  In  attempting  to 
save  children  from  a  life  of  disgrace  and  crime  Americans  have  in 
a  few  instances  resorted  to  a  form  quite  in  harmony  with  our  form 
of  government  by  instituting  what  is  known  as  “Junior  (or  Boys’) 
Republics,”  the  characteristic  feature  of  which  is  self-government. 
AH  these  attempts  at  reclaiming  waifs,  preventing  crime,  and  saving 
moral  weaklings  are  in  their  infancy,  but  the  results  thus  far  seem 
to  indicate  that  the  illustrious  example  of  Pestalozzi  in  Switzerland 
has  not  been  in  vain. 

A  writer  in  the  Literary  Digest  (Funk  &  W agnails,  Re w  York,  Ro. 
13,  vol.  22)  gives  a  review  of  some  of  the  attempts  at  educational 
pathology  under  the  caption  of  “Saving  boys  from  crime.”  The 
article  is  here  reproduced: 

SAVING  BOYS  FROM  CRIME. 

The  process  of  making  good  citizens  out  of  had  ones,  transforming  society’s 
liabilities  into  assets,  is  a  work  that  always  commands  attention,  and  when  the 
work  is  among  children  it  seems  to  have  an  additional  claim  upon  human  sympathy. 
The  record  in  this  line  that  has  called  out  the  most  remark,  perhaps,  is  the  boast 
made  by  the  Children’s  Aid  Society  of  New  York  City,  that  of  the  boys  it  has  taken 
from  the  streets  of  the  metropolis  and  placed  on  Western  farms,  2  have  become 
college  professors,  22  lawyers,  12  clergymen,  9  physicians,  2  railroad  managers,  2 
governors,  1  a  member  of  Congress,  and  a  number  members  of  State  legisla¬ 
tures.  Another  interesting  work  that  has  progressed  far  enough  to  make  a  report 
is  the  juvenile  court  in  Chicago,  established  in  1899.  *  *  *  Before  it  are  tried 
all  cases  of  children,  dependent,  neglected,  or  delinquent,  under  the  age  of  16.  The 
court  was  patterned  after  a  similar  one  in  Massachusetts,  and  its  record  of  a  year 
and  a  half  of  existence  has  been  warmly  praised.  The  American  Lawyer  (New 
York)  describes  it  as  follows: 

By  the  provisions  of  the  law  no  child  under  12  years  of  age  can  be  held  in  a 
police  station.  A  room  for  the  detention  of  children  must  be  provided.  The 
law  also  enacts  that  under  the  age  of  12  there  shall  be  no  arrests,  but  that  the 
child  shall  be  brought  into  court  upon  summons,  and  if  the  parent  or  guardian  of 
the  child  ignores  the  summons  he  may  be  arrested  for  contempt  of  court.  In  the 
case  of  neglected  children  without  parent  or  guardian  the  offender  may  be  taken 
in  charge  by  an  officer  and  delivered  by  the  court  to  a  probation  officer. 

The  court  is  empowered  to  provide  for  both  dependent  and  delinquent  children 
(by  the  former  being  understood  children  not  guilty  of  offenses  but  without  over¬ 
sight  and  in  need  of  it),  being  authorized  to  use  its  own  judgment  as  to  commit¬ 
ment.  The  child  can  be  released  upon  the  responsibility  of  the  probation  officer, 
or  it  can  be  committed  to  industrial  or  other  schools.  All  offenses  of  whatever 
character  committed  by  children  under  the  age  of  16  years  come  under  the  pro¬ 
visions  of  the  law,  which  is  modeled  upon  the  Massachusetts  statute. 

The  same  journal  says  in  comment: 

It  is  useless  to  refer  to  the  many-times-stated  fact  that  our  law  is  notoriously 
insufficient  in  so  far  as  infants  are  concerned,  in  that  it  seems  to  recognize  no  real 
distinction  between  the  juvenile  offender  and  the  hardened  criminal.  Crime  is 
crime,  it  says,  irrespective  of  the  age  of  the  offender,  and  the  same  hard-and-fast 
rules  are  to  be  applied  whether  the  wrongdoer  be  a  mischievous  schoolboy  or  a 
hardened  criminal.  The  reform  school,  while  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  meets 
the  difficulty  only  halfway,  as  the  child  comes  from  it  with  more  or  less  of  a  stain 
upon  its  reputation  which  only  time  removes.  The  special  need  of  a  court  which 
will  not  administer  strict  rules  of  law,  but  to  which  some  latitude  of  discretion 
will  be  permitted  in  cases  of  infant  depravity,  is  certainly  apparent. 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY.  237 

Mr.  Carl  Kelsey,  writing  in  the  current  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Political  and  Social  Science  of  Philadelphia,  says: 

Appreciation  of  the  value  and  importance  of  the  court  grows  steadily.  The 
judge  had  few  precedents  when  ho  began  and  had  to  feel  his  way.  To-day  he  is 
the  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  court.  The  other  circuit  judges  who  have  acted 
as  supply  judges  have  become  much  interested  in  the  court.  Venerable  Judge 
Tuley  said:  “  The  juvenile  court  is  the  greatest  work  of  the  kind  ever  undertaken 
in  Illinois.  More  can  be  done  in  ten  years  in  the  juvenile  to  suppress  crime  than 
can  be  accomplished  in  fifty  years  in  the  criminal  court.”  The  State’s  attorney 
has  said  that  the  expenses  of  the  criminal  court  have  materially  decreased  because 
of  the  operation  of  the  law.  Before  the  enactment  of  the  law  there  were  con¬ 
stantly  from  40  to  50  boys  in  jail  awaiting  hearing.  During  the  last  year  only  37 
boys  were  held  for  the  grand  jury  from  the  juvenile  court.  *  *  * 

If  possible  the  judge  will  put  the  boy  on  parole  unless  home  conditions  are  too 
bad,  and  if  the  record  of  the  boy  is  fairly  good.  How  successful  this  work  of  pro¬ 
bation  may  be  it  is  hard  to  say.  Massachusetts  seems  satisfied  with  her  experi¬ 
ment  and  other  States  are  following  her  lead.  Much  has  been  accomplished  in 
Illinois,  though  the  probation  officers  are  overworked.  Imagine  successful  and 
satisfactory  work  with  100  boys  j>aroled  to  1  officer  in  addition  to  his  other  duties! 
Out  of  1,839  delinquent  boys  before  the  court  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1900,  1,095  were  paroled,  and  of  these  only  203  were  returned  to  the  court.  There 
were  also  released  from  the  city  reformatory  on  parole  256  boys,  of  whom  but  23 
were  remanded. 

In  New  York  City,  in  addition  to  the  Children’s  Aid  Society,  the  Gerry  Society, 
and  other  similar  organizations,  a  novel  adjunct  to  the  court  of  special  sessions 
was  started  about  three  months  ago  and  is  being  carried  on  by  David  Willard,  a 
young  man  who  is  devoting  himself  to  ‘ £  settlement  ”  work  among  poor  boys  in  the 
lower  east  side,  and  who  is  also  a  teacher  in  the  Tombs  prison.  The  judges  in  this 
court  have  great  confidence  in  Mr.  Willard's  judgment  in  the  cases  of  boys  and 
young  men,  and  they  parole  all  offenders  between  the  ages  of  16  to  21  for  one 
month  in  his  custody.  “  While  the  prisoners  are  on  parole,”  says  a  writer  in  the 
New  York  Evening  Post,  “  Mr.  Willard  inquires  into  the  antecedents  and  environ¬ 
ments  in  each  case,  and  submits  a  report  of  his  findings  to  the  judges.  When  the 
date  of  the  boy’s  parole  expires  Mr.  Willard  appears  in  court.  If  he  thinks  that 
the  boy  is  not  inherently  bad  or  that  he  can  be  reclaimed  he  so  reports,  and  asks 
that  the  prisoner  be  released  under  suspended  sentence.  The  chances  are  that 
Mr.  Willard  may  be  able  to  report  that  he  has  secured  employment  for  the 
offender;  at  all  events  the  judge  knows  that  a  careful  watch  will  be  kept  on  the 
boy  in  future,  and  he  almost  invariably  releases  the  prisoner  as  requested.”  Mr. 
Willard  has  investigated  between  75  ana  100  cases  so  far,  and  in  the  vast  majority 
has  requested  that  the  boj’S  be  given  a  chance  to  reform.  The  writer  continues: 

Mr.  Willard’s  work  is  done  without  salary.  Besides  his  investigating  work  he 
has  a  little  house  on  Chrystie  street,  which  he  has  fitted  up  with  eight  small  bed¬ 
rooms,  where  he  houses  eight  friendless  orphan  boys.  As  soon  as  he  can  find 
work  for  one  of  his  “family,”  as  he  calls  them,  and  the  boy  is  self-supporting,  he 
must  “  hustle”  for  himself  and  make  room  for  another  boy. 

When  he  has  room,  Mr.  Willard  sometimes  takes  some  of  his  paroled  prisoners 
into  his  house,  but  he  does  not  often  have  room.  The  house  is  supported  by  vol¬ 
untary  subscriptions.  Sometimes  the  subscriptions  do  not  come  as  numerously 
or  as  largely  as  are  necessary,  and  then,  as  Mr.  Willard  expresses  it,  “We  have  to 
*  hock  ’  some  of  our  goods  at  the  near-by  pawnshop  until  things  look  brighter,  We 
have  dark  days  as  well  as  bright  ones  in  my  family.” 

The  charter-revision  commission  has  recommended  that  a  children's  court  be 
established  in  New  York  City,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  this  will  soon  be  done; 
but  as  such  a  court  will  have  to  do  only  with  children  under  16,  Mr.  Willard’s 
labors  will  not  be  affected  by  it. 

The  parole  S3rstem,  however,  whether  in  a  juvenile  court  or  in  the  court  of  spe¬ 
cial  sessions,  puts  the  boy  back  on  the  city’s  streets,  and,  as  Dr.  D.  L.  Pierson 
says  in  an  article  on  the  George  Junior  Republic  in  the  Missionary  Review,  “  the 
city’s  streets  are  the  devil’s  kindergarten.”  Another  recourse  is  to  place  the  boy 


238 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


in  some  charitable  institution;  but  this  plan  sometimes  proves  worse  than  the 
other.  In  his  last  annual  report  the  secretary  of  the  Children’s  Aid  Society  says: 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  children  who  have  been  most  successful  in  tlieir 
after  careers  were  not  the  well-trained  children  from  institutions,  as  one  might 
suppose,  but  were  mostly  boys  who  had  received  their  early  training  on  the  streets 
and  were  removed  to  better  environment  before  they  were  12  years  of  age.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  very  small  number  who  were  arrested  for  crime  or  sent  to 
reform  schools  were  in  most  cases  children  who  came  from  institutions.  The 
petty  crimes  they  committed  were  largely  due  to  want  of  worldly  experience — a 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  right  from  wrong. 

Mr.  William  R.  George,  in  his  now-famous  “  George  Junior  Republic,”  just 
referred  to,  believes  that  he  has  found  the  path  out  of  this  dilemma.  Mr.  George 
started  the  little  republic  in  July,  1895,  and  it  now  has  about  a  hundred  citizens, 
one-fourth  of  the  number  girls.  Every  citizen  is  paid  for  his  work  in  tin  coins, 
which  he  exchanges  at  the  republic  store  and  hotel  for  the  necessities,  comforts, 
and  luxuries  of  life,  or  deposits  in  the  republic  bank.  The  citizens  make  their 
own  laws,  elect  their  own  president,  congress,  judges,  and  other  officers,  and 
choose  their  own  policemen,  who  lock  up  in  their  jail  the  citizens  who  break  the 
laws.  The  plan  has  proved  so  successful  that  the  Massachusetts  State  reforma¬ 
tory  has  adopted  its  principle,  and  two  other  junior  republics  have  been  started, 
one  in  Reddington,  Pa.,  and  the  other  in  Washington,  D,  C.  Mr.  George’s  little 
democracy  is  located  at  Freeville,  N.  Y.,  about  8  miles  north  of  Ithaca.  A  writer 
in  The  Puritan  Magazine  remarks  that  the  Freeville  Republic  “  for  its  simplicity, 
its  decency,  and  its  self-respect,  may  some  day  repay  the  study  of  the  legislators  of 
the  larger  democracy.”  Like  Mr.  Willard’s  work,  the  Republic  does  not  seem  to 
be  embarrassed  by  an  unmanageable  surplus  of  funds,  and  all  its  leaflets  announce 
that  contributions  of  money,  materials,  clothing,  or  household  articles  will  not 
come  amiss,  and  will  aid  in  extending  the  usefulness  of  the  work.  The  Republic’s 
last  leaflet  records  the  interesting  fact  that  since  the  work  began  not  one  of  the 
citizens  has  been  dismissed  as  incorrigible,  and  of  the  119  who  have  left  the  Repub¬ 
lic  not  one  has  gone  astray.  Says  the  report: 

Of  the  119,  sixty-one  were  considered  by  Mr.  George  positively  bad  when  they 
entered  the  Republic.  Many  of  them  had  been  arrested  and  had  served  one  or 
more  terms  of  imprisonment  in  some  institution  of  a  reformatory  character:  others 
had  committed  thefts  that  would  have  sent  them  to  a  reformatory  had  they  not 
beeh  given  the  alternative  of  going  to  the  Republic.  Not  one  boy  or  girl  who  has 
left  the  Republic  has  been,  up  to  date,  in  any  difficulty  with  the  public  authorities 
since  leaving.  So  far  as  Mr.  George  can  learn,  everyone  is  at  some  honest  labor. 

The  foregoing  allusions  to  the  work  of  Mr.  George  are  scarcely 
sufficient  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  historic  development  and 
the  administrative  details  of  the  Junior  Republic.  A  more  extended 
description  is  found  in  an  article  by  John  R.  Commons  in  No.  3, 
Volume  III,  of  the  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  which  is  here 
inserted  to  show  how  the  best  remedy  for  social  evils  is  self-help. 

THE  JUNIOR  REPUBLIC. 

The  Junior  Republic  is  an  experiment  in  charity,  penology,  and  pedagogy.  It 
carries  to  a  consistent  extreme  the  principles  of  self-help  and  individuality  toward 
which  thinkers  and  workers  in  these  fields  for  a  decade  or  more  have  been  urging. 
Various  of  its  devices  have  been  recently  hit  upon  here  and  there  in  reformato¬ 
ries,  schools,  and  child-saving  organizations,  but  it  has  remained  for  Mr.  George 
to  begin  at  the  foundation  and  to  build  up  a  complete  system,  un trammeled  by  tra¬ 
ditions,  institutions,  or  trustees.  And  now  that  the  Republic  has  become  famous, 
the  fascination  of  its  story  and  its  apparent  simplicity  have  led  to  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  similar  republics  elsewhere  and  the  adoption  of  certain  of  its  features  in 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


239 


existing  institutions.  It  is  in  the  effort  to  imitate  the  Republic  without  fully 
appreciating  its  motive  that  discredit  is  likely  to  come  upon  its  principles,  and  the 
conclusion  to  be  drawn  that  only  under  the  personal  inspiration  of  a  Mr.  George 
can  it  succeed,  or  that  it  is  anything  more  than  the  fanciful  pastime  of  a  harmless 
philanthropy.  In  order  to  show  that  it  has  been  developed  not  as  an  amusement, 
but  to  meet  the  most  fundamental  practical  problem  of  sociology — the  education 
of  personal  character  for  both  individual  and  social  responsibilities — I  can  begin 
with  no  more  convincing  recital  than  the  constitutional  history  of  the  Republic. 

In  1887,  Mr.  W.  R.  George,  then  about  21  years  of  age,  whose  home  had  been 
among  the  hills  near  Freeville,  Tompkins  County,  N.  Y.,  went  to  New  York  City 
to  follow  a  business  calling.  All  of  his  leisure  time  he  occupied  in  making  the 
acquaintance  of  the  street  boys  and  girls  of  the  East  Side,  in  visiting  boys’  clubs, 
teaching  Sunday-school  classes,  and  becoming  deeply  attached  to  these  urchins. 
Impressed  by  their  cramped  life,  he  determined,  in  1890,  to  take  a  company  of  80 
to  his  home  near  Freeville,  where  he  spent  his  own  vacations  in  August.  He 
secured  railway  expenses  through  the  Tribune  fresh-air  fund,  and  relied  upon 
his  relatives  and  neighbors  to  furnish  provisions.  His  only  purpose  at  this  time 
was  to  give  the  boys  and  girls  a  thoroughly  happy  outing.  The  second  summer — 
1891 — he  took  a  company  of  200,  all  to  be  kept  on  one  farm  in  tents,  and  from  that 
time  to  the  present  the  number  has  ranged  from  150  to  200,  of  whom  about  one- 
fourth  have  been  girls.  The  people  and  churches  of  the  neighborhood  responded 
bountifully  with  food  and  clothing’,  and  these  were  distributed  freely  among  the 
youthful  claimants.  Four  summers  of  this  experience  focused  his  attention  on 
its  essentially  degrading  effects.  One-tenth  of  the  children  came  there  as  a 
“gang,”  to  fight  and  brawl  and  terrorize  the  country;  nine- tenths  came  for  the 
food  and  the  clothing  that  they  could  take  back  to  their  parents.  From  arrival 
to  departure  their  constant  clamor  was,  “  What  are  dese  farmers  goin’  to  give  us 
to  take  back?  ”  “  The  woman  I  was  by  last  year  gave  me  two  dresses  and  sent  us 

three  barrels  of  potatoes  in  the  winter.  What. are  yousegoin’to  give  me?”  and 
so  on.  Here  were  two  conditions  for  Mr.  George  to  meet  — crime  and  pauperism, 
the  very  life  and  moving  spirit  of  the  political  and  charitable  system  of  New 
York  City  and  its  tenements.  And  the  fact  that  200  of  these  budding  criminals 
and  paupers  were  on  his  hands  made  him  think.  One  day  he  remonstrated  with 
a  crowd  of  them,  “  Why  do  you  do  nothing  bnt  beg  and  demand  things  to  take 
back  with  you?  You  have  done  nothing  to  earn  them;  they  are  not  yours.”  A 
little  Italian  girl,  spokesman  of  the  crowd,  drew  herself  up  and  said,  “Mr. 
George,  wot  do  yousetink  we  are  here  fur,  anyway?”  “  That’s  the  talk,” growled 
the  crowd. 

The  next  summer,  1894,  Mr.  George  determined  to  make  them  work  for  what 
they  took.  Boxes  of  clothing  sent  in  by  the  philanthrophic  were  no  longer  passed 
around,  but  notice  was  given  that  only  hard  work  with  pick  and  shovel  would  be 
considered  a  claim  for  such.  The  grumbling  and  muttering  were  general  and 
ominous.  One  boy,  however,  after  a  period  of  thinking  offered  to  work  for  five 
days  for  a  suit  of  clothes — the  price  set  by  Mr.  George.  The  others  hectored  him 
a  fool  for  working  to  get  what  was  his  by  right,  but  when  he  walked  away  with 
his  new  suit,  the  pride  of  honest  ownership,  and  the  immediate  capitulation  of 
many  others,  were  the  first  suggestion  toward  the  Republic’s  cure  for  pauperism. 

The  problem  of  crime  was  equally  hard.  Mr.  George  made  rules  against  smok¬ 
ing,  gambling,  stealing,  fighting,  etc.,  but  how  to  punish  for  violations  was  beyond 
his  comprehension.  He  even  tried  the  whip,  but  that  failed.  He  then  resorted  to 
a  vicarious  expedient,  offering  himself  to  be  whipped  and  compelling  the  culprit 
to  do  the  whipping.  This  worked  better,  but  crime  still  flourished.  Finally,  in 
1894,  he  inaugurated  a  public  trial  of  every  alleged  offender,  the  decision  to  be 
awarded  by  the  town  meeting.  On  the  suggestion  of  the  boys  a  jury  of  the  best 
citizens  was  selected  by  Mr,  George  himself  for  such  trials.  At  this  time,  instead 


240 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


of  corporal  punishment  he  substituted  fines  of  a  graded  number  of  hours’  work. 
The  stone  pile  was  superintended  by  an  adult,  one  of  the  assistants,  and  when  one 
day  he  was  sick  the  boys  proposed  that  in  his  place  be  appointed  Banjo,  a  member 
of  the  “Park ” gang,  which  was  an  offshoot  of  the  famous  “  Why-ho ”  gang.  Only 
necessit;*  compelled  Mr.  George  to  accept  this  radical  innovation  and  that  but  for 
one  day,  but  its  startling  success  was  thq  first  eye-opener  on  the  possibilities  of  self- 
government.  Banjo  got  much  better  and  harder  work  out  of  the  boys  than  did 
the  adult,  for  they  could  not  deceive  him,  and  on  the  other  hand  Banjo  himself 
became  the  most  self-respecting  upholder  of  law  and  order  in  the  entire  com¬ 
munity.  He  was  retained  permanently  in  office. 

The  summer  of  1894  was  full  of  many  kinds  of  experiments.  Mr.  George  knew 
that  something  was  wrong  and  he  was  feeling  for  remedies.  After  the  children 
went  home  he  set  to  thinking.  Three  facts  had  impressed  themselves  upon  him. 
First,  the  keen  sense  of  justice  and  power  of  discrimination  shown  by  the  boys  in 
all  the  trials  by  jury;  second,  their  superior  powers  of  administration  and  dis¬ 
cipline  over  their  fellows  compared  with  those  shown  by  adults;  third,  the  superior 
wisdom  of  the  suggestions  they  had  made  in  modes  of  government  and  adminis¬ 
tration  compared  with  those  which  had  occurred  to  himself.  He  therefore  rea¬ 
soned  that  they  might  equally  well  make  the  laws  as  judge  and  administer  them, 
and  the  idea  occurred  to  him  of  a  boy  legislature.  Then,  too,  if  they  worked  for 
their  clothing,  why  not  require  them  to  work  for  their  victuals?  All  these  are 
just  what  people  in  the  outside  world  are  doing — why  not  copy  their  methods? 
And  if  so  we  have  sure  enough  a  republic — yes,  indeed,  a  junior  republic.  The 
idea  was  a  flash,  an  inspiration.  It  carried  our  enthusiast  off  his  feet  with  a  shout. 
At  once  he  announced  his  plan,  and  the  summer  of  1895  was  the  first  year  of  the 
Junior  Republic. 

But  the  self-governing  republic  was  not  born  full-fledged.  Mr.  George  was  not 
ready  to  trust  the  boys.  He  made  himself  president,  with  a  veto  on  all  laws.  He 
appointed  adult  assistants  as  chief  justice,  chief  of  police,  civil-service  examiners, 
board  of  health,  and  bank  president.  He  let  the  contracts  to  adults. 

The  first  summer  convinced  him  that  in  every  one  of  these  positions  the  boys 
themselves  would  be  superior  to  adults.  They  knew  much  better  how  to  deal 
with  their  fellows.  They  would  also  be  more  responsible  to  them,  and  would  give 
them,  therefore,  a  keener  sense  of  their  own  responsibility  for  the  execution  of 
their  own  laws.  Consequently,  in  the  summer  of  1896  adults  were  removed  from 
all  responsible  positions  except  the  presidency  and  the  boj7s  were  appointed  by  the 
president,  and  in  1897  another  step  toward  democracy  was  taken,  in  that  a  boy  was 
made  president  by  election  of  his  peers.  In  all  respects,  therefore,  the  Junior 
Republic  is  now  self-governing  and  is  a  coalescence  of  the  Federal,  State,  and  city 
governments  of  the  United  States.  The  president  is  elected  for  one  year,  senators 
for  two  weeks,  representatives  for  one  week,  and  officials  are  appointed  on  good 
behavior.  The  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York  are  the  laws  of  the  republic,  though 
subject  to  amendment  by  the  legislature  and  the  president.  These  amendments, 
however,  are  all  abrogated  on  the  1st  of  July  each  year,  and  to  remain  valid  must 
be  reenacted. 

While  in  the  form  of  government  the  representative  democracy  has  been  per¬ 
fected,  the  same  does  not  yet  hold  for  the  ownership  of  property.  This  will  appear 
from  the  very  interesting  monetary  history  of  the  republic. 

In  1895  Mr.  George  was  owner  and  business  manager  of  all  property  in  the 
Republic.  He  employed  boys  and  girls,  paying  them  wages  in  their  card-board 
money  (later  tin  coin),  and  they  in  turn  paid  him  for  board  and  lodging  at  the 
hotels.  As  a  matter  of  form,  and  to  give  the  government  some  material  reason 
for  existence,  the  citizen  paid  small  taxes  levied  by  the  legislature,  though  Mr. 
George,  as  sole  capitalist,  paid  the  bulk  of  the  taxes.  In  1896,  in  order  to  extend 
democracy,  the  contracts  for  hotels  and  mercantile  establishments  were  let  by  the 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


241 


government  to  citizens  on  the  payment  of  a  license  or  percentage  determined  by 
auction.  But  Mr.  George  still  retained  ownership  of  the  land  and  employed  a  large 
force  in  agricultural  pursuits.  He  paid  them  wages  daily,  and  as  he  had  nothing 
to  sell  to  the  citizens,  since  his  crops  would  not  mature  until  after  their  return 
home  the  1st  of  September,  the  money  was  not  returned  into  his  hands.  As  a 
result,  the  currency  was  expanded  and  continued  to  depreciate  through  rapid 
fluctuations  until  $1  of  republic  money  was  worth  only  5  to  10  cents  of  American 
money.  The  method  of  determining  this  depreciation  was  to  note  the  prices  at 
which  clothing  and  other  goods  from  outside  would  sell  at  auction  to  the  citizens 
in  their  currency,  compared  with  the  customary  prices  for  the  same  in  American 
currency.  The  ratio  between  the  two  prices  would  give  the  rate  of  depreciation. 
The  causes  of  this  growing  depreciation  were  for  several  months  inexplicable  to 
either  the  citizens  or  their  patron.  It  involved  serious  problems  in  the  distribu¬ 
tion  of  wealth  and  the  contentment  of  the  citizens.  Out  of  it  sprang  the  heated 
political  campaign  between  the  People’s  Party  and  the  Free  Tin  Party. 

The  government,  being  constantly  in  receipt  of  more  money  than  it  could  use,, 
owing  to  the  growing  surplus  in  the  community  at  large  and  the  feeling  that  some¬ 
thing  ought  to  be  done  to  keep  it  in  circulation,  projected  large  public  improve¬ 
ments,  such  as  building  highways,  sidewalks,  drains,  and  laying  out  parks.  These 
were  let  to  contractors,  who,  by  paying  their  laborers  50  cents  a  day  and  foreman 
$1,  were  themselves  often  able  to  make  as  profit  $150  out  of  the  $200  contract,. 
They  thus  became  “millionaires,”  and  flaunted  their  riches  in  the  face  of  others,, 
living  at  the  most  expensive  hotels  without  the  need  of  work;  and  the  high  prices 
which  they  paid  both  depreciated  the  currency  and  placed  luxuries  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  commonalty.  Rapidly  there  appeared  a  general  feeling  of  remon¬ 
strance  against  these  parvenues  and  a  desire  to  curb  their  pride.  Somehow  it  was 
felt  that  the  excessive  currency  furnished  them  their  opportunities,  and  the  Peo¬ 
ple’s  or  Conservative  party  was  organized,  whose  platform  demanded  a  high  tax 
rate  and  the  arbitrary  creation  therefrom  of  a  government  reserve  in  order  to  con¬ 
tract  the  currency. 

These  speculators  now,  in  turn,  organized  the  Free  Tin  Party,  and  their  popular 
appeal  was  “  high  wages,  plenty  of  work,  and  prosperity.”  They  told  their  work¬ 
men  that  they  now  were  able  to  pay  but  50  cents  a  day,  and  if  currency  should  b© 
shortened,  they  could  pay  only  25  cents;  whereas,  as  everyone  knew,  it  required 
a  minimum  of  50  cents  a  day  to  pay  for  meals,  lodging,  and  taxes.  These  argu¬ 
ments  carried  with  the  voters,  and  the  People’s  Party  was  overwhelmed.  Th© 
currency  continued  to  depreciate,  and  the  millionaires  to  flourish  till  the  end  of 
the  season. 

In  1897  Mr.  George  took  the  matter  in  hand  and  returned  to  his  policy  of  1895. 
He  became  again  sole  landed  proprietor  and  capitalist.  He  considers  this  as  far 
from  the  ideal,  but  as  a  means  of  regulating  the  currency  it  is  the  only  secure 
plan  yet  devised.  He  now  pays  directly,  or  through  his  subcontractors,  all  the 
employees  except  government  servants  and  pays  two-thirds  of  the  taxes.  H© 
receives  an  income  from  the  hotels  and  other  sources,  and  consequently  is  able  to 
control  the  currency  at  par,  apart  from  the  regulations  by  the  government.  The 
inference  seems  to  be  that  popular  sovereignty  has  failed  in  the  field  of  the  cur¬ 
rency,  just  as  we  often  hear  it  held  that  it  must  also  fail  in  the  greater  Republic 
outside. 

By  owning  all  the  industries  Mr.  George  is  also  able  to  check  the  rise  of  mil¬ 
lionaires.  He  can  prevent  the  merely  shrewd  and  unscrupulous  from  accumulat¬ 
ing  wealth  as  against  the  industrious  and  honest.  He  does  this  by  letting  the  con¬ 
tracts  not  merely  on  the  basis  of  the  strict  competitive  system,  as  was  done  in 
1896  by  the  government,  but  by  awarding  them  to  the  more  deserving  in  his  pri- 


ED  1901- 


•16 


242 


EDUCATION  BEPORT,  1900-1901. 


vate  estimation.  Thus,  by  monopolizing  private  property,  he  quietly  controls  the 
lives  of  the  citizens,  regardless  of  the  complete  self-government  vouchsafed  to 
them.  In  this  a  more  ideal  justice  is  measured  out,  though,  of  course,  in  so  far, 
the  government  has  become  a  benevolent  despotism  rather  than  a  democracy. 
This,  too,  has  made  the  republic  less  fascinating  and  less  exciting  than  it  was  under 
the  political  and  commercial  contest  of  1896,  and  outsiders  might  wish  these  com¬ 
petitive  conditions  had  been  retained  in  order  to  see  what  sort  of  an  ideal  com¬ 
monwealth  the  citizens  themselves  might  have  worked  out.  Both  Mr.  George  and 
the  citizens  feel  this  lack  of  complete  self-government,  and  the  plans  for  1898  will 
resume  again  the  democratic  trend.  Private  property  in  land  and  ail  enterprises 
will  be  arranged  for  in  some  way,  and  the  government  will  have  entire  control  of 
the  volume  of  currency. 

At  nresent  the  currency  is  easily  kept  at  par,  as  far  as  the  purchase  of  necessi¬ 
ties  i  Concerned.  United  States  money  has,  of  course,  a  wider  value;  but  if  the 
treasury  of  the  republic  had  an  adequate  reserve  of  candy  with  which  to  redeem 
its  currency,  the  par  value  of  the  same  could  in  all  respects  be  steadily  main¬ 
tained.  The  management  wishes  to  arrange  for  the  redemption  of  certain  por¬ 
tions  of  its  currency  in  United  States  money  when  the  citizens  return  home,  but  at 
present  the  only  redemption  for  the  savings  of  the  citizens  is  such  clothing  and 
provisions  as  may  happen  to  be  on  hand.  The  outgoing  citizens  occasionally 
retain  their  republic  money  and  bring  it  back  the  following  summer  for  a  few 
days  of  luxury  before  settling  down  to  work. 

The  demoralizing  effect  upon  the  community  occasioned  by  the  millionaires  and 
their  sudden  riches  would  be  largely  obviated  if  the  government  had  other  means 
of  redemption  than  merely  meals  and  lodgings.  If  the  millionaires  could  purchase 
clothing,  shoes,  pictures  and  bric-a-brac  for  adorning  their  rooms,  books,  and 
other  useful  imperishables,  they  would  still  feel  the  incentive  to  work,  even  with  a 
large  surplus  of  profits  in  hand,  for  the  surplus  would  be  turned  at  once  into 
such  permanent  acquisitions.  As  it  is,  the  only  use  to  be  made  of  large  earnings 
is  to  spend  them  on  meals  and  lodgings  throughout  a  long  period  of  idleness.  If 
the  imperishables  were  donated  by  outsiders,  or  even  manufactured  in  part  by 
the  citizens  themselves  with  machinery  and  a  plant  like  those  of  many  prisons 
and  reformatories,  Mr.  George  would  see  his  way  again  to  return  to  the  individ¬ 
ual  enterprise  of  1896.  It  is  toward  this  ideal  that  his  new  plans  are  tending. 

New  counterparts  with  the  republic  of  history  are  continually  appearing.  The 
duration  of  the  republic  was  originally  the  two  months  of  July  and  August. 
Beginning  in  the  fall  of  1895,  there  were  five  of  the  summer  citizens  who  per¬ 
suaded  Mr.  George  to  keep  them  through  the  winter  until  the  next  summer. 
These  he  calls  his  “  original  residents.”  They  were  the  nucleus  of  a  colony  of  32 
in  the  winter  of  1896-97  and  of  53  in  the  winter  of  1897-98.  These  winter  citi¬ 
zens,  known  as  “  residents,”  continue  the  government  through  the  year  under  the 
same  constitution  and  laws,  but  they  have  become  a  patriciate,  engrossing  the 
offices,  the  property,  and  profitable  contracts,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  greater  num¬ 
ber  of  plebs,  known  as  “  summer  citizens,”  who  swarm  in  during  the  summer. 
The  winter  residents  elect  the  president  who  appoints  the  administrative  officials, 
and  the  winter  of  1896-97  they  adopted  a  new  constitution,  providing  that  no 
citizen  could  be  a  senator  or  representative  who  had  not  been  a  resident  of  the 
republic  for  one  month.  This,  of  course,  excluded  the  leaders  of  the  summer 
citizens  during  the  first  half  of  their  stay,  and  since  during  this  first  month  the 
majority  of  these  leaders  were  arrested  and  convicted  on  criminal  charges,  they 
were  further  incapacitated  for  election  the  second  month.  The  outcome  has  been 
that  the  summer  citizens,  having  three-fourths  of  the  votes,  have  cast  their 
strength  for  the  weak  and  inefficient  winter  residents  instead  of  the  capable  lead¬ 
ers,  and  the  legislature  has  therefore  been  almost  a  nonentity.  This  is  very  like 
ward  politics  at  large.  The  residents  of  1897-98  are  planning  to  remove  the 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


243 


restrictions  on  summer  citizens,  and  tills  will  again  tend  to  give  the  political  life 
of  1898  some  of  the  thrill  of  1896. 

The  main  obstacle  at  present  to  the  successful  working  of  the  educational  and 
reformatory  principles  of  the  republic  is  the  inroads  of  summer  citizens.  Experi¬ 
ence  shows  that  at  least  a  year’s  continuous  residence  is  required  to  saturate  a  boy 
with  the  spirit  of  self-help  and  responsibility.  The  first  month  or  two  is  a  period 
of  depression  and  discouragement.  The  boy  is  arrested  and  convicted  again  and 
again,  spends  much  of  his  time  in  jail  and  on  the  stone  pile,  and  only  begins  to 
reap  the  rewards  of  upright  and  industrious  living  at  about  the  time  he  goes  home. 
The  boy  who  stays  through  the  year  gets  a  closer  acquaintance  with  Mr.  George 
and  becomes  a  model  citizen.  It  is  intended  to  increase  the  number  of  residents 
and  lessen  that  of  summer  citizens,  so  as  to  give  a  preponderance  of  at  least  three- 
fourths  of  the  votes  to  the  former;  also  to  establish  another  “state  ”  near  by  exclu¬ 
sively  for  the  summer  citizens. 

The  republic  is  based  upon  the  wage  system.  This  is  a  system  of  indirect  coer¬ 
cion,  though  corporal  punishment  and  despotic  control  are  based  upon  the  slave 
system.  The  indirect  coercion  is  far  more  efficient  both  as  an  industrial  stimulus 
and  an  educational  device.  It  is  deliberate  and  searching:  it  stimulates  thought 
and  self-examination.  I  saw  two  boys  go  without  breakfast  because  on  the  day 
before  they  loafed,  and  so  failed  to  earn  cash  for  a  day's  meals  and  lodging.  Mr. 
George  himself  escapes  the  odium  of  enforcing  this  harsh  penalty,  for  it  is  enforced 
by  the  boy  proprietor  of  the  hotel,  to  whom  it  is  a  matter  of  business. 

In  1895  taxes  were  levied  to  support  the  poor.  Finally  a  bill  was  introduced  in 
the  legislature  and  enacted  into  law  stipulating  that  after  a  certain  day  the  pau¬ 
pers’  table  supported  by  the  government  should  be  abolished.  There  were  a  dozen 
paupers  who  had  contented  themselves  with  the  spare  diet  of  that  table.  They 
treated  the  matter  as  a  joke  and  predicted  that  when  the  day  arrived  the  citizens 
would  do  what  the  charities  of  New  York  had  always  done — feed  the  hungry, 
whether  deserving  or  not.  But  the  citizens  were  taxpayers.  When  the  day 
arrived  the  policemen  ordered  the  paupers  to  move  on.  They  moved,  and  before 
night  had  found  work  and  earned  enough  to  pay  for  a  heavy  supper.  Since  that 
day  there  have  been  no  paupers.  Of  course  there  is  no  problem  of  the  unem¬ 
ployed  in  this  Junior  Republic,  and  so  the  paupers  can  not  throw  the  burden  of 
proof  upon  the  philanthropists. 

If  the  wages  were  uniform  for  all  grades  of  labor,  it  would  be  no  better  than 
slavery  as  a  means  of  individual  progress.  But  by  grading  the  pay  according  to 
the  quality  of  service,  higher  motives  than  the  craving  for  necessities  can  be  evoked. 
The  minimum  wages  paid  by  Mr.  George  are  12  cents  an  hour  for  six  hours’  work, 
or  72  cents  a  day.  Curiously  enough,  when  boys  employers  they  pay  10  or  15 
cents  a  day  higher  wages,  but  they  compel  their  employees  to  work  harder  and 
somewhat  longer.  Policemen  are  paid  90  cents  a  day;  the  chief  of  police  $1.25; 
senators  and  representatives  $2  a  week;  police  commissioners  and  other  officers  $1 
to  $2  a  week.  Civil-service  examinations  are  held  by  the  civil  service  commission¬ 
ers  for  the  policemen  and  all  appointive  officials.  The  examinations  cover  the 
common  branches  of  study  as  taught  in  the  public  schools  and  at  the  republic. 

As  is  apparent  from  the  foregoing,  self-help,  self-activity,  mutual 
supervision  and  control — in  short,  self-government — are  powerful 
agencies  of  pathological  education.  This  is  likewise  shown  in  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  the  “  Cottage  row”  at  the  farm  school  on  Thompsons  Island  (in 
Boston  Harbor).  An  excellent  account  of  this  institution  and  its  meth¬ 
ods  is  found  in  the  New  England  Magazine1  (No.  2,  vol.  22),  where 
Prof.  Max  Bennet  Thrasher,  for  two  years  connected  with  this  school, 


Copyright  by  Warren  F.  Kellogg. 


244 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


describes  the  managements  and  methods  in  vogue.  A  part  of  the 
article  is  here  inserted : 

GOVERNMENT  OF  BOYS,  FOR  .BOYS,  BY  BOYS. 

The  farm  school  [originally  the  Boston  Asylum  for  Indigent  Boys]  is  limited  to 
100  pupils.  Boys  are  taken  between  the  ages  of  10  and  14  years  and  retained  until 
they  graduate  from  the  school  department,  the  training  there  being  equivalent  to 
the  best  grammar  school.  At  the  same  time  they  are  taught  to  work,  the  aim  being 
to  fit  them  so  that  when  they  are  old  enough  to  go  out  into  the  world  they  will  be 
fitted  to  meet  and  grapple  with  the  problems  which  life  will  present.  As  soon  as 
is  practicable  after  graduation  places  are  found  for  them  in  offices,  stores,  shops, 
or  on  farms  according  as  their  training  or  natural  ability  seem  to  make  most  desir¬ 
able.  Boys  who  have  committed  crime,  or  are  what  may  be  termed  bad  boys,  are 
not  received.  The  farm  school  is  in  no  sense  a  reform  school,  but  rather  a  home 
training  school  for  the  boys  who  are  under  its  care.  These  are  usually  orphans  or 
.the  sons  of  poor  widows  who,  from  force  of  circumstances,  are  unable  to  provide  a 
home  for  some  or  all  of  their  children. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  course  of  study  there  is  a  manual  training  course 
which  includes  mechanical  drawing,  carpentry,  wood  turning  and  carving,  black- 
smithing,  and  printing.  All  the  boys  are  employed  in  turn  upon  the  farm  for  a  con¬ 
siderable  portion  of  the  time  they  are  at  school,  obtaining  from  this  and  the  use  of 
the  boats,  which  they  are  constantly  taught  to  use  and  manage,  the  very  best  phys¬ 
ical  exercise.  In  addition,  all  in  turn  perform  some  part  of  the  household  duties, 
including  cooking,  baking,  the  making  and  mending  clothes,  and  laundry  work. 
The  boys  have  the  freedom  of  a  campus  several  acres  in  extent  and  a  large  and 
thoroughly  equipped  gymnasium. 

There  is  no  instinct  stronger  in  the  minds  of  children  than  that  of  imitation,  and  no 
amusement  more  universal  and  enduring  than  that  of  playing  house.  My  observa¬ 
tions  at  Thompsons  Island  lead  me  to  believe  that  while  baseball  and  football,  King 
Philip,  tag,  quoits,  bows  and  marbles,  and  a  dozen  other  games  came  and  went,  the 
one  interest  that  never  flagged  was  that  in  “  Cottage  row,”  the  city  of  playhouses 
which  the  boys  have  built,  care  for,  own,  and  govern.  Each  election  for  mayor,  aider- 
men,  and  chief  of  police  and  other  officers  is  just  as  warmly  contested  as  the  last, 
and  when  a  boy  leaves  the  school  he  never  has  any  trouble  in  finding  some  younger 
boy  to  buy  his  shares  in  his  cottage,  while  political  aspirants  for  such  official  posi¬ 
tions  as  he  may  have  held  spring  up  as  suddenly  as  they  do  in  large  municipalities. 

The  settlement  originated  in  this  way:  During  the  summer  of  1888  the  boys 
were  given  some  pieces  of  cast-off  bedticking  to  play  with.  A  chance  suggestion 
was  made  that  these  would  make  good  tents.  The  suggestion  was  adopted,  and  sev¬ 
eral  tents  were  set  up,  each  being  owned  and  occupied  usually  by  a  number  of  boys. 
Scattered  at  first  irregularly  over  the  campus,  the  tents  were  eventually  arranged 
in  rows  at  the  north  end,  and  all  through  the  summer  this  was  the  favorite  part  of 
the  playground.  As  the  cold  weather  came  on  the  boys  were  so  reluctant  to  aban¬ 
don  their  little  homes  that  they  utilized  pieces  of  board  to  make  them  habitable  as 
long  as  possible.  This  gave  some  of  the  boys  an  idea  to  be  acted  on  another  season, 
and  when  the  spring  of  1889  opened  some  of  the  most  enterprising  planned  to  erect 
a  wrooden  cottage.  With  the  assistance  of  the  superintendent,  material  was  obtained 
and  the  house  was  built.  Others  followed,  and  from  this  beginning  the  present 
“city  ”  has  developed.  The  fact  that  all  of  the  boys  who  are  old  enough  take  the 
school's  course  in  manual  training  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  do  all  of  the  work 
themselves.  In  1891  it  was  decided  to  be  best  to  limit  the  number  of  cottages  td 
12,  the  possession  of  each  cottage  being  divided  into  12  shares.  Certificates  of 
ownership  were  given  for  these  shares,  transferable  through  the  farm  school  bank. 
This  bank  has  been  a  regular  feature  of  the  school  for  some  time.  The  boys  deposit 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


245 


in  it  whatever  money  they  may  earn  or  have  given  them  and  are  paid  interest  on 
deposits  above  a  certain  amount.  Each  boy  has  his  own  bank  book  and  is  fur¬ 
nished  deposit  slips  and  checks.  If  he  wishes  to  buy  anything,  or  to  pay  out  money 
for  any  purpose,  he  draws  his  check  as  any  other  business  man  would  do.  Mock 
deeds  of  the  cottage  lots  are  given  to  the  proprietors.  The  plan  seemed  to  work 
so  favorably  that  in  1893  the  superintendent  of  the  school  issued  the  following 
proclamation: 

Proclamation. 

To  the  Inhabitants  of  Thompsons  Island: 

The  playground  settlement  shall  be  known  as  “  Cottage  row.”  The  government 
organized  by  the  property  owners  shall  be  for  the  general  protection,  advancement 
of  good  order,  adjustment  of  individual  rights,  and  to  assist  in  teaching  the  duties 
of  citizenship.  All  matters  pertaining  to  Cottage  row  and  its  government  shall  be 
entitled  to  and  given  the  same  respect  as  is  due  other  branches  of  the  school  work. 

The  officers  of  the  cottage  government,  consisting  of  a  board  of  aldermen  (3), 
clerk  (1),  police  (3),  street  commissioner  (1),  and  jury  (5),  shall  perform  their 
duties  with  the  dignity  becoming  officers  in  such  positions. 

The  board  of  aldermen  may  elect  a  janitor  for  the  Cottage  Row  hall  and  club¬ 
house  and  a  director  for  the  Natural  History  room. 

The  property  owners  shall  obey  and  respect  their  superiors  in  said  government; 
but  when  circumstances  warrant  may  appeal  to  the  officer  in  charge  or  to  the 
superintendent,  as  in  other  matters. 

Charles  H.  Bradley,  Superintendent. 

An  election  of  officers  followed  the  issuing  of  the  proclamation,  and  long  after¬ 
wards  a  city  hall  6  by  10  feet  was  built  to  accommodate  the  newly  organized  gov¬ 
ernment.  Another  building  somewhat  larger  was  erected  and  called  “  Audubon 
hall.  ”  This  is  for  a  home  for  the  numerous  pets  which  the  school  possesses,  -includ¬ 
ing  a  monkey,  an  Angora  goat,  pigeons,  rabbits,  and  guinea  pigs.  Three  curators 
are  appointed  to  take  care  of  the  animals,  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  aider- 
men.  Since  the  organization  of  the  goverment  the  official  force  has  been  increased 
by  the  addition  of  a  mayor,  an  assessor,  a  judge,  and  a  librarian.  All  of  the  offi¬ 
cers  except  the  judge  are  elected.  The  elections  have  been  held  once  in  three 
months,  on  the  first  Tuesdays  of  January,  April,  July,  and  October.  A  caucus  is 
held  one  week  previous  to  the  election.  The  ballots  used  are  printed  in  the  school’s 
printing  office  by  the  boys  and  resemble  as  nearly  as  possible  those  prescribed  by 
the  Australian  system.  The  judge  holds  office  during  good  behavior  or  as  long  as 
he  is  at  the  school.  There  has  never  yet  been  an  instance  of  a  judge  having  been 
removed  from  office. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  farm  school  which  has  been  found  very  helpful  is  a 
small  monthly  paper,  called  the  Thompsons  Island  Beacon,  written,  edited,  and 
printed  by  the  boys.  As  they  naturally  choose  subjects  to  write  about  in  which 
they  are  interested  there  have  been  a  number  of  articles  in  this  paper  at  various 
times  pertaining  to  Cottage  row.  I  do  not  think  any  description  which  I  could 
write  could  be  more  interesting  or  more  accurate  than  the  descriptions  in  these 
articles,  and  I  therefore  quote  from  some  of  them.  The  first  articles  gives  a  very 
complete  account  of  the  machinery  of  the  city  government.  It  is  from  the  issue 
of  March,  1898: 

Cottage  Row  government. 

Our  principal  officers  are  elected  quarterly  by  the  citizens.  The  mayor  is  the 
supreme  officer,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  preside  at  the  meetings  of  the  citizens,  to 
enforce  due  observance  of  the  constitution,  and  to  look  after  the  government  in 
general. 

The  board  of  aldermen  are  the  mayor's  advisers.  They  assist  him  in  performing 
his  duties,  and  their  chairman  takes  the  mayor’s  place  when  absent. 

The  judge,  who  holds  his  office  during  good  behavior,  tries  all  cases,  instructs 
the  jury,  and  passes  sentence. 

The  police  department  of  our  government  is  a  very  interesting  feature.  The 


246 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


citizens  elect  the  chief  of  police,  who  chooses  his  two  patrolmen  and  two  detect¬ 
ives.  They  have  a  general  supervision  over  all  the  boys  in  Cottage  row  and  on 
the  playgrounds,  whether  citizens  or  not.  All  complaints  are  made  to  the  chief  of 
police,  and  after  looking  into  the  case  he  applies  to  the  judge  for  a  warrant,  and 
if  this  is  issued  makes  the  arrest.  The  judge  has  charge  of  the  case  afterwards. 
At  the  proper  time,  within  two  weeks  after  the  complaint  is  made,  the  judge  calls 
the  court  to  order,  and  the  trial  begins.  Our  trials  are  very  interesting,  both  sides 
having  their  lawyers  and  witnesses. 

The  street  commissioner,  who  is  elected  by  the  citizens,  has  charge  of  the 
appearance  of  the  row.  The  cottages  are  divided  into  three  wards,  and  a  waste 
barrel  is  placed  in  each  of  the  wards.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  citizens  of  each  ward 
to  take  turns  in  emptying  the  barrel,  and  if  a  citizen  fails  to  empty  in  his  turn,  he 
is  tried  and  punished.  All  the  citizens  are  on  the  same  level  in  this  line. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  assessor  to  set  a  value  on  all  the  cottages  and  raise  it  on  all 
improvements. 

The  city  clerk,  who  is  appointed  by  the  mayor,  has  to  make  note  of  all  that  takes 
place  in  the  government,  such  as  keeping  a  strict  account  of  all  the  shares  in  the 
cottages,  issuing  all  certificates  and  deeds,  and  making  out  the  minutes  of  all 
meetings  of  the  citizens  and  of  the  court.  His  desk,  which  is  in  the  city  hall,  con¬ 
tains  note  heads,  envelopes,  certificates,  and  deeds,  all  of  which  are  printed  in  our 
printing  office.  The  clerk  also  acts  as  treasurer  and  has  care  of  the  government 
funds,  which  are  deposited  in  the  farm  school  bank. 

The  citizens  meet  every  three  months  for  a  caucus  and  election.  The  board  of 
aldermen  meet  about  every  two  weeks,  so  the  affairs  of  the  government  are  well 
looked  after. 

As  our  city  hall  is  not  large  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  citizens,  our  meet¬ 
ings  and  trials  are  held  in  the  large  schoolroom,  visitors  always  being  welcome. 
The  presiding  officer  uses  a  gavel  which  Mr.  Bradley  presented  to  Cottage  row, 
made  of  wood  which  he  got  at  Mount  Vernon,  Va. 

Another  interesting  feature  of  our  government  is  Audubon  hall,  the  headquar¬ 
ters  of  the  natural  history  society.  It  contains  rabbits,  guinea  pigs,  a  white 
Angora  goat,  and  an  African  monkey  called  “Mr.  Stubbs.”  The  hall  is  very 
carefully  looked  after  by  three  curators,  who  are  under  the  supervision  of  the 
board  of  aldermen. 

Howard  B.  Ellis,  Clerk. 

Another  boy,  in  the  issue  for  May,  1898,  writes  of  his  duties  as  chief  of  police: 
Police  department  of  Cottage  row: 

I  am  chief  of  police  of  Cottage  row.  I  have  two  patrolmen,  Chester  O.  Sanborn 
and  Samuel  W.  Webber.  Our  duty  is  to  keep  order  on  the  playground  and  on 
the  grounds  of  Cottage  row  and  to  see  that  no  one  breaks  windows  or  does  any¬ 
thing  that  would  disturb  others  or  prevent  them  from  having  a  good  time.  Any¬ 
one  who  offends  in  this  way  is  arrested  and  tried  before  the  court.  If  found 
guilty,  he  is  punished  by  being  compelled  to  stay  away  from  the  cottages  for  a 
certain  length  of  time  or  is  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  holding  office  or  punished 
in  some  similar  way. 

William  C.  Carr. 

In  the  June  number  of  1899  the  boy  who  has  succeeded  the  one  whose  article  I 
quoted  first  as  clerk  describes  a  Cottage  Row  election: 

Election  of  officers  for  Cottage  row . 

Cottage  Row  officers  are  elected  once  in  three  months.  A  week  before  the  elec¬ 
tion  the  voters  hold  a  caucus  in  which  are  elected  nominating  committees.  The 
mayor  chooses  three  boys  who  are  to  serve  on  the  mayor’s  nominating  committee, 
and  the  citizens  chose  three  boys  who  are  to  serve  on  the  citizen’s  committee. 
These  committees  each  nominate  enough  candidates  to  fill  the  offices.  Both  com¬ 
mittees  send  in  their  reports  to  the  clerk  who  has  the  ballots  printed.  On  the 
ballot  under  each  name  is  a  letter  “  C  ”  or  “  M,”  which  tells  by  which  committee 
that  boy  is  nominated.  Sometimes  one  boy  is  nominated  by  both  committees. 
The  election  takes  place  a  week  after  the  caucus.  It  is  held  in  the  first  school¬ 
room.  Each  citizen  takes  a  separate  seat  so  that  no  two  will  be  together.  The 
ballots  are  then  passed  out,  After  the  citizens  are  through  voting  the  ballots  are 
collected.  Then  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  clerk  count  them.  This  takes  quite  a 
while.  During  the  time  the  ballots  are  being  counted  the  citizens  take  a  recess. 
When  the  ballots  have  all  been  counted  the  meeting  is  called  to  order,  and  the 
clerk  reads  the  result  of  the  election.  First,  he  reads  the  names  of  all  the  boys 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


247 


who  were  nominated  and  the  number  of  votes  each  received;  then  the  names  of 
the  boys  who  were  elected.  Last  of  all,  the  boys  are  sworn  into  office.  The 
judge  swears  the  mayor  in  and  the  mayor  swears  the  other  officers  into  office. 

William  Austin,  Cleric. 

The  caucuses,  elections,  and  courts  are  held  in  one  of  the  schoolrooms,  in  order 
that  all  who  wish  may  be  present.  Of  course,  only  boys  who  are  property  holders 
vote.  Ownership  of  one  share  admits  a  boy  to  all  privileges.  Usually  from 
three  to  five  boys  own  a  cottage  together.  All  the  meetings  are  managed  wholly 
by  the  boys.  Quite  often  some  of  the  instructors  go  in,  attracted  by  an  interest 
in  what  is  going  on,  but  they  attend  only  as  spectators.  The  trials  are  often  very 
interesting,  and  there  are  sometimes  so  many  witnesses  to  be  examined  that  a 
case  can  not  be  completed  in  one  evening. 

Some  of  the  boys  develop  ability  as  lawyers  which  would  foreshadow  legal 
talent,  and  these  are  always  in  demand  for  counsel.  When  the  evidence  is  all  in 
the  lawyers  make  their  pleas,  the  judge  charges  the  jury,  and  the  latter  retires. 
The  jury  usually  agrees  on  a  verdict  oftener,  I  think,  than  in  real  courts.  Their 
verdicts  are  brought  in  sealed.  Sentences  are  apt  to  be  very  practical,  as  the 
article  of  the  chief  of  police  which  I  have  quoted  intimates.  I  remember  that 
once  a  boy,  who  was  convicted  of  breaking  a  window  in  one  of  the  cottages,  was 
sentenced  to  mend  all  the  broken  glass  in  the  entire  city,  while  another,  found 
annoying  ‘‘  Nannie,”  the  goat,  who  is  tethered  on  the  campus,  was  condemned  to 
feed  and  water  her  for  a  month. 

The  cottages  vary  greatly  in  size  and  appearance.  The  smallest  are  about  4  by  6 
feet  square.  Others  are  considerably  larger,  and  some  of  the  more  ambitious  have 
a  bay  window  or  an  L.  They  are  furnished  according  to  the  taste  and  means  of 
the  owners.  A  favorite  way  of  finishing  the  interior  is  to  line  the  walls  with 
cheap  cretonne  of  a  bright  pattern,  which  is  bought  by  the  superintendent  in  a 
quantity  which  admits  of  it  being  sold  to  the  boys  at  a  price  within  their  means. 
Pictures  and  ornaments  adorn  the  walls,  and  nearly  all  the  boys  have  a  collection 
of  books,  which  are  moved  into  the  cottages  early  in  the  spring  and  kept  there 
until  the  coming  of  winter  makes  it  advisable  to  bring  them  back  to  the  main 
building.  The  municipality  itself  also  has  a  library  of  300  volumes,  given  it  by 
various  friends.  These  books  are  kept  in  the  city  half  The  librarian  is  appointed 
by  the  mayor.  He  has  certain  regular  hours  when  he  is  at  the  hall  to  give  out 
books  and  receive  those  returned,  and  the  library,  like  that  of  the  school  itself,  is 
very  freely  used.  Furniture  in  the  cottages  depends  very  largely  on  circum¬ 
stances.  Every  chair  and  table  which  is  discarded  from  the  main  building  is 
quickly  snapped  up.  Some  articles  the  boys  can  make  for  themselves',  and  their 
eyes  are  always  open  for  others.  I  remember  that  once  the  frame  of  a  couch  came 
ashore  on  the  beach  with  other  driftwood.  The  boy  who  saw  it  first  obtained  per¬ 
mission  to  go  and  get  it  and  covered  it  with  excelsior  and  cretonne.  Its  possession 
in  his  cottage  for  a  time  made  him  the  aristocrat  of  the  town. 

The  first  days  of  spring  always  see  repairs  begun  all  along  the  street,  and  requi¬ 
sitions  for  boards,  paints,  shingles,  and  materials  of  all  kinds  flood  the  superin¬ 
tendent’s  desk.  Each  cottage  is  surrounded  by  a  plot  of  ground,  and  much  taste 
is  displayed  in  laying  out  these  lawns  with  grass  and  flowers.  The  city  hall  has  a 
lofty  flagstaff  and  a  good  flag  and  several  of  the  cottages  have  shorter  staffs  and 
smaller  flags.  One  winter  while  I  was  there  when  property  was  low,  two  boys 
who  were  both  good  carpenters  bought  a  small  run-down  cottage  as  a  speculation. 
When  it  came  spring,  they  repaired  it  thoroughly  and  painted  it.  Then  they 
advertised  it  to  be  sold  at  auction,  held  the  sale,  though  neither  of  them  had  ever 
been  at  an  auction  in  his  life,  and  cleared  $2.50  by  the  deal. 

As  I  remember  now,  I  should  say  that  the  value  of  the  shares  in  the  different 
cottages  varies  from  about  60  cents  each  to  $1.10.  Of  course,  a  boy  who  has  no 
money  can  not  buy  stock,  but  if  he  has  money  he  can  make  any  trade  which  seems 


248 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  him  desirable.  The  shares  bought,  he  draws  his  check  for  the  amount,  and  the 
seller  deposits  this  check  to  the  credit  of  his  account.  In  this  practice  in  banking, 
in  the  management  of  real  estate,  and  the  learning  to  adjust  prices  to  values  and 
in  the  conduct  of  the  city  government,  I  think  these  young  voters  of  Cottage  row 
become  better  versed  in  the  duties  of  citizenship  than  many  adults  ever  do. 

N  o  account  of  the  farm  school  would  be  complete  which  did  not  give  a  fuller 
description  of  the  farm  itself  than  I  have  yet  done  in  this  article,  since  that  branch 
of  the  industrial  work  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  foundation  of  the  system.  In 
the  157  acres  comprised  in  the  area  of  the  island  there  is  practically  no  land  that 
is  not  available  for  grazing  and  used  for  one  or  other  of  these  purposes.  It  is  the 
rule  that  the  work  of  each  boy  for  the  first  six  months  he  is  at  the  school  shall  be 
on  the  farm.  In  many  cases  the  pupil  remains  longer  on  the  farm,  or  is  detailed 
to  that  work  again.  Visitors  to  the  school  almost  always  comment  upon  the 
rugged,  healthy  appearance  of  the  pupils.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  good  health 
which  they  enjoy  and  the  sound  constitutions  which  most  of  them  seem  to  possess 
are  in  no  small  measure  due  to  the  healthy  outdoor  work.  While  there  is  no 
intention  of  making  farmers  of  the  boys,  unless  they  develop  a  special  fitness  for 
it,  many  have  been  influenced  by  their  early  training  at  the  school  to  follow  farm¬ 
ing  as  a  means  of  earning  a  living.  There  is  a  large  orchard  of  apple  and  pear 
trees  upon  the  island  and  a  garden  of  generous  proportions  furnishes  an  ample 
supply  of  fresh  vegetables  in  their  season  and  to  store  for  winter.  The  farm  pro¬ 
duces  all  the  potatoes  and  vegetables  for  the  entire  establishment.  A  herd  of 
25  good  cows  supplies  all  the  milk  needed.  The  yearly  crop  of  hay  is  about 
100  tons. 

At  least  a  bare  mention  must  be  made  of  three  other  important  features  of  the 
school:  The  excellent  library,  now  numbering  over  a  thousand  volumes,  all  stand¬ 
ard  books,  many  of  them  given  by  friends  of  the  school  and  all  very  freely  used 
by  the  boys;  the  great  flower  garden,  in  which  each  boy  has  his  own  individual 
garden  to  care  for,  and  the  military  vacation  camp  for  the  boys,  established  in 
1898  on  Oak  Knoll,  one 'of  the  most  beautiful  parts  of  the  island. 

For  nearly  half  a  century  the  Farm  School  Band  has  been  in  existence  and  has 
been  a  helpful  and  pleasant  feature  of  the  school.  This  band  was  organized  in 
1857-53,  such  few  instruments  as  were  then  available  being  used.  The  next  year 
a  set  of  second-hand  instruments  was  hired.  Later  a  set  of  first-class  instruments 
was  bought,  and  these  have  been  replaced  as  occasion  required  and  added  to  at 
times  by  gifts  until  the  organization  is  now  very  well  equipped.  The  band  numbers 
from  25  to  30  pieces,  and  a  supplementary  organization  of  the  same  number  of 
younger  boys  is  maintained  from  which  players  are  promoted  to  fill  the  vacancy 
in  the  band  proper  made  by  one  of  the  older  boys  leaving  the  school.  The  boys 
practice  in  their  playtime,  except  when  they  are  sometimes  drilled  in  the  evening 
by  one  of  their  number,  or  when  once  a  week,  except  in  the  winter  months,  a 
competent  instructor  from  the  city  comes  down  to  drill  them.  They  take  a  great 
deal  of  pleasure  in  the  work,  and  it  is  seldom  during  the  daylight  hours  that  the 
tooting  of  one  or  more  horns  in  practice  is  not  to  be  heard  coming  from  the  gym¬ 
nasium.  Some  of  the  boys  develop  decided  musical  talent.  Many  continue  to 
play  in  bands  after  they  leave  the  school  as  a  means  of  adding  to  their  income, 
and  several  have  followed  music  as  a  profession  and  achieved  success.  The  band 
has  frequently  gone  to  Boston  to  give  its  assistance  to  various  undertakings.  It 
has  played  in  Tremont  Temple,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Peace  Jubilee,  in  1872, 
was  invited  to  join  the  orchestra  there,  playing  beside  noted  bands  from  all  over 
the  world.  The  band  has  been  occasionally  asked  to  play  at  the  Soldiers’  Home 
at  Chelsea  for  the  veterans  there,  and  for  the  last  two  years  has  played  on  Deco¬ 
ration  Day  for  Thomas  G.  Stephenson  Post  26,  G.  A.  R.,  of  Roxbury. 

The  question  is  sometimes  asked,  ‘  ‘  How  can  Thompsons  Island  be  reached  from 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


249 


the  mainland?”  There  is  no  regular  public  means  of  communication.  Once  a 
month,  from  May  to  October,  one  of  the  boats  of  the  Nantasket  Line  stops  at  the 
school  wharf  on  its  way  down  the  harbor,  and  stops  again  later  in  the  day  on  one 
of  its  return  trips.  This  enables  the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  boys  to  come  and 
see  them.  These  days  are  known  as  visiting  days,  and  the  date  and  hours  are 
announced  by  cards,  which  are  printed  at  the  school  and  which  the  boys  send  to 
whomever  they  wish.  For  all  other  visits  to  island  it  is  necessary  to  arrange  with 
the  superintendent.  The  school  has  its  own  steam  launch,  knockabout,  and  sev¬ 
eral  rowboats,  ranging  in  size  from  a  stout  ten-oared  boat  down  to  one  which  one 
boy  can  row.  A  capacious  scow,  towed  by  the  steamer,  is  used  for  handling 
freight.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  the  steamer  is  used  for  crossing  ;  but  in  pleasant 
weather  one  or  more  boys  frequently  cross  in  rowboats  to  carry  passengers  and 
light  freight,  or  to  do  errands.  The  older  boys  are  thoroughly  trained  in  the 
handling  of  boats  of  all  kinds. 

In  the  terrible  storm  of  November,  1898,  the  island  and  school  suffered  severely. 
Four  large  schooners  which  dragged  their  anchors  at  their  moorings  between 
Thompsons  Island  and  Castle  Island  drifted  in  upon  one  another  against  the  base 
of  the  school’s  wharf.  The  last  of  these  to  come  in  greatly  damaged  the  break¬ 
water  and  wharf  and,  striking  the  school’s  steam  launch,  where  she  was  moored, 
sunk  her  and  completely  demolished  her.  The  landing  floats  wTere  carried  away, 
three  valuable  rowboats  were  crushed,  and  much  other  serious  damage  was  done, 
especially  to  the  dikes  which  protect  the  low  land  of  the  island  from  the  salt  water. 
By  the  generosity  of  friends  of  the  school  the  steamer  and  rowboats  have  been 
replaced.  It  has  been  a  pleasant  fancy,  suggested  perhaps  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
early  pilgrims  to  this  island,  to  give  the  boats  names  suggestive  of  that  event. 
The  steamer,  the  largest  boat,  is  named  the  Pilgrim .  The  rowboats  are  respec¬ 
tively  Mary  Chilton,  Priscilla,  Brewster,  Standish,  and  Bradford,  while  the  freight 
barge  bears  the  name  of  sturdy  John  Alden. 

The  value  of  an  undertaking  is  measured  by  its  results.  Since  the  farm  school 
has  been  in  existence  it  has  cared  for  1,800  boys.  Most  of  these  have  grown  to 
make  good  and  useful  citizens.  Some  have  achieved  well-earned  distinction.  If 
the  parent  who  raises  up  one  good  son  is  said  to  have  done  his  country  a  service 
worthy  of  commendation,  surely  credit  is  due  an  organization  which  has  sustained 
a  parental  relation  to  so  many  sons. 

SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  question  of  discipline  in  school,  notably  during  the  time  of  ado¬ 
lescence,  has  always  been  a  difficult  one  to  solve.  Says  Prof.  Edward 
J.  Goodwin,  of  New  York: 

“  German  children  are  trained  to  submit  to  authority,  but  our  boys  must  be 
taught  to  govern  themselves.  The  former  are  to  be  subjects  of  a  monarch,  the 
latter  are  to  participate  in  the  government  of  a  free  state.  This  difference  in  the 
purposes  of  school  government  involves  a  corresponding  dissimilarity  in  methods 
of  discipline.  In  the  one  country  the  control  of  the  school  is  direct,  absolute,  and 
sometimes  severe;  in  the  other  the  teacher  constantly  appeals  to  the  reason  of  both 
pupils  and  parents,  and  exercises  strict  authority  under  the  law  only  as  a  last 
resort.  To  bring  a  school  under  effective  control  by  methods  that  command  the 
assent  of  reasonable  and  liberty-loving  pupils  is  just  as  difficult,  and  quite  as  essen¬ 
tial,  as  to  give  skillful  instruction  in  the  several  subjects  of  study.  Our  boys,  as 
we  believe,  must  have  a  definite  degree  of  freedom  of  action,  the  larger  the  better 
so  long  as  the  proper  work  of  the  school  is  not  interfered  with.” 

This  problem  seems  to  have  been  solved  in  Chicago  by  the  novel 
device  of  changing  the  school  into  a  self-governing  body.  Prof.  C.  W. 


250 


EDUCATION  EEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


French,  of  the  Hyde  Park  High  School,  in  Chicago,  writes  on  this 
subject  in  the  School  Review  of  January,  1898,  as  follows: 

While  the  problem  of  school  government  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
whole  range  of  school  life,  it  has  received  but  little  attention,  comparatively, 
at  the  hands  of  educators.  If  our  system  of  education  has  failed  to  reach  its 
highest  ideals  in  the  past,  our  methods  of  school  control  have  been  at  least  as  much 
to  blame  as  our  methods  of  instruction.  Teachers  have  been  so  absorbed  in  their 
efforts  to  develop  the  intellectual  life  that  they  have  too  often  neglected  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  the  motive  powers.  The  brain  has  been  taught  to  do  its  work  well,  but 
the  will,  the  supreme  endowment  of  mankind,  has  been  left  to  work  out  its  own 
salvation  or  destruction  without  direction  or  training. 

Our  free -school  system  was  organized  expressly  to  fit  the  youth  of  the  land  to 
discharge  intelligently  the  duties  of  citizenship.  It  was  believed  by  our  fore¬ 
fathers,  and  with  reason,  that  a  free  Government  could  not  be  maintained  in  its 
integrity  without  the  free  school,  which  was  accordingly  organized  and  fostered 
with  the  expectation  that  it  would  become  the  corner  stone  of  the  great  structure 
of  American  civilization. 

We  live  in  the  midst  of  democratic  institutions  under  a  representative  govern¬ 
ment,  yet  our  schools,  which  are  intended  to  fit  the  youth  of  the  land  to  partici¬ 
pate  intelligently  in  the  various  functions  of  such  institutions  and  government, 
are  essentially  undemocratic  and  are  controlled  by  a  power  which  is  nonrepre¬ 
sentative  and  in  form,  at  least,  autocratic. 

The  citizens  of  a  political  community  have  a  voice,  through  their  representatives, 
in  the  formation  and  execution  of  the  laws  by  which  they  are  governed,  but  the 
citizens  of  the  school  community — for  the  school  is  a  distinct  community  by  itself, 
with  the  interests  and  latent  possibilities,  if  not  with  all  the  functions,  of  the 
larger  community  outside— are  subjected  to  a  control  which  is  the  very  antithesis 
of  a  democratic  government.  And  yet  men  wonder  that  the  rising  generation  is 
so  poorly  fitted  to  take  up  and  discharge  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizen¬ 
ship.  How  is  it  possible  to  escape  the  conclusion  that  political  incompetency  is 
the  direct  and  logical  outcome  of  such  a  condition  of  affairs? 

It  is  to  be  noted,  further,  that  while  methods  of  school  government  are  percept¬ 
ibly  moderating  in  rigidity  and  severity  and  are  becoming  liberalized  so  as  to  give 
more  freedom  of  action  and  a  wider  range  for  the  development  of  individual  tend¬ 
encies,  the  system  itself  is  as  yet  unchanged  in  principle  and  essence.  It  is  still 
autocratic,  although  the  slave-driver’s  whip  has  given  place  to  the  gilded  scepter. 

This  state  of  things  can  not  continue.  Our  civilization  has  reached  the  point 
where  it  demands  not  the  reformation  of  the  old  system,  but  its  abolition  and  the 
adoption  of  a  radically  different  one.  Already  Great  Birnam  wood  is  coming  to 
high  Dunsinane  hill  and  Macbeth’s  reign  is  ended. 

The  attention  of  the  educational  world  is  gradually,  but  surely,  being  attracted 
to  this  problem  and  many  attempts  are  being  made  to  solve  it.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  this  article  to  describe  very  briefly  an  experiment  which  is  being  tried  in  one  of 
our  larger  high  schools  along  the  lines  of  what  has  been  called,  perhaps  unfortu¬ 
nately,  “student  control’’  and  which  has  been  accompanied  by  some  results  which 
are  interesting  and  perhaps  significant. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  object  of  this  movement  is  twofold:  to  teach  the  pupils 
to  discriminate  between  right  and  wrong  in  their  relations  to  their  mates  and  to 
the  school  and  to  develop  within  them  the  will  to  do  the  right  and  shun  the  wrong; 
in  other  words,  to  substitute  a  wise  and  intelligent  self-control  for  a  system  of 
external  government. 

In  the  main  building  of  the  school  in  which  the  experiment  is  being  tried,  more 
than  1,000  pupils,  young  men  and  women,  ranging  from  13  to  21  years  of  age,  are 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


251 


seated  in  sixteen  rooms,  including  a  large  assembly  hall.  The  remaining  400,  who 
are  seated  in  another  building,  have  not  as  yet  been  included  in  the  new  system. 

After  a  somewhat  extended  discussion  of  the  whole  subject  with  both  teachers 
and  students,  which  made  all  fairly  familiar  with  the  reasons  for  and  motives  of 
the  new  departure,  and  engaged  their  more  or  less  active  interest,  the  initial  step 
was  taken  last  May,  two  months  before  the  close  of  the  year. 

After  a  short  trial  some  changes  were  found  desirable  in  the  details  of  the  plan 
which  is  now  in  operation,  as  follows:  Each  room  elects  in  regular  form  a  repre¬ 
sentative  to  a  body,  which  is  partly  legislative  and  partly  executive  in  its  func¬ 
tions,  called  the  senate.  This  body  elects  a  president  and  secretary,  appoints  the 
necessary  committees,  and  assumes  control  of  the  order  in  the  halls,  and  of  the 
care  of  the  furniture  and  building.  It'  formulates  a  code  of  laws  and  appoints  a 
corps  of  tribunes,  to  carry  them  out.  These  laws  are  read  to  the  students  in  each 
room,  and  carefully  explained  so  that  the  reasons  for  their  adoption  and  the  meth¬ 
ods  of  their  enforcement  are  clearly  understood,  and  then  are  posted  in  conspicuous 
places.  Whenever  classes  are  passing  through  the  halls,  the  tribunes  are  stationed 
in  all  the  strategic  points  throughout  the  building  to  see  that  the  rules  are  observed. 

The  senate  also  appoints  a  court  of  three  judges,  to  whom  all  cases  of  lawbreak¬ 
ing  are  reported,  and  before  whom  the  more  serious  ones  are  tried,  with  the  cus¬ 
tomary  procedure  of  prosecution  and  defense.  The  judges,  very  wisely,  make 
their  administration  reformatory  rather  than  punitive  in  its  purposes,  and  seldom 
find  it  necessary  to  inflict  a  penalty. 

This,  in  brief,  is  the  outline  of  the  organization,  which  is  of  interest  only 
because  of  the  results  which  it  produces.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  scheme  of 
government  is  distinctly  a  representative  one,  and  that  each  pupil  can  justly  feel 
that  he  is  an  integral  part  of  the  system.  Moreover,  the  whole  body  of  the  stu 
dents,  with  very  few  exceptions,  are  intensely  loyal  to  the  idea.  They  take  pride 
in  the  recognition  of  their  rights,  and  they  also  feel  that  they  are  individually 
responsible  for  the  welfare  and  the  good  name  of  the  school.  As  a  result  of  this 
the  old  spirit  of  a  forced  submission  to  authority  is  passing  away,  and  in  its  place 
is  coming  a  voluntary  submission  to  the  general  rules  of  good  behavior  as 
embodied  in  the  laws  which  they  themselves  have  made  and  adopted;  and  it  is 
especially  interesting  to  observe  that  these  laws  are  stricter  than  those  under 
which  they  lived  during  the  old  regime. 

When  the  experiment  was  begun,  the  senate  was  told  explicitly,  that  for  two 
months  the  designated  functions  of  the  school  would  be  put  unreservedly  into  their 
hands,  and  that  neither  principal  nor  teacher  would  interfere  with  their  adminis¬ 
tration,  either  to  hinder  or  to  help.  This  announcement  was  made  with  some 
hesitation,  but  it  was  determined  to  give  them  an  absolutely  fair  trial,  and  the 
result  demonstrated  the  wisdom  of  the  position. 

The  results  already  manifest  are  many  and  far-reaching.  They  penetrate  every 
function  of  school  life  and  influence  all  its  relations.  There  is  a  better  spirit  dis¬ 
played  throughout  the  school,  and  it  is  the  general  verdict  of  the  teachers  that 
never  before  has  the  control  of  the  class-rooms  been  so  easy,  and  it  is  certain  that 
the  number  of  cases  of  discipline  referred  to  the  principal  has  materially 
decreased. 

Two  important  results  are  evident  even  to  the  casual  observer.  The  first  is  that 
excellent  order  is  maintained  in  the  halls  without  any  interposition  on  the  part  of 
either  principal  or  teachers.  From  5  to  800  students  are  required  to  change  their 
rooms  at  the  end  of  each  period  and  frequently  to  go  from  the  first  to  the  second 
floor  and  the  reverse.  At  every  turn  and  on  each  of  the  landings  stands  a  serious 
and  dignified  boy  or  girl,  and  the  slightest  disorder  is  promptly  but  courteously 
checked.  There  is  no  unseemly  haste,  no  conversation  or  laughter,  but  each 
student  goes  quietly  and  promptly  to  his  appointed  room,  and  the  whole  change 
is  made  in  four  minutes  or  less. 


252 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  second  result  is  to  be  noted  in  the  change  of  disposition.  Under  the  old 
regime,  the  absence  of  a  teacher  from  his  post  removed  all  visible  restraint  and 
frequently  resulted  in  an  outbreak  of  conversation  and  laughter,  and  by  some  it 
was  even  considered  quite  proper  to  evade  the  watchfulness  of  the  teacher  and  to 
indulge  in  forbidden  pleasures.  The  very  fact  that  an  arbitrary  restraint  is 
imposed  upon  a  person  by  a  superior  authority,  even  though  its  reasonableness  is 
recognized,  will  frequently  arouse  antagonism  and  inspire  a  spirit  of  rebellion. 
Under  the  new  regime  this  attitude  of  mind  is  disappearing.  There  seems  to  be 
no  difference  in  the  general  conduct,  even  if  no  tribune  is  in  sight,  and  I  believe 
that  the  present  order  would  be  maintained,  at  least  for  a  time,  even  if  the  whole 
corps  of  tribunes  should  be  withdrawn.  They  can  hardly  be  dispensed  with,  how¬ 
ever,  because  they  stand  as  representatives  of  the  student  body  and  are  symbols 
of  its  authority.  Their  presence  gives  a  new  dignity  to  school  citizenship  and  is 
a  constant  inspiration  to  every  one  who  passes  by. 

One  question  which  was  seriously  discussed  and  which  many  feared  would  prove 
an  obstacle  to  the  success  of  a  new  system,  related  to  the  attitude  of  a  student 
towards  an  offender.  Under  a  system  of  self-government  would  he  be  willing  to 
give  information  which  should  lead  to  the  discovery  of  a  law  breaker,  when  that 
information  should  be  given  to  the  officers  whom  he  himself  had  helped  to  con¬ 
stitute?  It  was  finally  decided  not  to  define  an  issue  on  this  point,  nor  even  to 
require  the  students  to  commit  themselves  in  advance,  but  to  keep  still  and  let 
the  matter  take  care  of  itself.  And  it  has  been  observed  with  interest  that,  up 
to  the  present  time,  no  student  has  refused  to  give  his  testimony  in  any  case 
where  the  integrity-  of  his  institution  was  at  stake.  In  general,  such  evidence 
has  been  given  in  a  manly  and  womanly  way,  and  no  stigma  has  attached  to  the 
witness.  If  this  state  of  affairs  becomes  permanent,  it  will  prove  a  strong  argu¬ 
ment  in  behalf  of  the  system. 

Of  course,  the  adoption  of  this  system  does  not  constitute  the  desired  revolution, 
but  it  must  be  expanded  and  adapted  to  meet  all  the  contingencies  of  school  life, 
and  still  further  experiments  are  being  continuously  tried.  The  next  step  has  been 
taken  in  connection  with  the  senior  class,  who  sit  together  in  the  assembly  hall 
and  number  about  225.  They  have  been  selected  both  because  they  are  the  most 
serious  and  mature  students  in  the  school,  and  because  an  exceptional  opportunity 
for  the  development  of  this  system  is  offered  by  the  fact  that  they  sit  together  in 
one  room. 

It  is  impossible  as  yet  to  speak  definitely  of  results.  The  chief  features  of  the 
organization  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  extracts  from  the  constitution, 
which  was  drawn  up  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  class: 

PREAMBLE. 

We,  the  students  of  the  Hyde  Park  High  School  sitting  in  the  assembly  hall,  in 
order  that  we  may  secure  training  in  free  government,  develop  our  powers  of 
self-control,  and  more  fully  know  our  relations  as  individuals  to  society,  do  adopt 
and  ordain  this  constitution  as  a  basis  for  the  student  government  of  the  assembly 
hall. 

Article  I. — Legislative. 

Sec.  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  house  of  repre¬ 
sentatives  under  such  restrictions  as  are  herein  made. 

Sec.  2.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  be  composed  of  representatives  elected, 
one  from  each  district,  for  a  term  of  twelve  school  weeks,  except  as  provided  in 
section  3  of  this  article. 

******  * 

Sec.  7.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  convene  at  2.15  o’clock  on  the  first 
Monday  after  the  election  of  its  first  members,  and  every  second  Monday  there¬ 
after,  and  may  continue  in  session  as  business  may  require. 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


253 


Sec.  8.  Special  sessions  may  be  held  at  the  call  of  the  president  of  assembly  hall. 

*  *  -x-  *  -x-  *  * 

Sec.  10.  Clause  1.  The  house  of  representatives  may  provide  that  any  bill,  reso¬ 
lution,  order,  or  other  enactment  which  it  may  pass  shall  be  submitted  to  a  popular 
vote  of  the  students  for  approval  or  rejection,  and  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast 
concerning  such  measure  shall  determine  the  result. 

Clause  2.  If  any  measure  so  submitted  shall  be  approved  by  the  students  it 
shall  take  effect  as  provided,  but  if  any  measure  so  submitted  shall  not  be  approved 
by  the  students  it  shall  not  have  any  force. 

Clause  3.  If  within  three  school  days  after  the  passage  of  any  bill,  resolution, 
order,  or  other  enactment  50  students  shall  petition  that  such  measure  be  sub¬ 
mitted  to  a  popular  vote  it  shall  be  so  submitted. 

Clause  4.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  provide  for  executing  the  provisions 
of  this  section. 

Sec.  11.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  elect  a  clerk  from  the  students  of 
the  assembly  hall  not  members  of  itself,  who  shall  serve  for  six  school  weeks  and 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  house  of  repre¬ 
sentatives,  to  safely  keep  all  records  and  documents  belonging  to  the  student  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  assembly  hall,  and  to  file  all  laws  and  other  enactments  in  an 
orderly  manner. 

Sec.  12.  The  house  of  representatives  shall  have  power  to  organize  its  own 
committees  and  make  its  own  rules;  to  compel  the  attendance  and  good  behavior 
of  its  members  by  such  rules  and  penalties  as  it  may  choose  to  adopt;  to  expel,  by 
a  two-thirds  vote  of  its  members,  any  representative  whom  it  may  deem  to  have 
proven  unworthy  of  the  office;  to  define  and  provide  a  penalty  for  all  offenses 
against  the  students  of  the  assembly  hall;  to  provide  for  the  general  order  and 
interests  of  the  assembly  hall;  to  make  such  laws  and  provisions  as  shall  be  neces¬ 
sary  for  exercising  the  powers  herein  granted,  and  for  applying  all  other  powers 
and  provisions  vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  student  government  of  the  assem¬ 
bly  hall  or  any  department  or  officer  thereof;  to  create  and  name  such  executive 
officers,  subordinate  to  those  herein  provided  for,  as  it  may  deem  necessary;  to 
organize  them  and  provide  for  their  regulation;  to  make  laws  for  regulating  the 
elections  and  determining  the  public  will;  to  provide  for  the  regulation  of  the 
board  of  chancellors,  and  for  the  procedure  in  all  trials  before  it. 

*  *  *  *  *  *  * 

Article  II. — Executive. 

Sec.  1.  The  executive  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  president,  a 
supervisor  of  wardens,  and  a  prosecuting  attorney. 

Sec.  2.  The  president  shall  be  elected  by  popular  vote  from  the  students  of  the 
assembly  hall  for  a  term  of  eighteen  school  weeks. 

Sec.  8.  Clause  1.  The  president  shall  preside  over  the  sessions  of  the  house  of 
representatives. 

Clause  2.  He  shall  have  the  general  supervision  of  the  executive  department  and 
shall  see  that  the  laws  are  faithfully  enforced. 

Clause  3.  He  shall  have  power  to  nominate,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  house  of 
representatives,  to  appoint  the  members  of  the  board  of  chancellors,  the  supervisor 
of  wardens,  the  prosecuting  attorney,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  student  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  assembly  hall  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,  and  who  shall  be  established  by  law;  but  the  house  of  representatives  may 
vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  it  may  think  best,  in  the  president 
alone,  in  the  board  of  chancellors,  or  in  the  head  of  any  department. 

-x-  -x-  *  -x-  *  *  * 

Clause  5.  He  shall  have  power  to  remove  from  office  for  incompetency  or  neglect 
of  duty  the  supervisors  of  wardens,  the  prosecuting  attorney,  or  any  officer  of  his 
appointment,  except  the  members  of  the  board  of  chancellors  whose  removal  is  not 
otherwise  provided  for. 

Sec.  4.  Clause  1.  The  president  or  any  member  of  the  board  of  chancellors  shall 
be  subject  to  impeachment,  by  any  twenty-five  students  sitting  in  the  assembly 
hall,  for  neglect  of  duty  or  violation  of  the  trust  conferred  in  him. 

******* 

Sec.  5.  Clause  1.  The  supervisor  of  wardens  shall  be  appointed  by  the  president, 
and  shall  hold  office  during  good  behavior  and  the  term  of  the  president. 

Clause  2.  It  shall  be  his  duty,  with  the  assistance  of  his  subordinates,  to  enforce 
the  laws;  to  apprehend  offenders  and  bring  them  to  trial  before  the  board  of  chan¬ 
cellors;  to  assist  in  the  collection  of  evidence  and  otherwise  promote  the  prosecu- 


254 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


tion  of  offenders  as  the  prosecuting  attorney  may  require;  to  execute  such  provisions 
as  may  be  made  for  the  general  order  and  welfare  of  the  assembly  hall. 

Sec.  6.  Clause  1. — The  prosecuting  attorney  shall  be  appointed  by  the  president, 
and  shall  hold  office  during  good  behavior,  and  the  term  of  the  president. 

Clause  2. — It  shall  be  his  duty  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  students  of  the 
assembly  hall  in  all  cases  before  the  board  of  chancellors,  to  see  that  all  appre¬ 
hended  offenders  are  prosecuted,  to  execute  any  provisions,  orders,  or  instructions 
which  the  house  of  representatives  may  intrust  to  him. 

Article  III. — Judicial. 

Sec.  1.  The  judicial  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  board  of  chancel¬ 
lors,  which  shall  consist  of  five  members,  appointed  by  the  president. 

Sec.  2.  Each  member  of  the  board  of  chancellors  shall  hold  office  during  his 
good  behavior. 

Sec.  3.  Three  members  of  the  board  of  chancellors  shall  sit  at  each  and  every 
judicial  session  as  a  court  to  try  and  determine  all  cases  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
this  government. 

Sec.  4.  The  member  first  appointed  to  the  board  of  chancellors  by  the  president 
as  herein  provided,  shall  be  the  presiding  chancellor,  and  shall  sit  at  all  sessions  of 
the  board. 

Sec,  5.  Two  members  of  the  board  of  chancellors  shall  sit  at  each  session  of  the 
board  as  associate  chancellors. 

Sec.  6.  The  sittings  of  the  associate  chancellors  at  the  sessions  of  the  board  of 
chancellors  shall  be  so  apportioned  by  law,  that  no  associate  chancellor  shall  sit 
at  more  than  two  consecutive  sessions.  *  *  * 

After  quoting  some  editorials  of  the  students’  own  paper,  the  White 
and  Blue,  which  reflect  the  sentiments  of  the  school,  he  concludes  by 
saying: 

In  conclusion  it  only  remains  to  be  said  that  this  experiment  was  undertaken 
with  much  doubt  and  with  some  hesitation,  but  with  the  firm  conviction  that 
some  system  of  the  kind  must  be  adopted  in  the  near  future.  The  results,  how¬ 
ever,  have  far  exceeded  our  expectations,  if  not  our  hopes,  and  the  belief  that  the 
new  departure,  when  wisely  organized  and  fully  developed,  would  work  an 
important  revolution  in  school  life,  has  become  almost  a  certainty. 

Similar  to  the  Junior  Republic  is  the  School  State  at  Ellicott  City, 
Md.  The  subjoined  constitution  of  that  state  will  explain  its  objects 
and  mode  of  management.  The  principal,  Mr.  J.  M.  Gambrill,  offers 
the  following  word  of  explanation : 

The  system  of  pupil  government  known  as  the  “School  State”  was  introduced 
in  the  Ellicott  City  schools  early  in  the  school  3rear  1900-1901.  It  was  adopted 
with  the  sole  idea  of  improving  the  tone  of  the  schools,  of  training  in  the  power 
of  self-government,  and  of  imparting  a  practical  knowledge  of  civil  government, 
though  it  seems  to  have  attracted  not  a  little  notice  from  the  public. 

The  idea  of  pupil  government  is  thoroughly  in  harmony  with  the  principles  of 
the  “new  education.”  Spencer  declares,  in  his  great  classics,  that  the  object  of 
discipline  is  to  make  a  self-governing  being,  not  a  being  to  be  governed  by  others. 
No  very  profound  knowledge  of  ethics  or  human  nature  is  required  to  perceive 
that  permanent  effects  on  the  character  must  be  wrought  through  impressions  on 
the  will  of  the  subject  ahd  the  exercise  of  his  own  self-activity. 

The  School  State  is  the  most  complete  and  fully  organized  system  of  pupil  gov¬ 
ernment,  so  far  as  the  author's  knowledge  extends.  The  origin  of  the  movement 
is  accredited  to  Principal  John  T.  Ray,  of  Chicago.  His  plan  consists  in  the 
appointment  of  class  officers  called  tribunes,  who  perform  a  good  many  of  the 
duties  usually  assumed  by  the  teacher.  There  is  also  a  “senate  government,” 
and  a  form  known  as  the  “  school  city,”  which  latter  approaches  more  nearly  than 
any  other  to  the  School  State.  So  far  as  the  writer  knows,  no  system  of  pupil 
government  has  heretofore  been  adopted  in  Maryland. 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


255 


During  the  recent  (School  State)  administration  of  Governor  J.  Clifton  Har¬ 
mon  arrangements  were  made  for  the  codification  of  the  laws,  the  work  being 
done  by  Charles  Alfred  Shreeve,  formerly  attorney-general.  The  principal  was 
requested  to  make  arrangements  for  the  publication  of  the  constitution  and  code, 
which  are  now  issued  with  the  twofold  hope  that  they  may  aid  and  simplify  the 
workings  of  the  School  State,  and  tend  to  perpetuate  its  existence. 

J.  M.  Gambrxll,  Principal. 

Constitution  of  the  School  State,  at  Ellicott  City,  Md.  Adopted  Decem¬ 
ber  17,  1900.  Amended  March  6,  1901,  Amended  May  17,  1901. 

article  i. 

Sec.  1.  The/ purpose  of  this  constitution  is  to  organize  the  Ellicott  City  public 
schools  as  a  School  State.  When  agreed  to  by  the  teachers  and  three-fourths  of 
the  pupils  it  shall  be  adopted  by  the  departments  so  voting.  The  details  of  such 
voting,  and  of  all  elections,  shall  be  under  the  direction  of  the  principal. 

Sec.  2.  As  far  as  practicable  the  constitution  of  Maryland  shall  be  the  standard 
in  all  cases  not  otherwise  provided  for  in  this  instrument  or  by  law;  and,  as  far 
as  practicable,  the  several  departments  of  government  shall  be  guided  in  the  con¬ 
duct  of  business  by  the  laws  and  customs  which  obtain  in  the  corresponding 
departments  of  the  government  of  Maryland;  and  of  the  practicability  the  princi¬ 
pal  shall  be  the  judge. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Sec,  1.  All  officers  shall  serve  for  a  term  of  two  months  and  until  their  succes¬ 
sors  are  elected  and  qualified;  and  terms  of  office  shall  begin  on  the  second  Mon¬ 
day,  or  the  next  school  day  thereafter,  of  alternate  months. 

Sec.  2.  The  qualifications  of  all  officers  shall  be  a  standing  of  90  per  cent  in 
deportment  and  75  per  cent  in  scholarship.  If  any  officer  shall  fall  below  this 
record  after  his  election,  for  two  consecutive  weeks,  he  shall  be  thereby  disquali¬ 
fied  and  the  vacancy  filled  according  to  law. 

Sec.  3.  Any  officer  who  shall  be  twice  convicted  of  breaking  the  laws  of  the 
School  State  shall  be  thereby  disqualified  for  the  remainder  of  the  term  for  which 
he  was  elected  or  appointed,  and  the  vacancy  filled  according  to  law;  and  if,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  court,  the  crime  is  of  a  specially  culpable  nature,  then  the 
offending  officer  may  be  declared  removed  by  the  court  for  the  first  offiense. 

Sec.  4.  Each  officer  shall  qualify  by  taking  an  oath  of  office  in  the  manner  pre¬ 
scribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Sec.  1.  The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  School  State  shall  be  a  governor,  who 
shall  always  be  elected  from  the  high  school  department. 

Sec.  2.  In  the  absence  of  the  governor  his  powers  and  duties  shall  devolve  upon 
the  president  of  the  senate,  the  speaker  of  the  assembly,  and  the  attorney-general 
in  the  order  named. 

Sec,  3.  The  two  upper  departments  only  shall  vote  for  governor. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Sec.  1.  The  governor  shall  appoint,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
senate,  a  secretary  of  state.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  of  state  to  attend 
all  meetings  of  the  general  assembly  and  of  the  senate,  to  keep  a  record  of  the 
attendance  of  the  members  and  of  all  proceedings,  and  to  record  the  yea-and-nay 
votes  of  the  members;  to  have  the  custody  of  the  great  seal  of  the  School  State, 
and  to  preserve  the  official  copies  of  all  laws. 

Sec.  2,  As  soon  as  possible  after  its  organization  each  general  assembly  shall 
elect  a  state  treasurer. 

Sec.  3.  An  attorney-general  shall  be  elected  by  the  high  school  department,  and 
a  state's  attorney  shall  be  elected  from  the  high  school  and  one  from  the  grammar 
school  department.  If  possible,  they  must  be  persons  who  have  been  admitted  to 
the  practice  of  law  in  the  School  State.  They  shall  prosecute  all  cases  for  the  state 
and  may  grant  a  nolle  prosequi  in  any  case  with  the  consent  of  the  court. 

Sec.  4.  A  clerk  of  the  courts  and  deputy  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate.  The  clerk  (or  deputy)  shall  keep 
a  record  of  the  proceedings  and  testimony  given  in  the  circuit  court,  and  shall 
also  act  as  clerk  of  the  court  of  appeals. 


256 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Sec.  5.  A  sheriff  shall  be  elected  by  the  pupils  of  the  two  upper  departments,  and 
the  chief  of  police  and  the  first  two  sergeants  shall  be  deputy  sheriffs  in  the  order 
named.  It  shall  be  his  duty  to  serve  (personally  or  by  deputy)  all  writs  issued  by 
the  courts.  The  governor  shall  appoint  a  chief  of  police  and  four  sergeants  with 
necessary  patrolmen.  These  officers  must  see  that  the  laws  of  the  School  State  are 
obeyed  at  all  times,  and  report  to  their  chief  or  to  the  sheriff  all  offenders.  The 
sheriff  shall  instruct  and  supervise  the  police  in  their  duties  and  see  that  the  said 
duties  are  performed,  and  shall  report  all  offenders  against  the  laws  of  the  state 
to  the  attorney-general  and  state’s  attorney.  Neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the 
sheriff  or  police  shall  be  punished  as  the  assembly  shall  decide  by  law,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  such  legislation,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  6.  Lawyers,  in  order  to  practice  in  the  School  State,  must  pass  a  satisfac¬ 
tory  examination  given  by  the  principal,  and  possess  a  certificate  of  the  same.  All 
such  certificates  shall  be  registered  by  the  clerk  of  the  court. 

article  y. 

Sec.  1.  The  legislative  powers  of  the  School  State  shall  be  vested  in  a  general 
assembly.  The  several  departments  shall  be  entitled  to  representation  as  follows: 
High  school  department,  1  member  from  each  class  and  4  at  large;  grammar  school 
department,  1  member  from  each  class  and  2  at  large;  intermediate  department, 
2  at  large;  primary  department,  1  member  at  large;  by  all  the  departments,  1 
teacher. 

Sec.  2.  At  the  first  meeting  of  every  assembly  a  speaker  shall  be  elected.  The 
assembly  shall  meet  regularly  every  Friday  (that  is  a  school  day)  and  may  meet 
more  frequently  if  necessary  for  the  transaction  of  business. 

Sec.  3.  The  members  from  the  high  school  department  shall  constitute  a  senate. 
They  shall  elect  one  of  their  number  president  and  shall  have  power  to  legislate 
on  subjects  pertaining  exclusively  to  the  high  school  department.  The  senate 
may  be  convened  by  its  president  at  any  time. 

Sec.  4.  When  a  bill  shall  have  passed  the  general  assembly  in  the  manner  pre¬ 
scribed  by  law,  it  shall  be  sealed  with  the  great  seal  and  transmitted  to  the  gov¬ 
ernor  for  his  approval  by  the  secretary  of  state.  If  the  governor  approve  the  bill 
he  shall  sign  it  in  the  presence  of  the  speaker  of  the  assembly,  the  president  of  the 
senate,  and  the  secretary  of  state,  or  any  two  of  them;  the  bill  shall  then  be  a  law. 
If  the  governor  disapprove  of  the  bill  he  shall  return  it  to  the  general  assembly 
within  three  days,  with  his  objections,  or  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  general  assem¬ 
bly,  if  there  be  no  meeting  within  three  days.  The  bill  when  returned  shall  again 
be  voted  upon,  and  if  three-fifths  of  the  members  vote  in  its  favor  it  shall  become 
a  law.  If  the  governor  retains  a  bill  more  than  three  days  it  shall  become  a  law 
the  same  as  if  he  signed  it. 

Sec.  6.  The  sheriff  or  deputies  shall  read  every  law  immediately  after  its  final 
passage  and  upon  the  order  of  the  secretary  of  state,  in  each  department,  and  no 
citizen  shall  be  liable  to  any  penalty  for  violating  a  law  until  after  such  reading, 

ARTICLE  VI. 

Sec.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  circuit  court  and  a  court  of 
appeals.  The  members  of  the  circuit  court  must,  if  possible,  be  persons  who  have 
been  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law  in  the  School  State. 

Sec.  2.  The  circuit  court  shall  be  composed  of  three  judges  elected  from  the 
high  school  department,  two  from  the  grammar  school  department,  and  one 
teacher  elected  by  both. 

Sec.  3.  The  circuit  court  shall  have  jurisdiction  over  all  cases  arising  under  the 
laws  of  the  School  State,  unless  otherwise  provided  by  law.  It  may  call  accused 
persons  and  witnesses  before  it,  and  in  the  absence  of  legislation  may  punish  con¬ 
tempt  in  its  discretion. 

Sec.  4.  The  principal  shall  be,  ex  officio,  a  court  of  appeals.  An  appeal  may  be 
taken  to  this  court  in  any  case,  but  if  the  decision  of  the  circuit  court  is  sustained 
the  accused  is  liable  for  extra  penalty,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  5.  The  judges  of  the  circuit  court  shall  elect  at  their  first  meeting  one  of 
their  number  to  be  chief  judge.  The  chief  judge  shall  then  name  one  of  the  asso¬ 
ciate  judges  to  preside  in  his  absence. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

Sec.  1.  Bills  of  indictment  shall  be  drawn  by  the  attorney-general  or  a  state's 
attorney.  The  attorney-general  or  a  state’s  attorney  shall  then  ask  the  court  to 
summon  the  accused  person  and  the  witnesses  before  it  and  try  the  case. 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


257 


ARTICLE  VIII. 

Sec.  1.  The  governor  must  not  practice  law  by  acting  as  counsel  in  any  case  while- 
in  office.  Judges  of  the  circuit  court  can  not  plead  before  that  court  in  any  case- 
while  in  office . 

Sec.  2.  No  person  shall  hold  more  than  one  office  under  the  School  State,  but  no¬ 
person  shall  be  exempt  from  police  duty  except  the  governor,  attorneys  for  the- 
state,  and  judges. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

Sec.  1.  Inasmuch  as  the  principal  of  the  schools  is  responsible  to  the  school 
authorities  for  the  conduct  of  the  schools  it  is  expressly  understood  that  all  acts,, 
executive,  legislative,  and  judicial,  are  subject  to  his  approval. 


article  x. 

Sec.  1.  The  governor,  secretary  of  state,  treasurer,  president  of  the  senate,, 
speaker  of  the  assemply,  and  attorney-general  shall  constitute  a  board  of  public 
works.  It  shall  be  their  duty  to  hold  at  least  three  meetings  during  their  term  of 
office,  and  to  take  proper  steps  for  public  improvement  of  every  kind.  The  gov¬ 
ernor  shall  be  chairman  of  the  board,  which  shall  meet  on  his  call. 

Sec.  2.  There  shall  be  a  board  of  health  composed  of  two  members  elected  from 
the  high  school  department  and  one  from  the  grammar  school  department.  They 
shall  elect  their  chairman  and  hold  at  least  three  meetings  during  their  term  of 
office.  They  shall  take  proper  steps  for  preserving  the  health  and  promoting  the 
comfort  of  the  citizens  of  the  School  State. 

Sec.  8.  The  board  of  public  works  and  the  board  of  public  health  shall  each: 
make  a  written  report  to  the  general  assembly  and  to  the  principal  of  their  pro¬ 
ceedings.  A  secretary  to  perform  this  work  shall  be  named  by  the  chairman  at 
the  first  meeting  of  each  board. 

article  xi. 

Sec.  1.  Any  officer  may  be  removed  by  the_  governor  for  neglect  of  duty,  pro¬ 
vided  that  an  appeal  shall  lie  to  the  senate.  V/hen  such  a  case  is  tried  before  the? 
senate  the  governor  shall  present  his  reasons  for  removing  the  officer  and  prose¬ 
cute  the  case.  The  governor  may  be  impeached  and  removed  by  the  senate^ 
When  the  governor  is  on  trial  the  chief  judge  of  the  circuit  court  shall  preside, 
and  the  president  of  the  senate  shall  not  sit  in  judgment.  The  senators  shall  take 
the  judge’s  oath  before  the  trial  begins,  said  oath  to  be  administered  by  the  chief 
judge  of  the  circuit  court. 


CODE  OF  LAWS. 

An  act  adopting  and  legalizing  the  code  of  public  general  laws  of  the  School 
State,  prepared  by  C.  Alfred  Shreeve,  in  pursuance  with  a  resolution  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  assembly  (April  25, 1901)  entitled  “A  resolution  to  provide  for  a  commissioner 
to  codify  the  laws  of  the  School  State,”  and  declaring  the  same  to  be  the  “  Code  6f 
public  general  laws  of  the  School  State:  ” 

Sec.  .1,  Beit  enacted  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  School  State ,  That  the  code 
of  public  general  laws  of  the  School  State,  as  prepared  by  C.  Alfred  Shreeve  and 
submitted  to  the  general  assembly  in  pursuance  with  a  resolution  of  the  general 
assembly,  entitled  ‘:A  resolution  to  provide  for  a  commissioner  to  codify  the  laws- 
of  the  School  State,”  the  several  chapters,  articles,  and  sections  of  the  revised 
code  of  School  State  laws  (March  11,  1901),  which  are  hereby  repealed  and  reen¬ 
acted,  with  amendments  as  contained  in  the  code  of  public  general  laws  of  the 
School  State,  be,  and  the  same  are  hereby,  approved,  adopted,  and  declared  the 
code  of  public  general  laws  of  the  School  State  in  lieu  of  and  as  a  substitute  for 
the  laws  in  effect  on  the  14th  day  of  May,  A.  D.  1901. 

Sec.  2.  Be  it  f  urther  enacted,  That  this  act  take  effect  from  the  15  th  day  of  May,, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1901. 

Approved,  May  14, 1901.  J.  Clifton  Harman, 

Governor . 

[seal.]  Frank  Burton, 

Secretary  of  State. 

Approved,  May  15,  1901.  J.  Mont  Gambrill, 

Principal . 


ED  1901 


-17 


258 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 
Article  I. — Judiciary. 


Sec.  1.  The  courts  of  the  School  State  are  courts  of  law  and  equity.  The  same 
procedure  shall  be  followed  by  the  court  of  appeals  when  exercising  original  juris¬ 
diction  as  hereinafter  prescribed  to  be  followed  by  the  circuit  court  in  criminal 

cases. 

Sec.  2.  The  circuit  court  shall  convene  at  the  call  of  the  chief  judge,  or  any  three 
associate  judges,  and  proceed  with  the  trials  of  such  cases  as  the  attorney-general 
or  a  state's  attorney  may  be  ready  to  prosecute,  and  such  cases  shall  be  tried  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  attorneys  for  the  state  shall  have  notified  th6  court  of 
their  readiness  to  proceed.  Three  judges  must  be  present  to  adjudicate  a  case. 

Sec.  3.  When  the  court  shall  have  been  called  to  order  the  prisoner  (who  shall 
have  been  previously  brought  by  a  bench  warrant  upon  the  indictment)  shall  be 
arraigned— while  standing  the  indictment  against  him  being  read  by  the  clerk  and 
prisoner  pleading  guilty  or  not  guilty— and  the  plea  recorded  by  the  cierk. 

Sec.  4.  If  the  prisoner  pleads  guilty  he  shall  at  once  be  sentenced  in  the  manner 
prescribed  by  law:  Provided ,  That  the  court  may  hear  testimony  in  order  to 
determine  the  exact  nature  of  the  offense. 

Sec.  5.  If  the  prisoner  pleads  “not  guilty,”  the  trial  shall  proceed. 

Sec.  6.  Counsel  for  the  state  and  defense,  in  the  order  named,  may  make  open¬ 
ing  remarks  upon  the  line  and  character  of  testimony  to  be  presented. 

Sec.  7.  Witnesses  shall  be  called  at  the  direction  of  the  chief  judge,  or  presiding 
judge,  for  the  state  and  for  the  defense  and  for  the  rebuttal  by  the  state,  in  the 
order  named.  When  each  witness  has  given  his  testimony,  the  opposing  side  shall 
have  the  right  to  cross-question,  but  such  questions  must  be  confined  to  the  matter 
already  brought  out  in  the  witness's  testimony  or  examination  in  chief,  unless  not 
objected  to  by  the  opponent.  The  side  bringing  the  witness  may  recross-examine. 
The  court  may  rule  out  a  question  which  it  deems  irrelevant  or  improper. 

Sec.  8.  All  testimony  being  in,  the  counsel  on  each  side  (not  exceeding  two, 
except  that  the  state  closes)  may  present  the  argument  of  his  side,  the  state  having 
the  right  to  open  and  close. 

Sec.  9.  The  court  shall  then  determine  the  verdict  within  three  school  days, 
which  shall  be  announced  by  the  presiding  judge,  as  follows: 

“  In  the  case  of  the  School  State  v.  - - ,  the  verdict  is - (‘guilty’ 

or  ‘  not  guilty 

Sec.  10.  If  the  verdict  is  “not  guilty,”  the  presiding  judge  shall  dismiss  the 
prisoner;  but  if  the  verdict  is  “  guilty,”  the  presiding1  judge  shall  pronounce  the 
sentence  of  the  court— the  prisoner  standing— as  follows: 

“A  B, - ,  you  having  been  tried  before  this  court  on  a  charge  of 

- - ,  and  found  guilty,  are  sentenced - - .” 

Sec.  11.  A  record  of  every  sentence  shall  be  made  by  the  clerk,  signed  by  the 
presiding  judge,  and  transmitted  to  the  teacher  having  charge  of  the  prisoner;  by 
said  teacher  the  sentence  shall  be  executed. 

Sec.  12.  Every  witness,  before  testifying  before  any  court  or  judicial  body,  shall, 
with  uplifted  right  hand,  distinctly  answer  the  following  question  in  the  affirma¬ 
tive  before  being  permitted  to  testify : 

“  Do  you,  in  your  testimony  before  this  court,  promise  faithfully  to  speak  the 
truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth?  ” 

Sec.  13.  Any  person  who  shall  testify  before  any  court  or  judicial  body,  under 
the  oath  prescribed  by  law,  and  who  shall  be  convicted  of  making  false  statements, 
shall  be  guilty  of  perjury.  The  penalty  shall  be  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  14.  The  clerk  of  the  court  shall  issue  subpoena  in  the  form  prescribed  by 
law,  directing  witnesses  to  appear  before  the  court  when  requested  by  the  attorney- 
general,  a  state's  attorney,  the  defendant,  or  the  counsel  for  the  defendant. 

Sec.  15.  Any  citizen  failing  to  obey  a  subpoena  or  any  other  writ  shall  be 
attached;  the  said  writ  to  be  in  form  as  fixed  by  law. 

Sec.  16.  All  sentences  of  court  consisting  of  recesses  are  to  be  construed  to  mean 
two-thirds  of  the  time  now  known  or  hereafter  designated  as  recess.  It  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  court  to  allow  an  alternative  of  work  or  time  equivalent  to  the 
recesses. 

Sec.  17.  The  form  of  indictment  shall  be  as  follows: 

School  State. 

The - of  the  School  State  does  present  that - ,  late  of  the 

School  State  aforesaid, - (recite  acts) - ,  on  the - day 

of - ,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  nineteen  hundred - ,  which  said  acts  are 

contrary  to  the  form  of  the  act  of  the  assembly - (here  may  be  recited 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


259 


more  counts  or  declarations), - •,  and  against  the  peace,  government, 

and  dignity  of  the  state. 


Attorney - . 

On  the  back  thereof  the  following: 

School  State  v. - ;  indictment;  filed - ;  witnesses, - — - 

- ;  and  (nature  of  offense) - . 

Sec.  18.  The  form  of  the  bench  warrant  shall  be  as  follows: 


In  the - court  for  the  School  State. 


To  the  sheriff  of  the  School  State,  greeting: 

We  command  you  to  take  the  bod - of  - —  and  - immediately 

have  before  our  said  court  here  to  answer  an  indictment  for  • — -  - . 

Witness,  the  Hon. - ,  chief  judge  of  our  said  court,  the  - - day 

of - -,  A.  D.  190—. 

Issued - ,  190 — . 

- ,  Clerk. 


Sec.  19.  The  form  of  subpoena  shall  be  as  follows: 


School  State,  sc: 

To  the  sheriff  of  the  School  State,  greeting: 

You  are  hereby  commanded  to  summon - to  appear  before  the  — — - 

court -  of  the  School  State,  at - ,  on  the -  day  of -  next,  at 

- o’clock  —  m.,  to  testify  for - against - . 

Witness,  the  Hon. - ,  chief  judge  of  our  said  court,  the - day  of 

- ,  A.  D.  190—. 

Issued - ,  190—. 

Clerk  of  Courts  for  School  State. 


On  the  back  thereof  the  following: 
- v. - ,  summons: 


Attorney  for - , 

Sec.  20.  The  form  of  attachment  shall  be  as  follows: 

School  State ,  sc: 

School  State  to  the  sheriff  of  the  School  State,  greeting: 

We  command  you  that  without  further  delay  you  attach - ,  so  that 

you  have - before  our - court - to  answer  touching  a 

contempt  which  he  has  committed  against  said  court,  as  is  alleged,  and  further  to 
abide  such  order  as  shall  be  made  in - behalf - . 

Witness,  the  Hon. - — ,  chief  judge  of  our  said  court,  the - day 

of - ,  A.  D.  190—. 

Issued - ,  190 — . 

Clerk  of  Courts  for  School  State . 

Sec.  21.  Any  citizen  who  speaks  disrespectfully  to  the  court  while  in  session, 
libels  the  judge,  tampers  with  witnesses,  disobeys  writs  or  orders,  misbehaves 
while  an  officer  of  the  court  in  official  action,  fails  to  obey  subpoena,  refuses  to 
testify,  rescues  or  attempts  rescue  from  an  officer  of  the  court,  fails  to  appear 
under  a  recognizance,  shall  be  guilty  of  contempt  of  court.  The  penalty  shall  be 
not  less  than  two  recesses  nor  more  than  fifteen  recesses,  in  the  discretion  of  the 
court. 

Article  II. — Officers. 

Sec.  1.  Bribe:  Any  citizen  who  may  offer  to  reward  any  officer  for  not  execut¬ 
ing  any  part  of  his  duties  or  threatens  or  disturbs  him  in  the  performance  of  any 
duties  which  he  may  have  executed,  is  executing,  or  ought  to  execute,  is  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  forfeit  not  less  than  two  recesses 
nor  more  than  ten  recesses,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 


260 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


Sec.  2.  Commission,  appointed  officers:  The  form  of  commission  to  an  appointed 
officer  shali  he  as  follows: 

The  School  State  to - ,  greeting: 

Be  it  known  that,  reposing  great  trust  and  confidence  in  your  knowledge,  integ¬ 
rity,  and  love  of  justice,  yon  are  hereby  appointed - - - to  do  equal  right 

and  justice  according  to  law  in  every  case  in  which  you  shall  act  under  this  com¬ 
mission,  freely  without  sale,  fully  without  denial,  and  speedily  without  delay, 

and  to  hold  the  said  office  justly,  honestly,  and  faithfully  for - - - or  until 

you  shall  he  duly  discharged. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  the  great  seal  of  the  School  State,  at  Ellicott  City, 

Md. ,  on  the - -  day  of - ,  A.  D.  190 — . 

[great  seal.] 

By  the  governor: 


Secretary  of  State. 


Sec.  3.  Commission,  elected  officers:  The  form  of  commission  to  an  elected  officer 
shall  he: 

The  School  State  to - ,  greeting: 

Be  it  known  that  the  people  of  the  School  State,  reposing  especial  trust  and  con¬ 
fidence  in  your  prudence  and  honesty,  did,  on  the - day  of - ,  190—,  elect 

you - ,  to  hold  said  office  from  the - day  of - ,  190 — ,  for - 

or  until  you  shall  he  duly  discharged  therefrom,  and  to  execute  the  duties  of  said 
office  with  diligence  and  fidelity,  without  favor,  affection,  or  partiality,  according 
to  law. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  the  great  seal  of  the  School  State,  at  Ellicott  City, 
Md.,  on  the - day  of - ,  A.  D.  190 — . 

[GREAT  SEAL.] 

By  the  governor: 


Secretary  of  State. 

Sec.  4.  Convening  the  assembly:  The  form  shall  be,  for  calling  an  extra  or  special 
session  of  the  assembly,  as  follows: 

The  governor  of  the  School  State  to  the  members  of  the  general  assembly,  greeting: 
Be  it  known  that,  by  virtue  of  the  power  vested  in  me  by  the  constitution  of  this 

state,  you  are  hereby  convened  on  the  day  of - next  at - m. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  the  great  seal  of  the  School  State,  in  Ellicott  City, 
Md.,  on  the - day  of - ,  A.  D.  190—. 

[GREAT  SEAL.] 

By  the  governor: 


Secretary  of  State. 

Sec.  5.  Dereliction  for  neglect  of  duty  by  police:  The  sheriff  and  police  must 
report  all  infringements  that  come  to  their  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  School 
State;  and  if  they  neglect  to  report  all  or  any  infringements  upon  the  laws  they 
will  be  deprived  of  not  less  than  six  recesses  nor  more  than  twenty  recesses,  in  the 
discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  6.  Failure  to  perform  police  duty:  Any  citizen  not  legally  exempt  shall, 
upon  request  of  the  officer  in  charge,  go  upon  police  duty  temporarily.  Failure 
to  comply  with  said  request  shall  be  punished  by  forfeiting  four  recesses,  unless 
satisfactory  excuse  be  submitted  to  the  court. 

Sec.  7.  Nomination  to  senate:  The  form  of  executive  nomination  to  the  senate' 
shall  be  in  the  following  form: 

The  governor  of  the  School  State  to  the  honorable  senate  of  the  School  State, 

greeting: 

Be  it  known  that  by  virtue  of  the  power  vested  in  me  by  the  constitution  of  this 

state,  I  hereby  submit  for  your  advice  and  consent  the  name  of - - for 

(name  of  office) - . 


EDUCATIONAL  PATHOLOGY. 


261 


Given  under  my  hand  and  the  great  seal  of  the  School  State  at  Ellicott  City,  Md. , 
on  the - day  of - ,  A.  D.  180 — . 

[GREAT  SEAL.] 

By  the  governor: 


Secretary  of  State. 

Sec.  8.  Oath:  Every  person  elected  or  appointed  to  an 3^  office  under  the  consti¬ 
tution  or  laws  of  the  School  State  shall,  before  entering-  upon  the  duties  of  the 

office,  take  the  following  oath:  “I,  (name) - ,  do  on  my  honor  promise 

that  I  will  support  the  constitution  of  the  School  State  and  will  be  faithful  and 
bear  true  allegiance  to  the  School  State,  and  that  I  will  to  the  best  of  my  skill  and 
judgment  diligently  and  faithfully,  without  partiality  or  prejudice,  execute  the 

duties  of  the  office  of - according  to  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the 

School  State  (if  a  judge) ,  and  that  I  will  in  all  cases  fairly  and  impartially,  without 
affection  or  prejudice,  administer  justice  to  all. 

Date  - - . 

Sec.  9.  Pardon:  The  form  of  pardon  shall  be  as  follows: 

The  governor  of  the  School  State  to - ,  greeting: 

Be  it  known,  that  by  virtue  of  the  power  vested  in  me  by  the  constitution  of  this 

state,  you  are  hereby  pardoned  for - ,  of  which  you  were  convicted  by 

the - on  the - day  of - ,  A.  D.  190 — . 

Given  under  my  hand  and  the  great  seal  of  the  School  State  at  Ellicott  City,  Md. , 
on  the - day  of - ,  A.  D.  190 — . 

[great  seal.] 

By  the  governor: 


Secretary  of  State. 

Article  III — Order . 

Sec.  1.  Disorder:  Disorder  in  the  halls,  on  stairways,  or  in  class  rooms  during 
teachers’  absence  before,  during,  or  after  school,  during  recess  or  noon  hour  is 
forbidden;  and  any  pupil  violating  any  part  of  this  section  shall  be,  on  conviction 
upon  a  specifying  indictment,  deprived  of  not  less  than  four  recesses  nor  more 
than  ten  recesses  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  2.  Interference:  Any  malicious  interference  with  any  persons,  or  serious 
interference  without  reasonable  cause,  is  forbidden,  either  on  the  school  grounds 
or  on  the  way  to  and  from  school;  and  any  citizen  convicted  of  violating  any  part 
of  this  section  shall  be  deprived  of  not  less  than  two  recesses  nor  more  than  twenty 
recesses  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  8.  Litter,  water,  and  mud:  The  throwing  of  litter,  spitting,  or  carrying  an 
avoidable  quantity  of  mud  or  dirt,  throwing  or  spilling  of  water  in  any  of  the  halls 
or  upon  any  of  the  stairways  is  forbidden;  and  any  citizens  violating  any  part  of 
this  section  shall  forfeit  not  less  than  two  recesses  nor  more  than  six  recesses  in  the 
discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  4.  Article  VIII,  section  2,  of  the  by-laws,  rules,  and  regulations  of  the  state 
board  of  education,  which  is:  “The  use  of  profane  and  unchaste  language,  the  use 
of  tobacco  in  any  form,  and  the  carrying  of  firearms  or  other  dangerous  weapons 
are  strictly  forbidden,”  and  any  pupil  who  violates  any  part  of  this  section  shall  be 
tried  by  the  court  of  appeals  and  punished  according  to  the  decision  of  said  court. 

Sec.  5.  Stairs  and  hallwaj^s:  All  pupils  are  to  pass  up  and  down  from  grounds 
to  class  rooms  only  upon  the"  order  of  the  sheriff,  chief  of  police,  or  officer  in  charge, 
and  at  all  times  in  an  orderly  manner.  There  shall  be  no  running,  but  one  step 
shall  be  taken  at  a  time;  no  loud  talking  or  other  unnecessary  noise;  no  taking 
hold  of,  pushing,  pulling,  or  any  interference  with  others  will  be  allowed.  The 
penalty  for  violating  any  part  of  this  section  shall  be  not  less  than  two  recesses  nor 
more  than  ten  recesses  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  8.  Striking:  No  pupil  shall  strike  another  in  malice  Granger.  The  penalty 
for  violating  this  section  shall  be  not  less  than  four  recesses  nor  more  than  fifteen 
recesses  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  7.  Treason:  Treason  shall  consist  in  malicious  and  false  representation  of 
the  School  State  in  any  official  character  and  in  intriguing  to  prevent  the  accom¬ 
plishment  of  justice;  the  penalty  for  violating  any  part  of  this  section  shall  be  the 
loss  of  suffrage  and  of  the  right  to  hold  office  forever  under  the  School  State:  this 
disability  can  only  be  removed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  all  the  members  of  the 
general  assembly. 


262 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Sec.  8.  Trespass:  Trespassing  upon  the  ad  joining  proper  ties  is  unlawful  without 
the  consent  of  the  principal;  any  citizen  violating  this  section  shall  forfeit  not 
less  than  two  recesses  nor  more  than  ten  recesses  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec.  9.  Trespass,  library:  The  books,  periodicals,  and  all  other  articles  belong¬ 
ing.  now  or  hereafter,  to  the  library  in  the  Ellicott  City  public  schools,  shall  be 
taken  from  the  library,  distributed,  marked,  covered,  otherwise  used,  and  the 
library  opened  only  by  the  librarian,  his  assistant  or  deputy,  or  with  the  permis¬ 
sion  or  by  the  command  of  the  principal  or  a  teacher.  Any  pupil  violating  any 
part  of  this  section  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  5  cents  nor  more  than  10  cents,  or 
in  lieu  thereof  forfeit  six  recesses. 

Sec.  10.  Mutilating:  Cutting,  mutilating,  destroying,  or  marking  on  any  part 
of  the  buildings,  fences,  or  trees,  either  on  the  school  grounds,  or  on  the  way  to 
and  from  school,  is  forbidden;  and  the  penalty  for  so  doing  shall  be  not  less  than 
six  recesses  nor  more  than  twenty  in  the  discretion  of  the  court;  if  in  the  opinion 
of  the  court  the  offense  is  of  a  specially  culpable  character  the  offender  shall  be 
sent  to  the  principal  for  punishment. 

Sec.  11.  Loitering:  Loitering  on  the  way  to  and  from  school  is  forbidden;  and 
any  pupil  on  conviction  thereof  shall  forfeit  not  less  than  one  recess  nor  more 
than  six  recesses  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT 
OF  SCIENCE,  ARTS,  AND  EDUCATION. 

By  Prof.  Patrick  Geddes,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  Secretary  of  the  British  and  American  Groups. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 


List  of  office  bearers . ...  263 

Introductory  summary . . . .  264 


I.— General  purpose  of  the  Paris  International  Assembly— Its  origin— Conditions  and 
privileges  of  membership— Department  of  congresses  and  universities— Lectures 
and  skilled  guidance — Department  of  excursions—  Facilities  for  attending  the  drama, 
musical  entertainments,  etc.— Reports— Special  committees  (museums,  etc.)— Exhi¬ 


bition  literature,  etc. — Exchanges  of  exhibits,  etc. — Finance — Future  assemblies.--  268 

II.— Reports  of  meetings  of  the  association  held  in  Paris,  1900  .  277 

III.  — International  museums  and  institutes— Paris  (Comite  d’ organisation  des  Instituts  et 

Musees  internationaux) . . . . . - .  280 

IV. — Arrangement  for  the  Glasgow  International  Assembly,  1901 . . . . .  287 

APPENDIXES. 

(1)  Copy  of  letter  circulated  by  the  preliminary  committee  at  the  meeting  of  the  British 

Association  at  Dover,  September,  1899 . . .  291 

(2)  List  of  British  and  American  general  committees .  292 

(3)  Specimens  of  the  weekly  programmes  of  the  Paris  International  Assembly . .  299 

(4)  Classified  list  of  the  international  congresses  held  at  the  Paris  Exposition. . . . .  301 


INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE,  ARTS, 

AND  EDUCATION. 

International  Assemblies:  Paris,  1900;  Glasgow,  1901.  General  Secretary,  M.  Liard;  General 
President,  M.  Leon  Bourgeois;  Assistant  General  Secretaries,  Paris,  M.  33mile  Bourgeois; 
Glasgow,  Prof.  P.  Geddes. 


BRITISH  AND  AMERICAN  GROUPS. 

President. 

M.  Leon  Bourgeois. 

Vice-Presidents. 

Right  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.  P. 

Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  P.  R.  S. 
Wm.  T.  Harris,  LL.  D„ 

Prof.  R.  S.  Woodward,  Ph.  B. 

Secretaries . 

Prof.  Patrick  Geddes. 

Robert  Erskine  Ely. 

T.  R.  Marr. 


FRENCH  GROUP. 

President. 

M.  Gr^ard. 

Vice-Presidents. 

MM.  Brouardel. 

Foncin. 

Lavisse. 

Lyon- Caen. 

G.  Masson. 

Poincare. 

Secretaries. 

MM.  M.  Choublier. 

J.  Delvolve. 

263 


264 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


RUSSIAN  GROUP. 
President. 

M.  Metchnikoff. 

Vice-Presidents. 
MM.  M.  Kovalevsky. 

DE  ROBERTY. 

Secretaries. 

MM.  Georges  Gambaroff. 
Ivan  Strannik. 

GERMAN  GROUP. 
President. 

M.  Leon  Bourgeois. 

Vice-Presidents. 
MM.  Luders. 

Dr.  Lexis. 


german  group— Continued. 
Secretaries. 

MM.  Berg. 

L.  Bessels. 

BELGIAN  GROUP. 
President , 

M.  Nyssens. 

Secretaries. 

MM.  Lambotte. 

Carton  de  Wiart. 

DUTCH  GROUP. 
Secretary. 

M.  JlTTA. 

SWISS  GROUP. 
Secretary. 

Professor  Yung. 


INTRODUCTORY  SUMMARY. 

The  progress  of  science  is  much  like  that  of  industry  or  of  affairs.  It  moves  in 
two  apparently  opposite  directions,  which  really  complete  one  another.  At  one 
period  we  especially  notice  the  advances  in  the  division  of  labor  and  the  corre¬ 
sponding  progress  of  detailed  investigation.  At  another  time  our  attention  is 
called  to  some  great  reorganization  of  our  industrial  processes,  some  new  concen¬ 
tration  of  capital,  or  great  development  of  communications.  Similarly  in  science 
we  see  separate  workers  uniting  into  larger  and  larger  groups,  permanent  societies, 
or  temporary  congresses,  as  the  case  may  be,  while  these  again  may  unite  into  a 
larger  whole,  like  the  sections  of  the  British  or  the  American  Association,  for 
instance.  The  question  has  been  increasingly  asked  for  many  years,  Why  should 
these  processes  stop  here?  Beyond  these  national  societies  must  we  not  have 
completely  international  ones?  Broadly  speaking,  there  are  two  ways  in  which 
this  movement  might  arise,  from  above  and  from  below,  and  both  have  simul¬ 
taneously  and  independently  been  coming  to  pass.  One  very  natural  and  obvious 
method  is  that  the  leading  scientific  society  of  each  country  should  cooperate  with 
its  peers  in  other  countries.  Hence  a  conference  was  held  in  the  autumn  of  1899 
at  Wiesbaden,  and  again  at  Paris  in  April,  1901,  among  the  representatives  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  the  Academies  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  of  Washington,  etc.,  and  arrangements  for  cooperation 
in  various  lines  of  wTork  have  since  been  under  consideration.  Thus  is  being 
founded  something  corresponding  to  a  high  court  of  science;  to  an  international 
senate.  But  besides  this  upper  house  of  science  there  remains  room  for  a  lower 
house  also,  one  more  fully  representative,  more  widely  democratic,  one  ready  to 
include  all  who  seek  to  inquire  and  to  know,  to  learn  and  to  teach.  This  time  we 
must  include  the  numberless  scientific  societies  of  all  kinds  and  all  places 
wherever  these  may  be  doing  living  work,  and  with  these  the  universities  of  the 
world  also.  We  must  similarly  aim  at  meeting  the  needs  of  all  the  specialist  con¬ 
gresses,  and  we  must  naturally  also  start  from  the  great  gatherings  of  the 
workers’  democracy  of  science,  such  as  the  British  Association  and  its  French, 
American,  and  other  sisters. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


265 


The  formation  of  an  international  association,  beginning  with  these,  has  again 
and  again  been  proposed,  notably  in  America.  By  the  British  Association  meet¬ 
ings  at  Montreal  and  Toronto  a  few  years  ago  interest  was  so  far  aroused  that  a 
sum  of  money  is  said  to  have  been  bequeathed  in  the  United  States  to  such  an 
international  association  when  founded.  An  active  step  was  made  in  September, 
1899,  in  consequence  of  the  simultaneous  meetings  of  the  British  Association  at 
Dover  and  the  French  association  at  Boulogne.  It  was  a  moment  of  the  general 
outburst  of  opinion  against  the  Dreyfus  verdict  and  of  a  somewhat  wholesale 
denunciation  of  France  in  general  and  of  the  Paris  Exposition  in  particular.  It 
was  even  suggested  by  a  great  London  newspaper  that  the  British  Association 
should  boycott  the  French  one,  despite  all  their  arrangements  for  their  friendly 
meetings.  This  would  have  been  a  hard  measure  in  any  case,  but  to  an  associa¬ 
tion  mainly  composed  of  Dreyfusards  and  “  Intellectuels,”  and  whose  last  presi¬ 
dent  had  just  been  a  martyr  in  the  cause,  it  was  absurd.  The  British  president, 
Sir  Michael  Foster,  spoke  out  manfully  in  his  inaugural  address  and  called  upon 
the  association  not  only  for  every  courtesy  during  the  meetings,  but  for  loyal 
support  of  and  cooperation  with  the  Paris  Exposition  and  its  congresses,  with 
their  ‘‘first  Witenagemote  of  the  science  of  the  world.” 

Encouraged  by  this  generous  and  statesmanlike  lead,  a  circular  testing  the 
opinion  of  the  association  was  circulated  through  its  committees,  and  500  signa¬ 
tures  of  approval,  many  of  them  among  the  most  eminent  in  British  science, 
rewarded  its  initiators  beyond  their  most  sanguine  anticipations.  The  welcome  of 
the  French  Association  at  Dover  and  Canterbury,  and  the  cordiality  of  the  return 
visits  to  Boulogne  will  not  readily  be  forgotten  by  those  who  shared  them.  That  the 
first  international  meeting  should  be  held  at  Paris  in  1900  was  on  all  hands  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  matter  of  course.  Besides  the  French  Association,  no  less  than  120  spe¬ 
cialist  congresses  were  then  to  meet,  and  these  in  all  subjects,  from  archaeology 
to  electricity,  physics  to  folklore,  meteorology  to  medicine,  bibliography  to  auto¬ 
mobiles.  Here  then,  was  already  being  organized  a  general  gathering  of  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  all  studies  and  from  all  countries  on  a  scale  far  vaster  than  any  had 
ever  before  dared  to  dream.  The  great  building  erected  at  the  exposition  as  its 
Palais  des  Congres  was  thus  the  center  from  which  th8  120  congresses,  with  as 
many  thousand  members,  were  organized  throughout  the  summer.  The  steps 
toward  international  cooperation  then  effected  are  too  numerous  for  record.  But 
a  great  additional  impulse  also  came  from  the  University  of  Paris,  lately  regener¬ 
ated.  Freed  from  the  official  tyranny  of  the  Napoleonic  University  of  France, 
she  is  now  again  the  largest  of  the  universities  of  the  world.  She  is  the  head,  too, 
of  a  new  system  of  regional  universities,  all  acquiring  a  fully  German,  even  an 
American,  completeness  and  equipment.  Here,  in  fact,  is  a  movement  of  which 
British  educationalists,  perhaps  even  some  American  ones,  still  know  too  little, 
since  their  foreign  experience  has  been  mainly  derived  from  Germany;  but  it  is 
time  to  recognize  that  French  education,  as  much  as  the  French  army,  is  some¬ 
thing  very  different  from  what  it  was  before  the  war.  The  great  founders  of  the 
German  universities  are  no  longer  with  us;  those  of  France  are  still  in  full  activ¬ 
ity,  like  those  of  America,  and  it  is  no  disrespect  to  the  university  presidents  of 
America  to  say  that  here  in  Paris  an  even  greater  task  has  been  successfully  car¬ 
ried  through.  To  cite  only  two  or  three  names,  M.  Lavisse,  the  historian;  M. 
Greard,  the  rector,  and  especially  M.  Liard,  the  permanent  under  secretary  of 
state  for  higher  education,  a  great  initiator,  organizer,  and  administrator  in  one, 
should  all  be  better  known  to  all  who  seek  to  found  or  to  improve  higher  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  in  other  countries. 

The  University  of  Paris  may  now,  in  fact,  be  taken  as  not  only  reorganized  upon 
the  highest  German  level,  but  as  the  center  of  a  clear  and  conscious  endeavor  to 
utilize  her  special  advantages,  not  only  historic,  but  actual,  and  again  to  lead, 
as  she  was  wont  to  do,  both  in  the  educational  and  in  the  scientific  movement  of 


266 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  world.  Nowhere  in  the  world  is  the  ancient  cosmopolitanism  of  learning,  the 
internationalism  of  culture,  the  unity  of  science  more  deeply  felt  or  more  nearly 
recovered.  The  suggestions  of  the  proposed  international  association  were  thus 
warmly  received  by  the  university  authorities  of  France.  Following  the  meeting 
at  University  College,  London,  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  at 
which  a  British  branch  of  the  association  was  formed,  a  meeting  was  held  in  Paris, 
at  the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  at  which  the  French  group  was  constituted. 
It  was  decided  by  both  groups  to  recruit  for  the  congresses,  and  also,  as  far  as 
might  be,  to  utilize  the  vast  object  lesson  of  the  exposition,  viewed  as  no  idle 
show,  but  as  the  museum  of  the  present.  Hence  was  resolved,  as  the  main  work 
of  the  educational  section,  an  attempt  to  explain  and  interpret  the  many  wonders 
of  the  exposition,  and  to  renew  both  the  open  teaching  and  the  free  discussion  of 
the  ancient  University  of  Paris  in  this  vast  temporary  international  university  of 
the  present. 

A  cordial  invitation  was  sent,  not  only  from  the  French  group  of  the  new  asso¬ 
ciation,  but  from  the  University  of  Paris,  to  the  universities  of  the  world.  Prof. 
Emile  Bourgeois  was  accredited  to  Berlin  and  Prof.  Patrick  Geddesto  the  univer¬ 
sities  of  America.  German,  American,  Russian,  Belgian,  and  Swiss  groups  of  the 
association  were  thus  formed,  all  to  meet  in  Paris.  The  story  of  the  new  associa¬ 
tion’s  work  in  Paris  during  the  exposition  and  also  afterwards  is  summarized  below, 
while  broadly  similar  undertakings  are  now  being  proposed  during  and  after  the 
exhibition  of  Glasgow,  and  with  the  more  adequate  time  for  preparation,  and  of 
course  fuller  experience  also,  much  more  may  be  done  at  the  St.  Louis  Exhibition 
of  1903.  Suffice  it  for  the  present  to  say  that  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Glasgow 
Exposition,  British,  French,  Russian,  German,  and  American  cooperation  is  already 
offered,  so  that  whoever  wishes  scientific  interpretation  and  skilled  guidance  in 
this  subject  or  that  language — say  in  electricity  or  in  art,  say  in  matters  German 
or  French,  Russian  or  Canadian — may  readily  find  it.  The  Paris  Exposition,  as 
museum  of  the  present,  has  thus  been  better  interpreted  and  understood,  and 
that  directly  by  thousands,  indirectly  by  many  more.  A  wide  and  fruitful  action, 
not  only  upon  education,  but  upon  many  branches  of  science  and  of  art,  has  thus 
been  going  on  throughout  the  last  summer.  From  this  temporary  outburst  of 
international  activity  new  and  more  permanent  activities  are  in  turn  arising,  for 
an  international  exhibition  does  not  simply  take  stock  and  close  one  period  of 
progress;  it  may  also  open  a  new  one.  And  if  in  Paris,  why  not  now  also  in  Glas¬ 
gow?  Why  not  next  also  in  St.  Louis? 

In  this  way  has,  in  fact,  already  arisen  a  second  and  not  less  important  field  of 
work  for  the  association — that  of  endeavoring  to  utilize  these  great  cooperative 
but  transient  bursts  of  activity  which  we  call  international  expositions  for  the 
more  permanent  advantage  of  the  cities  and  countries  where  they  may  be  held,  as 
furnishing  permanent  international  centers  also  for  some  at  least  of  the  scientific 
or  educational  interests  represented.  Hence  besides  its  assembly,  with  its  scien¬ 
tific  meetings  and  discussions,  it  has  its  interpretation  of  the  expositions,  and  so 
on,  its  museums  committee,  of  the  work  of  which  at  Paris  an  account  is  given 
below. 


I. 

GENERAL  PURPOSE  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION. 

The  many  agencies,  the  innumerable  individuals,  occupied  in  the  sciences  or  the 
arts,  in  education,  or  in  social  improvement  are  increasingly  felt  to  be  working  in 
harmony.  All  are  seen  to  be  cooperating  in  the  development  of  a  common  civili¬ 
zation,  and  each  advance,  whatever  its  place  of  origin,  speedily  oversteps  local 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


267 


and  national  boundaries.  Hence  have  arisen  the  international  exhibitions  and 
congresses  so  characteristic  of  our  time.  To  supplement  and  to  advance  this 
international  movement,  to  record  its  manifold  results  and  to  make  them  more 
and  more  widely  accessible,  to  extend  their  educational  usefulness  and  further 
their  practical  applications  are  the  tasks  of  this  association.  Its  arrangements 
toward  carrying  out  these  in  detail,  as  by  contact  with  societies  and  congresses 
concerned  with  all  branches  of  knowledge,  with  the  various  arts  and  professions, 
and  with  education  in  the  widest  sense  and  on  all  its  levels,  are  naturally  still  in 
comparative  infancy,  but  may  be  best  set  forth  as  planned  and  partially  developed 
in  the  course  of  the  association's  first  international  assembly,  held  at  Paris  during 
the  exposition  of  1900 

ORIGIN  OP  THE  ASSOCIATION. 

The  formation  of  an  international  association  has  been  often  suggested  in  recent 
years  and  even  discussed  in  various  forms,  as  notably  between  the  American  and 
British  associations  for  the  advancement  of  science  and  at  the  Montreal  and 
Toronto  meetings  of  the  latter.  The  present  organization  dates  from  the  (Sep¬ 
tember,  1899)  meetings  of  the  British  and  French  associations  for  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  science  at  Dover  and  Boulogne.  Here  a  very  large  and  representative 
British  committee  was  formed,  including  upward  of  500  members  of  the  British  * 
association  alone,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Lord  Lister,  Sir  John  Burdon- 
Sanderson,  Sir  John  Murray,  Professors  Haddon,  Lodge,  Thompson,  Schafer, 
Howes,  and  Mavor,  and  with  these  many  leading  representatives  of  applied  science 
and  industry  and  of  chambers  of  commerce.  This  general  committee  held  its  first 
meeting  at  London  in  October,  1899,  and  elected  as  its  president  M.  Leon  Bour¬ 
geois,  so  widely  known  as  one  of  the  most  progressive  of  European  ministers  of 
education  and  as  a  leading  representative  of  the  recent  peace  congress  at  the 
Hague.  As  vice-presidents  were  elected  the  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce  and  Sir 
Archibald  Geikie,  with  Prof.  Patrick  Geddes  as  secretary.  A  corresponding  meet¬ 
ing  was  held  in  Paris  at  the  ministry  of  education,  and  a  French  committee  was 
constituted,  its  president  being  M.  Greard,  member  of  the  French  Academy  and 
rector  of  the  University  of  Paris.  Steps  toward  the  constitution  of  other  national 
groups  were  reported.  M.  Leon  Bourgeois  was  elected  general  president  of  the 
whole  association,  with  M.  Liard  (permanent  secretary  of  state  for  higher  educa¬ 
tion)  as  its  general  secretary. 

As  the  result  of  these  meetings  it  was  resolved  to  hold  the  first  international 
assembly  of  the  association  at  Paris  during  the  exposition  of  1900.  The  cordial 
approval  of  the  authorities  of  the  exposition  having  been  assured,  a  substantial 
initial  fund  was  provided  alike  within  the  British  and  the  French  committees. 
The  association  was  incorporated  in  Britain  and  in  France,  and  offices  were  opened  at 
Paris,  London,  and  Edinburgh,  and  in  other  European  cities;  while  Professor 
Geddes  spent  upward  of  two  months  in  the  United  States,  bearing  not  only  gen¬ 
eral  introductions  as  secretary  of  the  British  group  from  Mr.  Bryce  and  Sir  Archi¬ 
bald  Geikie,  but  a  recommendation  and  mission  to  the  American  universities  in 
particular,  this  being  from  M.  Greard  in  his  double  capacity  as  president  of  the 
French  group  of  the  association  and  as  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris.  The 
formation  of  an  American  group  was  thus  prepared  for,  leaving  the  question  of 
organization  to  be  decided  later  by  conference  in  Paris.  Preliminary  meetings  of 
the  association  were  held  in  Chicago,  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  etc. 

The  inaugural  assembly  of  the  association  was  spaciously,  if  not  magnificently, 
housed  within  the  precincts  of  the  exposition  itself,  the  buildings  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Paris,  of  the  Musee  Social,  etc. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  insist  upon  the  magnitude,  completeness,  and  magnifi¬ 
cence  of  this  exposition,  with  its  collections  illustrating  alike  the  natural  products, 


268 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  industries  and  the  arts,  the  commerce,  and  the  institutions  of  every  country. 
Despite  all  criticisms,  its  arrangement  was  such  as  to  make  international  compari¬ 
son  easy,  and  international  cooperation,  as  well  as  rivalry,  in  all  main  departments 
of  activity,  perhaps,  most  obvious  of  all. 

So  vast  a  material  display,  alike  of  the  resources  of  nature,  of  the  applications 
of  science,  and  of  the  masterpieces  of  art,  and  this  in  all  countries,  requires  a  no 
less  complete  immaterial  counterpart,  a  correspondingly  wide  survey  of  the  world 
of  intellect  and  of  ideals,  and  a  no  less  full  application  of  the  highest  aims  of  spe¬ 
cial  and  of  general  education.  Hence,  in  fact,  the  two  characteristic  aspects  of  a 
modern  exposition,  its  vast  development  of  congresses,  no  less  than  of  departments.* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

DEPARTMENT  OF  CONGRESSES. 

The  first  task  of  the  association  and  its  assembly  was  thus  to  cooperate  with  the 
various  international  congresses  to  be  held  during  the  exposition,  and,  wherever 
necessary  or  desirable,  to  aid  the  existing  agencies  in  recruiting  suitable  members 
for  these.  To  the  many  specialists  of  all  kinds  who  attended  the  exposition  with¬ 
out  being  able  to  be  present  at  the  exact  time  of  the  particular  congress  most 
interesting  to  them,  the  congress  information  bureau  of  the  association  and  the 
special  rendezvous  which  it  arranged  proved  of  great  service.  Thus  each  member 
of  the  association,  on  reaching  Paris,  was  enabled  rapidly  to  reach  its  resources 
and  to  meet  his  fellow-workers,  French  and  foreign  alike.  The  international 
assembly  was  included  in  the  official  list  of  congresses  as  the  permanent  ‘‘EccAe 
internationale  de  1’exposition.  ” 

A  wide  publicity  was  given  by  the  association  to  the  literature  of  many  of  the 
congresses  held  during  the  exposition,  and  in  several  cases  it  recruited  members 
for  these.  In  return,  the  congresses  similarly  brought  valuable  members  to  the 
association  and  contributed  much  useful  literature.  This  cooperation  is  one 
which  admits  of  great  development  in  future  years,  of  course  often,  and  perhaps 
more  and  more  frequently,  in  connection  with  exhibitions,  but  not  exclusively  so. 

RECORDS  AND  GRAPHIC  SUMMARIES  OF  THE  RESULTS  OF  CONGRESSES. 

Besides  keeping  record  of  the  congresses  in  the  usual  way,  it  was  attempted,  in 
some  measure,  to  indicate  their  main  problems  and  to  summarize  their  main 
results  by  a  full  use  of  graphic  methods,  not  only  in  relation  to  the  contemporary 

1  Membership  of  the  international  assembly  was  obtained  by  payment  of  $5  or  £1,  which 
entitled  to  one  week’s  active  participation  in  the  assembly  in  Paris,  and  included  five  tickets  of 
admission  to  the  exhibition. 

For  continuance  in  active  membership  in  Paris  a  further  reduced  fee  of  12s.  6d.  ($3)  weekly 
was  charged. 

A  season  ticket  for  the  whole  duration  of  the  assembly  was  obtained  by  a  single  payment  of 
£5  ($25).  This  included  five  admission  tickets  to  the  exhibition  for  each  week  of  attendance  at 
the  assembly. 

Life  membership,  with  full  participation  in  all  future  assemblies,  wherever  held,  can  be 
obtained  by  a  single  payment  of  £10  ($50). 

The  privileges  of  membership  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Information  and  advice  as  to  traveling  arrangements  and  residence  in  Paris. 

2.  Use  of  information  bureaus  in  London,  Edinburgh,  New  York,  and  Paris.  Letters  might  be 
sent  to  the  office  of  the  assembly  in  Paris  and  appointments  made  for  meetings  with  friends 
there.  Special  assistance  was  available  for  those  unfamiliar  with  French. 

3.  Expert  guidance  through  the  departments  of  the  exhibition  during  any  week  of  the 
assembly  from  May  to  October. 

4.  Admission  to  the  lectures  of  the  assembly  during  any  one  week,  with  five  tickets  of  admis¬ 
sion  to  the  exhibition  grounds. 

5.  Invitations  to  receptions,  etc. 

6.  Participation  in  specially  arranged  excursions  in  and  around  Paris  at  the  actual  cost  of  fares. 

7.  Advantageous  arrangements  for  attending  theatrical,  musical,  and  other  entertainments. 

8.  A  copy  of  the  guidebook  prepared  for  the  assembly. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


269 


movement  of  the  sciences  and  arts,  but  to  their  historic  development.  This  was 
sometimes  usefully  correlated  with  the  retrospective  collections  (Musees  Centen- 
naux) ,  which  proved  so  interesting  a  feature  of  the  exposition.  These  records  and 
summaries  aim  at  uniting  the  clearest  thought  of  many  minds  toward  an  increas¬ 
ingly  synthetic  presentment  of  the  historic  development,  the  actual  state,  and  the 
immediate  problems  of  the  sciences,  and  these  in  their  relation  to  the  progressive 
forces  of  civilization. 

REGIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  PROPOSED  COOPERATION  IN  REGIONAL 

SURVEYS. 

As  the  great  academies  have  recently  begun  to  collaborate  in  bibliography  and 
in  specific  tasks,  so  for  a  long  time  past  the  minor  societies  witness  the  annual 
meetings  of  delegates  at  the  British  Association,  and  similarly  the  Congres  des 
Societes  Savantes,  whose  collective  exhibition  was  to  be  seen  in  the  Champ  de 
Mars.  The  possibility  of  a  thorough  and  useful  collaboration  lies  in  the  coordina¬ 
tion  of  their  many  studies  in  regional  survey,  in  the  union  of  their  many  lines  of 
work  and  activity  upon  the  map.  The  ordnance  and  the  geological  surveys  illus¬ 
trate  this  unison  most  perfectly;  but  botanical,  archaeological,  anthropological, 
and  economic  surveys  are  all  already  more  or  less  in  progress  and  only  await  coor¬ 
dination.  This  question,  discussed  at  a  preliminary  meeting  in  Chicago  in  March, 
1900,  has  already  been  laid  before  the  delegates  at  the  British  Association  in  Brad¬ 
ford,  in  1900,  and  will  be  again  discussed. 

UNIVERSITIES— -THE  CONGRESSES  AS  A  PANACADEMIC  MEETING. 

The  unprecedentedly  vast  and  varied  assemblages  of  special  workers  in  all 
departments  which  the  congresses  thus  brought  together  in  Paris  may  also  be 
viewed  as  an  almost  equally  comprehensive  representation  of  the  universities  of 
the  world,  and  of  its  institutions  of  learning  generally;  in  fact,  as  having  been  an 
informal,  yet  perhaps  none  the  less  important,  panacademic  meeting.  In  this 
vast  gathering  of  the  teachers  of  all  countries,  and  in  the  many  meeting  places 
which  were  at  their  disposal,  as  well  as  in  their  special  congresses,  all  subjects  of 
educational  interest  were  actively  discussed,  and  this  amid  an  increase  of  that 
feeling  of  the  international  unity  of  the  higher  learning,  and  of  the  essential  amity 
of  its  exponents,  in  which  the  universities  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of  the  Renais¬ 
sance  historically  arose  and  to  which  those  of  our  own  day  are  returning. 

FACILITIES  FOR  STUDENTS. 

The  assembly,  recognizing  that  these  academic  attractions  did  not  appeal  to  the 
professoriate  only,  sought  to  make  the  special  facilities  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
as  not  only  much  the  vastest,  but  in  various  ways  once  more  the  completest  of 
modern  universities,  better  known  by  students  as  well  as  teachers,  and,  in  addition 
to  this,  endeavored  to  make  more  widely  known  the  facilities  for  the  study  of 
French  language,  literature,  history,  etc.,  offered  by  the  summer  schools  of  the 
Alliance  Francaise  and  other  bodies. 

INTERACADEMIC  RELATIONS. 

That  special  recommendation  of  the  Association  and  its  work,  by  the  head  of 
the  University  of  Paris,  to  the  presidents  and  faculties  of  the  American  universi¬ 
ties,  which  has  been  already  referred  to,  may  thus  be  understood  in  the  fullest 
way  as  tending,  in  the  first  place,  to  bring  together  the  teachers  and  graduates  of 
American,  French,  and  foreign  universities;  and,  in  the  second,  to  promote,  under 
judicious  guidance,  that  widening  of  the  experience  of  the  student  which  was  so 
characteristic  of  ancient  universities,  and  which  has  been  so  marked  an  advantage 


270 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  German  university  life  in  our  own  times.  In  every  way,  therefore,  it  tended 
to  promote  better  interacademic  understanding  and  to  strengthen  the  ties  which 
a'ready  link  universities  throughout  the  world. 

UNIVERSITY  EXCHANGES. 

The  meeting  of  lecturers  from  many  universities,  as  remote  as  Moscow  and 
California,  which  took  place  last  summer,  naturally  led  to  the  discussion  of  uni¬ 
versity  interchanges.  Not  only  suggestions,  but  definite  proposals  toward  the 
organization  of  these  are  being  formulated,  and  will  be  brought  before  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  at  Glasgow. 

LECTURES  AND  SKILLED  GUIDANCE. 

The  majority  of  visitors  to  Paris  last  year  came,  of  course,  primarily  for  the 
purpose  of  seeing  the  exposition  as  a  whole,  rather  than  of  attending  any  of  its 
congresses;  hence  what  was  practically  the  largest  department  of  the  assembly’s 
work  was  that  of  furnishing  interpretation  and  skilled  guidance  to  all  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  exposition,  so  that  the  visitor  might  see  more  thoroughly  those  things 
in  which  he  was  specially  interested,  as  well  as  understand  more  of  the  exposition 
generally. 

Throughout  the  main  period  of  the  exposition,  and  in  due  proportion  to  the 
necessarily  varying  numbers  and  requirements  of  its  membership,  an  ample 
variety  of  daily  lectures  and  visits  was  provided.  These  lectures  were  of  different 
types,  which  maybe  broadly  described  as  introductory,  special,  and  general;  or. 
more  particularly,  as  dealing  with  the  popular,  the  artistic,  the  industrial  and 
commercial,  the  agricultural,  the  hygienic,  the  educational,  the  geographic,  the 
economic,  the  social  aspects  and  exhibits,  interests  and  ideas  of  the  exhibition 
and  its  congresses.  Occasional  lectures  also  were  delivered,  dealing  with  the 
historic  influence  and  significance  of  each  group  of  exhibits  and  congresses,  with 
their  social  and  educational  possibilities,  their  general  and  philosophic  interpreta¬ 
tion.  In  each  department  the  services  of  efficient  and  distinguished  lecturers,  a3 
fully  as  possible  representative  of  different  countries,  were  arranged  for.  The 
lectures  were  delivered  in  English,  as  well  as  French,  and  with  such  proportion 
of  other  tongues  as  demand  j  ustified. 

The  lectures  were  broadly  grouped  under  the  main  headings  of  art,  industry  and 
commerce,  agriculture,  hygiene  and  medicine,  education,  geography,  economics, 
and  social  science.  Each  week  some  lectures  were  given  in  all  these  divisions;  but 
from  week  to  week,  and,  still  more,  from  month  to  month,  somewhat  greater 
attention  was  given  to  one  department.  This  naturally  partly  depended  upon  the 
succession  of  congresses,  partly  upon  the  varying  demand  of  the  majority  of  mem¬ 
bers.  In  May,  the  season  of  the  opening  of  art  exhibitions  generally,  art  received 
the  fullest  attention.  In  June  and  July  industrial  and  technical  questions  were 
appropriately  brought  forward.  In  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  especially  in 
August  and  September,  education  and  hygiene  were  especially  prominent;  in  Sep¬ 
tember  and  October,  social  economy  and  the  general  summing  up  of  the  results  of 
the  exposition. 

POPULAR  COURSES. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  week  were  delivered  two  or  more  lectures,  giving  an 
account  of  the  exposition  as  a  whole,  and  on  the  remaining  days  lectures  illustra¬ 
tive  of  some  of  its  most  widely  interesting  series  of  exhibits. 

ART  COURSES. 

Art  courses  by  competent  critics  offered  a  sympathetic  interpretation  of  this 
leading  aspect  of  the  exhibition,  and  this  not  only  as  regards  architecture,  sculp- 


THE  INTEBNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOB  SCIENCE.  27 1 


ture,  painting,  decoration,  and  furnishing,  but  also  printing  and  bookbinding, 
costume,  and  the  minor  arts.  Historic  and  actual  technical  methods  were  also 
outlined  and  illustrated. 

TECHNICAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  COURSES. 

These  were  arranged  for  all  the  leading  departments  of  the  exposition.  They 
were  delivered  by  leading  experts,  and  illustrated  as  fully  as  possible  by  graphics, 
lantern  demonstrations,  etc.,  and  by  reference  to  the  actual  exhibits. 

While  some  of  the  lectures  were  addressed  to  skilled  workmen  and  others  con¬ 
versant  with  technical  details — mechanical,  electrical,  metallurgical,  textile,  and 
the  like — others  required  no  special  previous  knowledge,  but  sought  to  interpret 
the  progress  of  each  art  and  its  underlying  science  to  the  intelligent  public.  The 
commercial  importance  of  each  main  industry  was  also  kept  in  view.  These 
courses  were  planned  with  special  endeavor  to  harmonize  the  statistical  and 
economic  with  the  technological  point  of  vie;w,  and  this  with  due  recognition  of 
the  increasing  claims  of  art. 

AGRICULTURAL  COURSES. 

Here  some  lectures  were  addressed  to  professed  agriculturists,  as  also  to  horti¬ 
culturists  and  foresters,  while  others  broadly  interpreted  this  group  of  arts  and  its 
cognate  sciences  to  a  more  general  public.  Increasingly  important  questions,  such 
as  those  of  irrigation,  forestry,  and  tropical  agriculture,  were  also  considered. 

COURSES  IN  HYGIENE  AND  MEDICINE. 

Without  attempting  to  trespass  upon  the  work  of  medical  schools,  the  assembly 
organized  a  series  of  lectures  outlining  the  advance  of  medicine  and  hygiene  and 
indicating  the  problems  at  present  prominent,  particularly  in  their  larger  aspects — 
e.  g.,  the  rise  of  bacteriology  and  its  application  to  hygiene  and  to  the  incipient 
“municipalization  of  health.”  The  visits  to  the  magnificent  hygiene  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  exposition,  with  its  memorable  Salle  Pasteur,  etc.,  were  specially 
prominent;  visits  to  the  Pasteur  Institute  itself,  also. 

EDUCATIONAL  COURSES. 

These  proved  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  widely  helpful  features  of 
the  assembly.  To  outline  and  estimate  the  recent  history  of  education,  and  this 
in  its  relation  to  the  general  progress  of  the  world;  to  focus  and  clarify  its  many 
discussions;  to  indicate  and  outline  the  best  exhibits  of  the  galleries,  the  best 
thought  also  of  the  congresses,  could  not  but  be  of  manifold  service  to  all 
divisions  and  levels  of  the  teaching  profession,  as  well  as  to  the  general  public. 

GEOGRAPHIC  COURSES. 

As  the  special  sciences  may  be  viewed  as  rising  out  of  the  analysis  of  the  old 
descriptive  geography,  so  they  begin  to  find  again  their  concrete  synthesis  in 
modern  geography;  all  the  separate  manifestations  of  energy,  all  the  modes  and 
products  of  evolution  investigated  by  the  separate  sciences,  being  but  the  scenes 
and  details  of  a  general  drama  of  world  evolution,  of  which  the  description  is 
geography  in  the  highest  sense. 

This  series  was  treated  with  special  care  and  fullness,  not  only  as  regards  the 
concrete  illustrations  of  characteristic  regions,  and  of  regional  survey  generally — 
naturally  in  the  first  place  with  special  reference  to  Paris  and  its  environs,  and 
to  France  as  a  whole,  and  thence  to  the  countries  illustrated  throughout  the  expo¬ 
sition — but  also  as  regards  the  higher  aspects  of  geography  as  a  scientific  and  edu¬ 
cational  discipline;  of  geotechnics  also,  considered  as  the  highest  aspect  of  indus¬ 
trial  activity. 


272 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ECONOMIC  COURSES. 

The  relation  of  these  courses  to  all  and  each  of  the  preceding  ones,  industrial 
or  artistic,  agricultural  or  geographic,  is  too  obvious  to  need  comment.  It  was 
the  task  of  the  concrete  economist  here  to  complete  the  view  of  each  specialist  in 
his  own  department,  to  sum  up  and  to  coordinate  the  whole.  The  geographer,  the 
technologist,  the  art  critic,  with  their  appreciative  comparison  of  all  countries 
and  their  productions,  make  not  only  for  increased  knowledge,  but  for  better 
international  understanding,  for  mutual  respect  and  admiration  of  qualities,  for 
sympathetic  recognition  of  defects  also,  and  hence  for  greater  wisdom  of  action 
as  well.  So  it  is  for  the  economist  to  elucidate  and  set  forth  that  profound  soli¬ 
darity  of  civilization  which  underlies  all  our  national  differences,  and  to  insist 
that  these  differences  find  their  highest  expression  in  that  individuality  of  pro¬ 
duction  which  is  the  greatest  incentive  to  commerce,  as  this  is  the  very  founda¬ 
tion  of  peace. 

SOCIAL  COURSES. 

Probably  in  no  department  did  this  exhibition  more  notably  excel  its  predeces¬ 
sors  than  in  the  organization  of  its  department  of  social  economy,  and  this  upon 
a  scale  of  completeness  which  no  future  exhibition  claiming  serious  attention  can 
henceforth  afford  to  omit.  To  bring  together  this  multifarious  and  unparalleled 
wealth  of  materials,  and  documents,  and  statistics  of  all  kinds,  reports  and  photo¬ 
graphs,  plans  and  models,  an  exceptional  amount  of  intelligent  effort  was  lavished. 
To  utilize  these  resources  some  corresponding  effort  was  required;  still  more  if  it 
were  desired  to  appreciate  the  best  thought  of  the  corresponding  congresses , 
numerous  and  varied  as  these  were.  Here  again  the  aim  of  these  lecture  courses 
was  to  reconcile  breadth  with  clearness  of  view,  and,  so  far  as  might  be,  not  only 
to  point  out  the  highest  goals  of  social  effort,  but  practicable  ways  toward 
reaching  them. 

THE  GENERAL  COURSES. 

These  endeavored  to  interpret  the  exposition  and  its  main  features  in  a  more 
general  and  philosophic  way,  and  this  in  relation  to  the  general  progress  of  the 
closing  century  and  to  the  urgent  problems  of  the  opening  one. 

In  this  way  the  congresses  and  the  widely  representative  gathering  of  special¬ 
ists  of  all  kinds  which  they  brought  together  were  viewed  as  a  vast  resource  of 
educational  power,  to  be  as  far  as  possible  utilized  by  the  association  for  the  ben¬ 
efit  of  the  intelligent  visitor.  The  assembly  thus  served  as  a  useful  intermediary 
between  the  congresses  and  the  public.  One  of  its  main  tasks  was  thus  to  sum¬ 
marize,  interpret,  and  diffuse  the  results  of  science,  legitimately  popularizing  these 
without  vulgarizing  them;  on  the  one  side  interesting  a  widening  public,  and  so 
recruiting  for  every  science  and  for  the  congresses  of  future  years;  on  the  other, 
aiding  the  specialist  himself  to  see  and  to  present  his  subject  both  from  the  widest 
speculative  aspect  and  the  most  practical  side,  here  developing  its  applications, 
there  justifying  its  place  in  culture.  The  scheme  was  not  simply  that  of  organ¬ 
izing  the  most  ambitious  of  summer  schools  hitherto,  but,  as  already  indicated  for 
the  congresses,  it  had  a  synthetic  purpose  also.  It  sought  to  view  and  to  set  forth 
the  exposition  in  its  highest  aspect — the  museum  of  the  present  interpreted  by  the 
university  of  the  present. 

Against  popular  schemes  of  education,  such  as  the  summer  school,  the  reproach 
of  superficiality  has  been  made,  and  perhaps  not  always  without  some  justice, 
while  purely  academic  studies  are  apt  to  incur  either  that  of  narrowing  intensity 
or  of  vague  generality.  In  presence  of  this  concrete  museum  of  the  exposition 
and  of  the  critical  and  constructive  worth  of  the  congresses,  the  reconciliation  of 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


273- 


specialist  accuracy  and  synthetic  clearness  was  hoped  for,  and,  if  not  completely,, 
at  least  in  some  degree  realized. 

VISITS — LECTURES. 

Daily  visits  to  the  different  departments  and  galleries  of  the  exposition  were? 
organized.  These  were  nearly  always  complementary  to  a  lecture,  and  were,  of 7 
course,  in  conveniently  small  parties,  each  under  an  expert  guide. 

The  following  lecturers  took  part  in  the  programmes  of  the  English-speaking: 
groups: 

Miss  Jane  Addams,  Hull  House,  Chicago;  Rev.  J.  O.  Bevan,  College  of  Precep¬ 
tors,  London;  Prof.  A.  S.  Bickmore,  Natural  History  Museum,  New  York;  M_ 
Jean  de  Bloch,  Warsaw;  Mr.  B.  Branford,  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds;  Mr.  W.  Law 
Bros,  London;  Mr.  Calloway,  Washington;  Prof.  Adolphe  Cohn,  Columbia  Uni¬ 
versity,  New  York;  Dr.  James  A.  Cree,  Paris;  Mr.  Henry  C.  Devine,  London;:. 
Mr.  John  Duncan,  Chicago  Institute;  Mr.  Robert  Erskine  Ely,  Cambridge,  Mass.;, 
Prof.  Patrick  Geddes,  St.  Andrews  University;  Prof.  N.  P.  Gilman,  Meadville,, 
Pa.;  Mr.  C.  H.  Grinling,  Woolwich;  Prof.  Louis  G.  Janes,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  M„, 
La  Fontaine,  Brussels;  Mr.  H.  T.  Lukens,  California,  Pa.;  Mr.  T.  R.  Marr,  Edin¬ 
burgh;  Prof.  James  Mavor,  University  of  Toronto;  Mr.  F.  W.  Michie,  Dundee;, 
Dr.  D.  K.  Morris,  Mason  College,  Birmingham;  Mr.  J.  T.  Morris,  People’s  Palace,. 
London;  Prof.  J.  Arthur  Thomson,  Aberdeen  University;  Dr.  W.  H.  Tolman,. 
New  York;  the  Swami  Vivekenanda,  India;  Prof.  Lester  F.  Ward,  Washington;. 
Mr.  W.  Franklin  Willoughby,  Labor  Bureau,  Washington;  Mr.  G.  B.  Zug,  Paris.. 

To  all  of  these,  and  to  many  other  friends,  the  thanks  of  the  assembly  are  due*, 
but  especially  to  Mr.  Law  Bros  (since  unfortunately  deceased),  Mr.  and  Mrs*. 
Grinling,  and  Prof.  Mavor,  who  each,  during  a  prolonged  stay  in  Paris,  never 
failed  to  put  themselves  entirely  at  the  disposition  of  members  of  the  association.. 
Nor  should  the  devoted  service  of  the  office  staff  be  overlooked  in  promoting  the; 
success  of  the  meeting. 

Besides  the  direct  result  of  so  many  hundreds  of  lectures  and  demonstrations; 
upon  their  immediate  audiences,  the  indirect  result  of  these,  and  of  the  wide- 
publicity  of  the  aims  of  the  assembly,  has  been  manifest  not  .only  in  promoting 
special  knowledge  and  general  good  feeling,  but  in  the  education  of  opinion,  im 
diffusing  through  widening  circles  of  press  and  public  alike  a  fuller  appreciation 
of  the  exposition  and  its  best  exhibits,  its  higher  aspects,  its  many  eletaents  of 
progress.  Hence  in  all  the  groups  of  the  association  there  prevails  a  feeling  of. 
encouragement,  and  this  still  more  for  the  future. 

.  DEPARTMENT  OF  EXCURSIONS — PARIS,  IN  HISTORIC  AND  CONTEMPORARY  SURVEY*. 

Paris  itself  has,  of  course,  an  almost  unlimited  wealth  of  attractions  for  the  vis¬ 
itor,  while  the  environs  are  scarcely  less  rich  in  historic  and  in  picturesque  inter¬ 
est.  Hence  the  scheme  of  excursions  not  only  comprehended  the  exposition  and 
even  the  museums,  galleries,  and  monuments  of  the  city,  but  was  so  arranged  as; 
to  give  the  visitor  an  idea  of  the  historic  development  of  Paris  through  the  ages- 
from  her  initial  islet  of  the  Seine  to  her  actual  present.  Here  the  collaboration  of 
historian  and  antiquary  and  the  hospitality  of  the  heads  of  great  institutions  was- 
willingly  and  heartily  given.  Beyond  the  city  also  the  visitor  was  similarly  guided: 
outward  from  the  immediate  environs  and  through  the  historic  province  toward, 
an  extended  survey  of  France  as  a  whole  and  of  her  place  in  general  civilization.. 

For  the  student  of  natural  science  special  excursions  of  geological  and  botanical 
interest  were  arranged.  The  relations  of  physical  and  social  geography  were  kept; 
in  view  throughout  and  illustrated  as  fully  as  possible,  so  combining  the  methods 

ED  1901 - 18 


274 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


and  utilizing  the  results  of  naturalist  and  geographer,  historian  and  sociologist. 
This  department,  in  view  of  its  great  importance  to  teachers  at  the  present  time, 
received  great  attention,  for  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  in  this  respect  educa¬ 
tion,  alike  in  Europe  and  in  America,  is  being  revolutionized.  The  official  studies 
of  literature  and  of  science,  which  have  hitherto  solargety  divided  schools  between 
them,  are  being  found  to  reunite  and  to  acquire  new  interest  and  freshness  when 
founded  anew  upon  a  broad  and  deep  and  first-hand  experience — a  real  and  per¬ 
sonal  knowledge  of  and  interest  in  the  aspects  of  nature  and  of  human  society 
which  lie  within  the  pupils’  own  immediate  environment.  For  this  regional  sur¬ 
vey  of  Paris  and  its  surroundings,  therefore,  the  collaboration  of  leading  men  of 
science  and  teachers,  French,  American,  British,  and  others,  was  arranged. 

Thursday  afternoons  were  devoted  to  visits  to  the  more  important  churches 
(Notre  Dame,  St.  Germain-des-Pres,  St.  Julien-le-Pauvre,  St.  Denis,  St.  Germain 
1’Auxerrois)  and  museums  (Louvre,  Cluny,  Carnavalet,  Luxembourg,  Trocadero, 
etc.)  in  Paris,  and  to  places  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  (Vincennes  for  Expo¬ 
sition  Annexe,  St.  Cloud,  Sevres  for  national  factory  of  porcelain,  etc.).  On  Sat¬ 
urdays  longer  excursions  were  undertaken  to  enable  members  of  the  assembly  to 
become  acquainted  with  some  of  the  chief  historic  monuments  in  northern  Franca. 
These  expeditions  included  Beauvais,  Chantilly,  Chartres,  Fontainebleau,  Mont¬ 
morency,  Provins,  Reims,  Rouen,  St.  Germain,  Senlis,  Sens,  etc. 

The  special  Guide  to  Paris,  so  ably  prepared  for  the  association  by  Mr.  Stoddard 
Dewey,  the  Paris  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  with  its  excellent 
maps  by  Messrs.  Bartholomew  &  Son,  of  Edinburgh,  was  of  great  assistance  to 
members  in  their  visits  to  the  exposition  and  in  Paris. 

Though  the  temporary  purpose  of  this  volume  has  passed  away,  it  remains,  save 
for  a  few  pages  of  exposition  details,  of  permanent  value,  and  this  not  simply  as  a 
repertory  of  useful  information  to  the  visitor  new  to  Paris,  but  as  containing 
what  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  trustworthy,  compact,  learned,  yet  withal  read¬ 
able  and  interesting  surveys  of  historic  and  contemporary  Paris  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  language.  Copies  may  still  be  had  by  members  of  the  association. 

DRAMA,  MUSICAL  ENTERTAINMENTS,  ETC. 

The  attractions  and  resources  of  Paris,  as  the  most  important  center  of  dramatic 
art,  were  also  kept  in  view,  and  the  association  obtained  for  its  members  some 
special  facilities  and  advantages.  Receptions  and  social  gatherings  were  held  at 
least  once  weekly,  sometimes  in  the  rooms  of  the  association  at  the  Palais  des 
Congres,  and  sometimes  elsewhere,  as  notably  in  the  pavilion  of  the  United  States. 
Members  of  the  assembly  were  thus  afforded  opportunities  of  meeting  those  of 
kindred  interests,  and  also  of  seeing  something  of  the  social  life  of  France,  and 
special  introductions  of  both  kinds  were  arranged  for  as  far  as  possible. 

REPORTS. 

The  example  of  the  summer  schools  of  science,  art,  and  modern  languages,  now 
becoming  familiar  in  the  great  university  towns  of  Europe  and  America,  and  the 
lectures,  demonstrations,  and  excursions  in  which  the  British  and  French  Associa¬ 
tions  set  so  excellent  an  example  have  thus  been  freely  imitated;  but  the  more 
serious  items  of  the  association’s  programme  were  not  forgotten.  In  presence  of 
the  Paris  meeting  of  the  French  Association  and  of  120  specialist  congresses,  to  pro¬ 
ceed  by  the  reading  of  special  papers  would  have  been  to  enter  into  competition 
instead  of  cooperation.  Similarly,  in  presence  of  the  general  catalogues  and  of  the 
specialist  literature  of  the  exhibition  any  mere  overlapping  of  publications  would 
be  wasteful;  yet  the  prolonged  and  detailed  study  of  many  parts  of  the  exhibition 
by  the  lecturers  and  staff  of  the  association  naturally  suggested  the  preparation 
of  a  number  of  brief  reports.  These,  while  necessarily  leaving  all  attempt  at  com- 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


275 


pleteness,  whether  of  detail  or  of  special  survey,  to  the  various  official  publications, 
French  and  foreign,  briefly  insist  upon  some  of  the  features  in  which  the  present 
exposition  excels  its  predecessors,  and  seek  to  diffuse  some  of  its  most  valuable 
methods  and  results.  Such  reports  are  not  so  much  needed  in  special  arts  or 
applied  sciences,  which  have  already  an  abundant  literature,  as  in  the  more  gen¬ 
eral  fields — such,  for  instance,  as  the  departments  of  education  and  social  science, 
of  public  art,  of  the  history  of  arts  and  sciences.  Several  of  these  will  be  submitted 
at  Glasgow. 

LITERATURE,  ETC. 

Returning  to  work  accomplished,  the  special  literature  of  the  exhibition  has 
been  carefully  collected  and  classified.  A  small  collection  of  appliances  to  illus¬ 
trate  historic  and  geographic  methods  of  teaching  the  elements  of  the  sciences  is 
in  progress  and  should  be  proceeded  with.  The  contemporary  bibliographical 
movement,  though  more  advanced  in  America  than  Europe,  still  needs  active  sup¬ 
port  and  workers  everywhere.  Here  the  circulation  of  special  bibliographies  and 
card  catalogues  would  be  of  wide  use,  and  this  to  special  workers  in  many  fields. 
Some  cooperation  with  the  International  Institute  of  Bibliography  would  in  this 
connection  be  very  desirable. 

EXCHANGES. 

Some  important  and  valuable  exhibits  have  been  offered  to  the  association  for 
circulation  or  exchange.  An  initial  experiment  in  this  direction  had  already  been 
in  progress.  A  duplicate  of  the  admirable  nature-study  exhibit  of  the  Philadel¬ 
phia  Normal  College,  supplied  by  the  kindness  of  Professor  Wilson  and  her  pupils, 
has  been  circulating  among  Scottish  and  English  schools  for  some  months,  and 
will  shortly  start  from  Geneva  on  a  similar  journey  among  Swiss  institutions. 
The  principle  is  evidently  one  widely  applicable,  and  a  great  number  of  interest¬ 
ing  and  valuable  educational  exhibits  might  be  obtained,  and  these  from  various 
countries.  Here  may  be  specially  mentioned  a  generous  offer  of  cooperation  from 
Prof.  Bickmore,  director  of  public  instruction  of  the  Natural  History  Museum  of 
New  York,  which  it  is  earnestly  desired  the  association  may  be  enabled  to  accept. 

Nor  need  this  be  for  schools  and  popular  institutions  only.  The  remarkable 
university  exhibits  of  Prance  and  of  America  would  have  proved  of  the  greatest 
service  if  they  could  have  been  circulated  among  the  universities  of  other  coun¬ 
tries;  for  no  university  can  make  a  stronger  appeal  to  its  own  city  or  constituency 
than  by  clearly  exhibiting  the  special  excellences  of  others. 

Similarly  in  civic  matters.  The  remarkable  tenement-house  exhibition  recently 
organized  in  New  York  and  exhibited  in  Chicago,  Boston,  etc.,  is  now  available 
for  exhibition  in  Britain,  where  the  question  of  the  housing  of  the  people  is  also 
urgent.  Again,  such  an  exhibition  as  that  organized  by  the  Congres  de  l’Art 
Public,  under  the  auspices  of  the  city  of  Paris,  to  illustrate  the  historic  aspects  and 
develop  the  artistic  treatment  of  cities,  would  have  a  widened  usefulness  if  it, 
could  be  circulated  from  city  to  city  in  Europe  and  America,  gathering  illustra¬ 
tion  from  each  as  it  went.  This  suggestion  has  already  been  made  by  one  of  the 
trans- Atlantic  delegates  to  the  bureau  of  the  congress.  The  Exposition  de  la  Ville 
de  Paris  is  also  a  type  of  municipal  museum  which  can  not  be  too  widely  imitated 
elsewhere. 

SPECIAL  COMMITTEES,  e.  g.,  MUSEUMS. 

Without  trespassing  upon  the  work  of  juries  or  of  congresses,  several  standing 
committees  were  formed.  Of  these  a  single  instance  may  here  suffice — that  of  a 
committee  on  museums.  While  museums  and  collections  of  natural  science  or  of 
historic  art  are  broadly  similar  in  principle  and  arrangement  throughout  all  coun¬ 
tries,  the  newer  types  of  museum — geograiDhic  and  anthropological,  historic  and 
antiquarian,  educational  and  social — are  still  without  any  coordination  or  unity 


276 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

of  plan.  Many  cities  exhibit  beginnings  of  these;  still  more  entertain  projects. 
All  are  in  some  respects  valuable  and  suggestive,  yet  all  are  unrelated  and  there¬ 
fore  so  far  incomplete.  In  March  last,  in  Chicago,  a  meeting  was  held  of  special¬ 
ists  of  all  kinds  interested  in  such  museums — geographers  and  anthropologists, 
educationalists  and  sociologists— each  interested  in  some  aspect  of  his  city  or 
region,  its  natural  or  historic  record  or  interpretation,  its  education  or  improve¬ 
ment.  Every  project  submitted  had  some  constructive  interest,  yet  was  vulner¬ 
able  to  criticism,  and  the  meeting  thus  naturally  expressed  the  need  of  a  standing 
committee  to  discuss  and  report  upon  the  whole  question.  Similar  discussions 
and  presumably  similar  committees  are  arising  in  other  centers,  as  also  in  con¬ 
nection  with  future  exhibitions;  but  it  was  evident  that  at  the  forthcoming  Paris 
Exposition  the  subject  could  be  most  fully  and  adequately  dealt  with  and  all  the 
various  projects  and  discussions  be  most  easily  compared,  and,  in  so  far  as  might 
be,  harmoniously  combined.  Hence  this  museums  committee  of  the  association 
and  its  possible  usefulness. 

This  example  may  also  serve  as  a  convenient  illustration  of  the  essential  nature 
and  working  of  the  association,  which  seeks  to  utilize  and  cooperate  with  the 
many  elements  of  advance  which  are  still  too  isolated  from  each  other.  It  seeks 
to  bring  these  together,  to  compare  and  to  coordinate  their  best  elements,  and 
this  in  ways  not  only  applicable  within  the  greatest  of  world  expositions,  but 
adaptable  in  their  best  results  to  all  minor  scales  of  requirement,  those,  for 
instance,  of  museums  and  reference  libraries,  and  these  whether  of  city,  town¬ 
ship,  or  village,  of  university  or  school. 

The  further  development  of  this  museums  committee  in  Paris  in  connection  with 
the  Rue  des  Nations,  etc.,  is  mentioned  below  (pages  280-287). 

FINANCE. 

Though  a  balance  sheet  naturally  can  not  be  presented  before  the  general  meet¬ 
ing  at  Glasgow,  it  is  obvious  that  the  expenses,  both  initial  and  permanent,  of 
widely  international  communication,  of  offices  and  printing  in  Great  Britain,  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  Paris,  as  also  of  the  assembly  during  the  exhibition,  are 
very  considerable;  while  the  publication  and  distribution  of  reports  and  the 
arrangements  for  the  work  of  this  year  have  also  to  be  provided  for.  Although 
initial  outlays  need  not  be  repeated,  neither  the  permanent  organization  nor  the 
new  developments  above  indicated  can  be  carried  on  without  considerable  expense. 
The  subscription  of  membership  of  the  association  and  the  proceeds  of  its  assem¬ 
blies  may  ultimately  suffice  for  these,  but  it  has  been  recognized,  and  this  inde¬ 
pendently,  by  all  the- national  groups  that  a  substantial  sum  should  be  independ¬ 
ently  raised  by  each  in  its  own  country,  the  finances  of  each  group  being  of 
course  kept  distinct,  and  their  contributions  to  the  common  expenses  equitably 
adjusted.  Thanks  to  the  munificent  initiative  of  Sir  Robert  Pullar,  who  must  be 
recognized  as  the  founder  of  the  British  group,  indeed,  as  yet,  also  of  the  American 
one,  and  of  corresponding  donors  to  the  French  group,  the  association  has  hith¬ 
erto  been  worked  upon  a  basis  of  international  cooperation;  i.  e. ,  the  groups  first  on 
foot  undertaking  the  main  outlays  without  delaying  for  the  financial  organization 
of  others.  It  has  been,  of  course,  amicably  recognized  that  such  temporary  outlays 
of  one  group  of  the  association  toward  the  initiation  and  early  development  of 
others,  as  of  the  British  for  the  American  group,  are  to  be  considered  as  advances 
to  be  reimbursed  as  soon  as  possible. 

It  is  estimated,  in  the  light  of  the  experience  gained  during  the  first  year's  work, 
that  to  carry  out  the  plans  indicated,  including  the  assemblies  at  Glasgow  and  St. 
Louis,  a  sum  of  not  less  than  £10,000  ($50,000)  will  be  needed,  and  hence  an  appeal 
is  being  made  to  all  interested  to  become  members,  and  to  subscribe  as  liberally 
as  possible. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE.  277 

FUTURE  ASSEMBLIES. 

The  experience  of  the  Paris  assembly  has  warranted  fully  the  continuance  of 
similar  organizations  at  future  exhibitions,  for  example,  those  of  Glasgow  in  1901 
and  St.  Louis  in  1903.  At  these,  however,  it  will  be  well  to  reduce  the  period 
during  which  lectures,  etc.,  are  given,  and  so  give  more  attention  to  the  specific 
tasks  enumerated  above.  At  Glasgow  the  association  is  already  offered  suitable 
accommodation,  and  it  is  hoped  that  a  similar  arrangement  will  be  possible  at  St. 
Louis. 

In  its  relation  to  exhibitions  the  work  thus  begun  may  be  compared  to  that  of 
the  farmer,  who  begins  his  work  at  the  great  fair  with  the  getting  in  of  seed  and 
implements,  and  ends  it  there  with  the  year's  crop,  yet,  none  the  less,  continues 
it  year  long  in  the  field. 


II. 

1.  MEETING  OF  ENGLISH-SPEAKING  GROUPS  UNDER  THE  PRESL 
DENCY  OF  THE  RIGHT  HON.  JAMES  BRYCE,  M.  P. 

A  meeting  of  the  English-speaking  groups  was  held  in  the  Petit  Palais,  Champs 
Elysees,  on  September  14,  1900.  The  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.  P. ,  vice-presi- 
dent  of  the  British  group,  presided.  Professor  Geddes,  secretary  of  the  British 
and  American  groups,  submitted  a  report  (largely  incorporated  above)  upon  the 
work  carried  on  by  the  assembly  during  the  summer,  and  spoke  of  the  necessities 
and  prospects  for  the  future. 

The  Rev.  A.  Sternberg  then  moved  “  That  this  meeting,  having  heard  the  sec¬ 
retaries’  report,  cordially  indorses  the  work  of  the  association  in  its  various 
branches  and  recommends  the  publication  of  the  specific  reports  in  progress.  It 
further  approves  the  proposals  to  hold  an  assembly  at  Glasgow  in  1901  and  at  St. 
Louis  in  1903,  and  desires  the  executive  committee  to  take  the  necessary  steps.” 

Mr.  J.  Martin  White,  of  New  York  and  Dundee,  in  seconding  the  resolution, 
remarked  that  such  an  assembly  might  become  of  great  use  in  aiding  the  design 
and  the  arrangement,  and  making  clear  the  classification  of  future  world’s  fairs. 

The  motion  was  unanimously  adopted. 

Prof.  A.  S.  Bickmore,  of  the  New  York  Museum  of  Natural  History,  moved 
“  That  this  meeting  recommends  the  association  to  the  support  of  those  interested 
in  its  aims  and,  recognizing  the  necessarily  considerable  expenses  of  organization 
and  maintenance  and  the  need  of  ample  funds  for  carrying  out  the  various 
objects  indicated  in  the  report,  warmly  supports  the  appeal  of  the  general  com¬ 
mittee  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  toward  increasing  the  number  of  ordinary 
and  life  members  and  of  subscribers.” 

He  was^glad  to  know  that  suitable  accommodation  for  the  assembly  had  been 
secured  in  Glasgow,  and  he  could  assure  the  members  of  the  association  of  a  cor¬ 
dial  welcome  when  they  come  to  America  in  1903. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Grinling,  of  Woolwich,  in  seconding  the  resolution,  said  it  had  to  be 
recognized  that  scientific  and  educational  work  could  not,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
be  self-supporting.  It  was  very  necessary  to  face  the  financial  question,  to  make 
the  association  and  its  work  better  known,  to  increase  its  membership,  and  to  add 
to  the  number  of  subscribers. 

The  chairman  expressed  his  entire  agreement  with  the  speakers,  and  the  motion 
was  carried  unanimously. 

President  Scovel,  of  Wooster  University,  Ohio,  moved  “That  our  profoundest 
recognition  and  thanks  are  due  to  the  Right  Hon.  Mr.  Bryce,  our  presiding  officer, 
for  giving  the  influence  of  his  name,  character,  and  position  to  this  work,  which 


278 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


in  its  broad,  international,  and  deeply  intellectual  character  so  well  befits  his  active 
and  generous  efforts,  and  will  certainly  be  rewarded  by  great  success.” 

Professor  Bickmore  seconded  the  resolution. 

The  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce  warmly  reciprocated  on  behalf  of  the  British  mem¬ 
bers  what  Professor  Bickmore  had  said  for  the  Americans,  and  assured  the  latter 
of  the  welcome  they  would  receive  at  the  Glasgow  exhibition. 

He  hoped  that  all  those  present  would  endeavor  to  bring  the  aims  of  the  organ¬ 
ization  to  the  knowledge  of  thosewhowould  .be  able  to  give  it  financial  help. 
Science  and  learning,  indeed,  always  went  hand  in  hand  with  poverty,  so  that 
those  who  were  engaged  in  educational  work  were  seldom  able  to  give  anything 
beyond  their  services.  But  they  all  knew  many  who  had  never  known  the  bless¬ 
ings  and  advantages  of  poverty  and  who  were  anxious  to  spend  some  of  their 
superfluity  in  works  of  benevolence  and  public  utility.  Many  present  on  that 
occasion,  both  from  Great  Britain  and  still  more  from  the  United  States,  had 
friends  who  might  be  interested  in  the  work,  and  he  hoped  that  whenever  they 
had  an  opportunity  of  advising  them  as  to  the  way  in  which  usefully  to  spend 
money  they  would  not  forget  the  modest  claim  this  international  association  put 
before  them. 

He  was  not  able  to  tell  them  more  of  the  actual  work  of  the  assembly,  with  its 
lectures,  etc.,  than  they  knew  already  far  better  than  he  did.  They  knew  what 
good  work  had  been  done  and  what  better  work  could  still  be  done.  But  he  wished 
to  say  one  word  of  something  else  which  had  been  suggested  to  him  by  his  visit  to 
Paris  and  the  assembly.  It  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  what  could  be  done  by 
international  cooperation,  by  the  cooperation  of  those  who  spoke  different  tongues, 
inhabited  different  countries,  lived  in  different  fashion,  but  felt  themselves  all 
united  by  having  the  same  problems  to  deal  with,  and  felt  that  they  could  coop¬ 
erate  in  solving  them.  This  was  of  course  best  expressed  by  the  union  of  British 
and  Americans  into  one  section  of  the  assembly.  The  unity  that  had  lately  been 
growing  up  between  the  English  and  American  people  had  in  fact  been  expressed 
when  one  section  was  formed  of  the  English-speaking  people — of  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  with  her  colonies. 

But  he  would  go  one  step  farther  and  speak  of  another  and  wider  unity  which 
this  might  suggest  to  their  minds.  There  had  been  meetings  of  their  chambers  of 
commerce,  and  a  great  deal  had  been  said  of  the  advantages  that  were  to  be 
derived  from  peace  and  harmony  between  the  nations.  It  was  pointed  out,  too, 
that  industry  and  commerce  lived  by  peace.  We  had  all  to  hope  that  the  nations 
would  come  to  learn  that  war  was  their  greatest  enemy,  peace  their  greatest 
friend.  At  the  same  time  they  knew  that  commerce,  much  as  they  desired  it  to 
be  a  means  of  peace,  sometimes  led  to  strife.  He  thought  that  there  was  some¬ 
thing  which  made  far  more  strongly  for  peace  than  commerce,  and  that  was  the 
science  and  learning  which  did  not  depend  for  their  growth  and  success  on  com¬ 
petition  and  rivalry.  Feeling  this,  he  urged  that  an  association  like  theirs  should 
be  a  great  factor  toward  international  understanding. 

It  was  significant,  too,  he  thought,  that  the  first  assembly  of  the  association 
should  be  held  in  Paris,  where  was  the  great  university  of  the  Middle  Ages.  For 
within  a  mile  of  where  they  stood  there  had  been  lit  in  the  twelfth  century  a  bea¬ 
con  fire  which  had  done  more  to  advance  the  higher  civilization  of  Europe  than 
any  other,  and  which  had  drawn  there  that  great  international  assembly  of  those 
eager  to  learn  and  to  teach  which  they  now  sought  to  imitate. 

The  Right  Rev.  Archbishop  Ireland,  of  St.  Paul,  supported  the  views  and  the 
appeal  of  the  chairman,  and  desired  to  say  how  much  he  wished  well  to  the  work 
of  the  association.  It  had  begun  well,  had  done  a  useful  and  important  work  in 
education,  in  science,  and  in  the  promotion  of  international  sympathies,  and  he 
believed  it  would  do  still  more  in  the  future. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


279 


Prof.  Emile  Bourgeois,  secretaire-general  adjoint,  briefly  expressed  the  satisfac¬ 
tion  felt  by  the  French  members  of  the  association  in  the  active  cooperation  of 
the  British  and  American,  the  German  and  Russian  groups. 

Professor  Lexis,  vice-president  of  the  German  group,  and  Professor  Kovalevsky, 
of  the  Russian  group,  warmly  concurred. 

2.  MEETING  OF  SECRETARIES  UNDER  THE  PRESIDENCY  OF  M.  LIARD. 

A  meeting  of  the  secretaries  of  the  national  and  international  groups  was  held 
at  the  offices  of  the  association,  Palais  des  Congres,  on  October  10, 1900,  M.  Liard, 
directeux  de  l’enseignement  superieur,  international  secretary,  in  the  chair. 

A  report  by  Prof.  Emile  Bourgeois,  assistant  general  secretary,  on  the  work  of 
the  various  national  groups  daring  the  Exposition,  was  read  and  approved.  The 
concluding  summary  may  be  cited: 

Je  crois  pouvoir  rendre  aux  presidents  et  secretaires,  aux  professeurs  des  differ- 
ents  groupes  un  temoignage  aussi  complet  et  bien  frappant  de  leur  activite,  en  me 
bornant  a  constater  que  l’Ecole  a  fourni  en  quatre  mois  a  peine  pres  de  300  con¬ 
ferences  de  doctrines  ou  duplications  general es,  sur  les  acts,  d’abord,  les  sciences 
appliquees,  l’industrie,  l’economie  sociale,  la  paix — quelle  a,  en  outre,  organise  450 
visiles  au  moins  dans  toutes  les  sections,  pavilions,  et  palais  de  rExposition.  Si 
grande  qu’ait  ete  l’activite  de  l’Ecole,  rExposition  cependant  ne  l'a  point  epuisee: 
elle  a  ete  pour  ses  differents  groupes  l’occasion  de  conferences  ou  de  visites  dans  les 
grands  etablissements  ou  monuments  de  Paris  et  des  environs. 

A  raison  de  800  logons  pour  120  jours,  cost  une  moyenne  de  6  legons  par  jour  qui 
ont  groupe  ordinairement  de  40  a  50  audi tears,  et  souvent  jusqu'a  300.  Une 
centaine  de  professeurs  ont  enseigne  dans  les  4  salles;  un  personnel  de  huit  secre¬ 
taires  et  de  dix  employes  ont  travaille.  II  y  a  plus  d’une  universite  qui  dans  un 
semestre  ne  donne  pas  une  telle  carriere.  Et  je  ne  crois  pas  que  jamais  rExposi¬ 
tion  ait  pro  voqueun  pared  mou  vement  d ’etudes  et  d’enseignement  pour  six  nations 
et  en  quatre  langufes:  ce  qui  n’etait  pas  la  moindre  nouveaute.  Yoila,  messieurs, 
votre  oeuvre  en  quelques  mots* 

The  continuance  of  the  existing  national  groups  was  intimated  by  the  respec¬ 
tive  secretaries,  and  it  was  agreed  to  cooperate  in  an  international  assembly  at  the 
Glasgow  exhibition  in  1901,  and  at  that  of  St.  Louis  in  1903.  For  this  purpose  the 
vice-presidents  and  secretaries  of  the  British  group  were  requested  to  act  as  the 
international  bureau,  and  to  make  ail  necessary  arrangements  for  1901. 

The  objects  and  permanent  constitution  of  the  international  association  were 
then  discussed.  The  draft  constitution,  prepared  before  the  assembly  by  the 
British  and  French  groups,  was  remitted  to  each  national  group,  in  order  that  a 
report  on  this  and  on  the  future  activities  of  the  association  should  be  presented 
at  a  general  meeting  in  Glasgow  in  1901. 

3.  CLOSING  RECEPTION  UNDER  THE  KINDNESS  OF  M.  LEON 

BOURGEOIS. 

A  closing  reception  was  held  in  the  American  Pavilion,  Rue  des  Nations,  Thurs¬ 
day,  October  18,  1900,  M.  Leon  Bourgeois,  general  president,  in  the  chair. 

There  were  present  the  ambassador  of  the  United  States  (General  Porter),  th§ 
vice-presidents  and  secretaries  of  the  French,  Russian,  and  German  groups,  and 
a  large  attendance  of  members. 

A  letter  of  apology  from  M.  Greard,  president  of  the  French  group,  rector  of 
the  Sor  bonne,  was  read. 

The  secretary  briefly  recapitulated  preceding  reports: 

(1)  As  regards  lectures,  visits,  excursions,  upward  of  eight  hundred  had  been 
given  by  the  various  national  groups;  (2)  that  the  various  groups  had  unani¬ 
mously  decided  to  hold  an  assembly  at  Glasgow  in  1901,  and  St.  Louis  in  1903; 
and  (3)  in  regard  to  finance  it  was  estimated  that  a  sum  of  £10,000  ($50,000)  was 
needed  to  carry  on  the  work  till  1903. 


280 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Several  large  subscriptions  had  already  been  paid  in  since  the  meeting  of  14th 
September,  including  two  of  $1,000  and  one  of  $500. 

M.  Leon  Bourgeois  said  that  scarcely  a  year  had  elapsed  since  they  had  met  on 
the  initiative  of  the  British  group  to  consider  whether  it  was  possible  to  form  an 
international  association,  and  to  hold  an  international  assembly  at  the  Paris  Expo¬ 
sition  of  1900.  Now  they  had  their  answer  in  what  the  secretary  of  the  British- 
American  group  had  just  said.  For  months  past  the  school  had  been  at  work, 
offering  on  the  one  hand  daily  lectures  and  guidance,  and  on  the  other  aiding 
special  groups  of  students,  teachers,  workingmen’s  delegations.  This  closing 
reunion  did  not  by  any  means  mean  the  death  of  the  association;  a  programme  of 
useful  work  was  in  progress  and  would  continue;  and  though  naturally  this 
assembly  closed  with  this  exhibition  it  was  only  to  reopen  with  fuller  experience 
at  Glasgow. 

For  his  own  part  and  that  of  his  French  colleagues  he  could  not  express  their 
satisfaction  in  this  work  of  true  internationalism ,  nor  overestimate  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  these  groups,  speaking  four  different  languages,  yet  discussing  the  same 
ideas  and  studying  the  same  facts. 

The  assembly  had  carried  on  at  the  exposition  a  great  work  of  peace  in  study¬ 
ing  not  the  theories,  but  the  facts  of  industrial  and  artistic,  of  social  and  economic 
progress,  and  he  believed  that  with  future  assemblies  this  work  would  become 
more  and  more  important.  He  warmly  congratulated  the  British  and  American 
groups  upon  their  large  contribution  to  the  assembly,  and,  as  general  president 
of  the  association,  he  desired  to  recommend  them  very  warmly  to  the  considera¬ 
tion  of  the  coming  great  exhibitions  and  of  their  countrymen  generally.  He  hoped 
that  he  might  himself  be  able  to  come  to  Glasgow  next  year;  and,  in  any  case, 
there  would  be  to  aid  in  the  work  of  the  English-speaking  groups  many  represen¬ 
tatives  of  France,  of  Germany,  and  of  Russia,  and  he  trusted  of  other  European 
nations.  In  conclusion,  he  asked  all  to  join  with  him  in  wishing  success  to  the 
Glasgow  International  Assembly. 

Herr  Liiders,  imperial  privy  councillor,  vice-president  of  German  group, 
echoed  the  words  of  their  president.  Although  coming  late  in  the  field,  the  Ger¬ 
man  group  felt  satisfied  with  its  beginnings  and  was  determined  to  do  everything 
possible  to  aid  next  year  s  work. 

Prof.  E.  de  Roberty,  vice-president  of  Russian  group,  while  generally  agreeing 
with  what  had  been  said,  wished  a  practical  advance  in  the  internationalism  of 
the  association.  Though  the  national  groups  were  convenient  for  administra¬ 
tion,  he  wished  to  see  their  action  more  unified,  and  divided  only  according  to 
their  interest  in  different  departments. 

Mr.  Howard  J.  Rogers,  director  of  education  and  social  economy  for  the  United 
States,  moved  the  thanks  of  the  meeting  to  M.  Leon  Bourgeois  for  his  active  inter¬ 
est  in  the  association,  and  to  the  office  bearers  of  the  other  national  groups  for 
their  cordial  cooperation  with  the  English-speaking  ones. 


III. 

INTERNATIONAL  MUSEUMS  AND  INSTITUTES,  PARIS. 

(COMITE  d’organisation  des  instituts  et  musees  INTERN ATIONAUX. ) 

I.  Following  upon  the  closing  meetings  and  receptions  of  the  British  and  Amer¬ 
ican  groups  in  October,  1900,  a  final  banquet  was  organized  at  the  close  of  the 
exhibition  by  the  committee  of  the  French  group,  in  which  upward  of  two  hun¬ 
dred  took  part,  chiefly  members  of  the  French  committee  and  lecturers  of  the 
Ecole  Internationale,  but  with  a  full  representation  of  the  other  national  and  lin- 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


281 


guistic  groups.  M.  Leon  Bourgeois  occupied  the  chair,  and  the  speakers  were 
MM.  Herbette,  Liard,  Emile  Bourgeois,  and  Choublier  for  the  French  group;  Prof, 
Maxime  Kovalevsky  for  the  Russian,  Mr.  Berg  for  the  German,  Professor  Wood¬ 
ward,  United  States  assistant  commissioner,  for  the  American;  Mr.  Fabre  for  the 
(incipient)  Canadian  group,  Professor  Geddes  for  the  British,  the  last-named 
having  submitted  the  proposals  of  an  informal  international  subcommittee.  M. 
Leon  Bourgeois  in  his  concluding  speech,  after  congratulating  the  committee 
upon  the  first  assembly  of  the  association,  of  which  the  viability  and  usefulness 
had  now  been  so  clearly  proved,  expressed  his  cordial  approval  of  this  new  pro¬ 
posal  to  organize  a  committee  for  the  preservation,  if  possible,  of  a  number  of  the 
palaces  of  the  Rue  des  Nations,  and  their  utilization  as  a  series  of  international 
museums  or  institutes,  which  would  not  only  retain  the  most  striking  and  impres¬ 
sive  example  of  the  international  cooperation  of  the  exposition,  but  perpetuate 
and  develop  its  best  results,  and  advance  the  permanent  objects  of  the  interna¬ 
tional  association. 

II.  This  committee  of  initiative,  at  first  known  as  ‘‘Comite  pour  la  Conserva¬ 
tion  et  l’Utilisation  de  la  Rue  des  Nations,”  numbered  the  following  among  its 
members:  M.  Leon  Bourgeois;  M.  Liard,  directeur  de  1’enseigneinent  superieur; 
M.  Herbette,  conseiller  d’etat;  Professor  Lavisse;  M.  Duclaux,  director  of  the 
Pasteur  Institute;  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte;  M.  Charles  Normand,  president  of 
the  Society  for  the  Preservation  of  the  Monuments  of  Paris;  Prof.  Emile  Bour¬ 
geois,  Ecole  Normale  Superieure;  M.  Georges  Cain,  conservator  of  the  Musee  Car- 
navalet;  M.  Schrader,  the  well-known  geographer;  M.  Labusquiere,  municipal 
councillor;  General  Sebert;  Dr.  A.  G.  Martin,  officer  of  hygiene  for  Paris;  M.  G. 
Moch,  secretary  of  the  Peace  Society;  Professor  Wilson,  Philadelphia  Museums. 
Its  meetings  were  first  held  under  the  chairmanship  of  M.  Duclaux,  and  afterwards 
of  M.  Louis  Herbette;  M.  Yourievitch,  attache  to  the  Russian  embassy  and  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  International  Psychological  Institute,  and  Professor  Geddes  acting  as 
the  secretaries,  and  afterwards  also  MM.  Friedel  and  Hamelin. 

The  question  of  the  actual  state  and  durability  of  the  buildings  was  referred  to 
M.  Louis  Bonnier,  who,  as  architecte-en-chef  des  installations  de  1’exposition,  had 
superintended  on  behalf  of  the  exposition  authorities  the  erection  of  the  buildings 
of  the  Rue  des  Nations.  After  inspection,  he  furnished  a  report  recommending 
the  retention  of  twelve  of  the  buildings  on  the  river  front,  forecasting  approxi¬ 
mately  the  outlays  which  would  be  desirable  for  the  repair  and  upkeep  of  these  for 
ten  years,  with  introduction  of  the  necessary  heating  apparatus,  etc.  This  amount, 
after  adding  a  very  ample  margin  for  unforeseen  contingencies,  and  allowing  for 
the  purchase  of  rights  held  by  contractors  in  a  number  of  cases  over  the  materials 
of  the  buildings,  and  of  those  of  the  contractors  of  the  projecting  platform  of  the 
river  promenade,  seemed  fully  within  the  range  of  practical  possibilities,  since  it 
is  not  often  that  a  dozen  museum  buildings  could  thus  be  obtained  and  put  in 
order  for  ten  years  for  a  sum  not  exceeding  that  which  had  actually  been  spent 
less  than  a  year  before  upon  the  construction  of  one  of  them. 

A  report  upon  the  possible  utilization  of  each  building  was  next  prepared,  which 
may  here  be  briefly  abridged,  since  its  principle  may  be  of  service  in  the  not  too 
distant  future — that  of  adapting  each  building,  with  its  well-marked  national 
architecture  and  associations,  to  a  future  use  in  some  department  of  scientific, 
artistic,  or  educational  activity  appropriate  to  the  racial  character,  the  historic 
record,  or  the  contemporary  achievement  of  its  builders  and  donors. 

The  possible  uses  suggested  by  the  exposition  are  many.  Of  these,  the  follow¬ 
ing  were  considered  by  the  committee  to  be  worthy  of  first  consideration: 

In  the  first  place,  there  should  naturally  be  a  retrospective  museum  of  universal 
expositions  since  1799.  In  this  museum  would  be  gathered  the  archives  and  the 
illustrative  documents  of  past  expositions;  and  it  would  thus  necessarily  give  a 
veritable  summary  of  the  history  of  industry,  science,  and  art  during  a  century  of 


282 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


progress.  The  museum  would  illustrate,  besides  the  great  series  of  Paris  exposi¬ 
tions,  those  which  have  been  held  in  other  cities  from  the  Crystal  Palace  exposi¬ 
tion  of  London  (1851)  till  the  Chicago  (1893)  and  Glasgow  (1901)  expositions. 

One  of  the  special,  and  at  the  same  time  most  useful  and  attractive  of  the 
exhibits,  was  surely  the  historic  exposition  of  the  immortal  works  of  Pasteur  at 
the  Palace  of  Hygiene.  The  Pasteur  Institute  proposes  to  conserve  this  collec¬ 
tion,  and  to  enrich  it  by  completing  the  historic  part  and  adding  all  that  can  con¬ 
tribute  to  the  illustration  of  allied  works,  as,  for  example,  antiseptic  surgery,  the 
creation  of  Lord  Lister. 

After  hygiene  one  passes,  by  a  natural  transition,  through  the  idea  of  physical 
education  to  consider  the  questions  of  education  in  general,  which  held  so  promi¬ 
nent  a  place  in  the  exposition  of  1900.  Here  one  finds  three  principal  divisions: 

(1)  Physical  education. 

(2)  Manual  education,  which  is  allied  to  physical  education,  and  constitutes, 
with  technical  education,  a  distinct  ensemble,  easy  to  illustrate  by  representation 
of  it3  processes  and  results. 

(3)  School  education. — The  exposition  contained  many  collections  of  consider¬ 
able  importance,  which  have  since,  in  great  part,  been  dispersed.  Most  of  these 
collections  could  be  reconstituted,  and  some  even  improved.  An  important  com¬ 
parative  museum  of  the  school  systems  of  different  countries  could  thus  be 
formed. 

The  Palace  of  Social  Economy  in  the  exposition  contained  a  collection  of  the 
greatest  practical  utility,  which  specialists  and  the  public  alike  must  wish  to  see 
conserved  and  enriched.  It  comprised  documents,  pictures,  graphics,  and  statis¬ 
tics  of  the  greatest  interest  and  value  for  the  practical  study  of  such  important 
questions  as  workmen's  protection,  provident  societies,  charity,  pensions,  coopera¬ 
tion,  agricultural  syndicates,  etc.,  and  of  all  that  affects  the  relations  between 
capital  and  labor. 

But  besides  the  social  sciences,  the  physical  and  natural  sciences  also  held  an 
important  place  in  the  exposition,  and  that  by  the  numerous  international  con¬ 
gresses,  as  well  as  in  their  respective  sections.  It  would  be  well,  surely,  to  set 
apart  a  pavilion  for  the  use  of  learned  societies,  often  so  inconveniently  accom¬ 
modated,  and  equally  for  the  bureaus  of  the  various  scientific  and  international 
associations  which  owe  their  origin  to  the  great  congresses  of  the  exposition.  An 
amphitheater  could  easily  be  organized  in  one  of  the  great  pavilions  where  the 
reunions  of  societies  and  congresses  might  be  held.  The  Rue  des  Nations  might 
thus  be  made  the  convenient  and  recognized  center  for  numerous  congresses  still 
to  come. 

The  exposition  was  at  least  the  third  where  the  city  of  Paris  had  created  a  mag¬ 
nificent  collection,  unique  in  the  world,  of  all  documents  and  objects  relating  to 
civic  life  and  calculated  to  impress  upon  the  citizen  a  sense  of  his  duties.  All  the 
activities  of  a  great  city  were  represented.  It  certainly  was  one  of  the  most  useful 
and  most  appreciated  of  all  the  exhibits;  yet  it,  like  the  others,  has  been  dispersed. 
Under  the  auspices  of  the  city  of  Paris  was  organized  also  a  congress  on  public 
art,  accompanied  by  an  exhibition  of  public  art,  too  large  to  be  accommodated  in 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  but  suitably  lodged  in  the  halls  of  the  Palais  des  Examens* 
Around  a  collection  admirably  illustrating  the  transformations  and  the  improve¬ 
ments  made  in  the  city  of  Paris  were  grouped  collections  loaned  by  other  cities, 
French  and  foreign  alike. 

The  new  century  has  great  need  of  such  a  museum  as  this;  and  if  one  of  the 
pavilions  of  the  Rue  des  Nations  could  be  devoted  to  such  a  collection,  there  would 
be  few  things  more  interesting  to  the  public  or  more  useful  to  the  world. 

And  how  better  could  one  finish  this  series  of  new  museums,  of  which  the  expo¬ 
sition  gave  the  inspiration  and  the  example,  than  by  a  museum  of  peace?  There 
was  no  separate  department  of  peace  in  the  exposition,  but  the  subject  was 


TELE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE, 


283 


outlined  in  more  than  one  exhibit,  notably  in  that  of  M.  Jean  de  Bloch.  The  idea, 
however,  is  latent  everywhere.  Clear  ideas  and  honest  endeavors  are  not  want¬ 
ing,  and  a  permanent  museum  must  soon  result.  Where  could  a  better  site  be 
found  in  Paris  or  in  the  world  than  in  the  Rue  des  Nations? 

Turning  now  to  the  appropriation  of  the  respective  buildings,  to  the  installa¬ 
tion  of  the  museums  and  of  the  learned  societies,  a  practical  question  had  to  be 
decided,  viz,  to  which  of  the  various  subjects  suggested  was  each  building  best 
suited?  It  had  also  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  since  each  monument  was  typical  of 
a  nation  and  ought  to  recall  the  international  sympathy  which  characterized  the 
universal  exposition,  the  result  obtained  would  be  perfect  only  if,  in  the  allocation 
of  the  buildings  for  their  new  functions,  equal  account  was  taken  of  the  genius 
and  character  of  the  nations  which  gave  the  buildings  in  question.  Such  an  allo¬ 
cation  would  commemorate  in  some  measure  the  contribution  of  each  country  to 
the  common  work  of  progress  and  of  civilization. 

For  practical  as  well  as  for  more  sentimental  reasons  one  could  not  do  better 
than  accommodate  in  the  Palace  of  Germany  many  of  the  learned  societies.  The 
collections  which  Germany  exhibited  there  during  the  summer  of  1900  were  chosen 
expressly,  according  to  the  catalogue,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the  artistic 
impulse  which  she  had  received  from  France,  and  French  science  might  fitly 
acknowledge  in  its  turn  the  impulse  which  it  has  received  from  Germany.  The 
questions  of  the  organization  of  libraries  and  of  international  bibliography,  of 
congresses  and  of  learned  societies,  might  all  find  a  convenient  center  here,  and 
here,  too,  might  be  housed  the  collections  of  the  Palace  of  Social  Economy. 

For  the  collections  of  a  civic  order,  for  all  that  relates  to  municipal  activity  and 
to  public  art,  no  better  accommodation  could  be  found  than  that  offered  by  the 
magnificent  Belgian  Hotel  de  Yille,  which  represents  so  worthily  the  high  civic 
traditions  of  the  Flemish  communes  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

From  purely  practical  points  of  view — the  good  light  from  the  north  and  west, 
the  windows  greater  in  breadth  than  in  height,  etc. — the  pavilion  of  Great  Britain 
is  preeminently  adapted  for  bacteriological  collections,  the  Pasteur  museum,  and 
the  experimental  sciences.  The  learned  societies  which  have  need  of  laboratories 
would  find  better  accommodation  here  than  elsewhere;  for  example,  experimental 
psychology,  which  requires  so  much  light  for  microscopes  and  other  apparatus. 

The  pavilion  of  Norway  might  serve  as  the  great  lecture  and  meeting  hall  for 
societies  and  congresses,  as  the  Thingvalla  of  each  society  or  group  of  societies. 
The  considerable  space  afforded  by  the  walls  and  the  gallery  might  be  devoted 
fitly  to  the  questions  of  navigation  and  of  fishery,  to  Arctic  exploration;  in  short, 
to  all  those  sciences  and  arts  in  which  Norway  has  so  valiantly  won  her  supremacy. 

Finland  provided  one  of  the  culminating  exhibits  of  geography  in  the  exposition. 
She  offered  in  her  pavilion,  by  its  architectural  form  and  the  collection  of  objects 
exhibited,  a  marvelous  idea  of  a  regional  life  in  all  its  aspects — place,  work,  fam¬ 
ily,  institutions,  intellectual  culture,  art.  It  would  provide  an  admirable  center 
for  geography. 

For  geography  the  pavilion  of  Monaco  might  also  be  indicated ;  but  it  might 
more  appropriately  be  devoted  to  oceanography  and  to  the  biological  sciences;  that 
is,  to  a  continuance  of  the  function  which  it  served  during  the  exposition. 

Where  better  could  we  lodge  all  that  relates  to  history  than  in  the  marvelous 
palace  of  Hungary,  which  represents  so  many  places  of  national  evolution,  yet 
one,  at  the  same  time,  common  to  Europe;  which  gather  together  all  styles  from 
the  castle  and  the  Gothic  cloister  to  the  Renaissance  and  its  modern  transforma¬ 
tions,  and  succeeds  in  reuniting  them,  notwithstanding  all  their  differences,  in  a 
most  imposing  synthesis.  If  one  wished  to  build  a  palace  for  historical  studies,  a 
museum  of  the  history  of  civilization,  one  could  not  build  anything  more  symbol¬ 
ical  or  more  beautiful. 

Since  the  legendary  foundation  of  the  city  of  Upsala  till  our  own  days  Sweden 


284 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


has  always  been  at  the  head  of  the  industries  which  group  themselves  around  iron. 
That  is  perhaps  the  reason  why  she  has  established  a  recognized  superiority  in 
physical  education  and  a  remarkable  initiative  in  manual  teaching. 

The  situation  of  the  museum  of  comparative  education  would  have  to  be  dis¬ 
cussed  among  all  the  nations.  If  we  submitted  the  decision  to  Plato  it  would  be 
given  perhaps  to  the  country  which  has  done  most  for  music — to  Austria.  If  we 
decided  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  exposition,  it  would  surely  be  given  to  the 
youngest  of  all  the  great  nations— to  the  United  States,  which  has  given  to  the 
world  the  most  striking  example  of  progressive  ideas,  of  progress  at  first  material, 
of  extraction  and  exploitation,  of  production,  of  transports  and  commerce;  but 
followed  by  a  new  striving  not  less  energetic  toward  the  ideal,  the  beautiful  in 
art,  the  true  in  science  and  in  education,  the  good  in  all  departments  of  social 
amelioration.  Surely,  then,  we  could  not  do  better  than  offer  to  the  United  States 
the  honor  of  accommodating  the  museum  of  comparative  education. 

But  we  have  still  to  come  to  the  smallest  country  of  Europe  and  to  its  most 
ancient  civilization  in  order  to  recover  the  artistic  ideal  with  Phidias,  encyclo¬ 
pedic  science  with  Aristotle,  the  ideal  republic  with  Plato.  We  could  bring 
together  in  the  beautiful  pavilion  of  Greece  the  classical  ideal  and  modern  aspira¬ 
tions.  It  would  be  a  new  center  of  legitimate  influence  for  classical  archaeology 
and  for  its  contact  with  modern  life.  The  analogy  so  striking,  the  comparison  so 
legitimate  and  so  encouraging  between  Delphi,  with  its  sacred  way,  and  the  expo¬ 
sition,  with  its  Rue  des  Nations,  would  thus  find  a  worthy  realization. 

The  retrospective  museum  of  international  expositions  would  be  conveniently 
housed  in  the  beautiful  and  well-lit  pavilion  of  Austria,  without  impeding  the 
employment  of  its  central  hall  for  musical  recitals. 

In  the  absence  of  a  pavilion  of  Holland,  the  country  chosen  recently  by  a  Euro¬ 
pean  congress  to  render  homage  to  its  historic  priority  in  the  domain  of  inter¬ 
national  law,  where  should  we  house  the  museum  of  peace?  Perhaps  in  the 
pavilion  of  Bosnia;  for  it  is  there  that  have  best  been  united  and  reconciled  the 
most  heterogeneous  populations  in  Europe— the  great  historic  antagonists,  the 
Christian  and  the  Mussulman. 

Had  more  buildings  been  capable  of  being  retained,  the  same  principle  might 
have  been  developed,  and  suggestions  were  not  lacking.  Thus,  for  Spain,  geog¬ 
raphy,  and  for  Russia,  geotechnics;  for  Servia,  forestry,  and  for  Denmark, 
agriculture;  for  Holland,  international  law,  and  for  Switzerland,  comparative 
legislation;  for  Italy,  history  of  the  fine  arts;  for  the  Ottoman  Empire,  ethnog¬ 
raphy;  for  Persia,  oriental  languages,  and  so  on;  to  each  country,  in  fact,  some 
department,  in  which  its  historic  or  its  contemporary  eminence  or  its  special 
advantages  are  generally  recognized. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  proposals  of  the  committee  met  with  immedi¬ 
ate,  wide,  and  even  general  approval,  and  especially  so  far  as  the  preceding  prin¬ 
ciples  were  concerned.  Reference  had  to  be  made  by  some  of  the  national 
commissioners  to  their  respective  governments;  in  other  cases  their  contractors 
only  had  to  be  arranged  with.  The  German  Government  at  once  generously 
responded,  offering  its  building  as  a  gift;  the  Finnish  commission  next  followed, 
and  speedily  others,  and  by  December  even  the  last  contractor  was  ready  to  come 
to  terms.  From  the  very  outset,  also,  offers  of  important  collections  and  of  money 
had  begun  to  come  in. 

The  plan  of  asking  not  only  for  buildings  and  for  money  to  put  them  in  order, 
but  at  the  same  time  for  collections  to  fill  them,  was  soon  generously  and  promptly 
justified  by  the  response  of  the  public.  Although  the  delays  above  referred  to 
actually  prevented  the  committee  from  issuing  a  subscription  list,  a  leading  Paris 
banker  at  once  offered,  in  response  to  an  article  in  the  Figaro,  a  handsome  sum  to 
head  this. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


285 


The  prime  result  of  scientific  cooperation  was  at  once  assured.  Active  steps 
were  taken  on  behalf  of  a  number  of  scientific  societies  toward  procuring  quarters 
within  the  German  and  other  pavilions,  and  this  on  the  understanding  that  they 
accepted  their  due  share  of  the  necessary  expenses  of  adaptation  and  upkeep. 
Best  of  all,  actual  collections,  almost  completely  as  suggested  in  the  initial  project, 
were  liberally  offered.  Thus,  the  great  Pasteur  collection,  at  once  the  natural  and 
the  ideal  center  of  an  international  museum  of  hygiene,  was  offered  by  the  director 
of  the  Pasteur  Institute,  his  active  collaboration  as  well,  and  that  of  other  eminent 
hygienists. 

Through  the  intermediation  of  M.  Charles  Gimond,  the  eminent  historian  of 
Paris,  one  of  the  greatest  private  collections  of  the  history  of  Paris  was  offered 
for  the  noble  civic  palace  of  Belgium.  This  offer  included  upward  of  25,000 
pictures,  engravings,  maps,  and  other  illustrative  objects  and  documents,  besides 
books,  to  which  the  generous  donor  proposed  to  add  a  sum  of  50,000  francs  ($10,000) 
toward  the  expense  of  hanging  and  arranging  these. 

Another  connoisseur  offered  the  committee  a  collection  of  sacred  art,  with 
250,000  francs  toward  the  general  scheme,  should  a  building  be  allotted  to  this 
purpose. 

M.  Jean  de  Bloch — so  well  known  as  the  author  of  La  Guerre,  the  work  which 
is  said  to  have  been  so  influential  in  promoting  the  Hague  conference,  and  which 
has  since  been  so  widely  discussed  in  all  countries — personally  undertook  to  be 
responsible  for  the  peace  museum,  and  to  reduplicate,  if  not  actually  to  transfer 
thither,  the  peace  museum  he  has  so  long  been  elaborating,  and  of  which  a  small 
part  was  already  exhibited  in  the  exposition  of  1900. 

Toward  the  retrospective  museum  of  expositions  the  eminent  architect  to 
whom  the  committee  was  already  so  much  indebted,  M.  Louis  Bonnier,  offered  his 
entire  collection  of  20,000  illustrative  documents,  as  also  his  good  offices  in  secur¬ 
ing  material  for  other  collections. 

For  the  proposed  museum  of  geography  (Arctic  exploration,  etc.),  a  com¬ 
mittee,  under  the  honorary  presidency  of  Dr.  Nansen  and  the  acting  vice-presi¬ 
dency  of  M.  Schrader,  was  formed,  and  similarly  the  responsibility  of  initiating 
the  museum  of  comparative  history  was  undertaken  by  Professor  Lavisse. 

For  oceanography  and  fishing  the  Prince  of  Monaco  promised  material  aid  in 
the  form  of  duplicates  from  his  well-known  museum  now  in  progress  at  Monaco.  A 
union  of  resources  was  also  arranged  with  the  special  committee  for  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  a  fishery  museum,  M.  Edmond  Perrier,  the  director  of  the  museum  of 
natural  history,  undertaking  warmly  to  cooperate. 

Other  important  possibilities  were  coming  in  sight,  and  had  it  been  possible  to 
inaugurate  the  scheme  earlier  in  the  history'  of  the  exposition  there  is  little 
doubt  that  it  would  have  been  immediately  and  widely  successful. 

Difficulties  in  the  way  of  permanent  retention  were,  however,  in  existence  and 
were  clearly  recognized  from  the  first.  Besides  each  of  the  various  national 
administrations  and  the  administrative  body  concerned  with  the  winding  up  of 
the  exposition  as  a  whole,  the  complex  rights  over  the  site  had  to  be  reckoned  with. 
Upon  the  river  front  those  of  the  ministry  of  public  works,  upon  the  thoroughfare 
those  of  the  city,  and  midway  those  of  the  tunnel  of  the  Western  Railway  made 
up  a  complex  of  administrations  whose  interests  and  views  are  not  easily  recon¬ 
ciled.  The  long  vacation  of  the  Paris  municipal  council  next  intervened  and 
involved  new  delays.  The  foreign  commissioners  were  necessarily  anxious  to  wind 
up  their  affairs  and  close  their  bureaus,  and  thus  the  time  limit  prevented  the 
acceptance  of  the  buildings  and  the  consequent  execution  of  the  project  of  housing 
international  museums  and  institutes  within  them.  This  apparent  failure  of  the 
scheme  was,  however,  neither  a  surprise  nor  a  discouragement  to  its  promoters, 
who,  knowing  well  by  experience  the  immense  practical  and  administrative  diffi¬ 
culties  to  be  met,  had  from  the  first  been  prepared  for  this.  The  buildings  of  the 


286 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Rue  des  Nations  had  at  any  rate  not  only  served  as  a  vivid  and  world- wide  means 
of  popularizing  their  conception  of  what  the  exposition  might  and  should  leave 
behind  it  and  of  what  future  exhibitions  might  be,  but  had  brought  them  in  an 
unexpectedly  vast  amount  of  material,  of  scientific  cooperation,  and  even  of  finan¬ 
cial  possibilities.  After  due  inquiry  some  offers  were  naturaily  found  to  be  fixed 
to  the  Rue  des  Nations  and  to  fall  with  it,  but  the  committee  were  greatly  encour¬ 
aged  to  find  that  others  (and  these  the  majority)  still  held  good  on  the  simple  con¬ 
dition  of  finding  adequate  lodgment  elsewhere. 

A  meeting  of  representatives  of  all  the  groups  of  the  International  Association 
was  therefore,  convened  on  January  4,  1901,  by  the  international  secretary,  M. 
Liard,  at  the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  the  president,  M.  Leon  Bourgeois, 
taking  the  chair. 

M.  Herbette  fully  indicated  the  history  of  the  negotiations  of  the  initiative 
committee,  as  above  outlined,  and  the  proceedings  were  approved,  and  the  resigna¬ 
tion  of  the  committee  was  accepted. 

M.  Herbette  pointed  out  that  in  view  not  only  of  the  general  approval  in  prin¬ 
ciple  which  the  project  had  received,  but  of  the  very  cordial  and  substantial  sup¬ 
port,  not  only  in  the  matter  of  the  buildings,  but  in  the  offer  of  collections,  of 
specialist  assistance,  and  even  of  large  sums  of  money,  the  constitution  of  a 
permanent  committee  of  the  International  Association  to  carry  on  the  essentials 
of  the  scheme  was  practicable  and  advisable. 

M.  Leon  Bourgeois  then  reviewed  the  work  and  possibilities  of  the  association, 
reminding  the.  meeting  that  when  the  constitution  of  the  association  was  drafted 
last  year,  necessarily  upon  a  very  comprehensive  basis,  it  was  agreed  on  all  hands 
and  by  each  national  group  that  the  experience  of  a  year  or  more  would  be  neces¬ 
sary  before  formally  adopting  this,  and  even  before  the  main  lines  of  its  immediate 
practical  policy  and  international  usefulness  could  be  clearly  marked  out.  Now, 
however,  it  had  already  two  such  lines  laid  down.  The  work  of  the  association 
during  the  past  summer,  its  recruitments  for  the  congresses,  its  promotion  of 
inter-university  relations,  and  most  of  all  its  interpretation  of  so  many  depart¬ 
ments  of  science,  art,  and  education  in  four  languages  and  for  seven  nations  had 
made  the  Ecole  Internationale  de  TExposition  not  only  a  distinguished  and  a 
memorable  success  in  itself,  but  an  institution  which,  he  felt  convinced,  would 
find  an  increasing  place  in  every  coming  international  exposition.  So  now  with 
this  more  recent  undertaking.  The  vast  collections  of  the  exposition  were  no 
doubt  very  largely  dispersed,  as  its  buildings  were  doomed;  yet  not  merely  a  new 
principle  of  great  possibilities  in  the  future  had  been  affirmed  by  this  endeavor  to 
retain  the  Rue  des  Nations  as  a  group  of  international  museums  and  institutes, 
but  the  practicability  had  been  demonstrated  of  creating  a  number  of  these.  He 
therefore  moved  that  the  members  of  the  initiative  committee  be  constituted  into 
a  permanent  committee  of  the  International  Association,  with  powers  to  add  to 
their  number.  This  motion  was  unanimously  adopted. 

III.  This  international  institutes  and  museums  committee  of  the  association  met 
next  day  at  the  Hall  of  the  Mairie  of  the  Fifteenth  Arrondissement  by  the  invita¬ 
tion  of  the  mayor,  M.  Beurdeley,  president  of  the  educational  press  congress, 
M.  Herbette  in  the  chair.  It  resolved  itself  for  immediate  work  into  two  subcom¬ 
mittees  concerned  with  (a)  the  collections  and  funds  which  had  been  offered  to 
the  initiative  committee,  and  ( b )  the  actual  organization  of  the  proposed  institutes 
and  the  problem  of  finding  suitable  accommodation  for  them.  Both  committees 
have  since  met  and  a  memorial 1  has  been  laid  before  the  municipal  council  of 
Paris  to  ask  accommodation  for  these  initial  collections  in  the  extensive  ground 

1  This  “Memoire  et  Notes  Concernant  l’Organisation  a  Paris  de  Musees  Ayant  un  Caractere 
International  ”  is  from  the  eloquent  pen  of  M.  Herbette,  president  of  the  association’s  committee 
above  referred  to.  Copies  may  be  had  on  application  to  the  secretary. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOE  SCIENCE. 


287 


floor  of  the  Petit  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts.  This  building,  by  common  consent  the 
most  beautiful  as  well  as  the  most  permanent  of  the  exposition,  is,  even  so  far  as 
accessibility,  still  more  as  unity  and  economy  and  convenience  of  working  are  con¬ 
cerned,  preferable  to  those  of  the  Rue  des  Nations.  It  lacks,  however,  that  note  of 
varied  international  cooperation  in  which  the  Rue  des  Nations  was  so  attractive, 
but  the  idea  was  submitted  to  the  municipal  council  of  retaining  at  least  one  or 
two  of  the  durable  and  easily  removable  wooden  buildings  of  the  Scandinavian 
countries,  and  of  removing  them  to  the  Champ  de  Mars,  as  a  means  of  preserving 
a  germ  of  this  portion  of  the  project,  which  may  also  develop  in  future  years  in 
Paris,  or  be  applied  elsewhere. 

Whether  or  not  these  precise  locations  be  granted  remains  to  be  settled  by  the 
municipal  council  during  the  present  year,  but  there  is  little  fear  that  accommo¬ 
dation  will  soon  be  found  elsewhere,  if  necessary,  for  these  museums  and  institutes, 
separately  if  not  together. 

IV.  The  applicability  of  the  same  idea  to  other  cities  also  is  manifest.  Thus 
American  members  of  the  committee  have  already  urged  its  serious  consideration 
from  the  very  inception  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  of  1903,  so  that  a  number,  at 
least,  of  the  more  important  special  and  national  buildings  should  be  given  suffi¬ 
cient  permanence  from  the  first,  and  that  the  collections,  retrospective  and  con¬ 
temporary,  of  the  exposition  should  be  so  planned  from  the  outset  as  to  afford,  as 
far  as  possible,  both  a  nucleus  and  a  residuum  of  permanent  value.  Were  this 
done  from  the  first  the  city,  university,  and  scientific  societies  and  institutions  df 
St.  Louis  might  possess  after  the  exposition  of  1903  a  set  of  museums  and  institutes 
in  many  respects  unsurpassed  in  the  world.  To  erect  and  speedily  to  destroy 
buildings  which  have  cost  millions,  to  make  collections  of  the  greatest  value  and 
interest,  and  to  disperse  them,  even  when  their  owners  are  willing  they  should  be 
retained,  is  neither  economic  nor  educational.  Such  vast  and  costly  experiments 
have  no  doubt  had  their  uses,  but  Paris,  at  least,  has  made  enough  of  them.  It  is 
time  for  more  permanent  undertakings.  Every  eleven  years  for  the  past  half  cen¬ 
tury  Paris  has  been  the  world  center  of  one  of  these  vast  and  splendid,  but  tran¬ 
sient,  outbursts  in  practically  all  departments  of  modern  activity  and  inquiry,  and 
though  it  would  be  rash  to  predict  what  the  opening  of  the  second  decade  of  the 
century  may  have  in  store,  it  would  be  still  more  rash  to  expect  that  so  vast  an 
accumulation  of  activity  and  such  inquiry  will  not  seek  and  find  outlet  and 
expression,  and  that  both  adequate  and  ample.  To  insure  successful  and  perma¬ 
nent  results  preparation  must  begin  years  before  the  actual  event.  The  beginnings 
made  by  this  committee,  whatever  the  measure  of  their  immediate  success  may 
turn  out  to  be,  have  thus  been  no  mere  Utopian  endeavor,  but  a  step  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  scientific  and  artistic,  educational  and  social  development  of  the  expo¬ 
sition  and  museum  movements. 


IV. 

ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  THE  GLASGOW  INTERNATIONAL  ASSEMBLY, 

1901. 

A  meeting  was  held  on  Wednesday  afternoon,  March  6,  1901,  in  the  Glasgow 
School  of  Art,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  the  feasibility  of  organizing  an  inter¬ 
national  assembly  for  the  advancement  of  science,  arts,  and  education,  similar  to 
that  which  was  organized  in  connection  with  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  last  year. 
Lord  Provost  Chisholm  presided,  and  was  accompanied  on  the  platform  by  Pro¬ 
fessor  Geddes,  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Paris  assembly;  Professor  Barr,  Profes¬ 
sor  Gray,  Mr.  J.  E.  Christie,  Mr.  Newbery,  Mr.  James  Fleming,  Bailie  Steele, 
Mr.  Mollison,  Miss  Paterson,  Miss  Galloway,  and  others. 

Letters  of  regret  for  absence  were  read  from  Principal  Story,  Dr.  Robert  Caird, 


288 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


and  other  prominent  citizens,  Letters  were  also  read  from  eminent  members  of 
the  foreign  groups  of  the  association;  among  others  from  M.  Leon  Bourgeois, 
general  president  of  the  association,  from  the  French  ministry  of  education,  and 
from  M.  Greard,  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  indicating,  in  very  full  detail, 
the  proposals  of  the  university  authorities,  who  constitute  the  educational  nucleus 
of  the  French  group  of  the  association,  to  cooperate  in  every  way  by  the  selection 
of  effective  lecturers,  prepared  at  once  to  express  the  best  results  of  contemporary 
science  and  art,  and  also  to  deal  more  especially  with  the  French  exhibits,  and  con¬ 
taining  the  promise  to  encourage  the  influx  of  French  visitors  and  organized  dele¬ 
gations  of  picked  workmen.  Letters  recommending  the  work  of  the  association 
were  also  read  from  M.  Herbette,  vice  president  of  the  exposition  of  1900,  from 
Mr.  Thomas  Barclay,  president  of  the  British  chamber  of  commerce  in  Paris,  and 
others;  as  also  from  eminent  representatives  of  the  German  and  Russian  groups. 
The  lord  provost,  in  asking  Professor  Geddes  to  explain  the  constitution  of  the 
Paris  assembly,  and  lay  before  the  meeting  proposals  with  regard  to  that  of  Glas¬ 
gow,  said  he  was  sure  the  scheme  had  in  it  the  elements  of  success,  and  that,  if  it 
were  taken  up  and  wisely  and  enthusiastically  prosecuted,  it  would  assist  greatly 
in  lifting  up  the  exhibition  beyond  the  plane  of  mere  amusement  and  enjoyment, 
and  in  making  it  intensely  interesting  and  highly  educative. 

Professor  Geddes  explained  in  detail  the  constitution  of  the  Paris  assembly,  with 
its  varied  cooperation  of  members  of  the  universities  of  France  and  many  other 
countries,  the  technical  congresses,  the  associations  of  all  kinds  which  met  at  the 
exposition,  and  in  particular  the  scheme  of  lectures  and  skilled  guidance  whereby 
members  were  enabled  to  visit  the  different  sections  of  the  exposition,  and  to 
understand  the  nature  or  significance  of  the  exhibits  in  all  departments  under  the 
leadership  of  experts.  This  scheme  obviated  the  great  difficulty  any  one  person 
met  with  on  visiting  such  a  large  exposition — the  fatigue  and  confusion  caused 
by  the  wealth  of  impressions  and  the  number  of  things  worth  investigating.  The 
system  would  be  even  more  adaptable  to  Glasgow  than  it  was  to  Paris,  as  the 
exhibition  here  was  not  so  vast  as  that  of  Paris.  Such  an  interpretation  of  the 
exhibition — as  a  museum  of  the  present — tended  to  raise  the  scientific  temperature 
of  the  community  by  the  means  of  what  was  practically  the  university  of  the  present. 

After  speaking  of  the  aims  of  the  international  museums  and  institutes  commit¬ 
tee  of  the  association,  the  speaker  asked,  Why  should  not  something  practical  be 
done  at  Glasgow  for  hygiene;  why  should  not  the  Scottish  history  collection  result 
in  the  formation  of  a  Scottish  national  museum ;  and  why  should  not  this  museum 
have  a  Scottish  history  lectureship?  Where,  again,  would  wTe  find  a  better  cen¬ 
ter  for  a  museum  of  electrical  inventions  than  Glasgow?  Over  the  gateway  of 
the  exhibition  he  would  write  “Here  may  ye  see  infinite  riches  in  a  little  room,” 
but  over  the  exit  “  The  eye  sees  only  what  it  brings  with  it  the  means  of  seeing.” 
The  membership  of  the  proposed  assembly  would  attend  the  exhibition  very  largely, 
for  such  an  attempt  to  raise  the  quality  of  our  visits  to  the  exhibition  would  natu¬ 
rally  increase  their  number  also.  He  would  urge  its  formation,  if  only  on  ttie  sim¬ 
ple  ground  that  one  of  the  best  ways  of  helping  the  exhibition  to  get  as  much  as  it 
could  out  of  the  citizens  was  to  help  the  citizens  to  get  all  they  could  out  of  the 
exhibition. 

Professor  Barr  proposed  that  the  meeting  approve  the  statement  and  work  of 
the  International  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Arts,  and  Education, 
welcome  the  proposed  assembly  in  Glasgow,  and  recommend  it  to  all  interested  in 
its  objects.  The  bringing  together  of  an  international  exhibition  was  always  of 
the  greatest  value  to  a  community;  and  they  all  looked  forward  to  the  Glasgow 
Exhibition  to  be  a  very  great  success,  not  only  financially  and  temporarily,  but  by 
leaving  behind  it  some  permanent  results.  The  proposed  assembly  would,  he  was 
sure,  prove  of  great  value  in  these  directions. 

Professor  Gray  seconded;  and  the  lord  provost,  in  putting  the  motion  to  the 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


289 


meeting,  said  the  impressions  an  exhibition  made  on  an  ordinary  visitor  were  vague 
and  confused,  and  anything  that  resolved  these  vague  impressions  into  definite 
information  and  knowledge  would  be  welcomed  by  every  intelligent  visitor.  The 
scheme  just  outlined  would  do  this,  as  by  its  means  the  many  exhibits  would  be 
explained  by  experts,  and  thus  a  true  mental  and  intellectual  benefit  would  be 
derived  from  the  exhibition. 

The  proposal  was  agreed  to,  and  afterwards,  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Henry  A. 
Mavor,  seconded  by  Mr.  Alexander,  it  was  decided  to  form  a  general  committee  of 
representatives  of  all  the  scientific  and  technical  societies,  etc, ;  and  at  the  sugges¬ 
tion  of  the  lord  provost  the  above  speakers  were  appointed  to  organize  the  general 
committee. 

The  committee  appointed  as  a  result  of  the  above  meeting  han/e  since  made 
arrangements  to  hold  an  international  assembly  at  Glasgow,  from  29th  July  to 
28tli  September.  As  at  Paris,  the  chief  work  of  the  assembly  will  be  to  provide 
skilled  guidance  and  to  seek  to  interpret  by  means  of  lectures,  demonstrations, 
visits,  and  excursions  the  international  exhibition  which  will  be  open  in  Glasgow 
from  May  to  October.  The  arrangements  will  largely  resemble  those  of  a  uni¬ 
versity  summer  meeting,  the  subject  of  study  being  contemporary  progress  as 
illustrated  in  the  collections  of  the  exhibition  and  the  city. 

The  internationalism  of  the  assembly  is  assured  by  the  fact  that  the  various 
groups  of  the  association  are  cooperating. 

LECTURES  AND  GUIDANCE. 

By  the  kind  permission  of  the  university  court  the  lectures  will  be  given  in  the- 
University  of  Glasgow.  As  the  exhibition  stands  practically  within  the  same 
park  as  the  university,  the  convenience  is  obvious. 

The  lectures,  which  -will  be  given  daily,  will  be  delivered  in  English,  French, 
and  German,  and  daily  visits  to  the  departments  of  the  exhibition  will  be  arranged, 
usually  in  connection  with  the  lectures.  A  due  proportion  of  lectures  and  guid¬ 
ance  will  be  devoted  to  geographical  questions  (including  colonization,  etc.),  to 
the  industrial  and  commercial  exhibits,  to  the  technical  and  constructive  depart¬ 
ments,  to  natural  and  applied  science,  to  the  progress  of  invention  and  discovery 
generally,  and  also,  if  possible,  to  agriculture,  horticulture,  and  forestry,  while  & 
large  share  of  attention  will  naturally  be  given  to  the  collections  of  fine  arts, 
archaeology,  etc.  For  the  citizen  the  claims  of  social  science,  hygiene,  etc.,  will 
be  kept  in  view,  while  the  teacher  or  student  may  especially  utilize  the  assembly 
from  the  side  of  geography  or  of  nature  studies,  of  Scottish  or  general  history, 
of  modern  languages  and  literature,  or  of  educational  problems  generally. 

The  large  element  of  foreign  participation  introduced  by  or  through  the  associ-  • 
ation  will  be  of  many  kinds— members  of  many  universities,  learned  societies  and 
professions,  educationists  from  many  centers,  men  of  affairs,  and  workmen’s 
delegates,  each  bringing  some  contribution  of  thought  or  inquiry  during  the 
assembly’s  two  month’s  activity.  Hence  facilities  will  be  arranged  as  far  as  pos-' 
sible  in  connection  with  the  lectures  in  French  and  German  for  practical  study 
and  conversation  in  those  languages,  and  conversely  for  aiding  the  acquirement 
of  English  by  the  foreign  visitors.  Such  an  intercourse  cannot  but  act  toward  the 
quickening  of  the  intellectual  and  practical  life,  the  artistic  and  educational 
activity,  not  only  of  Glasgow  and  Britain,  but  of  other  cities  and  countries. 

EXCURSIONS. 

Frequent  excursions  in  Glasgow  and  the  neighborhood  will  be  arranged,  and 
each  Saturday  a  visit  will  be  made  to  some  place  farther  afield.  The  weekly 
excursions  will  probably  be  not  the  least  attractive  part  of  the  assembly.  Glasgow 
is  the  best  center  for  excursions  to  the  most  beautiful  scenery  of  Scotland;  and  in. 


ED  1901- 


■19 


290 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900*1901. 


these  weekly  excursions,  conducted  under  special  guidance,  the  historic  or  artistic 
interests,  the  scientific  or  industrial  aspects  of  the  places  visited  will  all,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  pointed  out.  These  visits  and  excursions  are  intended  to  supply 
the  necessary  holiday  outing,  and  at  the  same  time  to  supply  further  illustration 
for  some  of  the  more  general  courses  of  lectures. 

RECEPTIONS. 

Conversaziones  or  receptions  will  be  arranged  at  least  weekly  to  afford  oppor¬ 
tunity  for  social  intercourse  among  members. 

CONFERENCES. 

From  time  to  time  conferences  will  be  arranged  for  the  discussion  of  some 
points  of  specml  interest  to  members  of  the  association.  Among  the  subjects 
suggested  are  the  organization  of  regional  surveys,  the  study  and  teaching  of 
geography7,  the  formation  and  arrangement  of  museums.,  etc. 

CONGRESSES,  ETC. 

A  number  of  international  congresses  and  many  scientific  and  technical  associa¬ 
tions  will  hold  their  meetings  in  Glasgow  during  the  summer.  Among  the  latter, 
the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  which  meets  early  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  and  the  British  Medical  Association  may  be  mentioned.  An  important 
international  congress  on  engineering  will  meet  in  the  first  week  of  September. 

RESIDENCE,  TRAVEL,  ETC. — INFORMATION  BUREAU. 

An  information  bureau  will  be  established  to  give  assistance  in  finding  suitable 
hotel  or  boarding  accommodation,  to  answer  inquiries  about  congresses,  lectures, 
and  the  sections  of  the  exhibition,  etc.  Full  information  will  be  available  as  to 
travel  in  Scotland,  and  assistance  will  be  given  in  arranging  tours. 

The  Queen  Margaret  Hall  of  Residence  has  agreed  to  receive  a  limited  number 
of  ladies  during  the  assembly. 

GLASGOW. 

It  may  be  well  to  draw  attention  to  the  importance  and  interest  of  the  city  of 
Glasgow.  Although  the  site  of  an  ancient  and  beautiful  cathedral  and  the  home 
of  a  university  which  this  year  celebrates  its  ninth  jubilee,  the  city  has,  in  modern 
times,  become  a  busy  port,  a  great  center  of  commerce  and  industrj7,  and  of  an 
intense  municipal  life.  In  the  field  of  invention,  too,  Glasgow  has  been  well  rep¬ 
resented,  the  name  of  James  Watt  beginning  that  long  period  of  progress  which 
that  of  Lord  Kelvin  fitly  crowns. 

THE  GLASGOW  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1901. 

This  exhibition  is  the  most  important  held  in  Great  Britain  since  1851.  The 
wide  interests  of  Glasgow  in  industry  and  commerce,  science  and  arts,  make  it  a 
most  suitable  place  for  such  an  exhibition.  The  exhibition  is  strongest  in  those 
departments  in  which  the  city  is  most  interested.  Thus  scientific  and  technical 
interests,  and  especially  the  relations  of  pure  and  applied  science,  are  fully  repre¬ 
sented.  Raw  materials,  agriculture,  manufactures  of  all  sorts,  mechanism  and 
electricity,  engineering  and  shipbuilding,  transport  and  locomotion,  all  claim 
attention  in  this  regard. 

Education,  too,  has  its  section,  grouped  with  science  and  music,  and  naturally 
technical  education  receives  special  attention.  A  series  of  daily  concerts  will  add 
much  to  the  interest  of  the  music  section.  Nor  is  the  education  of  the  body  neg¬ 
lected.  A  special  section  contains  sporting  appliances,  while  in  the  grounds  a 
special  sports  arena  is  provided. 

Industrial  design  finds  its  place  with  manufactures.  Fine  arts  is  a  strong  sec- 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


291 

tion.  The  new  municipal  art  gallery  houses  the  fine-art  section  of  the  exhibition, 
and  has  been  fittingly  opened  with  an  exhibit  representing  British  art  during  the 
nineteenth  century.  Some  representative  foreign  work  is  included,  and  the  exam¬ 
ples  of  the  work  of  the  “  Glasgow  school will  have  a  notable  interest.  In  the 
same  section  is  included  Scottish  history  and  archaeology,  and  here  a  collection  of 
relics,  pictures,  books,  etc.,  has  been  brought  together,  illustrating  the  history  of 
Scotland  from  the  earliest  times. 

The  department  of  social  economy,  so  prominent  in  the  Paris  Exhibition-  is  not 
included  in  the  official  classification.  Much  that  maybe  classified  under  this  head 
is  to  be  found  in  the  women's  section. 

BUSINESS  ARRANGEMENTS. 

Early  in  June  a  full  and  detailed  programme  will  be  ready,  containing  outline 
syllabuses  of  lecture  courses. 

Membership  of  the  international  association  (annual,  $5  or  £1;  life,  $50  or  £10) 
entities  to  participation  in  the  assembly. 

The  local  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  assembly  is  W.  A.  Lawrie  Brown,  83 
Bath  street,  Glasgow,  to  whom  subscriptions  of  membership  should  be  sent,  and 
from  whom  information  may  be  obtained.  Professor  Geddes  will  act  as  general 
secretary. 


APPENDIX  I. 

Copy  of  the  letter  circulated  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Dover ,  in 
1899,  by  the  small  preliminary  committee  of  the  International  Association  ( see 
page  265). 

British  Association,  Dover ,  September ,  1899. 

Dear  Sir  or  Madam:  Following  upon  the  hopes  and  counsels  of  Sir  Michael  Foster's  presi¬ 
dential  address  and  upon  the  reunions  of  the  British  and  French  associations,  It  is  felt  that  the 
time  is  now  ripe  for  some  more  permanent  organization  which  should  maintain,  develop,  and 
utilize  the  good  relations  thus  so  fully  initiated.  It  is  therefore  proposed  to  form  a  general  and 
advisory  committee,  consisting  of  members  of  the  British  Association,  the  Association  Frangaise, 
and  of  other  representatives  of  pure  and  applied  science,  education,  art,  ete.,  with  the  object  of 
promoting  arrangements  for  an  international  meeting  or  assembly  in  connection  with  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1900.  Sectional  meetings  of  the  committee  will  be  held  in  London,  Paris,  New 
York,  etc. 

It  is  widely  felt  that  there  is  not  only  room  but  need  for  some  organization  which  would  bring 
together  for  each  of  the  leading  departments  and  congresses  of  the  exposition  the  specialist,  the 
educationalist,  and  the  intelligent  public;  and  this  on  all  grounds,  from  those  of  personal  con¬ 
venience  and  economy  of  time,  money,  and  effort  to  the  highest  considerations  of  scientific  prog¬ 
ress  and  international  amity. 

It  will  greatly  facilitate  the  arrangements  of  the  committee  if  you  will  be  so  kind  as  to  fill  up 
and  return  the  accompanying  form. 


W e  are,  your  obedient  servants, 

James  Mavor.  A.  C.  Haddon. 

Arthur  Lee. 

Patrick  Geddes. 

Oliver  Lodge. 

Thomas  R.  R.  Stebbing. 

G.  B.  Howes. 

J.  J.  Thomson. 

John  Murray. 

Henry  Higgs. 

A.  F.  Renard. 

W.  C.  McIntosh. 

A.  Sedgwick. 

John  L.  Myres. 

James  Murie. 

A.  G.  Greenhill. 

E.  W.  Brabrook. 

R.  F.  Scharff. 

W.  H.  H.  Hudson. 

Sebastian  Evans. 

J.  V/.  Carr. 

Marcus  Hartog. 

Laurence  Gomme. 

Walter  Garstang. 

W.  C.  Crawford. 

E.  A.  Schafer. 

J.  W.  Woodall. 

T.  W.  Bridge. 

G.  Griffith. 

Robert  C.  Millar. 

Harold  Wager. 

J.  Symington. 

C.  H.  Read. 

J.  C.  Willis. 

A.  Browett. 

Archibald  Geikie. 

W.  G.  Freeman. 

F.  J  Faraday. 

Jas.  T.  Arm  -trong. 

J.  Parkin. 

C.  Estcourt. 

J.  Burdon  Sanderson. 

George  King. 

J  H.  Buxton. 

Lister. 

A.  C.  Seward. 

Walter  H.  Coffin. 

E.  H.  Griffiths. 

C.  Eg.  Bertrand. 

L.  E.  Shore 

H.  H.  Brindley 

W  Law  Bros. 

D.  H.  Campbell. 

D.  H.  Scott. 

J  Graham  Kerr. 

Arthur  R  Byles. 

292  EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1901. 

APPENDIX  II. 

List  of  the  British  and  American  general  committees ,  Paris  Assembly,  1900. 

General  Committee. 

BRITISH  GROUP. 


George  Abbott,  M.  R.  C.  S. 

Sir  W.  M.  W.  Abney,  R.  E.,  C.  B.,  etc. 

Henry  Dyke  Acland,  F.  G.  S. 

Theodore  Dyke  Acland. 

H.  Alabaster. 

Geo.  S.  Albright. 

Alfred  H.  Allen,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 

E.  J.  Allen,  director,  Marine  Biological  Asso¬ 
ciation. 

John  Allen. 

Rev.  F.  B.  Allison,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  A.  S. 

G.  L.  Alward. 

J.  Sparke  Amery. 

P.  F.  S.  Amery. 

Tempest  Anderson,  M.  D.,  F.  G.  S. 

Thornton  Andrews,  C.  E. 

John  Angell,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 

Jas.  H.  Annandale. 

Richard  Armistead. 

William  Armistead. 

Prof.  G.  F.  Armstrong,  M.  A.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  F.  R. 
S.  E. 

J.  Tarbotton  Armstrong. 

Richard  Assheton. 

Geo.  Atkin,  J.  P. 

Rev.  C.  Chetwynd  Atkinson,  D.  D. 

William  Atkinson,  C.  E. 

Prof.  John  Attfield,  F.  R.  S. 

Harold  W.  Atkinson,  M.  A. 

Prof.  W.  E.  Ayrton,  F.  R.  S. 

Lieut.  Col.  Fred.  Bailey,  secretary  Royal  Scot¬ 
tish  Geographical  Society. 

Prof.  Francis  G.  Bailey. 

G.  H.  Bailey,  D.  Sc.,  Ph.  D. 

Sir  Robert  Ball. 

Rev.  Philip  C.  Barker,  M.  A.,  LL.  B. 

Prof.  Archibald  Barr,  D.  Sc. 

Prof.  W.  F.  Barrett,  F.  R.  S. 

Gerald  E.  H.  Barrett-Hamilton. 

James  Barrowman,  M.  E. 

J.  J.  Barstow,  J.  P.,  D.  L. 

A.  B.  Basset,  esq.,  F.  R.  S. 

Prof.  C.  F.  Bastable. 

Prof.  H.  Charlton  Bastian. 

A.  E.  Bateman,  C.  M.  G. 

Mrs.  Batty. 

Robert  E.  Baynes,  M.  A. 

Prof.  T.  Hudson  Beare,  M.  I.  C.  E. 

Wm.  Beatson,  B.  A. 

Dr.  John  Beddoe,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

Sir  Lowthian  Bell,  Bart.,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

Mrs.  Theodore  Bent. 

Prof.  C.  Eg.  Bertrand. 

Rev.  J.  O.  Bevan. 

Michael  Beverley,  M.  D. 

Geo.  P.  Bidder. 

Chas.  Billington. 

William  Black,  J.  P„  M.  I.  M.  E. 

Waiter  W.  Blackie,  B.  Sc. 

Thomas  H.  Blakesley. 

Henry  Arnold  Blenrow,  M.  A.,  F,  G.  S. 


Herbert  Bolton,  F.  R.  S.  E. 

Prof.  W.  B.  Bottomley. 

Prof.  Henry  T.  Bovey,  M.  A.,  M.  I.  C.  E. 
Arthur  Bowker,  C.  E. 

E.  W.  Brabrook,  C.  B. 

Prof.  G.  S.  Brady,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

Wm.  Bratby,  J.  P. 

Prof.  T.  W.  Bridge,  D.  Sc.,  F.  L.  S. 

J.  R.  Bridson. 

John  Brierley,  J.  P. 

H.  H.  Brindley. 

Miss  Clara  J.  Bridge. 

Rev.  Nicholas  V.  Broder. 

B.  E.  Brodhurst, 

David  Brodie,  M.  D. 

Miss  Brodie-Hall,  F.  R.  Met.  Soc. 

W.  Law  Bros. 

Edward  Allen  Brother  ton. 

Alfred  Browett. 

David  Brown,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  C.  S.,  F.  I.  C. 

H.  B.  Brown. 

Nicol  Brown. 

Oscar  Browning. 

William  S.  Bruce,  F.  R.  S.  G.  S. 

Dr.  T.  Lauder  Brunton. 

Alexander  Buchan,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 
Charles  A.  Buckmaster. 

Rev.  W.  T.  Bulpit. 

J.  L.  Bunch,  M.  D.,  D.  Sc. 

Thomas  Burbidge,  J.  P. 

Prof.  Sir  J.  Burdon-Sanderson,  Bart.,  F.  R.  S., 
etc. 

Malcolm  Burr. 

F.  M.  Burton,  F.  G.  S.,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  R.  H.  S. 

W.  Deane  Butcher,  M.  R.  C.  S.  E. 

J.  H.  Buxton. 

Arthur  R.  Byles. 

Miss  E.  M.  Caillard. 

Prof.  D.  H.  Campbell. 

Alderman  Sam.  S.  Champion,  J.  P. 

Prof.  J.  W.  Carr,  M.  A. 

H.  S.  Carslaw,  D.  Sc. 

Mrs.  Isabella  Cave-Moyles. 

T.  A.  Chapman,  M.  D. 

Col.  George  Earl  Church. 

W.  Claridge. 

Goddard  Clarke,  J.  P.,  L.  C.  C. 

P.  W.  Clayden. 

Prof.  Frank  Clowes,  D.  Sc. 

James  H.  Cochrane. 

George  Coffey. 

Walter  H.  Coffin,  esq.,  F.  L.  S.,  etc. 

Prof.  Grenville  A.  J.  Cole. 

Walter  E.  Collinge. 

C.  Collingwood,  M.  A.,  B.  M.,  M.  R.  C.  P„  F.  L.  S. 
J.  H  Collins. 

Rev.  W.  C.  Compton,  M.  A. 

Sir  Martin  Conway. 

Ernest  H.  Cook,  D.  Sc.,  F.  I.  C.,  A.  R.  C.  S. 
Conrad  W.  Cooke,  M.  I.  E.  E. 

A.  W.  Coomara-Swamy,  F.  G.  S. 


293 


THE  INTEBNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOE  SCIENCE. 


Bryan  Corcoran.  • 

Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield,  M.  A.,  M.  D. 

Rev.  Richard  K.  Corser,  M.  A. 

Henry  Cowburn. 

Sherard  Cowper-Cowles. 

W.  C.  Crawford. 

William  Crooke. 

Miss  Margaret  Crosfield. 

A.  F.  Cross. 

W.  J.  Crossley. 

W.  T.  Crosweller,  F.  I.  Inst.,  M.  S.  A.,  F.  Z.  S. 
Mrs.  W.  T.  Crosweller. 

Lieut.  Col.  Allan  Cunningham,  R.  E. 

Prof.  D.  J.  Cunningham,  F.R.  S. 

Prof.  Robert  O.  Cunningham,  M.  D. 

Prof.  W.  E.  Dalby,  B.  Sc.,  M.  A.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc. 
Miss  Dale. 

Rev.  W.  H.  Dallinger,  D.  Sc.,  D.  C.  L.,  F.  R.  S. 

T.  W.  Danby,  M.  A,etc.,H. M.  chief  inspector 
of  schools. 

F.  C.  Banson. 

Henry  Davey,  M.  I.  C.  E. 

Prof.  T.  Witton  Davies,  B.  A.,  Ph.  D. 

Prof.  W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  F.  R.  S. 

Philip  J.  Dear,  M.  A. 

Frank  Debenham. 

A.  Redcote  Dewar. 

William  Dewar,  M.  A. 

William  Dickinson,  esq. 

Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Charles  W.  Dilke,  Bart.,  M.  P. 

A.  C.  Dixon. 

George  Dixon,  M.  A. 

Bryan  Donkin,  M.  I.  C.  E. 

Lieut.  Col.  William  Draper,  A.  M.  R. 

G.  Claridge  Druce,  M.  A.,  F,  L.  S. 

J.  Dudley-Scott. 

Mrs.  Dudley-Scott. 

Prof.  S.  Dunkerley. 

J.  T.  Dunn,  D.  Sc. 

Henry  Dyer,  M.  A.,  D.  Sc. 

Edward  Easton. 

Alfred  Eddowes,  M.  D. 

Frederic  Bernard  Edmonds. 

E.  B.  Ellington,  Ivl.  I.  C.  E. 

Mrs.  Elvery. 

Capt.  G.  R.  Elwes,  J.  P. 

Fred.  T.  Elworthy, 

James  Erskine-Murray,  D.  Sc. 

Prof.  Alfred  Espinas. 

Charles  Esteourt,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 

P.  Anderson  Esteourt,  Pn.  D.,  F.i.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 
Robert  Etheridge,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

A.  H.  Evans. 

Sir  John  Evans,  K.  C.  B. 

Sebastian  Evans,  LL.  D. 

H.  W.  Eve. 

A.  S.  Eve,  M.  A. 

Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  F.  R.  S. 

Prof.  J.  Cossar  Ewart,  F.  R.  S. 

Charles  E.  Fagan. 

John  Falconer. 

F.  J.  Faraday,  F.  L.  S. 

Prof.  J.  B.  Farmer. 

Alderman  J oseph  Farncombe. 

Ernest  Farn worth. 

J.  Faulkner. 

Robert  W  Felkin,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  R.  G.  S., 
etc. 


E.  Ferro. 

Prof.  Geo.  Francis  Fitzgerald,  M.  A.,  F.  T.  C.  D. 
B.  Morley  Fletcher,  A.  M.  I.  C.  E. 

Geo.  Fletcher,  F.  G.  S. 

Howard  Fox. 

G.  Carey  Foster,  F.  R.  S. 

Charles  Fox. 

Herbert  George  Fordham. 

R.  Bruce  Foote,  F.  G.  S.,etc. 

Dr.  W.  Fream. 

William  G.  Freeman. 

Edward  P.  Frost,  D.  L.,  J.  P. 

Robert  Frost. 

Alfred  C.  Fryer,  Ph.  D. ,  M.  A. 

J.  H.  Ftiliarton,  D.  Sc. 

A.  W.  Gadesden. 

Sir  William  T.  Gairdner,  M.  D.,  K.  C.  B.,F.  R.  S. 
Prof.  W.  Galloway. 

J.  S.  Gamble. 

Rev.  C.  L.  Garde. 

Walter  Garstang,  M.  A. 

James  Garvie,  M.  I.  M.  E. 

Charles  Gatehouse. 

Sir  Arch.  Geikie,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

Rev.  Hereford  B.  George. 

H.  T.  Gerrans,  M.  A. 

G.  A.  Gibson,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Edin. 

Charles  Gide. 

J.  William  Gifford. 

Rev.  C.  D.  Ginsburg,  LL.D.,  J.  P. 

George  Gladstone,  F.  R.  G.  S. 

J.  H.  Gladstone,  F.  R.  S. 

J.  S.  Stuart  Glennie,  M.  A. 

G.  T.  Glover,  F.  I.  C..F.C.S. 

Francis  Bennett  Goldney. 

G.  Laurence  Gomme,  esq. 

A.  A.  Gordon,  C.  A. 

Col.  Gouraud,  C.  M.  H. 

David  Goyder,  M.  D. 

Albert  A.  Gray,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

Surgeon- Major  Charles  Gray, 

John  Gray,  B.  Sc. 

Claud  J.  Grece,  LL.  D. 

J.  Reynolds  Green. 

Prof.  A.  G.  Greenhill. 

Edward  Greenly,  F.  G.  S. 

Prof.  R.  A.  Gregory. 

W.  Gregson,  F.  G.  S. 

G.  Griffith. 

E.  H.  Griffiths,  F.R.S. 

O.  F.  F.  Grunbaum,  M.  A.,  D.  Sc. 

Dr.  Theodore  Groom. 

R.  T  Gunther. 

Dr.  A.  C.  Haddon. 

R.  A.  Hadfield. 

A.  D.  Hall. 

E.  Stanley  Hall. 

Hugh  F.  Hall,  M.  A.,  F.  G.  S. 

Egbert  de  Hamel. 

Jno.  Stanley  Hamill. 

N.  Bishop  Harman,  M.  B.,  F.  R.  C.  S. 

John  C.  Harrison. 

Prof.  Marcus  M.  Hartog,  D.  Sc. 

Philip  Hartog. 

Robert  B.  Hayward,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S. 

H.  Wilson  Hake,  Ph.  D.,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S. 
Robert  Hammond. 

Ralph  Heap. 


m  <l 


294 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Walter  Heape,  M  A. 

Killingworth  Hedges,  M.  I.  C.  3. 

Prof.  W.  A.  Herdman,  P.  R.  S. 

Prof.  A.  S.  Herschell,  F.  R.  S.,  P.  R.  A.  S. 

Dr.  A.  J.  Herbertson. 

Henry  Higgs. 

James  Hy.  Hindle. 

Chas.  J.  Holdsworth,  J.  P. 

Sir  Joseph  Dalton  Hooker,  F.  R.  S. 

John  Pitman  Hooper. 

R.  Hornby,  M.  A.,  F.  C.  S. 

James  L.  Howard,  D.  Sc. 

O.  H.  Howarth,  C.  E.,  F.  R.  G.  S.,F.  G.  S. 

Prof.  Robert  Howden,  M.  A.,  M.  B.,  C.  M. 

F.  R.  S.  E. 

John  W.  Howells. 

Prof.  G.  B.  Howes,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  ete. 

Chas.  P.  Hobkirk,  F.  L.  S.,  etc. 

Prof.  William  H.  H.  Hudson,  M.  A. 

G.  P.  Hughes,  J.  P.,  etc.,  etc. 

Arthur  Roope  Hunt,  M.  A.,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  G.  S. 

M.  Jackson,  J.  P. 

N.  Jacobson. 

David  Jenkins. 

Lieut.  Col.  T.  M.  Jenkins. 

Miss  Mary  Sophia  Jevons. 

Francis  Jones,  F.  R.  S  E. 

Miss  E.  E.  C.  Jones. 

Miss  Mary  Gore  Kelly. 

Henry  Kelway-Bamber,  F.  I.  C.,  etc. 

J.  Kenward,  F.  S.  A. 

J.  Graham  Kerr. 

Sir  George  King. 

Miss  C.  F.  Kirby. 

Miss  M.  A.  Kirby. 

Miss  S.  W.  Kirkcaldy. 

Reginald  Koettlitz,  M.  R.  C.  S.  Eng.,  etc. 

John  N.  Laird,  B.  A. 

Prof.  Charles  Lapworth. 

Mrs.  Louisa  A.  Law. 

Arthur  Lee,  J.  P. 

Charles  H.  Lees,  D.  Sc. 

J.  H.  Levy. 

Prof.  E.  Percival  Lewis,  Ph.  D. 

The  Rt.  Hon.  Lord  Lister,  D.  C.  L.,  P.  R.  S.,  etc. 
Prof.  J.  Oliver  Lodge,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 
D.  A.  Louis,  F.  I.  C.,  etc. 

J.  R.  Macdonald. 

Mrs.  J.  R.  Macdonald. 

His  Excellency  Don  Arturo  de  Marcoartu. 
Henry  Carpenter  Marsh. 

Hugh  Marshall,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E. 

Prof.  James  Mayor,  M.  A.,  LL.  D. 

Saleera  Makarius. 

Hiram  Stevens  Maxim. 

Prof  W.  C.  M’lntosh,  F.  R.  S. 

Robert  M’Lachlan,  F.  R.  S. 

John  W.  S.  Meiklejohn,  M.  D. 

James  Compton  Merry  weather. 

Mrs.  Constance  Meyerstein. 

Robert  C.  Millar,  C.  A. 

Harold  E.  Moore,  F.  S.  I. 

Alexander  Muirhead,  D.  Sc.,  F.  G.  S. 

Robert  Franklin  Muirhead,  M.  A.,  B.  Sc. 
James  Murie,  esq.,  M.  D. 

Sir  John  Murray,  K.  C.  B.,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

A.  J.  Murphy. 


J.  L.  Mpres,  M.  A..  F.  S.  A.,  F.  R.  G.  S. 

Charles  Neild. 

O.  T.  Olsen,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  R.  G.  S. 

Prof.  Thomas  Oliver,  M.  D. 

Admiral  Sir  Erasmus  Ommanney,  C.  B.,  F.  R.  S. 
Dr.  F.  A.  Osborn. 

William  Paine. 

Mark  Parker,  M.  I.  E.  E. 

John  Parkin,  M.  A. 

Prof.  A.  M.  Paterson. 

James  Paton. 

J.  L.  Paton. 

F.  W.  Pavy,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 

H.  D.  Pearsall,  C.  E. 

George  Pearson. 

Sir  Cuthbert  Peek,  Bart.,  M.  A.,  F.  S.  A. 

W.  H.  Pendlebury,  M.  A.,  F.  C.  S. 

Prof.  John  Percival. 

Frederick  Perigal. 

E.  Perman,  D.  Sc. 

R.  W.  Philip,  M.  D.,  F.  R,  C.  P. 

Thomas  F.  Pigot. 

Freeland  Pilliter.  ^ 

William  E.  Plummer. 

Henry  Pocklington. 

Prof.  E.  B.  Poulton. 

John  Powell,  J.  P. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Poynting. 

LlewelPfn  Preece. 

Sir  W.  H.  Preece. 

Albert  E.  Pullar,  A.  M.  I.  M.  E. 

Herbert  S.  Pullar. 

Sir  Robert  Pullar. 

Rufus  D.  Pullar,  F.  C  S. 

Miss  Catherine  A.  Rasin,  D.  Sc. 

Arthur  Rambaut. 

Alexander  Ramsay. 

Prof.  William  Ramsay,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

E.  G.  Ravenstein. 

C.  A.  Rayne,  M.  D. 

Charles  H.  Read. 

T.  Mellard  Reade. 

Edmund  S.  G.  Rees. 

W.  F.  Reid,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  0.  S. 

Prof.  A.  W.  Reinold,  F.  R.  S. 

Prof.  A.  F.  Renard. 

George  B.  Rennie,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  M.  I.  N.  A. 

J.  Emerson  Reynolds,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S. 

Nelson  M.  Richardson. 

Ralph  Richardson,  F.  R.  S.  E. 

Robert  Richmond. 

Samuel  Rideal,  D.  Sc.,  F.  I.  C. 

R.  D.  Roberts,  M.  A.,  D.  Sc. , etc. 

Sir  George  Robertson,  K.  C.  S.  I. 

Joseph  J.  Robinson. 

Dr.  Leonard  Robinson. 

Arthur  Robottom. 

Edward  Robert  Robson,  F.  R.  I.  B.  A. 

Sir  Albert  Rollit,  M.  P.,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D. 

John  Romanes. 

Thomas  Godolphin  Rooper. 

Alexander  Ross,  LL.  D. 

Martin  Luther  Rouse,  M.  R.  A.  C. 

Frederick  J.  Rowan,  esq.,  A.  M.  I.  C.  E. 

Frank  A.  Roy,  M.  D.,  D.  D.  S. 

The  Hon.  Rollo  Russell. 

C.  J.  Ryland. 


THE  INTERN ATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE, 


295 


S.  Champernowne  Sadler. 

Miss  Alice  C.  Sargant. 

Robert  Saundby,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Howard  Saunders,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  Z.  S.,  F.  R.G. 
Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce. 

Prof.  E.  A.  Schafer,  LL.  D.,  F..R.  S„  etc. 

R.  F.  Scharff,  Ph.  D.,  B.  Sc. 

L.  Scholes. 

Prof.  Arthur  William  Scott. 

D.  H.  Scott,  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  L.  S. 
Mrs.  Fern  on  Schuster. 

Adam  Sedgwick,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S. 

A.  C.  Seward,  M.  A..,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

Edwin  Seward,  F.  R.  I.  B.  A. 

Herbert  Shaw,  B.  A. 

W.  N.  Shaw,  F.  R.  S. 

Mrs.  E.  S.  Sherriff. 

Arthur  E.  Shipley. 

Lewis  Erie  Shore. 

W.  Knowsiey  Sibley,  M.  A.,  M.  D. 

Alexander  Siemens,  G.  E. 

A.  Forbes  Sieveking,  F.  S.  A. 

James  Simson,  M.  J.  I. 

S.  Skinner. 

Matthew  B.  Slater,  F.  L.  S. 

Prof.  William  Smart. 

B.  Woodd  Smith,  F.  R.  A.  S. 

Mrs.  Emma  Smith. 

Prof.  George  Adam  Smith,  D.  D.,  LL>  D* 

T.  Walrond  Smith. 

W.  Macdonald  Smith. 

John  Smyth,  M.  A.,.  F.  C.  S.,  M.  I.  C.  EL 
Prof.  H.  Lloyd  Snape,  D.  Sc.,  Ph.  D. 

A.  Saxon  Snell,  F.  R.  I.  B.  A. 

John  Speak,  F.  R.  G.  S. 

Wm.  D.  Spanton,  F.  R.  C.  S.  E. 

Thomas  Spencer. 

Frederic  W.  Speirs,  Ph.  D. 

W.  S.  Squire,  Ph.  D. 

Wm.  F.  Stanley. 

Rev.  S.  P.  H.  Statham. 

William  Statham. 

W.  H.  Stead. 

Rev.  Thomas  R.  R.  Stebbing,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S, 

J.  E.  Stevens,  LL.  B. 

C.  Stewart. 

Prof.  Wm.  Stirling,  M.  D. 

Mark  Stirrup,  F.  G.  S. 

J.  Harris  Stone,  M.  A.,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  0.  S. 

Rev.  Canon  Strange. 

Prof.  Irving  Stringham, 

W.  M.  Strong,  M.  A. 

Prof.  Henry  Stroud. 

Col.  Charles  Swinhoe,  M.  A. 

E.  R.  Sykes.  # 

Mark  L.  Sykes,  F.  R.  M.  S. 

Prof.  J.  Symington,  M.  D. 

Jos.  M.  Tabor. 

Robert  H.  Taylor,  M.  I.  €.  E.,  M.  I.  M.  EL,  etc. 
Thomas  Pridgin  Teale. 

Washington  Teas  da  le  ,  F.  R.  A.  S.,  etc. 

James  Adam  Terras,  B.  Sc. 

Sir  Henry  Thompson,  Bart.,  F.  R.  C.  S.  Lend. 
Henry  G.  Thompson,  M.  D.,  J.  P. 

Isaac  C.  Thompson,  F.  L.  S. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Thompson. 


Wm.  P.  Thompson,  F.  C.  S'.,  F.  C.  I.  P.  A., 
M.  I.  M.  E. 

Andrew  Thomson,  M.  A.,  D.  Sc. 

Prof.  J.  J.  Thomson,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S. 

William  Thomson,  F.  R.  S.  Ed,,  F.  I.  C., 

F.  C.  S. 

R.  Threlfall. 

R.  II.  Tiddeman,  M.  A.,  F.  G.  S. 

John  M.  Toll. 

’Anthony  Traill,  LL.  D.,  M.  D. 

Canon  H.  B.  Tristram,  D.  D.,  F.  R.  S. 
Alderman  W.  J.  Trounce. 

Fred.  T.  Trouton,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S. 

Dawson  Turner,  M.  D. 

Prof.  H.  H.  Turner. 

G.  S.  Turpin, M.  A.,  D.  Sc. 

H.  W.  Twiggs. 

John  Unwin,  J.  P. 

Charles  Tanfield  Yachell,  M.  D. 

S.  Alfred  Yarley. 

Sir  Edmund  Yerney,  Bart. 

Lady  Yerney. 

William  Yernon. 

L.  F.  Yernon-Harcourt,  M.  I.  C.  E. 

Sir  William  Yincent,  Bart. 

Harold  W.  T.  Wager. 

James  Walker,  M.  A. 

J.  J.  Walker,  F.  R.  S.,  etc. 

William  George  Walker,  C.  E. 

R.  Mullineaux  Walmsley,  D.  Sc.,  etc. 

M.  J.  Barrington- Ward,  M.  A. 

Maj.  Gen..  Wm.  E.  Warrand,  R.  E.,  F.  G.  S. 
Maj.  Gen.  J.  Waterhouse,  I.  S.  E. 

Wm.  Watts,  F.  G.  S. 

Major-General  Webber,  C.  B.,  R.  E. 

C.  Welsh,  M.  A. 

Miss  Agnes  Grace  Weld,  F.  A.  I. 

Rev.  C.  Wells,  M.  A. 

Charles  A.  Wells,  A.  I.  E-  E. 

Prof.  J.  Wertheimer,  B.  Sc.,  B.  A. 

Alfred  E.  Western,  M.  A. 

A.  Silva  White,  F.  R.  S.  G.  S. 

J.  Martin  White,  esq. 

Sir  William  H.  White,  K.  C.  B. 

Charles  T.  Whitmell,  H.  M.  L  S. 

E.  T.  Whittaker. 

John  Irwine  Whitty,  LL.  D..  D.  C.  L.,  M.  A. 
Mark  Whitwill,.  J.  P. 

Jas..  Whitworth. 

Peter  Whyte,  M.  I.  C.  E. 

J.  Howard  Whitehouse. 

L.  R.  Wilberforce. 

George  Wilkie. 

Harry  Samuel  Williams. 

J.  S.  Williams. 

John  W.  Williams,  J.  P. 

Miss  Katharine  T.  Williams. 

J.  C.  Willis,  esq.,  M.  A. 

The  Hon.  Mr.  Justice  Wills. 

Maj.  Gen.  Sir  C.  W.  Wilson,  K  C.  B.,  F.  R.  S., 

D.  C.  L.,  etc. 

George  F.  Wilson,  F.  R.  S'. 

Henry  J.  Wilson,  M.  P. 

T.  Stacey  Wilson,  M.  D.,  M.  R.  C.  P.,  B.  Sc. 
William  Wilson. 

W.  E.  Wilson,  F.  R.  S. 


296 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901 


Prof.  B.  C.  A.  Windle,  M.  D.,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S., 

F.  S.  A. 

John  W.  Woodall,  M.  A.,  F.  G.  S. 

Sir  Henry  Trueman  Wood,  M.  A. 

Thomas  Workman. 

Philip  J.  Worsley. 

G.  Sime  Woodhead,  M.  A.,  M.  D. 

AMERICAN  GROUP. 


Harvard  University ,  Cambridge ,  Mass. 
Prof.  Comfort  A.  Adams,  jr.,  S.  B. 

James  Barr  Ames,  LL.D. 

William  J.  Ashley,  A.  M. 

Clarence  John  Blake,  M.  D. 

Henry  P.  Bowditch,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Edward  Cummings,  A.  M. 

William  M.  Davis,  M.  E. 

Charles  Carroll  Everett,  LL.  D. 
Reginald  H.  Fitz,  M.  D. 

Kuno  Fran  eke,  Ph.  D. 

Asaph  Hall,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Paul  H.  Hanus,  S.  B. 

Henry  B.  Hill,  A.  M. 

William  B.  Hills,  M.  D. 

Ira  N.  Hollis,  L.  H.  D. 

William  C.  Lane. 

Charles  R.  Lanman,  Ph.  D. 

David  Gordon  Lyon,  Ph.  D. 

Philippe  B.  Marcou,  Ph.  D. 

Edward  L.  Mark,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Charles  Sedgwick  Minot,  LL.  D. 
Robert  S.  Morison. 

Hugo  Miinsterberg,  Ph.  D. 

George  H.  Palmer,  LL.  D. 

Francis  G.  Peabody,  D.  D. 

James  Mills  Peirce,  A.  M. 

Edward  C.  Pickering,  LL.  D. 

Frederic  Ward  Putnam,  S.  D. 

Josiah  Royce,  Ph.  D. 

Dudley  A.  Sargent,  M.  D. 

Arthur  Searle,  A.  M. 

Nathaniel  Southgate  Shaler,  S.  D. 
Frederic  C.  Shattuck,  M.  D. 

F.  C.  de  Sumichrast. 

F.  W.  Taussig,  Ph.  D. 

Crawford  H.  Toy,  LL.  D. 

Yale  University ,  New  Haven ,  Conn. 
Prof.  Simeon  E.  Baldwin,  LL.  D. 

Charles  E.  Beecher,  Ph.  D. 

W.  F.  Blackman,  Ph.  D. 

[Russell  H.  Chittenden,  Ph.  D. 

Edward  S.  Dana,  Ph.  D. 

George  P.  Fisher,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Charles  B.  Richards,  M.  A. 

Thomas  R.  Lounsbury,  LL.  D. 

Tracy  Peck,  M.  A. 

Bernadotte  Perrin,  LL.  D. 

Edward  W.  Scripture,  Ph.  D. 

E.  Hershey  Sneath,  Ph.  D. 

William  G.  Sumner,  LL.  D. 

Arthur  M.  Wheeler,  LL.  D. 

University  of  Pennsylvania ,  Philadelphia. 
Provost  Charles  C.  Harrison,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Martin  G.  Brumbaugh,  Ph.  D. 

Horace  Jayne,  M.  D. 


Clinton  Rogers  Woodruff. 

Ed.  M.  Wrench,  F.  R.  C.  S. 

Dr.  E.  Percival  Wright. 

A-  Beaver  Wynne,  F.  G.  S.,  etc. 
Frank  W.  Young,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  C/S. 
George  Young,  Ph.  D. 

Prof.  Sydney  Young,  D.  Sc.,F.  R.  S. 


University  of  Pennsylvania — Continued. 
William  Draper  Lewis,  Ph.  D. 

Morris  Jastrow,  Jr.,  Ph.  D. 

Samuel  McCune  Lindsay,  Ph.  D. 

Edgar  F.  Smith,  Ph.  D. 

Princeton  University ,  Princeton,  N.  J. 
President  Francis  L.  Patton,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Prof.  Allan  Marquand,  Ph.  D. 

Henry  van  Dyke,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Woodrow  Wilson,  LL.  D. 

Walter  A.  Wyckoff,  A.  M. 

Charles  A.  Young,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Columbia  University ,  New  York. 

Prof.  John  W*  Burgess,  LL.  D. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  LL.  D. 

J.  McKeen  Catteil,  Ph.  D. 

John  B.  Clark,  LL.  D. 

Adolphe  Cohn,  LL.  B. 

Bashford  Dean. 

Richard  Elwood  Dodge,  A.  M. 

Frank  J.  Goodnow,  LL.  D. 

E.  R.  L.  Gould,  Ph.  D. 

Francis  P.  Kinnicutt,  M.  D. 

Frederic  S.  Lee,  Ph.  D. 

Henry  F.  Osborn,  Sc.  D. 

Edwin  R.  A.  Seligman,  Ph.  D. 

Edmund  B.  Wilson,  Ph.  D. 

George  Edward  Woodberry,  A.  B. 

Brown  University ,  Providence ,  E.  I. 
President  W.  H.  P.  Faunce,  D.  D. 

Prof.  John  Howard  Appleton,  A.  M. 

Carl  Barus,  Ph.  D. 

E.  B.  Delabarre,  Ph.  D. 

Albert  Harkness,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 

J.  Irving  Manatt,  LL.  D. 

Rutgers  College ,  New  Brunswick ,  N.  J. 
Prof.  Edward  A.  Bowser,  LL.  D. 

Edgar  S.  Shumway,  Ph.  D. 

Edward  Luther  Stevenson,  Ph.  D. 
Dartmouth  College. 

Prof.  Gabriel  Campbell,  D.  D. 

George  P.  Huntington*  D.  D. 

Alexander  A.  McKenzie,  B.  S. 

Frank  A.  Sherman,  M.  S. 

University  of  Nashville,  Nashville,  Tenn. 
Chancellor  William  H.  Payne, LL.D. 

Williams  College,  Williamstoion,  Mass. 

President  Franklin  Carter,  LL.D. 

Prof.  Leverett  Mears,  Ph.  D. 

Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick,  Me. 
President  William  DeWitt  Hyde,  D.  D.,LL.  D. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE.  297 


Ohio  University ,  Athens ,  Ohio. 

President  Charles  Wm.  Super,  LL.D. 

Vincennes  University ,  Vincennes ,  Jnd. 
President  Albert  H.  Yoder,  A.  B. 

i 

Andover  Theological  Seminary ,  Andover ,  Mass.  | 
Prof.  George  F.  Moore,  D.D. 

Colby  College ,  Waterville,  Me. 

President  Nathaniel  Butler,  D.  D. 

University  of  Cincinnati ,  Cincinnati ,  Ohio. 

President  Howard  Ayers,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Edward  Wyllys  Hyde. 

Maryville ,  College ,  Maryville ,  Tenn. 
President  Samuel  W.  Boardman,  LL.  D. 

Amherst  College ,  Amherst ,  d/ctss. 

President  George  Harris,  LL.D. 

Prof.  Edward  P.  Crowell,  D.  D. 

Benjamin  K.  Emerson,  Ph.  D. 

Charles  E.  Garman,  D.  D. 

John  F.  Genung,  Ph.  D. 

Anson  D.  Morse. 

Henry  B.  Richardson,  B.  A. 

John  M.  Tyler,  Ph.  D. 

Columbian  University ,  Washington ,  D.  C. 
President  B.  D.  Whitman,  LL.  D. 

Newton  Theological  Institution ,  Newton,  Mass. 
Prof.  Rush  Rhees,  D.D. 

TVestem  Reserve  University ,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
President  Charles  F.  Twing,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

McKendree  College,  Lebanon,  111. 
President  McKendree  H.  Chamberlain,  LL.  D. 
Neio  York  University,  New  York. 

Chancellor  Henry  M.  MacCracken,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. 
Prof.  Clarence  D.  Ashley,  LL.  D. 

Henry  D.  Baird,  LL.  D. 

Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn. 

President  Bradford  P.  Raymond,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater,  Ph.  D. 

Herbert  W.  Conn,  Ph.  D. 

John  M.  Van  Vleck,  LL.  D. 

Gberlin  College,  Oberlin,  Ohio. 

Prof.  Frances  J.  Hosford,  A.  M. 

Adelia  A.  F.  Johnson,  A.  M. 

S.  F.  MacLennan,  Ph.  D. 

Emory  College ,  Oxford ,  Ga. 

President  Charles  E.  Dawman,  D.  D. 

Union  Theological  Seminary ,  New  York. 

President  Charles  Cuthbert  Hall,  LL.  D. 

Prof. Francis  Brown, D.D. 

Arthur  C.  McGiffert,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D. 

Mt.  Holyoke  College,  South  Hadley,  Mass. 
President  Elizabeth  S.  Mead,  M.  A. 


University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Prof.  James  B.  Angell,  LL.  D. 

Albert  B.  Prescott,  LL.  D. 

Israel  C.  Russell,  LL.  D. 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo. 
President  Richard  H.  Jesse,  LL.D. 

State  University  of  loiua,  Iowa  City ,  Iowa. 
President  George  E.  MacLean,  LL.  D. 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

President  Charles  Kendall  Adams,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Richard  T.  Ely,  Ph.  D. 

Tufts  College,  Tufts  College,  Mass. 

President  Elmer  H.  Capen,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Amos  E.  Dolbear,  Ph.  D. 

Leo  R.  Lewis,  A.  M. 

Henry  C.  Metcalf,  Ph.  D. 

Edwin  A.  Start,  A.  M. 

Roanoke  College ,  Salem ,  Va. 
President  Julius  D.  Dreher,  Ph.  D. 

Polytechnic  Institute ,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Ex-President  David  H.  Cochrane,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
NortJuvestern  University,  Evanston,  III. 

President  Henry  Wade  Rogers,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Daniel  Bonbright,  LL.  D. 

William  Caldwell,  Sc.  D. 

Nathan  S.  Davis,  M.D.,LL.D. 

John  H.  Gray,  Ph.  D. 

Peter  Stenger  Grosscup,  LL.  D. 

Charles  Horswell,  Ph.  D. 

G.  W.  Hough,  LL.  D. 

Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie. ,  N.  Y. 

President  James  M.  Taylor,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Prof.  LeRoy  C.  Cooley,  Ph.  D. 

Achsah  M.  Ely,  A.  B. 

Mary  W.  Whitney,  A.  M. 

Bates  College,  Leiviston,  Me. 
President  George  C.  Chase,  D.D.,LL.D. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston 
Mass. 

Prof.  Cliarles  R.  Cross. 

William  T.  Sedgwick. 

Des  Moines  College,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
President  H.  L.  Stetson,  D.  D. 

Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute,  Worcester » ' 
Mass. 

President  T.  C.  Mendenhall,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Zelotes  W.  Coombs,  A.  M. 

Levi  L.  Conant,  Ph.  D. 

Lehigh  University,  South  Bethlehem ,  Pa. 
President  Thomas  M.  Drown,  LL.  D. 

Boston  University ,  Boston,  Mass. 

President  William  F.  Warren,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Prof.  Borden  P.  Bowne,  LL.  D. 

William  E.  Huntington,  Ph.  D. 


298 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900*1901 


Muhlenberg  College ,  Allentown ,  Pa. 
President  Theodore  L.  Seip,  D.  D. 

Cornell  University ,  Ithaca ,  2V.  Y. 

President  Jacob  Gould  Schurman,  LL.  D. 
Prof.  Louise  Sheffield  Brownell,  Ph.  D. 

R.  C.  Carpenter,  M.M.E. 

Hiram  Corson,  LL.  D. 

C.  L.  Crandall,  C.  E. 

Charles  DeGarmo,  Ph.  D. 

Austin  Flint,  M.D.,LL.  D. 

Waterman  T.  Hewett  Ph.  IX 
Robert  II.  Thurston,  LL.  D. 

Mosses  Coit  Tyler,  L.  H.  D. 

Horatio  S.  White,  A.  B. 

Samuel  G.  Williams,  Ph.  D. 

R.  A.  Witthaus,  M.  D. 

University  of  California ,  Berkeley ,  Cal. 

President  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler. 

Prof.  Joseph  Le  Conte,  LL.  D. 

Atlanta  University ,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
President  Horace  Rumstead,  D.  D, 

Smith  College ,  Northampton ,  Mass. 
President  L.  Clark  Seely e,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Iowa  State  College ,  Ames ,  Iowa. 
President  W.  M.  Beardshear,  LL.  D. 

Vanderbilt  University ,  Nashville ,  Tenn. 
President  J.  H.  Kirkland,  LL.  D. 

State  Normal  School ,  Worcester ,  Mass. 
Principal  E.  Harlow  Russell. 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute ,  Auburn,  Ala. 
President  William  Le  Roy  Brown,  LL.  D. 
Wellesley  College ,  Wellesley ,  Mass. 

President  Caroline  Hazard,  Litt.  D. 

Prof.  Katharine  Lee  Bates,  M.  A 
Katharine  Coman,  Ph  B 
Yida  Dutton  Scudder,  M  A. 

Johns  NopTcins  University ,  Baltimore ,  Md. 

President  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  LL  D. 

Prof.  Basil  L.  Gildersleeve,  LL.D. 

Paul  Haupt,  Ph  D. 

William  Osier,  M.  D. 

University  of  Colorado ,  Boulder.  Colo. 
President  James  H.  Baker,  LL.D. 

Ogden  College ,  Bowling  Green ,  Ky. 
President  William  A.  Obenchain,  A.  M. 
University  of  South  Dakota ,  Vermilion,  S  Dak. 
President  Garrett  Droppers,  A.B. 

John  B.  Stetson  University ,  De  Land ,  F7a. 
president  John  F  Forbes,  Ph.  D. 

Bryn  Mater  College  Bryn  Mawr  Pa. 

President  M.  Carey  Thomas,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  James  Harkness,  A.  M. 


Clark  University ,  Worcester,  Mass. 

President.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  William  H.  Burnham,  Ph.  D. 

Alexander  F.  Chamberlain,  Ph.D. 
Edmund  C.  Sanford,  Ph.  D. 

William  E.  Story,  Ph.  D. 

Arthur  Gordon  Webster.  Ph.  D. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn ,  N.  Y. 

Prof.  Walter  Scott  Perry,  M.  A.. 

University  of  Chicago,  Chicago ,  III. 

President  William  R.  Harper,  Ph.  D. 

Prof. Galusha  Anderson,  LL.D. 

John  Dewey,  Ph.  D. 

Ira  W.  Howeth,  Ph.D. 

Frank  R.  Lillie,  Ph.D. 

George  E.  Vincent,  Ph.  D. 

Charles  Zueblin,  B.  D. 

Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 
President  David  Starr  Jordan,  LL.D. 

Drake  University ,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
Chancellor  William  B.  Craig,  LL.D. 

Drexel  Institute ,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
President  James  MacAlister,  LL.  D. 

Armour  Institute  of  Technology ,  Chicago ,  III. 
President  Frank  W  Gunsaulus,  D.  D. 

Adelphi  College,  Brooklyn ,  N.  Y. 
President’  Charles  Levermore,  Ph.  D. 

Bradley  Polytechnic  Institute ,  Peoria,  III. 
Director  Edward  O.  Sisson,  B.  Sc. 

Mrs.  Robert  Abbe. 

Miss  Jane  Addams. 

James  W.  Alexander. 

Charles  Gordon  Ames,  D.  D. 

Mrs.  Fanny  B.  Ames. 

E.  Benjamin  Andrews,  LL.D. 

Hon.  John  L.  Bates. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell,  LL.  D. 

Prof.  Albert  S.  Bickmore,  Ph.D. 

George  Tate  Blackstock,  Q.C. 

Mrs.  Emmons  Blaine. 

Cornelius  N.  Bliss. 

Emil  L.  Boas. 

Eugene  de  Bocande. 

Miss  Caroline  Borden. 

Amory  H.  Bradford,  D.D. 

John  Graham  Brooks. 

Mrs  Ole  Bull. 

Rev.  Walter  Calley. 

M.  Jules  Cambon,  LL.  D. 

Hon.  John  G.  Carlisle,  LL.  D. 

Andrew  Carnegie. 

Paul  Carus,  Ph.  D. 

Walter  Channing,  M,  D. 

William  A.  Clark. 

Hon.  Grover  Cleveland,  LL.  D. 

William  Cover  ley 

Prof.  Edward  Cowles,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE, 


299 


Frederick  M.  Crunden,  A.  M. 

Julian  T.  Davies. 

Prof.  George  E.  Dawson,  Ph.  D. 

Miss  Julia  L.  Delafield. 

Right  Rev.  William  Croswell  Doane. 
William  E.  Dodge. 

James  Douglas. 

A.  E.  Dunning,  D.  D. 

Samuel  T.  Dutton,  Pli.  D. 

Rev.  Charles  C.  Earle. 

Ralph  M.  Easley. 

Mrs.  Dorman  B.  Eaton. 

Rev.  Samuel  A.  Eliot. 

Rev.  Daniel  Evans. 

Miss  Adele  M.  Pielde. 

Right  Rev.  Cyrus  D.  Foss,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Charles  W.  French. 

W.  M.  R.  French. 

Washington  Gladden,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
George  A.  Gordon,  D.  D. 

Gen.  A.  W.  Greely,  War  Department. 
Edward  Everett  Hale,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  Frank  Oliver  Hall. 

Edward  M.  Hartwell,  Ph.  D. 

D.  C.  Heath. 

Franklin  H.  Head. 

Mrs.  Charles  Henrotin. 

Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  LL.  D. 
Newell  Dwight  Hillis,  D.  D. 

George  Hodges,  D.  D. 

Mrs.  Robert  Hoe. 

Hon.  Frederick  W.  Holls,  LL.  D. 

L.  O.  Howard,  Ph.  D. 

Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe. 

W.  D.  Howells. 

Ray  Green  Huling,  Sc.  D, 

Prof.  George  F.  James,  Ph.  D. 

Lewis  G.  Janes,  Ph.  D. 

Charles  E.  Jefferson,  D.  D. 

Mrs.  Mary  Morton  Keliew. 

Francis  H.  Leggett. 

Mrs.  Francis  H.  Leggett. 

Henry  M  Leipziger,  Ph.  D. 

George  C.  Lorimer,  D.  D. 

Prof.  Herman  T.  Lukens. 

Albert  J.  Lyman,  D.  D. 

Hamilton  Wright  Mabie,  LL.  D. 

William  H.  Maxwell,  Ph.  D. 

Edwin  D.  Mead. 

Mrs.  Lucia  Ames  Mead. 

H.  Merou. 


Arthur  H.  Milbury. 

Clara  E.  Millerd. 

George  P.  Morris. 

.Philip  Stafford  Moxom,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Hon.  James  J.  Myers. 

N.  O.  Nelson. 

Ludwig  Nissen. 

Rev.  Frederic  P.  Noble. 

Mrs.  Frances  Pach. 

Mrs.  Alice  Freeman  Palmer,  LL  D. 
Mrs.  Potter  Palmer. 

Edward  H.  Peaslee,  M.  D. 

William  Potts. 

Maj.  J.  W.  Powell. 

Josiah  C.  Pumpelly. 

Mrs.  George  Haven  Putnam 
Mrs.  Sylvanus  Reed. 

James  B.  Reynolds. 

Miss  O.  M.  E.  Rowe. 

Mrs.  C.  A.  Runkle. 

Minot  J.  Savage,  D.  D. 

Mrs.  Henry  M.  Sanders. 

Horace  E  Scudder. 

Edwin  P.  Seaver. 

Isaac  N.  Seligman. 

May  Wright  Sewall. 

Albert  Shaw,  Ph.  D. 

Frederic  W.  Speirs,  Ph.  D. 

Prof.  Charles  Sprague  Smith. 
Charles  Stewart  Smith. 

Henry  A.  Stimson,  D.  D. 

Richard  S.  Storrs,  D.  D. 

Josiah  Strong,  D.  D. 

Reuen  Thomas,  D.  D. 

Louis  C.  Tiffany. 

William  H.  Tolman,  Ph.  D. 

William  Trelease,  Ph.  D. 

Ross  Turner. 

Mrs.  Schuyler  Van  Rensselaer. 
Hubert  Vos. 

Charles  D.  Walcott,  LL.  D. 

Freeman  L.  Ward,  M.  D. 

John  Q.  A.  Ward. 

Rev.  Frank  S.  C.  Wicks. 

Mrs.  Charles  Wilmarth. 

M.  Orme  Wilson. 

Mornay  Williams. 

Hon.  Roger  Wolcott,  LL.  D. 

Thomas  W.  Wood. 

Hon.  Stewart  L.  Woodford,  LL.  D. 
Robert  A.  Woods. 


APPENDIX  III. 

Specimens  of  the  weekly  programmes  of  the  Paris  International  Assembly: 

I.  English-Speaking  Groups,  Programme  No.  19,  September  14-22,  1900. 

Friday,  September  Ik. 

10.15-12.30:  Visit  to  Rue  des  Nations. 

10.15  a.  m.:  Pavilion  of  Great  Britain. 

11  a.  m. :  Pavilion  of  Hungary. 

11.45  a.  m. :  Pavilion  of  Finland. 

3  p.m.:  Meeting  of  international  association. 

Petit  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts  (Sous-Sol,  south  side). 

Chairman:  The  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.  P.,  vice-president  of  British  group. 
Reports  by  secretaries,  work  of  sectional  committees,  etc. 


300 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

4.30  p.  m.:  Reception  and  tea  by  the  American  group.  Pavilion  of  the  United  States,  Rue  deg 
N  ations. 

9  p.  m.:Fete  du  Soir.  Illumination  of  exposition  and  river. 

Places  reserved,  as  far  as  possible,  at  Sous-Sol,  Palais  des  Congres. 

Saturday ,  September  15. 

10.15  a.  m. :  Visit  to  section  of  education,  Palais  de  l’Enseignement,  Classe  I,  Champ  de  Mars. 

Meet  at  Bureau  de  l’Ecole  Internationale  de  l’Exposition,  at  top  of  N.  W.  staircase,  in 
Central  Hall,  above  retrospective  collection  of  automobiles. 

10.15  a.  m. :  Alternative — Visit  to  section  of  geography  and  geology,  Classe  II. 

Meet  at  exhibit  of  British  Geological  Survey,  Classe  II,  first  floor. 

11.45  a.  m. :  Results  of  exploration  of  Delphi. 

Exhibit  of  Ministere  de  l'lnstruction  Publique,  Classe  I,  first  floor. 

12.15  p.  m. :  Recent  astronomical  photographs. 

Meet  at  exhibit  of  Harvard  Observatory. 

3  p.m.:  Colonial  sections. 

Meet  in  lecture  room,  Pavilion  of  Canada,  Trocadero. 

5  p.  m. :  Reception  offered  by  the  French  group. 

Sous-Sol,  Palais  des  Congrds,  Place  de  l1  Alma. 

Monday ,  September  17. 

10.15  a.  m. :  Visit  to  electrical  section,  Champ  de  Mars. 

Meet  at  Musee  Centennale  de  l’Eiectricite,  Palais  de  I’Electricite,  first  floor. 

10.15  a.  m.:  Alternative— Lecture :  “Paris,  Historic  and  Actual,”  in  Petit  Palais  (Sous-Sol),  fol¬ 
lowed  by  visit  to  Pavilion  de  la  Ville  de  Paris  (Pont  des  Invalides). 

3  p.m.:  Visit  to  exhibition  of  Algeria,  Trocadero. 

Meet  in  Salle  des  Antiquites  Romaines. 

4  p.  m. :  Visit  to  Russian  exposition,  Trocadero. 

Meet  in  Salle  du  Chemin-de-fer  trans-siberien. 

Tuesday,  September  18. 

10.15  a.  m. :  Visit  to  exhibition  of  chemistry  and  photography,  Champ  de  Mars. 

Meet  at  Musee  Centennale  de  la  Chimie. 

10.15  a.  m. :  Alternative— Visit  to  Exposition  de  l’Art  Publique,  organized  under  the  auspices  of 
the  city  of  Paris. 

Meet  at  Palais  des  Examens,  Ancien  Marche  Saint-Germain. 

3  p.m.:  Meeting  of  committees. 

Petit  Palais  des  Beaux- Arts  (Sous-sol,  at  south  side). 

Wednesday,  September  19. 

10.15  a.  m.:  Grand  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts. 

Meet  at  main  entrance,  and  again  at  11.30  a.  m.  in  Musee  Centennale  de  la  Sculpture. 

3  p.  m. :  Visit  to  the  Pasteur  Institute,  Rue  Vaugirard. 

Meet  at  the  institute  entrance. 

Thursday,  September  20. 

10.15  a.  m. :  Social  economy  at  the  exposition. 

Meet  at  Palais  de  l’Economie  Sociale,  Salle  des  Chemins-de-fer.  Classe  109. 

2.30  p.  m. :  Visit  to  exposition  annexe,  Vincennes. 

Meet  at  steamboat  pier,  Pont  des  Invalides  (south  end)  for  boat  to  Pont  National. 

Friday,  September  21. 

10.15  a.  m.:  Visit  to  Pavilion  de  Chasse,  Peche,  Forets.  (South  end,  Pont  d’lena.) 

11.30  a.  m. :  Visit  to  North  German  Lloyd  exhibit. 

12  m.:  Visit  to  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

3p.  m.  :  Meeting  of  committees. 

Petit  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts  (Sous-sol,  at  south  side). 

5  p.m.:  Reception.  Offices  of  International  Association. 

Sous-sol,  Palais  des  Congrfis,  Place  de  l’Alma. 

Saturday,  September  22. 

Excursion  to  Saint-Germain  (Musee  d' Antiquites  Nationales). 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE. 


301 


II.  French  Group— Programme  No.  19,  October  18-25,  1900. 

Visite  cV ensemble  cle  V exposition  organisee  pour  les  ecoles  primaires  superieures  et 
les  ecoles  professionnelles  cle  la  ville  de  Paris, 

Jeudi  IS: 

Petit  Palais  des  Champs-Elysees:  M.  E.  Molinier,  conservateur  au  Musee  du  Louvre. 

Serres  et  Jardins:  M.  Plauzewski. 

Rendez-vous:  Porte  du  Petit  Palais  a  9  h.  du  matin. 

Vendredi  19: 

Rue  des  Nations:  M.  Frantz  Jourdain,  architecte,  president  de  la  classo  71. 

Rendez-vous:  Petit  Palais  des  Champs-Elysees  salle  de  PEcole  Internationale,  a  9  h.  du 
matin. 

Samedi  20 : 

Esplanade  des  Invalides: 

Yitrail  et  tapisserie:  Max  Choublier. 

Mobilier  et  bijoux:  M.  Delvolve. 

Ceramique:  M.  Granger,  professeur  de  tecbnologie  ceramique  k  PEcole  d’ Application  de 
la  Manufacture  de  Sevres. 

Rendez  vous:  Porte  28,  Quai  d’Orsay,  a  9  b. 

Lundi  22: 

Palais  de  l’Economie  Sociale  et  des  Congres:  M.  Gide,  professeur  k  la  faculte  de  droit,  rap¬ 
porteur  de  Peconomie  sociale  pour  le  rapport  general  de  Pexposition:  Histoire  d’une  vie 
d’ouvrier. 

Pavilion  de  la  ville  de  Paris: 

M.  Masson,  inspecteur  general  de  l’assainissement  de  Paris. 

M.  le  Dr.  A.  J.  Martin,  membre  du  comite  consultatif  d’hygiene  publique  de  France  et  du 
Conseil  superieur  de  l’assistance  publique,  etc.,  rapporteur  du  comite  de  la  Classe  III. 
Rendez-vous:  devant  le  Palais  de  l’Economie  Sociale,  en  face  la  passerelle  de 
PEcole  Internationale,  a  9  b.  du  matin. 

Mardi  23: 

Trocadero: 

Les  Colonies  frangaises  et  etrangeres:  M.  Noufflard,  cbef  du  service  commercial  a  l’office 
colonial. 

Rendez-vous:  Pavilion  de  P administration  des  colonies  (porte  Delessert),  k 
b.  du  matin. 

Mercredi  2U: 

Cbamp  de  xvlars:  M.  Leon  Guillet,  iugenieur  des  arts  et  manufactures. 

Metallurgie,  industries  cbimiques,  electrochimie,  blancbiment,  teinturerie. 

Rendez-vous:  Palais  des  Mines  et  de  la  Metallurgie,  porte  d'angle  procbe  de  la 
tour  Eiffel,  a  9  b.  du  matin. 

Jeudi  25: 

Cbamp  de  Mars:  M.  Gulliet,  ing6nieur  civil. 

Genie  civil  et  transports,  galerie  des  machines,  electricite. 

Rendez-vous:  Palais  du  genie  civil,  porte  centrale  (pres  Pexposition  retrospective 
de  la  locomotion),  a  9  b.  du  matin. 


APPENDIX  IV. 

Classified  List  of  the  Leading  International  Congresses  held  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 


Music . . 

Photography ... 
Dramatic  art... 
Ai’cbitecture.-. 
Municipal  art . . 
Teaching  of  art 


I.— Art. 


.  J une  14  to  18. 

July  23  to  28. 

July  27  to  31. 

.July  30  to  August  4. 
.August  8  to  16. 

.August  29  to  September  1. 


II. — Mining ,  engineering ,  and  applied  science. 


Gold  and  silver  assaying . . . . . June  11  to  13. 

Mines  and  metallurgy . June  18  to  23.- 

Automobiles . . . . July  9  to  — . 

Testing  of  materials . . . July  9  to  16. 

Steam  engines,  etc . . . July  18  to  18. 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


302 


Applied  mechanics .  - 
Applied  chemistry.. 

Fire  brigades . 

Thread  numbering  . 

Gas . 

Tramways . 

Aeronautics  . 

Railroads . . 

Acetylene . 


July  19  to  25. 

.July  23  to  28. 
August  12  to  — . 
September  3  and  4. 
September  3  to  5. 
September  10  to  13. 
.  September  15  to  20. 
September  20  to  29. 
September  22  to  28. 


III. — Maritime  affairs. 


Naval  architecture  and  construction.. . . . . . July  19  to  21. 

Navigation . . July  28  to  August  3. 

Chronometry . . . . July  28  to  August  4. 

Merchant  marine . . . . . . August  4  to  12. 

Maritime  law . . . . . October  1  to  3. 


IV. — Mathematical ,  physical ,  and  chemical  science. 


Applied  mechanics. 
Applied  chemistry. 

Chemistry. . . 

Mathematics . 

Physics . 

Electricity . . 


(See  also  under  Maritime  affairs  ) 

. . . July  19  to  25. 

. . . . July  23  to  28. 

. . . . . . August  6  to  II. 

. . . August  6  to  11. 

. . . August  6  to  11. 

. . . . August  18  to  25. 


V. — Natural  science. 


Ornithology  . . . June  26  to  30. 

Alpinists . . . . . . . August  12  to  14. 

Geology . . . August  16  to  28. 

Meteorology . . . . . September  10  to  16. 

Botany. . . . . . . . . October  1  to  6. 


VI. — Agriculture  and  forestry. 

Horticulture . . . . . . . . 

Forestry.. . . 

Agricultural  stations  . . . . 

V iti culture  . . . . . . . . 

Cattle  feeding . . . 

Agriculture . 

Agricultural  cooperation . . . . . . 

Apiculture . . . . . . . . 

Fruit  culture  and  arboriculture . . . . 

Aquiculture  and  fisheries . . . . 

Wine  and  cider  making . 


.May  25  to  27. 

June  4  to  7. 

.June  18  to  20. 

June  20  to  23. 

June  21  to  23. 

July  1  to  7. 

July  8  to  . 
September  10  to  12. 
September  13  to  14. 
September  14  to  19. 
.October  12  to  13. 


VII. — Medicine ,  hygiene ,  etc. 

Homeopathy . . 

Professional  medicine  _ _ _ T... . . . 

Medical  press  . . . . . . . . 

Electrology  and  medical  radiology . . . . . . 

Pharmacy . . . . 

Medicine . . . 

Dermatology . . . . 

Dentistry . . . . . . 

Hygiene . . . . . . 

Hypnotism . . . . 

Physical  education . . 

Pharmacy  specialties . . . 


July  18  to  21. 

July  23  to  28. 

July  27  to  29. 

July  27  to  August  1. 
August  8  to 
August  2  to  9. 

.August  2  to  9. 

August  8  to  14. 

August  10  to  17. 

.  August  12  to  15. 

August  30  to  September  6. 
.September  3  and  4. 


VIII. — AnthrojJology,  archaeology ,  and  history. 


Numismatics . . . . June  14  to  16. 

Comparative  history . . . . . . July  23  to  28. 

Anthropology  and  prehistoric  archaeology . August  20  to  25. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  EOR  SCIENCE. 


303 


Ethnography . . . 

Basque  studies - 

History  of  religion  _ 

Folklore - 1_ . 

Americanists _ 


August  26  to  September  1. 
.  September  3  to  5. 
.September  3  to  8. 

.  September  10  to  12. 
.September  17  to  21. 


IX.  — Education. 


CSee  also  X,  etc.) 

Fencing. . . . - . . 

Music  - . - - - 

Modern  language  teaching- . . . . 

Higher  education. . . . . . . 

Secondary  education  - . . . . . 

Primary  education. . . . . . 

Philosophy . . . . . . 

Educational  press . . — . . 

Stenography - - - - - - - - . 

Bibliography  . . . . . . . 

Psychology  . . . . . . . 

Teaching  of  art _ . . . . 

Physical  education _ _ ... _ _ 

Popular  education  . . . . . . . . 


..Tune  8  to  10. 

.June  14  to  18. 

.July  24  to  29. 

.July  30  to  August  4. 

July  34  to  August  6. 
August  2  to  5. 

.August  2  to  7. 

August  9  to  11. 

August  9  to  15. 

August  16  to  18. 

-August  22  to  25. 

.August  29  to  September  1. 
.  August  30  to  September  6. 
.  September  10  to  13. 


X. — Technical ,  social,  and  commercial  education. 
(See- also  XI,  XV,  etc.) 


Agricultural  education . . June  14  to  16. 

Teaching  of  social  science . . . . — . July  30  to  August  3. 

•Technical  and  industrial  education  - - - - August  6  to  11. 

Social  education . . . . . . . September  6  to  9. 


XL — Geographical  and  colonial  questions. 

July  30  to  August  5. 
August  6  to  11. 
August  27  to  31. 


Colonies . .... 

Colonial  sociology . 

Economic  and  social  geography 


XII. — Industry  and  commerce. 


Grocery  trade . . . . . . . .June  13  to  15. 

Ramie . . . . June  28  to  30. 

Commercial  travelers  and  agents . . July  8  to  11. 

Baking  trade . . . . . July  16  to  18. 

Wine  and  spirit  trade . . . . . . . . July  16  to  21. 

Commerce  and  industry . . . ....July  23  to  28. 

Tariff  regulations  . . . . July  30  to  August  4. 

Milling  trade . . . . . . . . August  9  to  11. 


YAH.— Property  and  finance. 

House  property . . . . . . . 

Movable  property  . . . . . 

Joint  stock  companies . . . . 

Landed  property . . . 

Insurance  . . . . 

Actuaries  . . . . . . . . . . 

Copyright  (literary  and  artistic) . . . . . . . 

Industrial  property  and  copyright . . 

Comparative  law . . . . 

Inventors’  associations . . . . 


.May  28  to  June  2. 
June  4  to  7. 

.June  8  to  12. 

.June  11  to  13. 

June  25  to  30. 

June  25  to  30. 

.July  16  to  21. 

July  23  to  28. 

July  31  to  August  4. 
.  September  10  to  13. 


XI Y  .—Literature  and  the  press. 


Press  associations 

Medical  press _ 

Educational  press 

Stenography . 

Librarians  . . 


July  23  to  26. 
July  27  to  29. 
August  9  to  11. 
August  9  to  15. 
August  20  to  23. 


304  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

XY. — Labor  and  cooperation. 

Friendly  societies  ... . - . June  7  to  10. 

Young  workmen’s  aid  societies . . June  11  to  13. 

Housing- . . . . . June  18  to  21. 

People's  credit  banks . - . July  8  to  10. 

Workmen’s  cooperative  productive  associations . July  11  to  13. 

Cooperative  societies . July  15  to  17. 

Profit  sharing . . . . July  15  to  18. 

International  cooperative  alliance . . . July  18  to  22. 

Workmen’s  protection  and  compensation . July  25  to  31. 

XVI.— Women. 

Women’s  work  and  institutions . June  18  to  23. 

Women’s  rights . - . . . September  5  to  8. 

XVII.—  Philanthropy. 

Housing . . . . . June  18  to  21. 

Vegetarian . June  21  to  23. 

Discharged  prisoners’  aid . . . July  9  to  12. 

Life  saving  and  first  aid  . . . . July  17  to  23. 

Poor  relief . July  30  to  August 

Blind . . . .  .August  5. 

Deaf-mutes . . . August  6  to  8. 

Antislavery . . . August  6  to  9. 

Red  Cross . . . August  20  to  25. 

Abuse  of  tobacco . . . August  20  to  25. 

Sunday  rest . October  9  to  12. 

XVIII.— Peace. 

September  29  to  October  6. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILROAD  SERVICE. 


[The  Animal  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1S98-99  contained  in 
Yol.  1  a  chapter  on  Educational  Training  for  Railroad  Service  (see  pp.  871-955), 
prepared  by  Mr.  J.  Shirley  Eaton,  which  gives  an  account  of  what  higher  seats  of 
learning,  and  especially  technological  institutions,  do  to  prepare  engineers  and 
other  special  employees  of  railroads.  This  account  has  been  a  welcome  source  of 
information.  The  question  of  a  specific  preparation  for  railroad  service  is  being 
discussed  by  technologists  and  railroad  men,  it  becoming  more  and  more  clear  that 
much  waste  can  be  avoided  by  such  a  preparation.  The  St.  Louis  Railway  Club 
and  the  Illinois  Society  of  Engineers  and  Surveyors  have  recently  discussed  the 
technical  schools  and  their  relation  to  railroads,  and  since  the  leading  papers  read 
before  these  two  associations  may  be  regarded  as  supplements  to  the  contribution 
of  Mr.  Eaton  they  are  here  reproduced  in  full.  The  first  is  by  Prof.  L.  P. 
Breckenridge,  of  the  University  of  Illinois;  the  other  by  Prof.  Edward  C.  Schmidt, 
of  the  same  institution.  Both  gentlemen  are  well  acquainted  with  the  subject, 
since  both  are  engaged  in  preparing  students  for  railroad  mechanical  engineering. 
It  must  be  understood  that  they  use  the  term  “technical  school  ”  in  the  wider 
sense  in  which  it  is  commonly  called  technological  school.  In  continental  Europe 
the  term  technical  school  is  used  for  any  institution  in  which  mono-technical 
instruction  is  given;  the  term  as  it  is  used  in  the  following  papers  refers  to  poly- 
technical  institutions.  The  courses  of  study  mentioned  are,  however,  those  of  the 
department  of  engineering  in  colleges  of  the  mechanic  arts.  In  stating  the  enor¬ 
mous  extent  of  the  railroad  interests  as  a  factor  of  the  present  industrial  life  in 
this  country,  the  authors,  naturally,  prove  the  necessity  of  special  departments  for 
railroad  engineering,  and  since  both  are  practical  inventors  of  railway  test  cars, 
they  may  be  considered  as  not  speaking  merely  “  ex  cathedra."] 


THE  AMERICAN  TECHNICAL  SCHOOL  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO 

RAILROADS.1 

[By  L.  P.  Breckenridge,  professor  of  mechanical  engineering.  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  Ill.} 

The  nature  of  the  many  questions  asked  the  writer  by  persons  unacquainted 
with  the  work  and  scope  of  the  American  teihnicai  school,  suggests  the  prepara¬ 
tion  of  a  paper  which  shall  give  certain  facts  familiar  to  all  the  teaching  profes¬ 
sion,  but  seldom  brought  to  public  notice  in  an  easily  digested  form. 

Still  another  reason  exists  in  my  mind  for  the  subject  chosen.  Each  year  the 
technical  school  and  industrial  interests  of  the  country  are  coming  more  and 
more  into  closer,  agreeable,  and  profitable  relations  with  each  other.  If  this  sub¬ 
ject  could  be  presented  so  as  to  draw  from  any  of  you  a  frank  statement  of  what 


1  Read  to  the  St.  Louis  Railway  Club. 


EI>  1901- 


■20 


305 


306 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


yon  have  fonnd  to  be  the  difficulties  with  men  fresh  from  the  school:  if  yon  wonld 
suggest  ways  occurring  to  you  wherein  the  school  fails;  if  you  would  acknowledge 
wherein  the  school  has  been  helpful,  you  may  be  sure  that  all  American  tech¬ 
nical  schools  would  profit  by  your  suggestions  and  be  grateful  for  words  of  com¬ 
mendation  or  of  criticism. 

The  American  technical  school  is  represented  to-day  first  by  the  endowed  tech¬ 
nical  school,  supported  by  the  interest  on  securities  donated  to  the  school  by 
some  generous  benefactor,  together  with  the  tuition  fees  of  the  students.  Such 
are  the  Troy  Polytechnic,  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale,  Worcester  Polytech¬ 
nic,  Lehigh,  Leland  Stanford,  Stevens  Institute,  Rose  Polytechnic,  and  others. 

It  is  represented  also  by  the  technical  departments  of  the  State  universities, 
receiving  its  support  partly  by  the  Federal  Government,  but  largely  supported  by 
State  appropriations,  the  fees  of  the  student  being  in  most  cases  merely  nominal. 
Still  other  schools  enjoy  the  support  of  both  national  Government  and  State  aid, 
as  well  as  that  of  private  benefactions.  Such  are  Sibley  College  of  Cornell  Uni¬ 
versity,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Columbia,  University  of  Califor¬ 
nia,  Purdue,  and  others. 

Nearly  every  State  in  the  Union  has  now  located  and  is  building  up  and  sup¬ 
porting  a  State  university,  and  some  technical  instruction  is  given  in  all  of  these 
institutions. 

The  geographical  location,  the  available  funds,  and  the  make-up  of  the  board  of 
control  determined  the  character  of  the  earlier  technical  instruction,  but  the  older 
and  larger  of  these  institutions  offer  courses  of  study  in  nearly  ail  the  branches 
for  which  there  appears  a  demand. 

The  meaning  of  a  technical  education,  as  usually  implied  and  as  used  by  the 
writer,  is  an  education  into  a  knowledge  of  the  useful  arts,  and  leading  more  spe¬ 
cifically  into  some  branch  of  engineering.  It  does  not  imply  the  education  of 
the  mechanic  in  the  trade  school,  which  occupies  its  distinct  and  useful  place 
and  not  infrequently  furnishes  excellent  material  for  more  advanced  technical 
training. 

The  technical  school  teaches  the  live  languages  in  place  of  the  dead  languages. 
It  teaches  mathematics,  the  effective  tool  of  the  engineer,  not  the  ornament  of  the 
mathematician.  It  teaches  chemistry,  physics,  and  mechanics  as  a  compass,  as  a 
protection,  and  as  a  foundation  for  the  superstructure  which  is  to  follow,  and  on 
this  foundation  is  built  the  useful  and  honorable  profession  of  engineering. 

The  diversity  of  interests  and  the  multiplicity  of  public  needs  and  requirements 
necessarily  demands  a  division  of  engineering  labor,  and,  while  a  few  years  ago 
the  civil  engineer  knew  how  to  do  everything  in  a  technical  line,  at  present  there 
is  abundant  additional  opportunity  for  the  labors  of  the  mechanical, mining,  elec¬ 
trical,  hydraulic,  sanitary,  architectural,  railway,  and  naval  engineer,  while  a 
place  is  rapidly  being  opened  up  for  the  pneumatic,  gas,  chemical,  and  commer¬ 
cial  engineer. 

The  steps  in  the  education  of  the  American  engineer  are  the  kindergarten,  the 
grade  school,  the  high  school,  the  State  university  or  endowed  technical  school, 
and  practice  in  the  chosen  profession.  The  kindergarten  exists  in  every  home, 
but  often  has  neglectful  teachers.  The  grade  school  exists  in  every  group  of 
country  homes  as  well  as  in  every  town,  both  large  and  small.  In  it  are  educated 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  American  youths.  The  high  school  exists  in  the 
larger  towns  and  cities-  and  varies  in  effectiveness  and  value,  depending  upon  the 
enthusiasm,  local  pride,  and  generosity  of  its  patrons. 

The  State  university  receives  the  graduates  of  the  high  schools  and  obtains  its 
support  from  the  State  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  high  school  is  supported 
by  the  city  or  town. 

The  establishment  of  a  national  university  has  not  yet  been  accomplished,  and 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICEo  807 


the  project  meets  with  considerable  opposition  from  those  who  have  given  the 
subject  their  most-careful  consideration. 

I  take  it  that  all  of  you  are  entirely  familiar  with  the  steps  of  education  which 
carries  the  student  through  the  high  school — everywhere  is  the  American  school- 
house — and  many  of  our  cities  have  high  schools  of  exceptional  merit,  their  course 
of  instruction  is  excellent,  their  equipment  is  complete,  their  architectural  design 
and  appointments  magnificent. 

In  most  of  the  States  west  of  the  Alleghenies  the  educational  step  beyond  the 
high  school  is  the  State  university.  These  are,  for  the  most  part,  the  outgrowth 
of  what  was  formerly  known  as  the  “land-grant  college.'’ 

The  land-grant  colleges  were  the  result  of  early  legislation  by  the  General  Gov¬ 
ernment.  Senator  Justin  S.  Morrill,  of  Vermont,  introduced  the  land-grant  bill 
into  Congress  in  1858,  and  secured  its  passage  only  to  see  it  vetoed  by  James 
Buchanan,  then  President  of  the  United  States.  Not  to  be  subdued,  the  bill  wras 
again  introduced  into  the  next  Congress,  and  the  next,  until  finally  the  measure 
became  a  law  in  1882,  when,  on  July  2,  the  hand  of  Lincoln  signed  the  act  of  Con¬ 
gress  which  granted  to  the  several  States  public  lands — “30,000  acres  for  each 
Senator  and  Representative  in  Congress  ” — from  the  sale  of  which  there  should  be 
established  a  perpetual  fund,  “the  interest  of  which  shall  be  inviolably  appropri¬ 
ated  by  each  State  which  may  take  and  claim  the  benefit  of  this  act,  to  the  endow¬ 
ment,  support,  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college,  where  the  leading  object 
shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies,  and  including 
military  tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts  in  such  a  manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the  States  may 
respectively  prescribe,  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education  of 
the  industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life.”  The  act  for¬ 
bade  the  use  of  any  portion  of  this  fund,  or  interest  thereon,  for  the  erection  or 
maintenance  of  any  buildings,  and  the  several  States  claiming  and  taking  the 
benefit  of  the  provisions  of  the  act  were  required,  by  legislative  assent  previously 
given,  “to  provide  within  five  years,  at  least,  not  less  than  one  college”  for  the 
carrying  out  of  the  purposes  of  this  act. 

The  wisdom  of  the  act  just  cited  becomes  more  and  more  evident  as  time  goes 
on.  It  was  but  the  beginning  of  an  era  of  popular  enthusiasm  in  favor  of  practi¬ 
cal  education.  The  States,  notably  in  the  West,  have  generously  augmented  the 
gifts  of  the  General  Government,  and  in  some  cases  the  wealth  of  individuals  has 
been  added  to  both,  notably  the  gift  of  $4,000,000  to  California  State  University  by 
several  philanthropists,  followed  by  the  Phoebe  A.  Hearst  architectural  competi¬ 
tion  plan  for  the  ^adding  of  the  entire  university,  Mrs.  Hearst  giving  $300,000  to 
pay  for  all  expenses  of  competition. 1  The  first  prize,  $i0,000,  has  just  been  awarded 
to  E.  Benard,  of  Paris. 

The  States  obtained  very  variable  returns  from  the  sale  of  the  lands,  some  obtain¬ 
ing  but  41  cents  an  acre,  and  from  this  up  to  $5.57  an  acre.  On  this  account  what 
was  intended  to  be  an  eq-uitable  allotment  proved  to  be,  in  this,  far  from  it. 

In  1890  the  Hatch  act  was  passed,  giving  to  each  college  established  under  the 
previous  act  funds  which  will  soon  amount  annually  to  $25,000.  This  amount, 
however,  was  appropriated  for  agricultural  experiments. 

It  is  hoped  that  a  similar  bill  may  soon  be  passed  for  establishing  “  engineering 
experiment  stations.  ” 

The  University  of  Illinois  is  a  representative  State  university,  and  the  famil¬ 
iarity  of  the  writer  with  this  institution  is  sufficient  excuse  for  using  it  to  illus¬ 
trate  what  is  believed  to  be  the  object,  scope,  and  plan  of  operation  of  all  similar 
institutions,  within  the  limit  set  by  the  pride  and  the  financial  support  given  to  it 
by  the  citizens  of  the  State  which  it  represents. 


Review  of  Reviews,  October,  1899. 


308 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  University  of  Illinois  is  made  up  of  four  colleges,  as  they  are  called,  namely: 

1.  The  College  of  Agriculture. 

2.  The  College  of  Literature  and  Arts. 

8.  The  College  of  Science. 

4.  The  College  of  Engineering. 

Besides  the  colleges  it  includes  various  so-called  schools,  such  as  the  school  of 
law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  music. 

The  university  policy,  as  relates  to  methods  of  instruction,  courses  of  study,  and 
general  plan  of  operation  is  determined  by  the  university  faculty,  consisting  of 
th£  heads  of  all  university  departments.  The  college  faculty  includes  all  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  corps  of  instruction  in  that  particular  college,  and  this  body  takes 
action  on  all  matters  which  relate  to  its  college  only. 

The  head  of  each  college  is  known  as  the  dean,  and  the  college  is  made  up  of 
departments  in  charge  of  a  professor,  aided  by  associate  professors,  assistant  pro¬ 
fessors,  instructors,  assistants,  and  fellows. 

The  College  of  Engineering  is  then  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  State  university, 
and  in  it  the  student  receives  his  technical  education.  Admission  to  the  College 
of  Engineering  is  possible  in  three  ways:  (a)  By  certificate  from  fully  accredited 
high  school,  ( b )  by  examination,  (c)  by  transfer  of  credits  from  some  other  col¬ 
lege  or  university.  There  are  in  the  State  of  Illinois  about  250  high  schools;  of 
these,  162  are  on  the  accredited  list  of  the  university  for  all  or  a  part  of  their  work. 
Applicants  must  be  at  least  16  years  of  age. 

A  law  passed  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  Illinois  at  the  session  of 
1895  provides  that  there  shall  be  annually  awarded  to  each  county  of  the  State  one 
State  scholarship,  which  shall  entitle  the  holder  thereof  to  instruction  in  any 
department  of  the  university  for  a  term  of  four  years,  free  from  any  charge  for 
tuition  or  incidental  charge,  except  it  be  for  materials  used  or  damage  done  to 
university  property.  Entrance  examinations  under  this  law  are  in  charge  of  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  competitive  examinations  are  held  upon 
the  first  Saturday  in  June  at  each  county  court-house  of  the  State. 

The  subjects  upon  which  entrance  examinations  are  held  for  admission  to  the 
College  of  Engineering  are  as  follows: 


Prescribed  list. 


Algebra  (through  quadratics) . 

Geometry  (plane,  solid,  and  spherical). 

English  composition . . 

English  literature  . . 

French,  or  German,  or  Greek,  or  Latin 

History . . . 

Physical  or  biological  science . . 


Elective  list. 


Astronomy . . 

Biology . . . . 

Botany . . . 

Chemistry. . . . 

Civics . 

Drawing. . . . 

French,  or  German,  or  Greek,  or  Latin 

Geology.. . . 

Manual  training. . 

Physics . 

Physiography . . 

Physiology . . . . . 

Zoology. . 


Credits. 

.  4 

.  4 

.  3 

.  6 

_  6 

_  3 

.  3 

29 

Credits. 

.  1  to  li 

.  3  6 

.  n.  3 

.  2  3 

.  1  3 

.  1  3 

.  3  9 

.  2  3 

.  1  2 

3 

.  1  3 

.  1*  3 

.  n  3 


Each  student  is  required  to  pass  examinations  in  all  studies  of  the  prescribed 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE.  309 


list,  and  enough  from  the  elective  list  to  aggregate  7  credits,  making  in  all  36 
credits  for  admission.  A  credit  being  equal  to  one  subject  pursued  in  a  high 
school  for  twelve  weeks  with  daily  recitation.  Admission  by  transfer  of  credits 
is  obtained  by  filing  of  certificate  of  honorable  dismissal  from  the  college  from 
which  the  student  comes,  and  submitting  credits  for  work  done  at  another  insti¬ 
tution  to  a  special  committee  appointed  to  report  on  these  special  cases. 

Persons  over  21  years  of  age,  not  candidates  for  a  degree,  may  be  admitted  to 
ciasses  when  they  possess  the  requisite  information  and  ability  to  profitably  pur¬ 
sue  the  chosen  subjects. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  a  student  be  a  resident  of  the  State  of  Illinois  to  enter 
the  university,  the  only  requisite  for  admission  being  ability  to  pass  the  examina¬ 
tions  and  a  good  moral  character. 

The  work  of  the  student  after  entering  the  College  of  Engineering  depends 
somewhat  upon  the  course  of  study  which  he  elects  to  pursue.  The  courses  of 
instruction  offered  at  present  are: 

1.  Architecture  and  architectural  engineering. 

2.  Civil  engineering. 

3.  Electrical  engineering. 

4.  Mechanical  engineering. 

5.  Municipal  and  sanitary  engineering. 

6.  Railway  mechanical  engineering. 

All  of  these  courses  are  similar  as  far  as  their  work  pertains  to  such  foundation 
studies  as  mathematics,  physics,  mechanics,  elements  of  drafting,  and  chemistry. 
Similar  also  in  their  work  pertaining  to  culture  studies,  composition,  rhetoric, 
English,  French,  German,  Spanish,  economics,  ethics,  and  history.  They  differ  in 
the  several  departments,  in  that  each  department  applies  the  principles  of  these 
fundamentals  to  the  special  examples,  problems,  designs,  constructions,  and  duties 
which  will  naturally  follow  in  the  chosen  profession. 

In  each  department  the  special  studies  of  the  course  number  about  twenty-one, 
divided  as  follows:  (a)  Recitations,  (b)  drawing  and  design,  (c)  shop  or  field 
work,  (d)  laboratory  work,  the  amount  of  work  depending  upon  the  particular 
course.  As  an  example  of  a  four  years’  course  of  study  it  seems  appropriate  to 
give  here  the  course  laid  down  as  the  course  in  railway  mechanical  engineering  at 
the  University  of  Illinois: 

First  year. 

1.  Advanced  algebra  and  trigonometry. 

2.  German,  or  French,  or  Spanish,  or  English. 

3.  Elements  of  drafting,  descriptive  geometry,  lettering,  and  sketching. 

4.  Shop  practice  in  pattern  making,  foundry  work,  and  forge  work. 

5.  Military  tatics  and  drill. 

6.  Physical  training. 

Second  year. 

1.  Differential  and  integral  calculus. 

2.  Physics,  experimental  lectures,  and  laboratory  practice. 

3.  Drafting,  elements  of  machine  design. 

4.  Shop  practice  in  machine  work  and  bench  work. 

5.  Rhetoric. 

6.  Military  training. 

Third  year. 

1.  Analytical  mechanics,  resistance  of  materials,  and  hydraulics. 

2.  Chemistry. 

3.  Kinematics — the  relative  motion  of  bodies. 

4.  Surveying. 

5.  Electrical  machinery. 

6.  Steam  engines  and  boilers. 

7.  Laboratory  practice  in  steam  engineering  and  power  measurements. 


BIO 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901 . 
Fourth  year. 


1.  Thermodynamics  -  theory  of  heat  engines. 

2.  Mechanics  of  machinery. 

3.  Locomotive  engines  and  locomotive  design. 

4.  Railway  shop  systems. 

5.  Compressed  air  in  railway  service. 

6.  Advanced  designing. 

7.  Seminary — review  of  railway  periodicals  and  society  transactions. 

8.  Laboratory  practice — locomotive  road  tests  and  dynameter  car  tests. 

9.  Thesis. 

The  first  three  years  of  this  course  is  identical  with  the  straight  course  in 
mechanical  engineering,  but  during  the  last  year,  as  is  usual  in  all  departments, 
particular  stress  is  laid  on  the  specialties  of  mechanical  engineering  as  applied  to 
railway  problems. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  example  that  for  the  first  three  years  the  time  of  the 
student  is  largely  spent  in  becoming  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  fundamentals, 
learning,  as  it  were,  the  names  of  the  mental  tools  of  the  engineer,  and  which  of 
them  should  be  used  in  the  solution  of  various  problems,  just  as  he  learns  in  the 
shops  what  metal  tools  there  are  to  be  used  in  the  various  mechanical  problems  of 
construction  and  destruction. 

During  the  last  year  some  time  is  spent  in  advanced  theoretical  work,  but  a 
a  considerable  time  is  taken  up  in  the  application  of  the  previous  teachings,  while 
the  student  is  still  under  the  eye  of  his  teacher.  More  and  more  he  is  thrown  on 
his  own  resources  and  pushed  into  positions  of  responsibility  requiring  independ¬ 
ent  judgment  and  thought.  He  begins  now  to  see  the  “use  of  things,”  where  all 
along  he  has  had  his  doubts.  He  puts  more  confidence  in  his  teachers,  becomes 
interested  and  absorbed  in  the  work,  accomplishes  much  more  than  ever  before, 
and  realizes  that  his  time  is  short  in  the  gold  fields  of  education  and  that  he  soon 
must  commence  life  where  all  successful  engineers  have  started,  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ladder  and  work  up.  The  thesis  is  his  last  and  best  independent  effort 
before  graduation,  and  not  infrequently  shows  the  individual  himself,  as  well  as 
his  teachers,  about  what  four  years  of  time  and  study  has  amounted  to  in  fitting 
him  for  a  starting  place  in  the  chosen  work. 

The  expenses  of  the  student  in  the  College  of  Engineering  are  about  as  follows : 

Matriculation  fee  (for  each  student  not  holding  a  State  scholarship)  payable  upon  admis¬ 
sion  . . .  $10.00 

Diploma  fee,  payable  before  graduation . . .  5.00 

Incidental  fees,  payable  each  year . - .  34.00 

Special  students  (not  candidates  for  a  degree,  pay  in  addition  to  above  incidental  fees), 

each  year . . . . . . .  15.00 

Laboratory  fees  for  materials  used  vary  in  different  departments  and  during  different 

years ;  average  per  year . . . . - .  10. 00 

Room  rent,  board,  fuel,  light,  washing,  at  private  houses,  varies  from . $160. 00  to  200. 00 

Books,  drawing  instruments,  and  miscellaneous  supplies,  average  cost  per  year .  25. 00 

The  university  makes  no  provision  for  room  and  board,  but  these  may  be  easily 
obtained  at  reasonable  rates  at  Champaign  or  Urbana,  in  which  town  the  uni¬ 
versity  is  located.  The  stranger  never  knows  where  one  town  “  leaves  off  ”  and 
the  other  “begins,”  and  there  exists  no  reasonable  excuse  for  the  two  towns.  The 
total  expense  per  college  year  may  be  as  low  as  $200.  but  in  most  cases  $300  would 
be  a  safe  estimate  as  the  necessary  expense.  Of  this  the  university  receives  less 
than  $30  per  year,  including  matriculation  and  graduation  fees. 

Some  of  the  special  features  of  technical  instruction  are  its  shops,  laboratories, 
and  drafting  rooms.  Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  useful¬ 
ness  of  shops  in  this  system  of  education.  My  observation  is  that  the  “Worces¬ 
ter”  system  is  right  at  Worcester;  the  “  Lehigh  ”  system  is  right  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  “Illinois”  system  is  right  in  Illinois. 

It  is  evident  that  the  same  system  is  net  possible  or  desirable  in  the  heart  of 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE. 


311 


manufacturing  communities  and  in  the  center  of  a  vast  agricultural  district.  In 
any  place  shops  are  a  desirable  feature  of  a  technical  school.  In  all  of  our  West¬ 
ern  institutions  they  are  an  absolute  necessity. 

It  makes  a  vast  amount  of  difference  whether  a  boy?s  early  environment  is 
shops,  mill,  and  factories,  or  whether  it  is  corn  fields  and  prairie.  In  the  tech¬ 
nical  school  shop  the  object  is  not  to  make  skilled  workmen,  although  this  result 
is  frequently  obtained.  The  rule  of  the  school  shop  is:  “As  soon  as  a  student 
knows  how  to  do  a  thing,  put  him  at  something  else.” 

The  total  time  spent  in  the  shops  is  comparatively  short.  At  the  University  of 
Illinois  the  students  in  mechanical,  electrical,  and  railway  engineering  depart¬ 
ments  spend  180  hours  in  the  pattern  shop,  90  hours  in  the  foundry,  80  hours  in 
forge  shop  during  their  first  year,  and  270  hours  in  the  machine  shop  the  second 
year,  making  a  total  of  but  630  hours  (=63  days)  in  the  four  shops.  In  this  short 
time  spent  under  competent  instructors,  each  a  specialist,  it  is  truly  surprising- 
how  much  is  accomplished.  It  is  here  that  a  student  gets  a  chance  to  use  his 
hands  in  acquiring  education,  and  the  education  which  reaches  us  through  our 
hands  stays  with  us  better  than  that  which  comes  through  any  other  channel. 

The  shop  does  not  undertake  to  manufacture  articles  for  sale;  if  it  does,  there 
immediately  springs  up  a  tendency  to  keep  students  too  long  on  the  same  kind  of 
work.  There  may  sometimes  be  one  or  two  special  articles  advantageously  made 
and  sold,  and  there  will  always  be  work  on  additions  to  the  equipment,  but  no 
large  amount  of  commercial  work  can  be  undertaken  to  advantage.  The  opera¬ 
tion  of  shops  is  expensive,  and  the  cost  of  material  used  up  and  tools  broken 
amounts  to  approximately  $2,000  a  year  at  the  University  of  Illinois  for  about  150 
students.  The  machines  wear  out  and  become  out  of  date,  and  must  be  replaced 
by  modern  tools,  or  else  the  education  is  liable  to  be  behind  the  times.  If  I  were 
to  enumerate  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  school  shop  to  the  technical  student,  I 
should  emphasize  the  following: 

(a)  It  teaches  the  student  to  do  something  with  his  hands. 

( b )  It  leads  him  to  use  his  judgment  and  accustoms  him  to  use  brain  and  hand 
together. 

(c)  It  enables  him  to  become  familiar  with  the  characteristics  and  properties  of 
the  materials  of  engineering. 

( d )  It  acquaints  him  with  the  possibilities  and  impossibilities  of  construction  as 
modified  by  the  equipment  of  tools. 

(e)  He  learns  how  to  read  drawings. 

(/)  It  makes  his  future  work  in  designing  easier  and  keeps  it  out  of  many 
pitfalls. 

( g )  It  makes  him  more  sympathetic  with  workmen  in  general. 

(h)  It  serves  to  exemplify  the  teachings  of  the  class  and  lecture  room. 

( i )  It  is  good  physical  exercise. 

The  engineering  laboratory  for  the  use  of  students  is  an  American  institution. 
It  has  followed,  as  a  natural  consequence,  the  successes  of  the  laboratory  methods 
of  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  zoology,  biology,  and  other  sciences.  It  is  doubt¬ 
less  the  most  expensive  of  all  to  install,  to  maintain,  and  to  operate.  It  is  in  the- 
extent  of  its  engineering  laboratory  equipment  that  one  engineering  school  out¬ 
strips  its  rival  more  than  in  any  other  particular.  It  seems  also  true  that  if  any 
one  thing  attracts  students  to  one  school  more  than  to  another  it  is  this  same 
superior  laboratory  equipment. 

At  two  of  the  leading  American  technical  schools  the  appliances  and  equipment 
used  for  engineering  laboratory  purposes  are  inventoried  at  over  $350,000.  The 
methods  of  the  laboratory  are  the  methods  of  investigation,  systematic  and  scien¬ 
tific  experimentation.  Familiarity  with  the  instruments  of  his  profession  is  fol¬ 
lowed  by  problems  of  increasing  difficulty  and  by  tests  of  machines  and  materials 
involving  more  and  more  care,  preparation,  and  thought. 


312 


EDUCATION  REPOPwT,  1900-1901. 


The  natural  and  intense  desire  of  the  average  American  “  to  see  the  wheels  go 
round,”  to  see  what  is  “  inside  of  things,”  to  know  “  why  and  how  it  works,”  to 
make  it  work  himself,  insures  success  to  engineering  laboratory  methods. 

The  nature  of  the  experiments  performed  by  the  students  covers  a  wide  field  and 
reaches  into  almost  all  realms  of  industrial  and  commercial  enterprise. 

I  can  only  enumerate  some  of  the  main  lines  of  investigation,  each  of  which 
has  been  extended  almost  indefinitely  in  all  directions: 

(a)  Tests  of  strength  of  materials  (wood,  iron,  steel,  cement,  stone,  brick,  mor¬ 
tar,  beams,  columns,  cable,  ropes,  belts,  joints,  chains,  springs,  pipes,  hose,  stay 
bolts,  drawbars). 

(b)  In  hydraulics— test  of  turbines  and  motors,  water  meters,  hydrants,  hose, 
nozzles;  flow  of  water  over  dams,  weirs,  notches,  through  rivers,  canals,  pipes,  and 
orifices;  action  of  water  under  impact,  compression,  freezing. 

(c)  Tn  steam  engineering— evaporative  performance  of  all  types,  sizes,  and 
designs  of  steam  boilers;  tests  of  the  efficacy  of  various  types  or  kinds  of  grate 
bars,  furnaces,  stokers,  economizers,  feed  water  heaters,  pipe  coverings,  injectors, 
and  superheaters.  Tests  of  all  types,  sizes,  and  kinds  of  steam  engines,  to  deter¬ 
mine  their  economical  performance  under  the  most  variable  conditions;  high  spred 
versus  low  speed;  throttling  versus  automatic  cut-off;  condensing  versus  noncon¬ 
densing;  high  pressure  versus  low  pressure;  compound  versus  simple;  jacketed 
versus  not  jacketed;  the  duty  of  pumping  engines;  the  steam  consumption  of 
pumps,  pulsometers,  air  compressors,  steam  turbines  and  heating  systems. 

The  same  long  line  of  tests  as  applied  to  steam  engines  are  duplicated  with 
electrical  generators  and  motors,  with  gas  engines  and  hot-air  engines,  with  air 
compressors  and  pumping  engines,  with  locomotives,  with  refrigerating  machines, 
with  windmills;  in  fact,  nothing  escapes  the  instruments  of  the  experimental 
engineer. 

(cl)  In  railway  mechanical  engineering  much  has  been  done  in  regular  labora¬ 
tory  work;  many  of  the  schools  have  carried  on  successful  “  road  tests  ”  of  locomo¬ 
tives;  at  least  two  schools  (Purdue  and  Columbia)  own  locomotives  and  have 
them  mounted  for  testing,  and  much  valuable  work  has  been  done  in  this  way. 

One  school  (University  of  Illinois)  has  recently  equipped  a  dynamometer 
car,  cooperating  in  this  with  the  Peoria  and  Eastern  division  of  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  Railway,  and  much  important  work  is  being 
accomplished  with  this  equipment,  which  is  being  rapidly  augmented  and  improved. 
Besides  this,  numerous  miscellaneous  tests  have  been  made,  such  as  scale  tests, 
brake-shoe  tests,  air-brake  tes.s,  lagging  tests,  fuel  tests,  nozzle  tests,  oil  tests,  fire¬ 
kindling  tests,  water-supply  apparatus  tests,  all  relating  more  specifically  to  rail¬ 
way  work,  while  many  of  the  regular  tests  of  materials  and  steam  and  electric 
specialties  apply  as  well  to  railways  as  to  other  lines  of  engineering  practice. 

The  value  to  the  student  of  his  laboratory  experience  might  be  outlined  as 
follows: 

(a)  It  teaches  him  to  locate  wastes  (of  material,  of  fuel,  of  power). 

(5)  it  teaches  systematic  methods  of  investigation. 

(c)  It  exercises  his  ability  to  make  a  clear  written  statement  of  the  results 
obtained. 

(d)  It  familiarizes  him  with  the  various  types  of  commercial  appliances  used  in 
practice. 

(e)  It  gives  him  confidence  in  his  own  ability  to  do  things. 

(/)  It  fixes  in  his  mind  the  useful  constants,  methods,  and  records  of  engineering 
practice. 

I  have  added  below  several  tables  of  statistics  relating  to  the  American  technical 
schools.  These  I  will  not  undertake  to  read,  but  they  may  prove  of  some  interest 
when  appearing  in  the  proceedings. 

(Very  complete  articles  on  this  subject  may  be  found  in  the  Transactions  of  the 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE. 


313 


American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  article  by  R.  H.  Thurston,  Vol.  XIV, 
1893;  also  Engineering  News  for  1892  and  1897.) 


Some  of  the  principal  engineering  schools  in  America,  attendance,  expenses,  etc. 


School. 

Yearly 

tuition. 

Estimated 
living  ex¬ 
penses. 

Attend¬ 
ance  in 
engi¬ 
neering, 
1899. 

Location. 

1.  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 

$200 

$240  to  $320 

936 

Boston,  Mass. 

nology. 

2.  Cornell  University. .  . . 

3.  Sheffield  Scientific  School 

(Yale). 

100 

200 

325 

713 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

155 

160 

600 

1  567 

4.  Columbia  University _ _ ...... 

150 

300 

540 

380 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

5.  Purdue  University . . . 

Free. 

150 

377 

Lafayette,  Ind. 

6.  Ohio  State  University . 

Free. 

150 

250 

338 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

7.  University  of  Illinois . . 

Free. 

150 

225 

287 

Urban  a,  Ill. 

8.  Lehigh  University  - . 

$100 

225 

340 

267 

S.  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

9.  University  of  Michigan.. . 

$25  to  $35 
100 

300 

240 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

10.  University  of  Wisconsin _ 

150 

300 

236 

Madison,  Wis. 

11.  Lawrence  Scientific  (Harvard). . 

150 

240 

350 

217 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

12.  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  . 

150 

250 

450 

214 

Hoboken,  N.  J. 

13.  University  of  California _  _ 

14.  Missouri  State  University . 

Free. 

150 

250 

209 

Berkeley,  Cal. 
Columbia,  Mo. 

$5 

150 

250 

185 

15.  University  of  Minnesota . . 

Free. 

200 

275 

183 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
State  College,  Pa. 

16.  University  of  Pennsylvania _ 

$200 

150 

210 

180 

17.  Pennsylvania  State  College . 

Free. 

200 

158 

18.  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute 

$200 

300 

500 

142 

Troy,  N.  Y. 

19.  Iowa  Agricultural  College . . 

Free. 

150 

225 

137 

Ames,  Iowa. 

20.  University  of  Kansas  . . . 

21.  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute .. 

Free. 

150 

225 

112 

Lawrence,  Kans. 

Free  to  $20 

150 

200 

101 

Auburn,  Ala. 

22.  State  College  of  Kentucky. . 

Free  to  $15 

150 

200 

96 

Lexington,  Ky. 

23.  Western  University  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

*-  100 

150 

200 

95 

Allegheny,  Pa. 

24.  Leland  Stanford,  jr.,  University. 

Free. 

225 

300 

85 

Paloalto,  Cal. 

25.  Tulahe  University  . . 

Free  to  $20 

250 

400 

78 

New  Orleans,  La. 

26.  Princeton  University _ 

170 

500 

69 

Princeton,  N.  J. 

27.  West  Virginia  University _ 

Free  to  $37.50 

130 

200 

54 

Morgantown,  W.Va. 

28.  University  of  Iowa . . 

25 

225 

... 

27 

Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

1  Includes  some  students  in  chemistry. 


The  foregoing  table  does  not  pretend  to  be  more  than  approximate  in  order  to 
give  some  ideas  conce:  ning  this  subject.  Where  tuition  is  ‘  ‘  free  ”  there  are  usually 
certain  fees,  amounting  to  from  $10  to  $40  a  year,  to  cover  laboratory  materials 
used,  etc.  Schools  omitted  from  this  list  were  omitted  because  the  writer  did  not 
have  recent  catalogues.  It  is  probable  a  complete  list  would  include  50  schools. 
It  is  believed,  hojvever,  the  above  schools  contain  85  per  cent  of  the  students 
attending  American  technical  schools. 

The  relation  of  the  American  technical  school  to  the  railroads  is  both  direct  and 
indirect. 

It  is  direct  when  the  school  supplies  the  graduate  in  civil  engineering  who  devel¬ 
ops  into  the  surveyor,  the  superintendent  of  new  constructions,  such  as  roadbeds, 
tunnels,  bridges,  culverts,  elevated  tracks,  piers,  water  towers,  etc.,  the  engineer 
of  maintenance  of  way,  or  the  bridge  engineer;  when  it  supplies  the  graduate  in 
mechanical  engineering  who  develops  into  chief  draftsman,  designer,  engineer 
of  tests,  shop  foreman,  master  mechanic,  superintendent  of  machinery,  or  super¬ 
intendent  of  motive  power;  when  it  supplies  the  graduate  of  electrical  engineering 
who  develops  into  electrical  expert  in  matters  relating  to  electrical  machinery, 
electrical  transmission,  telegraphy,  telephony,  electric  lighting,  traction,  and  sig¬ 
naling;  when  it  supplies  the  graduate  of  architectural  engineering  as  designer  of 
terminal  stations  and  their  appliances  for  heating,  ventilation,  plumbing,  etc.,  as 
well  as  designer  for  way  stations,'  depots,  freight  houses,  elevators,  shops,  and 
miscellaneous  structures;  in  fact,  when  any  of  its  graduates  are  developed  into 


314  EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-K01. 

positions  of  responsibility  and  trust  anywhere  along  the  line  from  lowest  to 
highest. 

The  relation  is  indirect  when  the  graduate  serves  to  aid  by  his  scientific  attain¬ 
ments  the  development  of  any  of  the  great  industrial  or  commercial  interests  of 
the  State  or  nation,  upon  the  success  of  which  the  growth  of  railroads  depends. 
It  is  indirect  when  the  graduate  enters  the  field  of  technical  journalism  and 
devotes  his  energy  to  the  collection,  collation,  and  publication  of  the  results  of  the 
world ’3  progress  in  railway  engineering. 

It  is  indirect  when  the  graduate  enters  the  laboratory  for  research  and  deter¬ 
mines  new  engineering  constants,  checks  up  old  ones,  or  investigates  any  of  the 
constantly  increasing  problems  which  relate  to  the  construction  or  operation  of 
the  simpler  machines  for  the  saving  of  labor,  to  the  perfection  of  inventions,  or  the 
prevention  of  waste  in  the  transformation  of  energy. 

It  is  indirect  when  the  graduate  fits  himself  for  the  duties  of  a  teacher  who  shall 
direct  again  the  steps  of  those  following,  helping  them  to  avoid  the  mistakes  oth¬ 
ers  have  made,  pointing  out  the  sources  of  information  in  their  special  lines,  mold¬ 
ing  their  lives  into  systematic  investigators,  inspiring  them  by  always  seeking'for 
the  truth  in  nature,  into  living  lives  of  truth  and  fearless  adherence  to  principles 
of  right  and  justice,  not  only  when  dealing  with  crude  materials,  but  also  when 
dealing  with  their  fellow-men. 

The  power  required  in  the  operation  of  any  industry  is  somewhat  of  an  index  to 
its  position  as  an  important  element  in  the  total  industrial  development  and  sup¬ 
port  of  our  great  nation. 

In  this  connection  I  present  the  following  diagram1  showing  the  total  available 
steam  power  in  the  United  States  and  its  division  into  three  parts,  as  indicated. 

It  will  be  seen  that  nearly  two-thirds  of  all  our  power  is  used  in  the  transporta¬ 
tion  of  materials  to  the  factory  and  again  to  the  consumer.  It  also  indicates  the 
growth  of  all  railway  interests,  for  it  is  evident  that  this  available  power  for  oper¬ 
ating  grows  with  the  growth  of  the  road.  Two- thirds  of  the  fuel  used  for  power 
purposes  is  probably  consumed  by  the  locomotives  of  our  railroads.  The  probable 
growth  in  the  near  future  seems  destined  to  follow  the  law  prescribed  by  past 
growth.  If  it  were  possible  for  human  hands  to  perform  the  work  now  available 
in  steam  power,  it  would  require  at  least  300,000,000  workingmen  to  do  it. 

The  cost  of  one  horsepower  per  year,  for  a  period  of  ten  hours  a  day,  varies 
according  to  locality,  but  may  be  stated  at  $15  to  $25  per  year.  It  would  require 
15  men  to  perform  the  same  labor,  working  ten  hours  a  day,  six  days  per  week, 
and  the  cost  of  this  labor  at  $1.50  a  day  would  amount  to  approximately  $7,000. 

It  is  evident  that  no  nation  can  expect  to  advance  that  does  nol  take  every  advan¬ 
tage  of  steam  power  in  the  performance  of  all  kinds  of  labor. 

The  American  railroads  require  for  their  direct  operation  1,000,000  operators, 
representing  approximately  5,000,000  of  our  population  directly  dependent  upon 
railroads.  The  indirect  labor  required  to  supply  the  railroads  with  fuel,  iron,  steel, 
timber,  and  other  supplies  is  an  untold  quantity. 

The  successful  road  is  alert  to  obtain  all  of  its  supplies  of  the  best  possible  qual¬ 
ity,  and  not  only  are  its  specifications  rigid,  but  its  inspection  and  its  tests  are 
careful  and  more  and  more  scientific. 

No  one  thing  may  claim  especial  preeminence  and  credit  for  the  wonderful 
development  of  the  American  railroad.  Great  as  has  been  its  advance,  it  is  but 
the  result  of  the  sum  total  of  our  natural  progress.  Fuel  is  supplied  cheaper;  bet¬ 
ter  steel  is  provided  for  rails  and  for  boiler  plate,  allowing  higher  speeds  on  account 
of  safer  road  beds  and  higher  steam  pressure. 

Steel  castings  are  replacing  iron  casting^;  special  machinery  for  construction 

1  See  Thurston’s  Growth  and  Development  of  the  Steam  Engine. 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE.  315 


and  repairs  has  been  perfected;  compressed  air  has  replaced  hand  labor  to  much 
advantage.  The  flexibility  of  the  electric  light  is  of  much  value,  and  the  electric 


motor  is  frequently  installed  to  advantage.  Improved  methods  of  signaling  and 
interlocking  add  safety  with  increased  speed. 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


316 

Cars  are  loaded  with  100,000  to  120,000  pounds  of  ore  and  coal.  Brook's  locomo¬ 
tive  No.  640,  recently  put  in  service  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  weighs 
232,200  pounds. 

Appliances  for  facilitating  office  work  have  kept  pace  with  other  departments, 
and  the  telephone,  phonograph,  typewriter,  duplicator,  time  recorder,  all  must  he 
given  their  due  share  of  credit. 

All  of  these  devices,  all  of  this  improved  material,  is  available  and  can  be 
secured  by  all  raf  roads,  and  yet  some  roads  are  not  successful.  There  is  one 
thing  needful— one  thing  absolutely  necessary  to  success,  and  that  is  the  right 
man  in  the  right  place  in  each  and  every  department  of  railway  management. 

Everyone,  from  president  to  shop  or  road  foreman,  feels  that  the  success  of  his 
enterprise  depends  more  upon  having  the  right  man  in  the  right  place  than  upon 
any  other  thing.  Time  and  again  officers  and  chief  engineers  scan  the  ranks  look¬ 
ing  for  the  right  man  to  fill  a  position  of  responsibility — sometimes  with  success, 
often  with  failure  when  compared  with  their  ideal. 

It  is  to  this  point  that  I  have  tried  to  lead  your  thought:  The  American  techni¬ 
cal  school  will  supply  railroads  with  men.  Not  laborers,  but  leaders;  not  imi¬ 
tators,  but  originators;  not  through  any  process  of  favoritism,  but  because  of  real 
ability  and  worth;  not  because  of  what  the  school  teaches  of  railroads,  but 
because  what  it  does  teach  is  the  basis  and  foundation  of  the  science  of  construc¬ 
tion  and  operation  of  railroads. 

The  writer  believes  that  the  present  grand  success  attained  in  railway  develop¬ 
ment  has  been  accomijlislied  with  comparatively  little  help  from  the  technical 
school.  It  has  been  attained  by  bard  and  persistent  effort,  and  by  the  devotion 
of  years  of  patient  toil,  energetic  thought,  careful  judgment,  and  ceaseless  appli¬ 
cation  on  the  part  of  more  men  than  have  given  their  toil  and  thought  to  any 
other  single  line  of  development. 

That  success  has  been  attained  in  so  many  instances  is  commendable,  but  may 
we  not  hope  for  the  same  success  with  less  waste  of  time  and  energy  by  spending 
a  proper  amount  of  time  studying  principles  before  studying  their  applications? 

Can  we  not  bring  the  man  to  the  same  plane  of  development  ten  years  earlier 
by  requiring  the  boy  to  spend  four  years  in  a  technical  school? 

You  will  notice  that  the  writer  says  “will'5  supply  railroads  with  men.  That 
it  has  supplied  some  already  many  of  you  can  attest,  hut  as  you  look  over  the 
vast  army  of  workers  you  will  discover  that  back  at  the  beginning  of  things,  in 
the  shops,  in  the  offices,  in  the  field,  the  sensible  technical  graduate  has  started. 

No  longer  can  it  be  advisedly  said  that  the  technical  graduate  expects  to  step 
out  of  school  into  the  president's  chair.  They  are  beginning  at  the  bottom,  as 
you  began,  and  now  they  have  started  right  their  progress  will  be  more  rapid, 
but  their  labors  will  be  no  lighter  than  yours  have  been. 

The  measure  of  success  which  they  will  attain  will  depend  upon  the  same  fac¬ 
tors  which  have  made  men  successful  always — hard  work,  good  habits,  good 
health. 

I  predict  the  success  of  the  technical  graduate.  The  demand  at  present  far 
exceeds  the  supply.  Many  important  roads,  looking  to  tlieir  future  needs,  are 
giving  this  subject  thought  and  attention. 

The  sons  of  railway  men  are  being  sent  to  the  school,  which  shows  the  thought 
of  the  father.  There  is  no  escape  from  the  belief  that  the  railways  of  the  near 
future  will  owe  much  to  the  technical  graduate,  and  it  will  certainly  be  within 
reason  to  predict  that  within  twenty-five  years  many  of  the  successful  American 
railways  will  be  maintained,  operated,  and  managed  by  the  successful  graduate 
of  our  American  technical  schools. 

Let  me  add  but  a  few  more  words  and  I  am  done,  although  with  the  feeling 
that  much  remains  unsaid. 

There  should  continue  to  grow  a  feeling  of  sympathy  and  interest  between  the. 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOE  RAILWAY  SERVICE.  3 1 7 


technical  school  and  the  railroads;  their  interests  may  he  mutual  in  many  ways. 
The  school  could  he  much  more  helpful  to  the  roads  if  some  plan  could  he 
arranged  by  which  the  roads  would  lend  the  school  one  or  more  men  from  their 
engineering  corps  for  carrying  on  certain  tests  in  the  laboratories  of  the  school 
and  working  up  the  results. 

The  schools  are  invariably  shorthanded  for  work  in  this  respect.  The  work 
performed  by  these  men  would  be  arranged  along  such  lines  of  investigation  as 
the  road  furnishing  the  men  were  interested  in  at  the  time.  To  put  it  another 
way,  the  schools  would  lend  their  laboratories  to  the  roads. 

In  connection  with  our  dynamometer  car  tests  and  inspections,  it  would  be  only 
a  step  to  aid  the  railroad  employees  by  arranging  a  series  of  talks  on  shop,  fuel, 
injectors,  steam,  etc.,  supplemented  by  “book  lists”  for  young  mechanics,  to  be 
given  in  the  car  at  various  points  along  the  line. 

Desirable  as  it  may  be,  and  although  the  cost  of  a  technical  education  is  low, 
there  are  many  that  can  not  afford  time  to  obtain  it.  The  vast  army  of  workers 
are  compelled  to  commence  work  before  even  completing  the  high  school.  This 
country  needs  more  technical  high  schools;  more  schools  that  will  fit  for  life’s 
work  rather  than  for  a  profession.  This  need  is  felt  and  is  being  slowly  filled. 
Do  not  lose  any  opportunity  of  aiding  in  the  introduction  of  manual  train¬ 
ing  into  your  public  schools.  This  advice  is  evidently  superfluous  in  St.  Louis 
where  so  much  has  been  done  in  this  direction.  The  influence  of  the  technical 
school  is  working  back  along  the  line  of  the  preparatory  schools,  and  makes  the 
place  of  the  trades  school  and  manual  training  in  the  lower  schools  more  and 
more  evident. 

The  twentieth  century  is  before  us.  We  are  advancing  into  light  from  all  direc¬ 
tions;  the  mysteries  of  the  past  are  becoming  the  familiarities  of  the  present.  If 
there  is  encouragement  in  any  one  thing  above  all  others  it  is  this,  that  the  indi¬ 
vidual,  the  private  corporation,  the  people,  are  finding  out  that  it  pays  to  be 
honest,  to  deal  squarely  with  facts,  and  with  fellows.  “The  solution  of  the  labor 
problem  is  to  be  aided  most,”  says  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  “  by  honest,  fair, 
and  just  dealings,  as  between  employer  and  employee.”  If  there  is  anything  that 
will  teach  the  necessity  of  honesty,  it  is  the  work  of  the  student  of  the  technical 
school — true  fits,  true  sizes,  true  drawings,  true  tests,  true  reports — a  deviation 
from  truth  anywhere  means  disaster.  If  there  is  any  place  or  position  requiring 
honesty  and  truth  it  is  in  the  service  of  the  American  railway. 

I  earnestly  hope  that  the  success  of  the  past  may  be  augmented  in  the  future, 
and  that  the  interests  of  the  American  technical  school  may  be  in  part  at  least  the 
interests  of  the  American  railroad. 

In  the  discussion  following  this  paper,  Prof.  C.  W.  Woodward,  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  said: 

I  enjoyed  the  spirit  and  hearty  appreciation  with  which  Professor  Breckenridge 
entered  into  his  subject  and  his  grasp  of  the  subject.  Of  course,  a  great  many 
things  occurred  to  me  as  he  was  reading  if,  and  no  doubt  many  of  them  must 
have  occurred  to  you.  I  am  strictly  in  harmony  with  him;  my  position  in  regard 
to  the  relation  of  technical  schools  to  the  railroads,  and  to  every  industrial  order, 
is  just  exactly  the  same  as  his.  The  chart  (see  page  815)  which  shows  in  such 
a  striking  manner  the  wonderful  development  of  steam  power  in  this  country, 
might  very  well  he  used  to  indicate  the  interest  of  people  in  technical  education. 
If  you  go  back,  say  to  1825  or  1880 — if  you  go  back  even  not  so  many  years  ago  as 
that — if  you  go  back  to  1840  and  1850,  you  will  find  that  there  was  but  one  school 
of  engineering  in  this  country,  and  that  was  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic,  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.  Then  came  the  School  of  Mines,  in  New  York  City;  it  was  called  the  School 
of  Mines,  because  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  they  had  to  have  a  school  to  teach 
the  art  of  mining.  Well,  that  school  of  mining  still  exists,  but  mining  is  the  least 
factor  in  the  school.  Its  departments  of  architecture  and  civil  engineering  have 
altogether  outrun  its  mining  department.  And  then,  ail  over  the  country,  as 
Professor  Breckenridge  states,  people  have  begun  to  learn  and  study  the  world  as 
it  is  to-day,  and  study  the  activities  of  to-day — to  study  the  great  principles  of 


318 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


science  and  methods  and  mechanics,  which  underlie  all  of  our  industrial  order. 
They  have  learned,  as  he  said,  to  study  the  living  things  rather  than  the  dead,  as 
the  iirst  step  in  education.  After  we  have  built  our  splendid  foundation,  and 
come  in  touch  with  the  world  of  to-day,  getting  a  grasp  of  the  dynamic  situation 
that  exists  in  this  country,  then  we  are  masters  of  the  work,  and  culture  and  line 
arts  will  grow  and  thrive  on  the  foundation  of  this  practical  work.  I  have  no 
hesitation  and  no  fears  about  the  future  of  this  country  as  regards  literature  and 
art;  jrou  are  laying  down  the  splendid  foundation  upon  which  literature  and  art 
are  to  be  built.  We  must  have  the  strength,  and  we  must  have  a  good  education. 
We  must  have  brain  and  hands  cultivated  together,  and  then  the  culture  and  the 
education  wiil  come  just  as  sure  as  the  sun  will  rise. 

There  was  one  thing  that  struck  me  in  this  paper  of  Professor  Breckenridge’s 
that  would  have  surprised  me  had  I  not  known  it  just  as  well  as  he  does,  and  I 
think  it  surprised  you,  and  that  is  the  very  small  amount  of  time  (Professor 
Breckenridge  said  63  days  in  a  four-year  course)  that  is  given,  for  instance,  to  the 
element  of  shop  work  in  an  engineering  school,  and  similarly  in  manual  training 
schools,  which  are  schools  of  a  lower  grade — the  very  small  amount  of  time;  but 
yet,  how  much  importance  attaches  to  it. 

As  workmen  measure  time,  63  days  represent  630  hours.  And  yet  they  learn  so 
much.  Well,  how  is  it?  It  is  simply  because  they  spend  all  their  time  learning; 
all  the  time  that  they  are  in  the  shop  their  minds  are  on  their  work  and  their 
hands  are  on  their  work;  there  is  no  growth  and  there  is  no  progress  made— you 
will  all  bear  me  out  in  this— when  the  hands  are  employed  and  the  mind  is  far 
away — miles  away.  Then  there  is  no  progress  being  made  in  any  schoolroom,  or 
in  any  shop  or  anywhere  else,  and  in  an  organisation  of  learning,  or  school,  when 
the  mind  is  absent  and  the  hands  present — when  the  boys’  mindssare  on  the  base- 
bailor  football  field,  or  somewhere  else — then  he  might  as  wed  be  at  home  or 
sitting  outside  on  the  porch  as  to  be  in  any  shop  or  recitation  room  or  lecture  room. 
The  boy  in  a  shop  of  the  technical  school  wastes  no  time  in  the  shop;  he  never  gets 
tired  of  trying  to  do  a  thing  right.  He  does  not  reach  the  stage  of  drudgery;  he 
learns  more  sometimes  in  one  or  two  hours  than  an  ordinary  workman  learns  in  a 
month,  and  that  is  strictly  true.  Now,  my  boys  go  out  into  the  world,  and  they 
are  caded  upon  occasionally — there  are  two  or  three  of  them  right  here — they  are 
asked,  “What  can  you  do?”  “  Weil,  put  me  to  work  and  see  what  I  can  do.  ”  They 
are  not  engineers;  they  are  simply  boys  who  did  shop  work  before  they  went  to 
college,  in  a  secondary  school;  yet  they  will  go  to  work,  and  by-and-bye  people 
come  around  and  say,  “Where  did  you  learn  your  trade?”  “  I  never  learned  a 
trade.”  “Oh,  go  away;  tell  me  where  you  learned  your  trade.”  Well,  they  will 
say  that  they  got  it  there  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  or  at  Chicago,  or  at  the  St. 
Louis  Manual  Training  School — got  it  somewhere.  “  Plow  much  time  did  you 
give  to  it?”  And  he  tells  them  how  much  time  he  gave  to  it,  and  they  think  it  is 
nonsense.  They  know  that  the  boy  is  fooling  them;  they  say,  “You  pouldn't 
learn  what  you  have  learned  in  the  time  you  have  spent  in  the  shop.  I  spent  sev¬ 
eral  years  learning  my  trade.”  The  other  day  a  man  came  to  me  and  said:  “Pro¬ 
fessor,  you  think  you  can  teach  your  boys  anything  in  the  shop  by  keeping  them 
there  only  two  hours  a  day.  You  can’t  do  a  thing  at  it;  the  only  way  to  learn  is 
by  putting  them  to  work  from  7  o’clock  in  the  morning  until  6  at  night.  Let  them 
stand  there  and  work;  you  have  to  go  through  all  that  before  they  have  an  intelli¬ 
gent  idea  of  the  work.”  Now,  I  don’t  believe  that  I  do.  I  don’t  believe  that  you 
think  so,  gentlemen. 

Other  things  have  occurred  to  me  this  afternoon  and  interested  me  very  much. 
It  is  you,  gentlemen,  that  are  going  to  send  the  boys  along.  You  are  not  only  the 
men  who  have  charge  of  these  things  and  give  directions  to  the  affairs,  but  you  a.re 
men  who  have  boys  to  educate,  and  it  is  those  boys  that  I  am  interested  in,  and 
that  Professor  Breckenridge  is  interested  in,  and  I  know  you  are  interested  in. 
Let  them  come  along,  that  they  may  follow  in  your  footsteps  with  advantages, 
perhaps,  which  you  did  not  have,  but  which  the  world  to-day  offers  them. 


EDUCATION  IN  RAILWAY  ENGINEERING  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 

ILLINOIS. 


[By  Edward  0.  Schmidt,  instructor  in  railway  mechanical  engineering,  University  of  Illinois, 

Champaign.] 

The  importance  of  the  railroad  interests  of  the  country  makes  it  a  matter  of 
wonderment  that  hitherto  so  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  education  of 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE.  319 

men  for  railway  work.  Until  quite  recently  it  has  been  impossible  to  obtain, 
except  in  some  of  the  allied  subjects  in  civil  engineering,  any  instruction  in  those 
matters  pertaining  particularly  to  railroads. 

Since  their  beginnings  the  technical  schools  have  given  instruction  in  those  sub¬ 
jects  which  relate  to  almost  all  other  branches  of  industry  and  manufacture,  and 
we  find  (for  years  back)  courses  in  architecture,  civil,  electrical,  mechanical, 
mining,  hydraulic,  and  municipal  and  sanitary  engineering,  and  in  chemical  tech¬ 
nology  offered  in  all  our  colleges  of  engineering,  civil  and  mechanical  engineering 
being  specialized  in  many  cases  to  cover  various  fields  of  industry. 

The  railroads,  however,  have  not  received  until  recently  their  share  of  atten¬ 
tion,  which  is  the  more  remarkable  since  railroad  work,  on  account  of  its  com¬ 
plexity  and  intensity,  might  be  expected  to  require,  more  than  any  other  profes¬ 
sion,  men  of  the  most  thorough  technical  training. 

Nowhere,  certainly,  is  there  keener  competition,  nowhere  more  strenuous  activ¬ 
ity,  and  in  no  other  profession  are  men  called  upon  to  bear  greater  responsibilities 
or  to  exhibit  greater  efficiency.  It  seems  fitting,  then,  that  for  this  work  they 
should  have  the  most  complete  equipment.  The  railroads  themselves  have  hith¬ 
erto  met  this  necessity  by  educating  their  own  men,  usually  at  a  wasteful  expendi¬ 
ture  of  time,  which  must  occur  when  education  is  undertaken  by  an  organization 
not  primarily  adapted  to  that  purpose. 

The  need  is  fortunately  now  recognized,  and  within  the  last  few  years  several 
of  our  universities  have  established  courses  in  railway  civil  engineering  and  in 
those  branches  of  chemistry  and  economics  relating  to  this  work. 

The  Western  universities— Purdue  University  being  the  pioneer — were  the  first 
to  establish  3uch  courses,  and  the  University  of  Illinois  was  one  of  the  first  to  offer 
this  work.  As  early  as  1869  courses  in  civil  engineering  were  there  offered  and 
work  in  railway  mechanical  engineering  has  been  given  for  the  last  four  years, 
during  which  time  this  work  has  grown  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  necessary  a 
department  of  railway  mechanical  engineering.  An  outline  of  the  courses  of  study 
in  these  two  departments  is  given  below,  where  the  attempt  will  be  made  to  give 
an  idea  of  the  scope  of  the  work,  avoiding  details  as  much  as  may  be. 

The  requirements  for  admission  into  any  of  the  engineer  courses  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Illinois  are  given  in  the  list  on  page  308. 

Each  candidate  must  obtain  36  credits,  1  credit  being  given  for  the  amount  of 
work  ordinarily  accomplished  in  one  of.  the  three  terms  of  a  high-school  course. 
One  credit  therefore  represents  the  work  of  60  recitation  periods  of  forty  minutes 
each.  There  are  required  for  admission  29  credits  in  the  studies  of  the  prescribed 
list  and  7  credits  in  any  of  the  subjects  of  the  elective  list.  This  applies  only  to 
candidates  for  a  degree. 

For  the  first  two  years  the  subjects  prescribed  in  both  the  railway  civil  engi¬ 
neering  and  railway  mechanical  engineering  courses  are  practically  the  same,  as 
is  shown  in  the  following  list: 


COURSE  IN  CIVIL  ENGINEERING. 


First  year. 


Advanced  algebra. 
Trigonometry. 


French  or  German, 
English. 


(Wood  shop— foundry  and  forge  shop.) 


Analytical  geometry. 
Elements  of  drafting. 
Descriptive  geometry. 
Shop  practice. 


Military  training. 
Physical  training. 


320 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901 . 


Differential  calculus. 

Integral  calculus. 

Land  surveying. 

Topographical  surveying. 
Transit  surveying  and  leveling. 


Second  year. 

Radway  curves. 
Physics. 

Rhetoric. 

Military  training. 


COURSE  IN  RAILWAY  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 


Advanced  algebra. 
Trigonometry. 
Analytical  geometry. 
Elements  of  drafting. 
Descriptive  geometry. 
Shop  practice. 


Differential  calculus. 
Integral  calculus. 
Machine  design. 
Machine-shop  practice. 


First  year. 

(Wood  shop— foundry  and  forge  shop.) 
French  or  German. 

English. 

Military  training. 

Physical  training. 

Second  year. 

Physics. 

Rhetoric. 

Military  training. 


These  subjects  constitute  the  usual  training  in  mathematics  and  science  neces¬ 
sary  for  an  engineering  course,  while  as  much  time  as  possible  is  given  to  those 
studies  which  are  considered  solely  cultural.  Nothing  more  need  be  said  of  the 
amount  of  work  done  in  each  of  these  subjects  than  that  it  is  the  same  as  that 
ordinarily  done  in  all  our  colleges  and  universities. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  only  differences  in  the  courses  for  these  two  years  are 
in  the  subjects  of  machine  design  and  topographical  drawing  and  in  shop  practice 
and  surveying. 

The  work  of  these  two  years  is  intended  merely  as  a  x>reparation  for  the  more 
technical  work  that  follows,  and  it  is  only  during  the  latter  half  of  the  course  that 
the  work  is  specialized.  During  the  last  two  years  the  student  in  civil  engineer¬ 
ing  or  in  railway  mechanical  engineering  is  engaged  in  advanced  theoretical  work 
and  in  the  applications  of  the  results  of'  his  previous  study  in  laboratory  and  field 
practice.  From  this  time  on  the  courses  are  necessarily  divergent  and  must  be 
treated  separately. 

The  equipment  in  the  civil  engineering  department  comprises  the  usual  instru¬ 
ments — compasses,  transits,  levels,  plane  tables,  sextants,  chronometers,  and 
barometers,  and  for  lecture-room  purposes  a  large  collection  of  bridge  parts, 
column  sections,  lithographs,  blueprints  of  standard  drawings,  and  photographs, 
which  is  >  eing  constantly  increased. 

The  course  in  civil  engineering  for  the  third  and  fourth  years  is  as  follows: 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING  COURSE. 


Third  year. 


1.  Analytical  mechanics.  6.  Steam  boilers. 

2.  Resistance  of  materials.  7.  Graphical  statics  and  roofs. 

3.  Hydraulics.  8.  Descriptive  astronomy. 

4.  Chemistry.  9.  Railway  engineering. 

5.  Steam  engines. 

Fourth  year. 


10.  Bridge  analysis  and  bridge  details. 

11.  Bridge  design. 

12.  Masonry  construction. 

IB.  Water-supply  engineering. 

14.  Practical  astronomy. 

15.  Geodesy. 

16.  Economics. 


17.  Engineering  contracts  and  specifi¬ 

cations. 

18.  Sewerage. 

19.  Tunneling. 

20.  Railway  structures. 

21.  Thesis. 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAILING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE.  321 


Post-graduate  work. 

Location  and  construction  of  railways. 

Maintenance  of  railway  tracks  and  structures. 

Yards  and  terminals. 

Motive  power  and  rolling  stock. 

Signal  engineering. 

Railway  operation  and  management. 

Railroad  engineering,  No.  9  in  the  above  list,  includes  a  course  in  field  practice* 
and  mapping,  in  "which  the  students  are  required  to  make  preliminary  and  location 
surveys  of  a  line  of  railroad  of  sufficient  length  to  secure  familiarity  with  the 
methods  of  actual  practice,  and  for  which  each  one  makes  a  complete  set  of  maps, 
profiles,  calculations,  and  estimates.  Students  also  take  up  the  study  uf  the= 
economic  theory  of  railway  location  and  railway  construction  and  maintenance. 

Courses  Nos.  10  and  11— bridge  analysis  and  design — include  instruction  in  com* 
puting  stresses  by  analytical  and  graphical  methods,  designs,  and  estimates,  and 
a  study  of  the  types  and  details  of  design.  During  this  work  each  student  is 
required  to  completely  design  a  bridge,  proportion  its  details,  and  prepare  complete 
drawings. 

Course  No.  20— railroad  structures— is  a  course  of  instruction,  by  lectures,  read¬ 
ing,  and  design  in  the  current  practice  of  leading  railroads  and  an  examination  of 
their  existing  structures  and  standard  drawings.  The  nature  of  the  other  subjects, 
is,  it  is  believed,  clearly  enough  indicated  by  their  names. 

The  courses  for  post-graduate  work  are  offered  to  those  who  have  completed 
the  four  years’  course  or  to  students  with  an  equivalent  preparation  from  any  other 
college. 

The  above  course  of  instruction,  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  in. 
civil  engineering,  constitutes  the  preparation  given  to  those  v,Tho  wish  to  fit  them¬ 
selves  for  those  branches  of  railway  engineering  relating  to  location,  construction,., 
maintenance  of  way,  and  operation. 

For  those  whose  work  will  cause  them  to  deal  with  the  problems  of  railroad¬ 
engineering  pertaining  to  motive  power,  machinery,  and  rolling  stock,  there  is 
obviously  needed  a  preparation  very  different  from  that  just  outlined. 

It  is  the  recognition  of  this  necessity  which  led  to  the  establishment,  in  the 
spring  of  1893,  of  a  separate  department  of  railway  mechanical  engineering,. 
This  has  developed  from  the  railway  work  of  the  mechanical  engineering  depart¬ 
ment  during  the  past  four  years.  In  1895  the  mechanical  engineering  department 
undertook,  for  the  first  time,  locomotive  road  tests,  and  since  then  this  work  has 
grown  until  now  there  are,  on  the  railroads  entering  Champaign  and  Urbana,  five 
locomotives  fitted  up  for  road  testing. 

Two  years  ago  the  Peoria  and  Eastern  Railway,  of  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  Railway  system,  built  for  the  university  a  dynamometer 
car.  This  car  has  been  equipped  by  the  university  and  is  jointly  owned  and. 
operated  by  the  railway  mechanical  engineering  department  and  the  Peoria  and 
Eastern  Railway.  It  has  been  provided  with  apparatus  for  measuring  draw-bar 
pull,  apparatus  for  track  inspection,  for  locomotive  road  tests,  and  stationary 
steam-plant  tests,  and  is  used  exclusively  for  this  work. 

A  lengthy  description  of  the  dynamometer  car  would  be  out  of  place  here,  the* 
more  so  since  many  members  of  the  society  are  already  familiar  with  its  details 
yet  it  may  be  Well  to  recall  that  the  drawbar  pull  is  received  in  a  cylinder,  from 
which  it  is  transmitted  by  oil  to  gauges  in  the  car  above,  where  records  are  taken 
automatically  and  simultaneously  of  the  tram  resistance  and  train  speed. 

The  apparatus  for  use  in  the  ordinary  engine  tests  consists  of  the  gauges  for 
boiler,  steam  chest,  and  air  pressure,  speed  gauge,  revolution  counters,  water  meter,, 
etc.  A  description  of  the  track  inspection  apparatus  which  has  been  recently 


ED  1901- 


■21 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


322 

installed  will  soon  be  published,  so  that  it  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  it  also 
makes  automatically  a  record  of  deviations  from  gauge  and  from  level  of  each  rail, 
of  super-elevation  of  rail  on  curves,  and  of  time  and  the  location  of  mileposts. 
This  is  accomplished  by  transmitting,  by  means  of  oil,  the  motions  of  an  inde¬ 
pendent  pair  of  wheels  under  the  car  to  small  cylinders  in  the  car.  The  pistons  in 
these  small  cylinders  follow  the  motions  of  the  wheel  below,  and  their  piston  rods 
carry  the  pens  by  which  the  record  is  made  on  a  mQving  chart. 

A  second  railway  test  car  is  now  being  built  by  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  at 
its  Burnside  shops  in  Chicago.  This  car  will  also  be  equipped  by  the  railway 
mechanical  engineering  department  of  the  university  for  the  same  purposes  as 
those  of  the  dynamometer  car  described  above. . 

The  new  car  is  longer  than  the  one  now  in  use,  being  45  feet  in  length.  The 
dynamometer  cylinder  will  be  of  greater  capacity  and  the  car  framework  stronger 
to  permit  of  its  being  used  behind  the  heavy  locomotives  now  in  service  on  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad.  No  pains  will  be  spared  to  have  this  car  as  thoroughly 
fitted  out  and  as  well  adapted  to  its  uses  as  is  possible.  Work  on  it  is  now  being 
hurried,  and  it  is  expected  that  it  will  be  in  operation  within  the  next  three  months. 

With  this  equipment  and  that  of  its  mechanical  laboratory  the  University  of 
Illinois  offers  opportunities  for  experimental  work  along  these  lines  that  at 
present  are  unequaled  elsewhere. 

The  studies  for  the  last  two  years  of  the  railway  mechanical  engineering  course 
are  as  follows: 


RAILWAY  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING  COURSE. 

Third  year. 

1.  Analytical  mechanics. 

2.  Resistance  of  materials. 

3.  Hydraulics. 

4.  Steam  engines. 

5.  Steam  boilers. 

6.  Mechanism. 

7.  Chemistry,  general  principles  and  methods.  Calorimetry;  analysis  of  fuels, 
gases,  iron,  steel,  lubricating  oils,  boiler  waters. 

8.  Electrical  engineering;  dynamos — electric  machinery  and  laboratory  practice. 

9.  Surveying,  use  of  chain  and  compass  for  finding  areas;  transits  for  distance 
and  areas;  level  for  profiles  and  contours. 

Fourth  year. 

10.  Thermodynamics. 

11.  Mechanics  of  machinery. 

12.  Locomotive  engines. 

13.  Locomotive  engine  design. 

14.  Advanced  design. 

15.  Shop  systems. 

16.  Compressed  air  in  railway  service. 

17.  Railway  estimates. 

18.  Seminary. 

19.  Thesis. 

20.  Locomotive  road  tests. 

21.  Dynamometer  car  tests. 

No.  12,  locomotive  engines,  is  a  course  of  study  of  the  various  types  of  locomo¬ 
tives,  their  adaptations  and  limitations,  and  of  the  constructive  features  and  the 
relations  between  size  of  cylinders,  drivers,  boiler  capacity,  speed,  etc. 

In  Nos.  13  and  14,  locomotive  engine  design  and  advanced  design,  a  special 
study  is  made  of  the  proportions  of  standard  locomotives,  and  drawings  are  made 
of  engine  details — cylinders,  boilers,  valves,  and  valve  gears. 

No.  16,  compressed  air  in  railway  service,  includes  the  study  in  detail  of  the 
construction  and  operation  of  the  air  brake,  its  inspection,  and  laboratory  brake 
tests,  and  also  the  various  applications  of  compressed  air  in  machine-shop  practice. 
No.  17,  railway  estimates,  is  a  study  of  the  cost  of  materials  and  repairs,  of 


EDUCATIONAL  TRAINING  FOR  RAILWAY  SERVICE. 


823 


forms  of  specifications  for  supplies,  and  of  costs  of  operation  in  American  and 
foreign  practice. 

Nos.  20  and  21,  locomotive  road  tests  and  dynamometer  car  tests,  constitute  the 
experimental  work  of  the  last  year.  This  work  includes- 

Locomotive  economy  and  efficiency  tests. 

Determination  of  train  resistance  on  level,  on  grades,  and  on  curves. 

Determination  of  hauling  capacity  of  locomotives. 

Establishment  of  tonnage  ratings. 

Experimental  determination  of  track  conditions. 

Tests  of  pumping  plants  and  power  plants. 

Such  is  the  course  of  railway  mechanical  engineering  which  leads  to  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  science  in  railway,  engineering. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  the  department  of  economics  offers  to  the  students 
in  railway  work  a  course  in  railway  problems  which  is  intended  to  deal  with  the 
social  and  economic  aspects  of  railways  in  their  relation  to  the  transportation 
interest  of  the  country. 

The  course  begins  with  a  history  of  railroad  construction  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  in  which  special  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  progress  of  consolidation 
and  the  development  of  State  control  and  regulation  of  railways.  Special  atten¬ 
tion  is  given  to  the  work  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  in  this  country, 
and  the  principles  which  have  been  developed  as  a  result  of  its  decision  concerning 
rates  and  discriminations.  The  course  presents  also  the  plan  of  administration 
and  management  of  a  typical  railway  in  the  United  States,  and  discusses  briefly 
the  question  of  private  versus  governmental  ownership  and  management  of  rail¬ 
roads  at  home  and  abroad. 

The  kindly  cooperation  of  the  railroads  mentioned  above  has  aided  much  in  the 
growth  of  this  work  in  railway  engineering,  and  with  the  assurance  of  their  con¬ 
tinued  interest  and  the  exceptional  facilities  now  possessed  railway  wmrk  at  the 
University  of  Illinois  must  continue  to  develop  rapidly. 


CHAPTER 


VIII. 


FROM  FUNDAMENTAL  TO  ACCESSORY  IN  THE  DEVELOP¬ 
MENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  AND  OF  MOVEMENTS.1 

There  are  two  tendencies  in  education  method  which  have  ever  been  in  more  or 
less  opposition.  One  is  based  upon  some  theory  of  internal  order  of  development 
in  the  mentality  of  the  pupil;  the  other  upon  the  logical  division  of  the  subject 
studied.  For  example,  in  learning  to  read  the  logical  order  shows  sentences  to  be 
made  up  of  words,  words  of  syllables,  and  syllables  of  letters.  Now,  as  letters  are 
the  ultimate  logical  units,  they  might  seem  to  be  also  the  ultimate  pedagogical 
units  and  the  place  of  beginning  for  the  pupil.  But  experience  has  shown  that 
children  learn  to  read  far  more  easily  by  beginning  with  words  or  even  sentences. 
Thus  the  pedagogical  order  is  almost  the  reverse  of  logical  order. 

Educational  reformers  have  attempted  to  bring  into  clearer  light  a  subjective 
order  in  the  development  of  mentality,  but  there  is  no  general  basis  in  positive 
science  for  such  an  order.  It  would  seem  natural  that  the  modern  biological 
sciences,  especially  neurology  and  experimental  psychology,  should  mabe  contri¬ 
butions  to  this  problem. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  bring  together  scattered  facts  in  these  sciences 
that  bear  directly  or  indirectly  on  the  problem. 

SUGGESTIONS  FROM  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

It  is  but  natural,  in  the  early  attempts  to  find  a  relation  between  the  various 
structures  of  the  nervous  system  and  the  different  degrees  of  mentality  observable 
in  individuals,  that  attention  should  have  first  been  turned  upon  the  grosser  forms 
of  brain  anatomy.  Large  differences  of  brain  in  weight  are  shown  to  depend 
chiefly  upon  variations  in  the  amount  of  nonnervous  material — the  supporting 
tissues,  blood  vessels,  fluids,  and  the  fatty  protecting  sheaths  incasing  nerve  fibers. 
Recent  investigation  has  been  gravitating  toward  a  solution  in  the  finer  micro¬ 
scopical  structures  of  nervous  tissue.  While  as  yet  the  interpretation  of  facts  in 
this  field  is  more  or  less  doubtful,  nevertheless  certain  features  are  suggestive  to 
psychology  and  education. 

Growth  of  the  brain  in  weight . — Vierordt  from  records  of  415  males  and  females, 
ranging  to  25  years  of  age,  finds  that  maturity  in  weight  is  practically  complete  at 
about  the  eighth  or  ninth  year.  The  period  of  most  rapid  increase  after  birth, 
according  to  this  investigation,  is  from  birth  to  4  years  of  age.  Mies  places  the 
average  weight  of  brains  of  new-born  males  at  340  grams  and  of  females  at  330. 
At  maturity  he  calculates  the  average  as  1,400  grams  for  males  and  1,050  grams 
for  females.  The  period  of  most  rapid  growth  is  that  of  the  first  nine  months  of 
life,  during  which  one- third  of  the  whole  increase  after  birth  is  added.  The  second 
third  of  the  whole  increase  is  added  between  the  ninth  month  and  the  twenty- 
seventh  month.  The  remaining  third  is  slowly  obtained.  Mies  says  maturity  of 
weight  is  reached  sometime  between  twenty  and  thirty  years.  Pfister,  in  a  study 
of  156  brains  from  birth  to  the  fourteenth  year,  confirms  in  a  general  way  the  rate 


1  Digest  of  article  by  Frederic  Burk  in  the  Pedagogical  Seminary- 


325 


326 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  growth  as  found  by  Mies,  and  his  figures  would  indicate  that  the  maximum 
weight  is  practically  reached  in  the  puberal  years. 

GROWTH  IN  THE  CELL  BODY  AND  ITS  PROCESSES. 

The  process  of  division  by  which  new  cells  are  created  ceases  in  the  embryonic 
period,  as  commonly  stated,  by  the  fifth  month  of  fetal  life.  The  nervous  mat¬ 
ter  at  any  age  shows  what  seems  to  be  stages  in  growth  of  cell  body,  and  along 
with  the  developed  cells  are  to  be  found  small  cells,  which  neurologists  have  gen¬ 
erally  considered  an  undeveloped  form  awaiting  structure  or  function,  education 
or  impulse,  or  whatever  else  the  inciting  cause  may  be,  to  call  them  into  active 
service.  Kaiser  took  similar  sections  of  the  cervical  region  spinal  cord  in  a  new¬ 
born  child,  a  boy  of  15  years.,  and  an  adult.  The  number  of  developed  cells  in  the 
new-born  child  was  104,270;  in  the  youth,  211,800;  and  in  the  adult,  221,200. 
The  number  of  cells  which  came  into  function  during  the  first  years  of  life  was 
therefore  double  the  number  at  birth. 1 

There  is  much  indirect  evidence  for  the  conclusion  that  the  cell  bodies  are 
increasing  in  size,  though  doubtless  by  such  small  increments  as  to  elude  observa¬ 
tion  by  the  methods  employed,  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  adult  life. 
Ramon  y  Cajal  has  attempted  to  establish  the  principle  that  the  size  of  a  cell 
depends  upon  the  number  of  its  processes  and  collateral  branches — that  is,  upon 
the  number  of  other  cells  with  which  it  is  associated.  Donaldson  in  his  resume  of 
fatigue  says:  “In  childhood  the  amount  of  stored  material  is  small,  large  in 
maturity,  and  small  again  in  old  age.’‘  Hence  the  cells  would  by  reason  of  this 
fact  have  the  greatest  capabilities  for  work  in  the  middle  period.  Between  child¬ 
hood  and  old  age  there  is,  however,  this  difference,  that  while  in  the  former  the 
nonavailable  substances  in  the  cell  are  developing,  not  yet  having  matured,  those 
in  the  latter  may  become  incapable  of  reconstruction. 

Growth  of  finer  microscopic  fibers. — It  is  a  speculation  to  which  neurological 
theories  point  that  the  fibers  which  connect  different  parts  of  the  cortex,  one  with 
the  other,  are  most  likely  to  be  concerned  in  some  way  with  association  and  the 
higher  forms  of  neuroses.  While  this  class  of  studies,  dealing  with  the  growth 
of  the  finer  microscopical  nervous  structures  in  later  life,  is  not  as  numerously 
represented  as  could  be  desired,  yet  the  results  seem  sufficient  to  establish  the 
fact  that  the  finer  nervous  structures  continue  to  grow  until  a  late  period  of  life; 
and,  further,  that  there  is  some  definite  order  in  their  progressive  development. 

The  order  of  functional  maturity. — The  conclusion  has  now  passed  into  general 
acceptance  that  when  a  nerve  fiber  acquires  its  fatty  sheath,  or  becomes  medui- 
lated  as  is  said,  it  is  then  functionally  mature.  No  nervous  function  is  ascribed 
to  the  sheath.  It  serves  the  same  purpose,  it  is  believed,  that  rubber  covering 
serves  for  electric  wires — it  prevents  wasteful  radiation  of  the  nerve  current. 

The  significance  of  medullation,  once  established,  becomes  a  key  of  great  value 
in  determining  the  order  in  which  the  various  parts  of  the  nervous  system  develop. 
Studies  in  this  direction  have  been  pursued  most  notably  by  Flechsig  of  Leipzig. 

Flechsig  found  that  the  class  of  nerve  fibers  first  to  take  on  their  medullary 
sheaths  are  those  connecting  neighboring  centers  in  the  cord  and  those  concerned 
in  receiving  and  discharging  simple  reflex  reactions.  This  medullation  process 
begins  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  fetal  month.  The  simple  reflex  mechanism 
is  the  earliest  in  biologic  development  of  the  nervous  system  and,  as  shown,  is  the 
first  to  mature  in  the  development  of  the  individual.  Voluntary  movements 
regulated  by  the  cortex  are  the  most  recent  in  racial  development,  and  the  pyra¬ 
midal  tracts  which  convey  these  impulses  are  the  last  of  the  spinal  columns  to 

1  Ueber  das  Gehirngewichtneugeborner  Kinder.  Wiener  Klin.  Wochensch,  1889,  p.  34. 

Das  Hirngewickt  in  Kindesalter,  Arcbiv.  f.  Kinderheilkunae,  18S7,  pp.  161-193. 

Die  Funktionen  der  Ganglienzeilen  des  Halsmark,  189L 


DEVELOPMENT  OP  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


327 


reach  maturity.  We  have  here,  therefor©,  the  illustration  of  the  principle  that 
in  the  development  of  human  nervous  functions  the  first  mechanisms  to  mature 
are  those  which  are  fundamental  and  racially  the  oldest,  and  that  the  order  of 
development  proceeds  from  these  to  those  which  are  of  more  recent  evolution. 

Flechsig’s  most  recent  studies  have  attempted,  by  the  same  neurological  method, 
to  trace  the  order  of  development  of  the  various  bundles  of  fibers  in  the  brain 
proper. 

The  first  of  the  special  sense  centers  in  the  cortex  to  mature,  according  to  Flech- 
sig,  is  that  of  smell,  which,  according  to  Endinger's  studies,  is  the  first  sense  cen¬ 
ter  to  be  evolved  in  the  biologic  scale,  appearing  as  low  as  reptiles.  The  last  to 
mature  is  that  of  hearing.  The  process  of  medullation  of  the  fibers  leading  to  and 
from  the  sense  centers  takes  place  rapidly,  and  by  the  end  of  the  first  month  of 
human  life  all  of  them  show  some  evidences  of  maturity. 

Dr.  Ross,  in  his  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,  was,  perhaps,  the  first  to 
attempt  a  distinction  in  the  nervous  system  between  structures  which  in  function 
antedate  the  human  form  of  the  organism  and  those  which  have  been  added  dur¬ 
ing  the  period  of  human  evolution.  He  says:  “  The  portions  of  the  nervous  sys¬ 
tem  which  man  possesses  in  common  with  lower  animals,  and  which  are  well 
developed  in  the  human  embryo  of  nine  months,  I  shall  call  the  fundamental  part, 
and  the  portions  which  have  been  superadded  in  the  course  of  evolution,  which 
differentiate  the  nervous  system  of  man  from  that  of  the  highest  of  the  lower 
animals,  and  which  are  either  absent  in  the  human  embryo  or  exist  only  in  an 
embryonic  condition,  I  shall  call  the  accessory  part  of  the  nervous  system.”  Dr. 
Ross  points  out  that  the  main  movements  which  distinguish  man  from  the  lower 
animals  are  those  which  he  has  acquired  since  he  adopted  the  erect  posture — the 
varied  movements  of  the  hand  in  prehension  and  tool  using,  which  developed 
after  the  hand  ceased  to  be  merely  a  foot;  the  movements  of  articulatory  organs 
concerned  in  speech,  and  movements  of  facial  expression.  Dr.  Ross,  by  this  sug¬ 
gestive  juxtaposition  of  fundamental  and  accessory  physical  parts  in  the  human 
organism  with  the  fundamental  and  accessory  mental  powers  of  man,  has  opened 
a  field  of  inquiry  rich  in  suggestion  for  psychology  and  education. 

From  the  evidences  of  late  growth  of  fibers  shown  by  Kaes  and  Yulpius,  and  of 
cell  bodies  by  Hamarberg,  there  is  justice  in  assuming  that  these  processes  con¬ 
tinue  until  late  in  life  under  regulation  by  the  principle  which  requires  the  more 
general  and  fundamental  structures  to  develop  before  the  accessory.  If  this 
indeed  be  true,  then  it  is  clear  that  the  historic  pedagogical  contention  stated  in 
the  preface,  that  the  order  of  instruction  should  be  regulated  by’  the  order  of 
internal  development  of  the  mind  rather  than  by  the  logical  order  of  the  subject- 
matter  studied,  rests  upon  a  substantial  basis. 

THE  THREE-LEVEL  THEORY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

The  conception  of  the  nervous  system  as  an  undifferentiated  unity,  such  as  per¬ 
vades  the  popular  notion  of  mind,  is  not  a  view  that  finds  substantiation  by  mod¬ 
ern  investigation.  The  notion  that  all  our  actions  are  dictated  from  r  single, 
center — the  brain — is  at  best  but  half  a  truth.  Many  actions  which  have  every 
appearance  of  good  sense  are  regulated  entirely  within  the  spinal  column;  and 
some  from  within  the  walls  of  the  abdomen.  The  lower  orders  of  animals  have 
no  brain  ganglia,  and  the  lowest  vertebrates  no  cerebrum.  All  positive  evidences 
from  the  sciences  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  and  pathological  phenomena  as 
well,  go  to  support  the  evolutionary  view  of  the  nervous  system  of  parts,  corre¬ 
lated  and  closely  associated,  but  nevertheless  preserving  a  degree  of  relative 
independence. 

It  was  some  thirty  years  ago  that  Dr.  Hughlings  Jackson,  the  eminent  English 
pathologist,  made  practical  application  of  the  evolutionary  theory  of  the  nervous 


328 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


system  to  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  epilepsy  and  mental  disease.  Such  has 
been  the  practical  success  of  this  application  that  the  so-called  Hughlings  Jackson 
three-level  theory  is  now  the  established  basis  of  English  diagnosis. 

Jackson  conceived  the  nervous  mechanism  as  composed  of  three  systems  arranged 
in  the  form  of  a  hierarchy,  one  upon  the  other,  the  higher  embracing  the  lower, 
yet  each  preserving  for  itself  some  degree  of  exclusive  independence. 

According  to  the  hierarchal  arrangement  of  the  nervous  system  the  lowest  level, 
as  the  simplest,  oldest,  most  fixed  and  nonplastic,  contains  mechanisms  for  the 
simple  fundamental  movements  in  reflexes  and  involuntary  reactions.  The  middle 
level  regroups  these  simple  movements  by  combinations  and  associations  of  corti¬ 
cal  structures  in  wider,  more  complex  mechanisms,  producing  a  higher  class  of 
movements.  The  highest  level  unifies  the  whole  nervous  system,  and,  according 
to  Jackson,  is  the  anatomical  basis  of  mind.  “The  highest  level  centers,”  says  he, 
“  are  nothing  else  than  the  centers  of  universal  and  complex  representation,  or 
what  is  the  same  thing,  universal  and  complete  coordinations,  or,  using  old- 
fashioned  language,  they  are  the  whole  organism.” 

The  three-level  theory  grew  chiefly  out  of  the  need  of  a  practical  working 
hypothesis  in  the  diagnosis  of  mental  diseases,  and  as  such  it  has  proved  service¬ 
able  in  pathological  practice.  In  epilepsies  due  to  affections  of  the  lowest  level, 
there  are  spasms  of  the  reflex  movements  without  necessarily  involving  higher 
and  more  complex  coordinations,  as,  for  example,  respiratory  fits.  The  middle 
level  epilepsies  are  of  a  more  complex  order,  originating  in  some  point  of  the 
extreme  periphery  and  extending  in  directions  that  are  found  to  agree  with 
adjacency  of  centers  for  these  movements  in  the  cortex;  loss  of  consciousness  is 
frequently  a  subsequent,  but  not  necessary  accompaniment. 

PEDAGOGICAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LEVEL  THEORY. 

Pathological  practice  in  the  diseases  of  dissolution,  or  “devolution”  of  the 
nervous  system  now  accepts  the  essential  conception  of  the  Jacksonian  theory  as 
a  successful  working  hypothesis,  recognizing,  however,  that  it  is  a  general  scheme 
rather  than  a  detailed  plan  of  proven  facts  accurate  in  detail.  Its  applications 
have,  however,  never  yet  been  made  to  psychology  and  pedagogy.  Education 
deals  with  the  normal  evolution  of  the  nervous  system.  It  therefore,  in  a  sense, 
takes  a  complementary  view  to  that  of  nervous  pathology.  The  introduction  of 
the  Jacksonian  view  of  the  nervous  system  may  prove  as  serviceable  to  education 
as  a  working  hypothesis,  as  it  has  in  pathology.  In  crude  outline  we  must  recog¬ 
nize  in  this  hierarchal  scheme  of  the  nervous  system  the  analogy  of  its  phyloge¬ 
netic  development.  In  the  lower  invertebrates  we  find,  not  a  centralized  nervous 
system  with  a  cerebral  or  even  spinal  central  station,  but  a  loose  system  of  local 
ganglia  regulating,  in  more  or  les3  independent  manner,  special  movements  of  the 
animal.  In  higher  orders  chain  ganglia  appear  with  a  growing  approach  to  cen¬ 
tralization.  In  vertebrates  we  find  the  chain  S3Tstem  transformed  into  the  spinal 
system,  and  within  the  cranium  are  ganglia  of  the  special  sense  organs,  develop¬ 
ing  in  complexity  and  centralization  as  we  go  up  the  scale.  Flechsig’s  highest 
association  centers,  presiding  over  higher  reason,  if  we  accept  them,  extend  as  a 
tapering  tongue  far  down  the  mammalian  scale. 

From  the  order  of  development  in  maturity  of  the  fiber  bundles  of  the  spinal 
cord  and  brain,  it  is  conclusive  that  each  bundle  has  its  special  period  of  imma¬ 
turity,  of  plastic  growth,  and  finally  fixed  maturity  when  modification  is  difficult 
or  impossible.  This  middle  nascent  period  is  the  period  for  education.  “We 
know,”  says  Clouston,  “that  each  center  has  its  own  nascent  or  growth  period, 
which  is  sometimes  very  short,  as  it  must  be  in  the  center  in  which  movements  of 
sucking  are  coordinated;  and  sometimes  very  long,  as  in  those  in  which  we  coor- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


329 


dinate  the  movements  of  the  hand,  from  its  first  feeble  grasp  up  to  its  consummate 
achievements  in  making  and  shaping.” 

On  the  side  of  external  movement  we  see  corresponding  phenomena  in  develop¬ 
ment.  The  cord  reflexes  appear  and  perfect  themselves,  largely  in  early  infancy, 
it  is  true,  but  nevertheless  they  continue  to  develop  until  a  comparatively  late 
period.  Facts  may  warrant  us  in  concluding  that  certain  general  periods  may  be 
characterized  by  predominance  of  nascencies  in  a  given  level.  Thus  it  certainly 
may  be  said  that  in  infancy  the  nascencies  of  the  lower  level  outnumber  those  of 
the  middle  and  higher;  that  in  childhood  up  to  puberty  the  sense-center  nascencies 
predominate,  though  lower  level  processes  continue  to  appear  and  a  fair  number 
of  highest  level  nascencies  occur;  and  that  finally  in  the  adolescent  period,  highest 
level  growths  predominate. 

There  are  many  facts  which  go  to  support  this  tripartite  progress  of  nascencies, 
in  a  loose  sense.  Insanity,  for  example,  is  rare  in  children  under  15  years,  and 
Mercier  explains  this  fact  on  the  ground  that  children  under  the  puberal  age  do 
not  yet  possess  mature  higher  centers.  Insanity  under  modern  interpretation  is 
an  affection  of  the  centers  of  the  highest  level.  According  to  Boutteville,  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  insane  children  to  insane  adults  is  as  follows:  From  5  to  9  years,  0.9 
per  cent;  10  to  14,  3.5  per  cent;  15  to  19,  20  per  cent.  Winslow  finds  only  8  chil¬ 
dren  under  10  years  of  age  among  21,333  insane  patients.  But  with  the  beginning 
of  puberty  there  is  developed  a  variety  of  psychic  phenomena  which,  while  only 
temporary,  are  none  the  less  to  be  classified  as  within  the  borderland  of  insanity — 
irritability  of  temper — i.  e.,  lack  of  inhibitive  control  by  the  highest  centers,  mor¬ 
bid  notions  ranging  into  hallucinations,  etc.  Insanity  in  children,  when  it  occurs, 
according  to  Ireland,  is  generally  an  after-effect  of  certain  diseases,  tubercular 
meningitis  and  fevers,  which,  we  can  readily  understand,  tear  down  the  tissues 
of  the  highest  centers.  The  gradations  of  epileptic  diseases  indicate  a  growth  by 
periods.  In  an  unconscious  but  nevertheless  clearly  established  way,  three  periods 
have  for  practical  purposes  alwajrs  been  distinctly  insisted  upon  by  the  popular 
mind.  Infancy  lias  been  recognized  as  a  period  for  learning  to  creep,  to  walk,  to 
maintain  the  equilibrium,  and  to  use  hand,  arms,  and  legs  in  the  countless  move¬ 
ments  that  later  become  reflex.  Childhood,  by  ancient  and  familiar  dogma,  is  the 
period  for  training  the  sense  centers.  No  period,  however,  has  been  so  clearly 
recognized  as  that  of  the  nascency  of  the  highest  system  in  adolescence.  It  is  a  com¬ 
mon  statement  that  it  is  not  till  a  child  is  13  or  14  years  of  age,  the  puberal  period, 
that  it  is  capable  of  rational  thought  and  reason.  The  school  has  always  insisted 
upon  this,  giving  memory  topics  in  the  earlier  years  and  reserving  the  rational 
study,  requiring  higher  correlation,  for  the  later  period. 

In  all  religions,  civilized  and  savage,  there  are  religious  rites,  perhaps  depend¬ 
ent  in  origin  changes,  which  are  clearly  conceived  as  psychic,  recognizing  that 
the  child  takes  on  at  this  time  the  adult’s  logical  thought.  The  confirmation  serv¬ 
ices  in  our  established  churches  are  evidences  about  us,  and  in  evangelical 
churches  there  is  a  prejudice  against  accepting  a  religious  judgment  until  after 
the  child  is  13  or  14  years.  On  the  other  hand,  this  is  the  period  the  child  himself 
chooses  to  make  them.  It  is  more  than  a  merely  plausible  hypothesis  that  if  the  • 
structure  governing  a  given  nervous  reaction  in  an  activity  is  carried  forward  by 
evolution  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  organism,  the  reaction  itself  of  this  transmitted 
structure  must  also  tend  to  be  reproduced,  preserving  amid  accessory  human 
types  of  reasoning  the  vestigial  tendencies  of  earlier  racial  habits.  And  it  is  more 
than  merely  plausible,  from  all  we  know  of  the  structure  and  processes  of  the 
nervous  system,  that  the  accessory  or  highest  human  types  of  action  and  thought 
only  reach  this  highest  stage  by  passing  through,  in  infancj"  and  childhood,  the 
lower  level  types  of  this  process.  The  central  conception  is  that  the  higher  pro¬ 
cesses  are  formed  by  combination  of  elements  and  structures  of  a  lower  process 


330 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


already  existing.  Children  frequently  persist  in  following  some  strange,  useless, 
or  even  savage  interest  quite  foreign  to  our  civilization.  Upon  this  doctrine  of 
development  by  levels  these  strange  and  useless  experiences  nevertheless  may  be 
essential  as  a  platform  out  of  which  a  higher  coordination,  useful  for  modern  life, 
may  be  reached.  The  intermediate  stage  or  level  may  be  useless  or  even  inimical 
to  our  civilization,  but  yet  as  a  link  in  evolution  be  none  the  less  essential. 

FROM  FUNDAMENTAL  TO  ACCESSORY  IN  MOVEMENT. 

Muscular  movement  is  the  complement  of  nervous  activity.  If  there  has  been 
an  evolution  from  fundamental  to  accessory  forms  of  structure  in  the  nervous  sys¬ 
tem,  we  must  expect  to  find  a  similar  evolution  in  the  character  of  movements. 
Facts  answer  fully  these  requirements  of  theory.  The  movements  which  are 
regulated  predominantly  by  the  accessory  structures  of  the  nervous  system  show 
certain  characteristics  distinctly  differing  from  those  regulated  by  the  funda¬ 
mental  parts  of  the  nervous  system.  An  illustration  of  accessory  movements  in 
the  sense  of  those  which  are  not  possessed  by  animals  lower  than  man  is  offered 
by  the  complex  capabilities  of  the  human  hand.  To  bring  out  the  characteristics 
of  the  accessory  hand  movements,  as  distinguished  from  the  fundamental  move¬ 
ments,  we  may  compare  them  either  with  fundamental  movements  of  the  human 
body,  e.  g.,  the  trunk  movements,  or  with  fore-limb  movements  of  the  lower  ani¬ 
mals.  The  movements  of  the  trunk  are  limited  chiefly  to  leanings,  some  slight 
ability  to  rotate,  and  to  the  respiratory  function.  “  With  each  step  that  we  take 
toward  the  periphery,  the  number  of  movements  that  can  he  executed  and  the 
amount  of  difference  between  these  movements  increases,  until  at  length,  when 
the  periphery  is  reached,  the  number  and  variety  of  movements  become  enor¬ 
mous.  The  area  over  which  the  hand  can  be  moved  is  almost  as  large  as  that  of  a 
sphere  whose  radius  is  the  length  of  the  arm,  and  the  hand  can  reach  three-fourths 
of  the  points  between  the  shoulder  and  the  area  thus  marked  out.  ”  The  most  sig¬ 
nificant  distinction  to  which  Mercier  draws  attention  is  that  in  the  association  of 
two  or  more  movements  the  distinctive  tendency  of  central  muscles  is  to  make  them 
simultaneous  or  alternating,  while  the  accessory  muscles  are  distinctively  capa¬ 
ble  of  long  and  complex  sequence.  Consider,  for  example,  the  habit  of  sequence 
which  is  developed  in  the  fingers  of  the  pianist.  The  central  movements  are  crude 
in  any  work  requiring  precision  and  delicate  coordination.  The  central  move¬ 
ments  enter  as  associates  into  these  coordinations  by  providing  steadiness,  but  the 
finer  movements  are  performed  by  the  periphery.  The  peripheral  movements  bear 
to  the  central  the  relation  of  the  special  to  the  general.  We  can  not  use  our  fin¬ 
gers  in  writing  till  by  the  central  movements  the  arm  is  brought  into  position  and 
held  steadily.  We  can  not  speak  without  the  general  movements  of  breathing 
which  force  the  air  through  the  larynx.  The  peripheral  movements,  aided  by  their 
power  of  acting  successively  and  with  greater  complexity,  perform  special  feats. 

The  marvelous  adaptability  of  the  hand  can  only  be  explained  on  the  ground 
that  the  higher  levels  of  the  nervous  system  combine  the  low'er  level  movements 
into  the  countless  new  complexes  and  introduce  the  features  of  sequence,  precision, 
etc.,  which  for  the  fundamental  levels  are  practically  impossible. 

General  paralysis  that  begins  in  the  highest  centers  is  accompanied  in  slighter 
attacks  with  almost  imperceptible  interference  with  precision;  the  patient  is  not 
able  to  execute  the  finer  delicate  movements.  As  the  disease  spreads  downward, 
these  more  general,  more  complex,  more  precise  movements  are  lost,  layer  by  layer, 
as  it  were,  from  accessory  to  fundamental,  from  peripheral  to  central,  from  high¬ 
est  to  lowest  level,  from  the  products  of  latest  evolution  to  those  of  the  older. 
Such  devolution  may  be  illustrated  in  the  early  loss  of  writing  power  without 
appreciable  loss  of  fundamental  movements  of  the  hand;  by  the  early  loss  of  speech 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HEBVOUS  SYSTEM. 


331 


without  loss  of  eating  or  swallowing  movements  of  the  throat,  nor  any  paralysis  of 
the  tongue  and  lips.  In  downward  progress  of  disease  —in  devolution,  so  to  speak — 
the  loss  of  higher  level  centers  results  in  loss  of  peripheral  or  accessory  move¬ 
ments,  frequently  leaving  the  fundamental  movements  quite  unimpaired. 

Progress  in  evolution  of  hand  movements  in  the  biologic  scale  has  been  from 
extreme  fewness  in  number  to  infinite  variety,  from  simplicity  to  complexity, 
from  clumsy  inaccuracy  to  precision,  from  simultaneous  associations  to  those 
which  constitute  long  series  in  sequence,  from  the  general  to  the  specialized.  It 
is  evident  that  the  slight  differences  in  bony  or  muscular  structure  are  far  inade¬ 
quate  to  explain  the  enormous  differences  between  accessory  and  fundamental. 
The  jaws,  teeth,  tongue,  and  palate  of  lower  vertebrates  are  not  so  radically  dis¬ 
tinguishable  from  those  of  men  to  account  for  the  rapidity,  complexity,  marvel¬ 
ous  precision,  accurate  co-ordination,  and  successiveness  involved  in  human 
speech.  Yet  a  civilized  man  uses  a  score  of  thousand  words  or  more,  each  requir¬ 
ing  a  special  and  appropriate  set  of  movements,  different  from  all  others;  and, 
moreover,  he  throws  these  together  in  sentences  requiring  successive  coordinations 
of  long  sequence  with  marvelous  precision  and  rapidity.  W  hen  we  attempt  to  meas¬ 
ure  the  gap  between  man  and  the  lower  animals  in  terms  of  power  of  movement, 
the  wonder  is  no  less  great  than  when  we  use  terms  of  mentality.  Wo  are  forced 
back  again  for  an  explanation  of  this  complexity  of  adjustment  to  the  nervous 
system,  and  to  conclude  that  the  difference  in  associational  capability  between 
the  accessory  and  fundamental  levels  must  be  significant. 

RELATION  OF  ACCESSORY  HAND  MOVEMENTS  TO  HUMAN  INTELLIGENCE. 

The  intimate  relationships  existing  between  higher  intelligence  and  the  more 
highly  developed  accessory  motility  of  the  human  hand  has  been  so  striking  that  it 
has  been  noted  even  so  far  back  as  Anaxagoras.  The  extreme  theory  has  been  put 
forth  by  many  modern  writers  that  human  intelligence,  as  such,  has  arisen  in 
direct  consequence  of  man's  assuming  the  upright  position.  The  fore  limbs,  thus 
relieved  of  the  duties  of  locomotion,  which  in  lower  animals  is  more  or  less  their 
exclusive  function,  have  found  vent  for  their  energy  in  manifold  new  employ¬ 
ments,  and  thus  introduced  the  human  race  to  a  varied  world  of  richer  experience. 
Intelligence  has  been  the  product. 

There  is  much  in  psychology  that  supports  the  general  theory.  Strieker  con¬ 
tends  that  in  every  mental  act  of  the  imagination  there  is  a  tendency  to  muscular 
movement,  which  in  many  persons  rises  above  the  threshold  of  consciousness. 

Darwin,  Duchenne,  Pidirit,  and  Mantegazza  have  studied  the  significance  of  the 
expressive  movements,  especially  of  the  face  and  hands,  and  in  general  conclude 
that  these  are  weakened  forms  of  movements  that  were  once  directed  to  some 
practical  end. 

Let  us  trace  speculatively,  by  way  of  illustration,  the  evolution  of  the  nerve 
processes  concerned  in  a  state  of  moral  courage.  Our  brute-man  ancestors  did 
not  think  courage — they  acted  it.  The  kinesthetic  memories  of  previous  similar 
acts  flowed  directly  into  the  motor  channels  of  muscular  reaction  without  the  com¬ 
plex  association  of  the  higher  levels.  Since  consciousness  is  a  concomitant  only 
of  sensory  processes  and  not  of  motor  discharges,  according  to  the  psychological 
view  now  generally  accepted,  consciousness  was  of  brief  duration  because  the  dis¬ 
charge  was  immediate.  Later,  however,  a  portion  of  the  kinaesthetic  energy, 
instead  of  being  wholly  discharged  into  motor  channels  to  excite  muscular  move¬ 
ment,  forced  itself  upward  into  higher  levels  and  gradually  formed  long  circuits 
of  sensory  irradiation  among  the  structures  which  are  the  concomitants  of  higher 
ideation.  By  this  irradiation  consciousness  was  prolonged  and  the  energy  given 
to  muscular  action  lessened.  The  individual  deliberated,  longer  and  acted  less. 
The  kinaesthetic  impulses  that  discharged  into  the  motor  channels  of  our  ances- 


332 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


tors,  creating  in  them  deeds  of  physical  courage,  discharge,  in  the  lower  complex 
nervous  system  of  their  civilized  posterity,  into  the  higher  levels  and  excite  this 
moral  courage  of  thought. 

For  support  of  this  standpoint,  theory  would  require  that  distinctly  lower  grades 
of  intelligence  should  be  accompanied  by  deficiency  in  manual  motility. 

The  feeble-minded  show  marked  deficiencies  in  power  of  movement,  and,  in 
general,  are  wanting  in  just  those  movements  which  especially  distinguish  the 
human  species  from  lower  animals. 

“In  the  will  movements,”  says  Johnson,  “  the  difference  between  the  control  of 
the  fundamental  and  accessory  muscles  was  much  more  marked  in  the  feeble¬ 
minded  than  in  normal  children.  This  was  more  noticeable  the  greater  the  degree 
of  idiocy.  Some  who  could  execute  gross  movements  with  regularity  and  control 
were  wholly  deficient  in  the  execution  of  finer  movements.”  Johnson  concludes 
that  “the  fundamental  precedes  the  accessory  in  development  of  motor  ability. 
It  is  important  to  note  that  all  the  spontaneous  movements  were  fundamental. 
Hardly  a  single  one  of  them  could  be  considered  accessory.  They  were  the  sway¬ 
ing  of  the  trunk,  the  movement  of  the  jaw,  swinging  of  the  arm,  reeling  of  the 
head,  and  the  simplest  finger  movement.” 

Says  Ireland: 

The  best  and  earliest  sign  of  idiocy  is  the  deficiency  of  the  grasp.  The  hand  is 
flapped  or  vibrated  about  instead  of  being  employed  to  seize  or  obtain  an  object. 
Imbeciles  are  clumsy  in  the  use  of  the  hands,  and  it  is  difficult  to  teach  them  any 
exercise  of  handicraft  requiring  method  and  dexterity.  Even  imbeciles  are  gener¬ 
ally  very  inexpert  at  such  exercises  as  catching  a  ball  or  aiming  at  anything,  and 
it  is  difficult  io  teach  them  greater  dexterity. 

Another  series  of  hand  defects  of  significance  is  that  of  the  lateral  movement  of 
the  fingers.  This  power  is  partially  regulated  by  the  depth  of  the  space  between 
the  fingers,  a  greater  depth  allowing  greater  freedom  of  lateral  movements.  In 
the  gorilla,  for  example,  the  interdigital  membrane  is  large,  and  reaches  far  up 
between  the  fingers,  binding  their  action.  Hartman  has  found  this  same  feature 
noticeable  in  many  of  the  lower  human  races,  notably  the  negro.  In  some  species 
of  monkeys  the  fingers  are  united.  Imbeciles  frequently  show  what  seems  an 
atavistic  tendency  in  this  direction.  In  persons  of  normal  intelligence,  says  Fere, 
the  thumb,  for  example,  can  be  brought  to  make  an  angle  of  120°  to  130°  with  the 
index,  but  in  degenerates  it  is  frequently  not  more  than  45°;  the  same  ratio  holds 
with  the  other  finger  angles.  Johnson  found,  by  examination,  a  very  general 
difficulty  among  feeble-minded  children  to  open  and  close  the  fingers  laterally; 
some  could  open  the  hand  between  the  index  and  middle  finger,  but  not  between 
others.  Some  who  could  open  fingers  laterally  could  not  open  the  first  finger 
alone.  In  attempting  these  movements  false  movements  were  often  made;  for 
instance,  swinging  of  wrist,  partly  closing  hand,  or  shaking  whole  forearm. 
These  latter  substitutions  illustrate  the  weakness  of  the  control  of  the  higher  over 
the  lower  centers. 

As  a  rule,  in  school  children,  those  of  quick  movement  of  muscles  are  considered 
brighter,  mentally,  than  those  of  slower  movement.  In  a  study  which  was  made 
to  trace  the  rate  of  school  progress  of  some  two  hundred  children  it  was  found 
that  62  per  cent  of  the  most  rapid  pupils  possessed  strikingly  quick  control  of 
the  movements,  while  only  8  per  cent  of  this  class  were  slow  of  movement;  on 
the  other  hand,  among  the  pupils  of  slow  progress  40  per  cent  were  strikingly 
halting  in  their  movements,  and  only  23  per  cent  possessed  a  ready  control.  Also, 
in  the  matter  of  precision,  54  per  cent  of  the  rapid  pupils  possessed  accuracy  of 
writing  movements  against  11  per  cent  who  were  not;  while  among  the  mentally 
slowest  59  per  cent  lacked  accuracy  of  movement  and  22  per  cent  of  them  were 
not  precise. 

The  facts  which  have  been  reviewed  bring  out  clearly  the  close  and  seemingly 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


333 


organic  relationship  existing  between  these  nervous  structures  controlling  the 
movements  which  constitute  man's  superiority  over  lower  animals,  and  those 
nervous  structures  which  function  human  mentality.  The  mentally  defective 
are  commonly  deficient  in  the  ability  to  control  these  accessory  movements  and 
show  many  similarities  to  Simian  traits  of  structure  and  movement.  Such  facts 
necessarily  push  us  toward  the  conclusion  that  defects  of  mentality,  as  in  power 
of  movement,  are  commonly  due  to  the  failure  of  higher  levels  of  the  nervous 
system  to  become  functional.  It  is  an  interesting  corroboration  of  this  view  that  in 
the  other  class  of  highly  specialized  accessory  movements,  as  speech,  idiots  show 
a  very  common  deficiency.  Dr.  Down,  from  an  examination  of  200  idiots,  7  to  36 
years  of  age,  found  33  mute,  16  semimute,  83  with  indistinctness,  4  stammering,  and 
62  with  fair  speech.  It  is  manifestly  incorrect  to  treat  idiots  as  a  single  class  having 
common  cause  of  defect.  It  is  with  the  congenital  class  that  this  inquiry  is  spe¬ 
cially  concerned,  for  under  this  classification  fall  those  unfortunates  that  date 
their  defect  to  prenatal  life. 

Dr.  Down  contributed  a  classification  of  congenital  idiots  according  to  ethnic 
types — negroids^  Malays,  Indians,  Mongols.  He  asserts  that  more  than  10  per 
cent  of  the  congenital  feeble-minded  children  are  typical  Mongols. 

They  "present  characteristics  so  marked  that  when  members  of  this  type  are 
placed  in  proximity  it  is  difficult  not  to  believe  that  they  are  brothers  or  sisters.  In 
fact,  their  resemblance  is  infinitely  greater  than  to  members  of  their  own  family. 

The  simple  educational  and  psychological  significance  of  the  facts  of  this  chap¬ 
ter  is  that  the  individual,  from  conception  to  senescence,  follows  the  Order  of 
development  of  the  race,  and  that  any  serious  mishaps  upon  the  way  cause  an 
arrest  of  development  of  his  nervous  system  at  some  partial  level.  But  the  facts, 
except  in  these  extreme  cases  of  arrest,  are  far  from  fatalistic  in  their  influences. 
Even  among  the  idiot  class,  the  results  of  education  upon  the  principle  of  develop¬ 
ing  the  more  fundamental  in  order  to  develop  the  accessory  have  approached  the 
marvelous.  Seguin  began  the  education  of  the  idiot  by  training  of  the  hand 
movements,  and  of  these  he  selected  for  the  first  lessons  those  which  were  most 
fundamental — grasping,  supporting,  letting  go,  throwing,  catching,  and  leading 
up  gradually  by  some  admirable  teaching  tact  to  the  accessory,  and  correlation  of 
eye  and  hand  in  natural  exercises  that  called  forth  the  pupil's  interest.  Strangely, 
after  two  years’  education  on  this  plan,  the  general  mentality  of  the  boy  whom  he 
describes  had  also  improved  to  a  degree  that  was  marvelous  even  to  teachers. 
The  stimulation  of  the  evolutionary  levels,  in  their  natural  order,  through  the 
hand  training  had  strengthened  them  also  for  discharge  of  mental  functions. 

EVOLUTION  OF  HAND  MOVEMENTS  IN  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NORMAL  CHILD.. 

Some  of  the  movements  of  new-born  infants  are  extremely  simple,  and  a  large 
number  seem  to  be  built  up  by  coordination  of  these  simple  movements.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  are,  throughout  infancy  and  early  childhood,  a  number  of 
singular  movements  which,  at  their  first  appearance,  are  highly  complex;  they 
are  excited  by  special  stimuli;  many  of  them  by  irregular  modification  become 
adapted  to  ends  for  which  evidently  they  were  not  originally  employed.  If  infants 
first  learned  to  make  all  the  simple  reflexes,  and,  this  step  performed,  then  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  combine  these  elements  into  new  unities,  and  so  on,  ws  would  have  a 
logical  order  to  retrace.  But  there  are  few  evidences  either  in  infancy  or  in  later 
childhood  of  such  steps  from  Ihe  logically  simple  to  the  complex.  Preyer  has 
shown  that  in  the  care  of  the  eyes,  each  eye  tends  to  a  certain  extent  to  be  a  law 
unto  itself,  that  the  two  do  not  move  in  perfect  coordinated  unison  until  several 
months  have  passed;  yet  the  same  principle  will  not  apply  to  the  movements  of 
the  two  arms.  This  pair  of  bilateral  members  tend  to  move  simultaneously,  when 
an  adult  would  use  one  of  them  independently. 


334 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


A  striking  example  of  this  class  is  offered  by  Dr.  Robinson  in  experiments  upon 
the  ability  of  new-born  infants  to  hold  themselves  suspended  by  grasping  a  finger 
or  a  bar.  If  we  accept  the  current  theory  that  the  immediate  ancestry  of  man 
lived  in  trees  as  many  species  of  monkeys  now  do,  this  movement,  though  highly 
complex ,  involving  the  combination  and  coordination  of  several  muscles  of  the 
arm,  wrist,  and  fingers,  is,  in  an  evolutionary  sense,  fundamental.  Robinson  has 
kept  records  of  experiments  upon  sixty  infants,  carried  out  within  an  hour  after 
birth  in  the  case  of  at  least  one-half  of  them.  The  infant  subject  was  allowed  to 
grasp  a  horizontal  bar,  or  a  finger,  and  left  suspended  in  this  way,  sustaining  its 
own  weight.  He  says  that  in  every  case,  with  only  two  exceptions,  the  child  was 
able  to  hold  on  for  at  least  10  seconds;  in  12  cases,  with  infants  under  1  hour  old, 
half  a  minute  passed  before  the  grasp  relaxed,  and  in  8  or  4  nearly  a  minute. 
When  about  4  days  old  I  found  the  strength  had  increased,  and  that  nearly  all, 
when  tried  at  this  age,  could  sustain  their  weight  for  half  a  minute.  At  about  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks  after  birth  the  faculty  appeared  to  have  attained  its 
maximum.  The  feat  of  hanging  from  a  stick  or  finger  by  the  hands,  logically 
would  imply  the  prior  development  of  the  arm,  shoulder,  wrist,  and  finger  move¬ 
ments.  But  such  are  not  the  facts.  The  child  grasps  a  stick  and  hangs  suspended 
by  his  arms  long  before  he  is  able  to  pick  up  any  object,  or  put  his  two  hands 
together,  or  lift  hand  to  mouth.  Logically,  the  grasp  of  the  whole  hand  would 
follow  the  grasp  by  the  parts,  but  observation  shows  us  that  a  certain  kind  of  com¬ 
plex  grasp  is  one  of  the  earliest  movements,  developed  long  before  some  of  the  very 
simplest  finger  movements.  Any  logical  explanation  fails  at  this  point.  Evolu¬ 
tionary  explanation  is  plausible,  for  so  far  as  the  positive  evidence  of  observation 
goes  the  more  fundamental  and  older  racial  movements  appear  before  the  newer 
and  less  fundamental,  regardless  of  the  order  of  complexity,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
accessory  as  a  rule  tends  to  be  more  complex  than  the  fundamental. 

By  what  process  is  the  transition  to  the  adult  form  of  grasp  accomplished? 
Undoubtedly  imitation  is  the  final  directing  cause,  but  there  i3  a  functional  diffi¬ 
culty  in  the  retarded  development  of  the  infant’s  thumb.  He  is  born  with  a 
monkey  thumb  and  must  first  obtain  a  human  thumb  and  be  able  to  use  it  in  per¬ 
fect  opposition.  Preyer,  Mumford,  and  Mrs.  Winfred  S.  Hall  have  given  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  development  of  the  thumb.  •  For  the  first  two  or  three  months 
of  life  the  thumb  is  really  a  nuisance  to  the  child  and  is  continually  in  the  way. 
Generally  it  is  curled  inside  of  the  grasp.  In  the  case  of  Mrs.  Hall’s  child  it  was 
not  till  the  eleventh  week  that  the  thumb  was  brought  outside  the  hand  when  the 
latter  was  clenched. 

Mumford  concludes  that  it  is  often  six  months  before  the  development  of  thumb 
makes  the  elaborate  movements  of  the  human  grasp  possible.  While  the  thumb 
of  the  hand  is  thus  gradually  gaining  in  motility  and  strength  in  a  human  direc¬ 
tion,  the  great  toe  is  losing  motility  and  strength,  also  in  a  human  direction. 

Several  other  hand  movements  could  be  more  or  less  definitely  traced,  com¬ 
mencing  in  the  infant  with  complex  reflexes,  inexplicable  as  yet  upon  any  theory 
except  that  of  evolutionary  origin,  and  developing  into  human  forms  by  modifi¬ 
cations  and  additions  that  showr  no  trace  of  logical  arrangement. 

Nor  do  all  these  complex  but  original  coordinations  appear  immediately  at 
birth.  They  are  scattered  along  through  infancy  by  distinct  parts  observed  in 
the  growth  of  the  nervous  system.  The  teasing  and  bullying  instincts  of  children 
offer  suggestive  illustration.  Among  the  commonest  movements  in  these  activi¬ 
ties  may  be  observed  pursuing,  throwing  missiles,  striking,  throwing  down,  hold¬ 
ing  down,  dancing  about  conquered  victim,  laughing,  clapping  hands,  pulling 
hair,  pulling  ears,  etc.  Children’s  natural  games  are  largely  made  up  of  mild 
forms  of  these  elements,  the  more  malevolent  tendencies  having  been  eliminated. 

These  complex  movements  are  ultimate  units;  they  do  not  conform  to  the  pur- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEHVOITS  SYSTEM. 


335 


poses  of  civilized  human  conduct  and  are  not  explicable  nor  reducible  by  any 
process  of  logical  explanation.  Corresponding  to  them  are  psychic  states  of  equal 
complexity  which  find  no  explanation  in  the  civilized  child’s  present  environment. 
There  is  a  principle  well  known  in  physiology  and  embryology,  that  a  structure 
or  a  movement — useful  for  a  certain  purpose  in  a  certain  stage  of  the  biological 
scale— loses  this  purpose  in  a  higher  stage  and  through  modification  becomes  used 
for  some  entirely  different  purpose.  Now  what  are  the  applications  of  this  view 
to  many  of  these  strange  complexes  that  appear  in  early  childhood,  even  to  such 
seemingly  evil  forms  as  those  which  appear  in  cruelty,  bullying,  and  teasing? 
May  it  not  be,  indeed,  that  they  constitute  a  level  in  the  evolutionary  hierarchy, 
and,  though  in  themselves  useless,  are  nevertheless  an  essential  platform  from 
which  the  coordinations  of  a  higher  and  useful  level  are  formed  ?  It  seems  plausi¬ 
ble  that  the  child  needs  to  live  to  some  extent  the  life  of  his  ancestors  in  order 
actually  to  develop  in  his  own  nervous  system  the  kinsesthetic  sensations  which 
by  the  process  of  higher  evolution  may  serve  as  the  basis  for  higher  forms  of 
activity  in  the  highest  levels.  It  becomes  indeed  a  question  of  extreme  nicety  to 
determine  just  the  exact  moment  when  sufficient  actual  experience  has  fully 
established  the  racial  tendency  and  the  time  for  inhibition  and  radiation  of  the 
force  into  higher  cerebral  associations  should  follow.  Danger  of  arrest  of  devel¬ 
opment  at  the  lower  stage  is  as  important  as  that  the  fundamental  impressions 
should  not  be  made.  Such  a  view  gives  these  curious  phenomena  a  natural 
place  in  child  life,  and  emphasizes  the  probability  that  children’s  plays  and  games, 
as  mild  vaccination  forms,  serve  as  mediations  between  brutal  ancestral  tendencies 
in  the  nervous  system  and  the  higher  levels  employed  in  altruistic  modern  life, 
between  savage  racial  action  and  civilized  ideation. 

COORDINATION  OR  SIMPLE  MOVEMENTS. 

One  who  watches  a  young  infant  will  notice  a  number  of  jerky  movements  con¬ 
tinually  occurring  in  practically  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  Some  are  merely 
slight  twitchings  of  fingers  and  small  muscles,  and  they  range  in  scope  to  those  of 
flinging  hand,  forearm,  or  whole  arm  about  vigorously.  The  legs  are  moved  in 
the  same  way.  In  the  same  class  we  must  place  the  play  of  features,  turnings  of 
the  eye,  and  various  other  awkward  movements. 

Slow  rhythmical  movements  of  flexion  and  extension  of  the  fingers  occur, 
which,  instead  of  possessing  the  quick,  incisive  character  of  voluntary  movements, 
partake  of  the  sluggish  rhythm  so  familiar  to  the  visitors  to  the  tanks  of  an  aqua¬ 
rium.  They  often  occur  in  a  series  of  three  at  a  time  during  a  quarter  of  a  min¬ 
ute.  Then  follows  a  pause,  during  which  there  is  apparently  an  accumulation  of 
energy  in  the  nerve  cells. 

Notwithstanding  the  evident  fact  that  these  movements  possess  strength  and 
energy,  the  new-born  infant  is  unable  to  direct  his  hand  or  arm  movements.  He 
can  not  for  some  days,  or  even  weeks,  bring  his  hand  to  his  month.  Accidentally 
in  these  movements  the  hand  frequently  is  thrown  to  the  mouth,  and  the  infant 
sucks  his  finger.  He  is  unable  to  remove  the  thumb  from  his  month  and  must 
wait  till  some  adult  or  lucky  accident  of  movement  removes  it  for  him.  Without 
purpose  and  without  manifest  external  stimulus  the  elbow,  wrist,  and  finger  joints 
are  continually  being  flexed.  Even  months  before  birth  these  purposeless  move¬ 
ments  had  commenced.  What  is  the  significance?  As  Flechsig  has  shown,  in 
earliest  infancy  practically  the  whole  cerebral  cortex  is  scarcely  connected  by 
mature  fibers  with  the  centers  of  action  in  the  spinal  cord,  medulla,  and  pons.  It 
is  not  till  well  into  the  first  month  that  these  earliest  connections  are  made  on  the 
sensory  side;  and  the  motor  connections  by  which  activity  is  cerebrally  directed 
do  not  appear  until  after  the  sensory  has  developed.  The  child  is  several  months 


336 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


old  before  all  portions  of  the  sensory  bundles  of  fibers  which  pass  from  the  cord  to 
the  cortex  show  maturity  in  every  part. 

These  movements  are  most  common  in  the  earliest  weeks  of  infancy,  and  tend 
gradually  to  disappear.  The  fact  that  the  connections  of  the  lower  centers  with 
the  cortex  are  not  made  till  late  leaves  us  to  conclude  that  these  early  movements 
are  the  products  of  spinal  activity,  uncontrolled  as  yet  by  the  higher  levels.  They 
are  lowest-level  movements  in  their  simplicity,  unmodified  by  the  inhibitions  of 
later  human  experience  which  lie  undeveloped  in  the  higher  strata  of  the  nervous 
system.  They  must  represent  the  movements  which  are  racially  the  oldest  enter¬ 
ing  as  elements  into  human  activity.  If  lower  animal  movements  do  appear  in 
human  activity,  it  is  in  this  period  we  most  safely  can  look  for  them  in  their  most 
undifferentiated  form.  Later  in  infancy  the  first  connections  with  the  cortex  are 
established.  Then  sensory  fibers  go  upward,  and  later  motor  fibers  go  downward 
from  these  middle  centers  to  inhibit  and  control  the  lower  movements  in  certain 
particulars.  Association  of  cell  with  cell,  center  with  center,  develop  to  modify 
and  make  more  precise  or  offer  greater  alterations  in  these  modifications.  Later 
a  still  higher  system  of  control  is  superposed  upon  this.  From  this  point  of  view 
the  purposeless  movements  of  infants  are  more  intelligible.  They  are  movements 
without  higher  inhibition,  movements  as  yet  without  halter  or  rein.  The  objec¬ 
tive  evidence  bears  out  this  supposition.  Gradually  this  flopping  of  arm,  rhythmic 
flexions  and  extensions,  and  nervous  twitchings  tend  to  disappear.  Just  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  capability  of  an  infant  to  execute  voluntary  movements  of  a  given 
limb  or  organ  these  vagrant  movements  disappear. 

In  the  light  of  this  consideration,  the  importance  of  these  rhythmic  movements, 
be  they  survivals  of  aquatic  and  arboreal  life  or  not,  is  manifest.  If  through  any 
disorder  the  lower  levels  are  unable  to  produce  them  and  the  infant  lies  quiet  and 
motionless,  these  sensations  necessary  for  willed  action  never  occur,  the  physical 
concomitants  of  mentality  are  never  stored,  and  the  infant  lives  to  become  an 
idiot.  These  movements,  the  flotsam  and  the  jetsam  of  spinal  activity  uncon¬ 
trolled  as  yet  by  higher  centers,  are  the  ultimate  units.  If  we  admit  that  they 
are  survival  movements  we  have  here  an  illustration  of  a  widespread  physiolog¬ 
ical  principle,  that  new  uses  are  grafted  upon  old  structures. 

The  modifications  of  the  ultimates,  whether  complex  or  comparatively  simple, 
with  which  the  infant  begins  life,  proceeds  in  several  directions:  (1 )  the  breaking 
np  of  old  bilateral  and  simultaneous  tendencies,  characteristic  of  central  move¬ 
ments;  (2)  the  growth  of  independent  movements  of  smaller  parts  that  previously 
only  moved  in  conjunction  with  larger  wholes;  (3)  the  coordination  of  various 
series  to  form  long  and  complex  sequences,  as  we  finally  find  them  illustrated  by 
writing,  sewing,  piano  playing,  etc.;  (4)  the  development  of  precision  and  accu¬ 
racy;  and  finally,  (5)  the  response  of  different  movements  to  a  great  variety  of 
different  stimuli.  These  modifications  perhaps  represent  the  chief  accessory  lines 
of  development  that  distinguish  human  movements  as  such. 

In  the  development  of  coordination  from  lowest  to  highest,  the  power  of  evolu¬ 
tionary  habit  decreases  and  the  possibility  for  special  modification  increases;  there 
is  a  progress  in  teachableness  or  at  least  the  term  education  must  be  taken  in 
two  different  senses.  In  the  lower  strata  of  development,  where  the  steps  have 
been  worn  by  racial  experience,  education  that  is  most  serviceable  will  be  that 
which  takes  its  cue  from  the  racial  stimuli  and  concerns  itself  with  leading  coor¬ 
dination  to  take  these  fixed  steps  as  truly  as  possible.  But  later,  as  the  higher 
strata  are  reached,  when  the  movement  emerges  from  this  deep- worn  gorge  that 
ancestry  had  trodden  and  comes  to  the  point  where  racial  paths  are  divergent  and 
indistinct,  the  definition  of  education  changes.  Education  has  now  a  wider  sweep 
of  vision,  and  instead  of  following  paths,  may  sight  a  distant  goal  and  lead  more 
directly  to  it.  In  a  different  terminology  we  might  call  this  early  education 
which  is  restricted  to  aiding  the  child  to  follow  in  the  steps  of  his  ancestors  “fun- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


337 


damental,”  and  that  which  finds  its  place  later,  that  which  comes  in  when  racial 
paths  grow  shallow  and  divergent  and  originalit}7,  more  possible,  we  might  call 
“accessory  ”  education.  Taking  wider  range  in  this  thought  we  may  consider  the 
child  as  the  sum  of  his  movements.  We  must  remember,  nevertheless,  the  prin¬ 
ciple  of  development  by  parts,  by  which  some  parts  reach  maturity  at  later  peri-  % 
ods  than  others,  so  that  we  can  never  say,  in  an  exact  sense,  that  the  child  is  now 
in  the  “fundamental  ”  period  of  education  and  then  in  the  “accessory.”  But  in 
a  crude,  inexact  way,  it  is  certainly  true  that  more  lines  of  accessory  education 
are  possible  in  adolescence  than  in  childhood,  more  in  childhood  than  in  infancy. 
Using  the  word  “teachable”  in  the  accessory  sense,  we  may  say  that  the  child  is 
far  more  teachable  than  the  infant. 

The  child  traverses,  before  he  is  6  or  7  years  old,  not  only  the  long  deep  worn 
road  of  racial  ancestry,  reaching  back  perhaps  as  far  as  arboreal  or  even  aquatic 
life,  but  I  think  we  may  say  he  takes  a  few  paces  in  certain  few  coordinations 
that  are  his  own,  blazes  a  few  trees,  and  leaves  his  mark.  As  we  shall  later  see, 
by  6  years  of  age  he  shows  evidences  in  many  lines  of  being  far  upon  the  highway 
of  distinctively  human  capabilities  of  movement.  His  fingers  and  hand  that  once 
tended  to  act  only  upon  the  lower  simultaneous  principle,  now  can  move  in  fair 
degree  by  the  principles  of  independence  and  of  succession.  In  the  delicate 
steadiness  of  central  movements  and  the  complex  coordinations  requiring  delicate 
peripheral  movements,  he  has  probably  acquired  half  of  the  ability  he  ever  will 
acquire.  His  nervous  system  has  made  a  prodigious  growth,  far  outstripping 
any  other  system.  The  coordinations  which  have  made  this  possible  are  the 
products  of  this  growth. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  HAND  MOVEMENTS  DURING  SCHOOL  AGE. 

The  following  is  a  brief  review  of  the  few  studies  which  have  been  made  upon 
children  of  school  ages  by  psycho-physical  methods,  to  determine  the  rapidity, 
accuracy,  strength,  maturity,  and  fluctuating  periods  in  the  development  of  hand 
movements. 

Rapidity  of  movement. — Dr.  Bryan,  in  Worcester,  and  Dr.  Gilbert,  at  Yale,  have 
experimented  upon  the  degree  of  rapidity  with  which  children  of  different  ages 
were  able  to  tap  an  electric  key  which  automatically  recorded  results.  Bryan 
thus  tested  four  sets  of  arm  muscles — shoulder,  elbow,  wrist,  and  metacarpo¬ 
phalangeal  finger  joints.  In  order  to  secure  the  free  separation  of  these  sets  of 
muscles,  the  arm  of  the  subject  was  clamped  by  means  of  certain  devices  to  allow 
movement  only  of  the  specific  set  of  muscles.  The  test  in  all  cases  was  the  great¬ 
est  possible  number  of  taps  the  subject  could  execute  in  five  seconds.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  children  (public  schools  of  Worcester)  used  in  the  results  here  referred  to 
is  729.  They  ranged  in  age  from  5  to  16  years. 

The  following  tables  for  boys  and  girls  give  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  tests 
(right  arm)  of  all  boys  and  of  all  girls  of  a  given  age: 

Table  A. 

Boys. 


Age. 


5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

Number . 

14 

26 

35 

33 

43 

37 

36 

33 

34 

41 

32 

26 

Finger . 

19.6 

19.5 

21 

23.1 

24.4 

25.2 

27 

29.3 

28.7 

31.5 

31.6 

33.9 

Wrist . 

20.1 

23 

23.7 

26.3 

27.8 

28.5 

30.3 

31.6 

32.3 

33 

34.2 

35.9 

Elbow . 

22.7 

23.5 

24.2 

26.1 

28.2 

28.1 

29.3 

29.9 

31 

32.7 

31.5 

32.7 

Shoulder  . 

18.4 

19.8 

20.5 

22.3 

24.1 

22.6 

24.1 

25 

25. 5 

27.2 

26.3 

28.7 

ED  1901 


•22 


338 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Table  A — Continued. 

Girls. 


Age. 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

Number . 

28 

82 

33 

43 

37 

36 

33 

34 

41 

32  " 

26 

Finger  . . 

19.8 

20.7 

22  2 

24 

25.8 

27.1 

28.2 

30.3 

29.5 

29.1 

31.3 

Wrist . . . . 

21.6 

23.1 

2L3 

25.5 

28.5 

30.4 

31.6 

33.2 

30.3 

30.9 

33.3 

Eibow  .  _  .  _ 

7 

23  2 

21.4 

25.4 

27.5 

28.6 

29.4 

30.5 

28.8 

29.3 

30.1 

Shoulder . . 

19.9 

20!2 

21.9 

22.7 

22.6 

24.9 

25.7 

27.5 

26.6 

26 

27.9 

Dr.  Gilbert  has  made  two  studies  upon  rapidity  of  tapping,  one  upon  New  Haven 
children  and  one  upon  Iowa  children.  In  his  tests  the  elbow  was  held  free  from 
the  table  and  the  arm  was  in  no  way  clamped.  The  subject  tapped  with  the  finger, 
but  the  movement  must  be  interpreted  largely  as  that  of  a  wrist  movement.  The 
number  of  children  was  approximately  50  for  each  sex  and  each  age — from  6  to  17 
years  of  age.  The  number  of  taps  in  five  seconds  for  both  sexes  is  shown  by  the 
following  table: 

Table  B. 


Age. 


•  - 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

New  Haven  boys 

21 

22.8 

24.9 

25.8 

27.7 

29  7 

30.3 

29.8 

31.2 

31.3 

33 

35 

Iowa  boys _ 

22.1 

23.3 

25.8 

27.1 

28.3 

28.1 

30.1 

31.1 

32.4 

34 

34 

34.4 

36 

36.7 

New  Haven  girls 

19.7 

21.2 

23.9 

25 

26.9 

27.8 

29.6 

28.1 

29.8 

31.8 

31.8 

31.5 

Iowa  girls . 

e© 

si 

24.2 

26 

26.7 

26.2 

28 

29.3 

29.5 

29.4 

31.3 

33.2 

33.8 

34.3 

35.3 

Without  holding  Drs.  Bryan  and  Gilbert  responsible  for  the  form  of  all  conclu¬ 
sions,  there  may  be  drawn  from  their  studies  the  following  inferences: 

I.  The  rapidity  of  motor  ability  of  the  hand  and  arm,  as  indicated  by  tapping, 
increases  on  the  whole  with  age,  and  does  not  reach  maturity  until  the  adolescent 
period. 

The  immaturity  of  this  movement  at  the  'age  of  entering  school  is  shown  by  the 
following  table  of  percentages,  assuming  the  rate  of  tapping  at  16  years  as  100  per 
cent: 

Table  C. 


Per  cent  of  16- 
year  ability 
possessed  at  6 
years  of  age. 

Per  cent  of  16-year 
ability  acquired 
between  6  and  16 
years. 

Hoys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

BRYAN. 

Finger . 

57 

63 

65 

43 

37 

Wrist .  . 

64 

36 

35 

Eibow  - . . . 

72 

75 

28 

25 

Shoulder . . 

69 

71 

31 

29 

GILBERT. 

Hand  (New  Haven) . . . . . 

64 

62 

36 

38 

Hand  (Iowa) . _• . 

65 

69 

35 

31 

II.  Girls  mature  earlier  than  boys  in  rapidity  of  hand  and  arm  movements. 
This  is  manifest  by  a  glance  at  the  tables.  As  shown  in  Table  C,  the  girls  in  all 
but  one  test  (New  Haven)  have  at  6  years  reached  a  larger  percentage  of  their 
16-year  ability  than  the  boys.  At  18  years  girls  have  reached  practical  maturity, 
and  the  rate  in  some  of  the  tests  actually  decreases  after  that  age.  Bryan’s  girls 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


339 


at  13  years  have  acquired  97  per  cent  in  the  finger  test,  99  per  cent  in  the  wrist  test, 
101  per  cent  in  the  elbow  test,  and  98.2  per  cent  in  the  shoulder  test. 

III.  The  rate  of  improvement  in  rapidity  is  not  regular  from  year  to  year,  but 
proceeds^  by  very  marked  fluctuations  or  rhythmic  vibrations.  Both  Bryan’s  and 
Gilbert’s  tables  agree  in  showing  four  periods  of  acceleration  and  four  periods  of 
retardation  in  rate  between  the  years  6  and  17,  though  there  is  slight  divergence 
for  specific  years. 

The  years  of  highest  rate  for  boys  are  as  follows: 


Years. 

Worcester. . . 

8  and  9 

8 

8 

11 

10  and  11 
12 

14 

14 

14  and  15 

16 

16 

16 

New  Haven . . . . 

Iowa . . 

The  years  of  lowest  rate  are  as  follows: 


Worcester  - . 
New  H  wen 
Iowa . 


Years. 


10 

13 

15 

9 

13 

15 

11 

13 

16 

IV.  Rapidity  of  movements  of  hand  and  arm  in  tapping  tends  to  be  greatest 
when  the  rate  of  growth  in  height  and  weight  is  least,  and  vice  versa. 

V.  The  more  central  (fundamental)  movements  tend  to  mature  earlier  than  the 
less  central  (less  fundamental)  movements. 

In  Table  D  the  relative  immaturity  of  the  finger  movements  is  clearly  shown. 
At  G  years  the  finger  has  acquired,  in  both  girls  and  boys,  a  distinctly  smaller  per¬ 
centage  of  its  ability  at  18  years  of  age  than  any  of  the  others,  and  the  wrist  move¬ 
ment  is  less  developed  than  elbow  and  shoulder.  It  has  been  shown  that  growth 
in  power  proceeds  by  rhythms,  and  it  becomes  interesting  to  know  in  quantitative 
form  the  relative  amounts  of  development  that  are  added  within  each  of  these 
rhythms  of  advancing  age.  Table  D  is  constructed  with  a  view  of  showing  this. 
Each  retardation,  with  its  succeeding  acceleration,  is  considered  a  period.  There 
are  thus,  in  the  case  of  boys,  four  periods,  6  to  9,  9  to  12, 12  to  14, 14  to  18;  in  the  case 
of  girls,  three  periods,  6  to  10,  10  to  13,  and  13  to  16.  The  tapping  ability  at  16 
years' is  taken  as  100  per  cent,  and  the  figures  in  the  column  indicate  the  percent¬ 
age  of  this  16-year  ability  added  in  each  of  these  respective  rhythms. 


Table  D. 
Boys ,  right  arm. 


Up  to  6 
years. 

6  to  9. 

9  to  12. 

12  to  14. 

14  to  16. 

Total  at 
16. 

Finger . . . . . 

58 

14 

14 

7 

7 

100 

Wrist . . . 

64 

13 

11 

4 

8 

100 

Elbow . 

72 

14 

5 

9 

0 

100 

Shoulder . . 

69 

15 

7 

4 

5 

100 

Girls'  right  arm. 


Up  to  6 
years. 

6  to  10. 

10  to  13. 

13  to  16. 

Total  at 
16. 

Finger . . . 

63 

20 

14 

3 

100 

Wrist . . . 

65 

21 

14 

0 

100 

Elbow . . . . . .  . 

75 

15 

10 

0 

100 

Shoulder. . 

71 

10 

18 

1 

100 

340 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


These  tables  show,  (1)  that  in  both  boys  and  girls  alike  the  elbow  and  shoulder 
movements  have  reached  a  larger  per  cent  of  their  mature  power  than  the  finger 
and  wrist  movements;  (2)  that  the  finger  movement  acquires  a  large  per  cent  of 
its  ability  after  9  or  10  years  of  age — 28  per  cent  in  the  boys  and  17.5  per  cent  in 
the  girls. 

Development  of  strength. — Peron  early  in  this  century  showed  by  experiments 
with  the  dynamometer  that  Malays  and  the  natives  of  New  Holland  are  distinctly 
inferior  in  strength  of  the  hand  and  arm  to  French  marines.  That  the  civilized 
races  are  distinctly  superior  in  hand  and  arm  strength  to  the  lower  races  of  man 
has  many  times  since  been  confirmed  by  Manouvrier  and  others.  Fere  goes  further 
and  contends  that  among  individuals  of  the  same  race  the  more  intelligent  have 
the  greater  strength  of  hand.  He  says  that  the  same  dynamometer  test,  taken 
upon  individuals  belonging  to  different  classes  of  society,  has  shown  that  the 
pressure  produced  by  the  effort  of  flexing  the  fingers  is  less  with  workmen  whose 
profession  is  exclusively  manual  than  with  those  whose  work  requires  less  mus¬ 
cular  force,  but  whose  intelligence  comes  more  in  play;  and  further,  that  the 
muscular  power  is  still  greater  with  those  of  the  liberal  profession  of  the  same 
age. 

Table  E. 


Annual  increase  in  kilograms. 


Age. 

Porter  hand 
squeeze. 

Gilbert  wrist 
lift. 

Roberts  arm 
lift. 

Gilbert  arm 
lift. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

6i 

to  71  . 

1.6 

1.4 

1.7 

1 

8.4 

6.8 

U 

81 . 

1.7 

1.6 

.8 

1 

9.5 

4.1 

8^- 

91 . 

2 

1.1 

1.1 

.0 

i 

7.2 

6.5 

91- 

10.i  . 

1.5 

1.2 

1.7 

1.5 

.1 

9.6 

-  1.3 

101 

ni . 

1.5 

1.4 

.5 

.5 

2.3 

9.5 

7.7 

111 

121 . 

2.3 

1.7 

1.7 

1.1 

1 

1.2 

7.7 

6.3 

121 

131 . 

2.4 

2. 7 

1 

1.9 

5.7 

3.5 

8.6 

11.3 

131 

IB . 

3.2 

1.9 

1.1 

.6 

2.8 

3.2 

12.8 

6.4 

IB 

151 . 

4.4 

2 

4.6 

1.2 

6 

4.1 

23 

5.4 

151 

161 . 

4.4 

1.8 

3.3 

.6 

9.6 

2.2 

8.3 

-  3.2 

161 

171 . . . 

.1 

3.3 

.4 

6.4 

2.1 

20 

2.8 

171 

181 . . 

.0 

1.2 

2.2 

5 

13.6 

1.4 

181 

191 . 

1.7 

.0 

1.5 

1.9 

.0 

3.8 

It  is  clear  from  the  table  that  strength  varies  from  year  to  year  in  rhythms,  as 
we  have  observed  in  all  other  tests.  In  order  to  determine  the  relative  propor¬ 
tions  of  increase  that  occur  in  different  periods  I  have  calculated  the  following 
tables.  The  strength  at  16  years  has  been  taken  as  a  base  or  100  per  cent.  By 
subtracting,  the  other  columns  are  obtained. 

Table  F< 


Per  cent  of  16- year  strength 
acquired — 

By  6 
years. 

By  11 
years. 

Between 
6  and  11 
years. 

Between 
11  and  16 
years. 

Boys. 

Squeeze  (Porter ) . 

20 

46 

27 

54 

Wrist  (Gilbert) . 

21 

46 

26 

54 

Arm  (Gilbert) . 

24 

64 

22 

44 

Arm  (Roberts) . 

Girls. 

Squeeze  (Porter) . 

23 

54 

31 

36 

46 

Wrist  (Gilbert) . . 

Arm  (Gilbert) . 

32 

65 

32 

36 

32 

67 

23 

45 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


341 


From  these  calculations  it  would  appear  that  in  the  case  of  boys  only  about  a 
fifth  of  their  16-year -old  strength  is  acquired  before  6  years,  a  quarter  from  6  to 
11,  and  over  one-half  from  11  to  16,  during  the  puberal  changes.  In  the  case 
of  the  test  upon  the  whole  arm  maturity  is  somewhat  in  advance.  In  the  case  of 
girls  a  greater  share  is  acquired  before  6  years.  Their  strength  acquirement 
is  more  rapid  than  with  boys  from  6  to  il  years,  although  the  largest  increment  is 
added  also  during  the  puberal  flux. 

In  so  far  as  the  lift  of  the  entire  arm  may  perhaps  be  more  exclusively  funda¬ 
mental  than  the  combined  movements  of  the  wrist  and  hand  alone,  we  see  from 
the  table  that  the  arm  movement  seems  to  mature  earlier  than  the  wrist  and  hand. 

Precision  of  hand  movements.— Superficial  investigation  shows  that  the  nervous 
mechanism  involved  in  the  attempts  to  be  precise  with  the  finger,  require  first  an 
adjustment  of  a  larger  area  of  muscular  and  nervous  tissues  than  those  of  any 
other  movement  of  the  body  probably.  Precision  in  drawing  a  fine  line  accurately, 
for  example,  requires  steadiness  not  only  of  the  finger  movement  itself,  but  of  the 
hand,  the  whole  arm,  and  even  of  the  body.  If  we  observe  a  child  learning  to 
write  we  find  that  he  holds  his  breath,  and  in  many  cases  his  legs  will  be  found 
bracing  his  body  in  intense  strain.  The  central  muscles  of  the  arm  and  trunk  are 
called  into  activity  to  give  support  of  steadiness  as  a  necessary  condition  for  the 
fine  adjustment  to  follow.  We  may,  therefore,  perhaps  consider  precision  as 
involving  two  processes:  (1)  That  of  steadiness  of  the  central  organization  as  a 
platform  upon  which  rests  (2)  the  finer  nervous  adjustments  of  the  most  complex 
nervous  elements. 

1.  Central  steadiness. — This  phase  of  the  problem  has  been  subjected  to  investi¬ 
gation  by  Hancock  in  the  effort  of  children  to  stand  still.  The  subject  was  asked 
to  stand  with  feet  close  together  and  hands  at  side,  to  keep  his  attention  on  a  dis¬ 
tant  object,  and  to  try  to  remain  still  for  a  minute.  By  means  of  the  ataxiagraph 
attached  to  a  cap  worn  on  the  head,  the  bodily  swayings  of  the  subject  are  auto¬ 
matically  registered  upon  smoked  paper.  The  test  was  made  upon  168  boys  and 
girls  of  Worcester,  5  to  7  years  of  age.  His  tests  show  that  during  these  two 
years  the  girls  gained  in  steadiness  32  or  33  per  cent  of  the  power  of  control  at  5 
years,  and  the  boys  gained  about  15  or  16  per  cent.  We  may  say,  therefore,  as  the 
indication  of  Hancock's  study,  that  power  of  control  increases  with  age  (very 
rapidly  at  the  ages  5  to  7),  and  more  rapidly  in  girls  than  in  boys. 

Curtis  in  a  study  of  inhibition  tested  the  ability  of  children  of  various  ages  in 
their  ability  to  sit  absolutely  still.  He  concludes:  “The  ordinary  child  can  not 
sit  still  voluntarily.  Children  under  5  years  do  not  on  an  average  sit  still  more 
than  30  seconds,  and  children  from  5  to  10  years  not  more  than  one  minute  and 
one-half.  Curtis  explains  this  condition  on  practically  the  same  ground  offered 
in  the  paper,  viz,  that  the  higher  centers  of  voluntary  control  are  not  developed 
in  any  degree  of  maturity  until  a  late  period  of  child  life.  He  finds  that  mental 
occupation  materially  assists  in  the  control  of  muscular  restlessness,  and  that 
these  higher  centers  of  brain  action  are  not  developed  until  a  comparatively  late 
period. 

(2)  Peripheral  unsteadiness. — Corresponding  to  these  larger  swayings  of  the 
central  movements  there  are  numerous  small  vibrations  in  the  peripheral  muscles 
involved  in  the  adjustment  for  fine  movements.  In  early  infancy  these  move¬ 
ments  are  more  noticeable  in  the  form  of  apparently  nervous  twitchings  that  con¬ 
stantly  occur  in  nearly  every  muscle  of  the  body,  even  during  sleep.  As  has  been 
stated,  these  are  perfectly  normal  and  are  signs  of  health;  they  tend  to  disappear 
in  conditions  of  lowered  nutrition,  and  in  idiot  infants  they  are  very  much  fewer 
or  wholly  absent.  As  the  infant  grows  older  they  gradually  grow  fewer  and  less 
noticeable.  The  fact  that  they  gradually  tend  to  disappear  may  be  explained  on 


342 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  ground  that  as  the  nervous  and  muscular  mechanism  is  perfected  the  lower 
mechanisms  pass  under  control  of  higher  brain  levels. 

Lindley  has  made  a  study  of  the  automatisms  of  early  childhood,  and  he  shows 
the  persistence  of  many  of  these  earlier,  simpler  forms  into  childhood  and  even 
into  adolescence.  Lindley  found  that  automatisms  increase  very  perceptibly 
with  fatigue;  that  they  are  most  frequent  in  accessory  muscles,  and  in  general 
decrease  with  age. 

Precision  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  sensory  impressions  and  the  accu¬ 
racy  of  habitual  adjustment  between  them  and  motor  discharges.  Clearly,  as 
experimented  facts  show,  exercise  (i.  e.,  the  frequency  with  which  they  a,re 
impressed  upon  the  memory)  will  go  far  to  determine  motor  precision. 

The  development  in  accuracy  of  kinsesthetic  sensations  with  increasing  age  has 
been  demonstrated  by  Gilbert  in  his  Iowa  study.  The  subject  was  seated  before 
a  table  upon  which  were  two  points  50.8  inches  apart.  A  pencil  in  his  hand  was 
placed  at  one  end  of  the  line.  After  carefully  noting  the  distance,  his  eyes  were 
blindfolded  and  he  was  asked  to  move  the  pencil  along  the  board  and  place  it  as 
near  as  possible  upon  the  other  point.  Five  trials  were  allowed  each  subject. 
Averages  of  these  estimates  from  fifty  subjects  of  each  sex  and  for  each  age  from 
6  to  19  are  as  follows  (the  figures  give  in  centimeters  the  averages  for  each  age  of 
the  estimate  of  distance,  really  50.8  centimeters): 


Age. 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

Boys . . 

10. 7 

31.2 

38.1 

44.4 

48. 5 

46.7 

44.7 

46.7 

46.5 

50.3 

51. 5 

53.1 

54.9 

57.1 

Girls . . 

12.7 

20.3 

20. 7 

31.8 

38.9 

46. 5 

41.1 

43.2 

48.3 

46.7 

51.1 

51.0 

52.1 

51.5 

The  progressive  development  with  age  is  clearly  shown. 

(4)  Growth  in  precision. — Bryan  with  a  somewhat  elaborate  mechanism  tested 
precision  of  finger  movement  as  it  occurs  in  executing  the  motions  of  writing.  He 
used  in  the  test  some  600  or  700  boys  and  girls,  ranging  in  age  from  6  to  16.  He 
states  in  conclusion  that  “the  most  obvious  fact  which  appears  is  the  great  gain 
which  is  made  between  6  and  8.”  Almost  one-half  the  gain  in  precision  made 
from  6  to  16  in  both  “up”  and  “down”  writing  movements,  is  acquired  between 
6  and  8  years.  A  second  test  to  which  Dr.  Bryan  subjected  the  same  children  was 
that  of  their  ability  with  a  stylus  to  strike  a  fixed  point.  An  electrical  apparatus 
recorded  the  approximations  of  error.  The  boys’  right  hand  from  6  to  16  years 
gains  in  ability  60  per  cent;  The  boys’  left  hand,  55  per  cent;  the  girls’ right  hand, 
56  per  cent;  the  girls’  left  hand,  58  per  cent.  The  puberal  period  seriously  inter¬ 
feres  with  the  growth. 

In  the  study,  previously  quoted,  bearing  upon  characteristics  of  children  who 
made  “rapid,”  “  normal,”  or  “  slow  ”  progress  in  school  grades  under  a  system  of 
promotion  giving  freedom  to  individuality  it  is  shown  that  54  per  cent  of  the 
rapid  pupils,  89  per  cent  of  the  normal  pupils,  and  22  per  cent  of  the  slow  pupils 
are  strikingly  careful  and  accurate  in  their  writing  and  drawing  exercises,  wThile, 
on  the  other  hand,  11  per  cent  of  the  most  rapid,  34  per  cent  of  the  normal,  and  59 
per  cent  of  the  slow  pupils  are  strikingly  careless  and  inaccurate.  From  the  evi¬ 
dence  of  this  study  accuracy  on  the  whole  must  be  associated  with  a  maturer  mental 
development  as  indicated  by  school  progress. 

In  the  matter  of  accuracy  it  may  therefore  be  concluded:  (1)  That  as  a  primary 
condition  which  makes  accuracy  of  hand  and  arm  possible  the  child  must  have  a 
matured  degree  of  control  under  direction  of  his  higher  level  centers  (i.  e. ,  volun- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


343 


tarv) .  The  fact  that  this  maturity  is  not  reached  normally  until  the  ninth  or  tenth 
year  renders  questionable  the  efforts  of  the  school  to  compel  accuracy  such  as  is 
required  by  the  kindergarten  and  also  by  the  primary  school  in  writing,  weaving, 
etc.;  (2)  that  the  ability  to  be  accurate  in  hand  and  finger  movements  increases 
very  materially  during  school  ages;  (3)  that  accuracy  depends  indirectly  upon  the 
development  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  the  steadiness  of  the  trunk  muscles  being  as 
essential  as  the  accuracy  of  hand  or  finger  movements  themselves;  (4)  that  for 
purposes  of  delicate  peripheral  movements,  as  shown  by  ataxographic  experiments, 
etc.,  the  child  has  not  a  matured  power  of  control  until  well  into  the  school  period 
and  long  after  severe  school  requirements  of  accuracy  are  demanded;  (5)  that  the 
evidence  goes  to  show  that  the  sensory  kinsesthetic  sensations,  essential  in  psycho¬ 
logical  theory  for  definite  voluntary  movements,  are  in  general  in  a  very  immature 
state  until  8  to  10  years;  (6)  that  while  the  early  years  of  school  life  are  doubtless 
the  period  of  nascency  for  finger  and  hand  movements,  nevertheless  there  is  evi¬ 
dent  need  of  a  clear  realization  of  the  psychological  conditions  on  the  part  of 
teachers,  not  only  intelligently  to  direct  the  training  of  these  movements,  but  also 
to  guard  against  unhygienic  requirements;  (7)  that  there  are  manifest  dependent 
relations  between  general  mental  ability  and  power  of  accuracy  of  hand  move¬ 
ments;  (8)  that  steadiness  of  the  trunk  or  central  movements  (fundamental) 
necessarily  precedes  ability  to  be  accurate  in  peripheral  (or  accessory)  movements. 

In  conclusion,  some  of  the  more  general  suggestions  of  this  review  may  be 
restated  briefly  as  follows: 

1.  The  brain  grows  in  its  finer  structures  until  a  late  period  in  life.  There  has 
been  a  failure  to  substantiate  connection  of  differences  in  mentality  with  the  dif¬ 
ferences  in  gross  anatomy  of  the  brain,  shape  of  skull,  weight  of  brain,  form  of 
convolutions,  etc. 

2.  The  order  of  development  of  the  independent  parts  of  the  physical  and  nerv¬ 
ous  system  is,  as  a  general  principle  (subject,  doubtless,  to  minor  exceptions) , 
from  that  which  is  oldest  in  racial  history  toward  that  which  is  most  recent; 
that  those  portions  which  are  oldest  are  most  fixed,  determined,  and  least  capable 
of  modifications  by  present  environment,  and  those  which  are  relatively  most 
recent  are  most  plastic  and  subject  to  modification  by  education  and  environment. 

Among  the  important  pedagogical  inferences  which  follow  from  this  principle 
the  following  might  be  mentioned: 

1.  That,  taking  the  activities  independently,  there  is  an  early  period  in  the 
development  of  each  part  or  process,  when  the  purpose  of  education  must  be  to 
follow  the  fixed  innate  hereditary  line  of  tendency,  and  to  allow  the  racial 
instincts  fullest  play  of  development  (fundamental  education). 

2.  That  there  follows  a  later  period,  in  an  activity’s  development,  when  it  passes- 
partially  out  of  the  fixed  control  of  racial  habit  and  becomes  more  plastic  to  pre¬ 
sent  environment  (accessory  education). 

3.  That  the  order  of  logical  connection  of  subject-matter  belongs,  education¬ 
ally,  to  the  period  of  approximate  maturity  of  an  activity’s  development,  and 
must  not  be  introduced  in  the  earlier  instinctive  period,  in  conflict  with  strong 
evolutionary  tendencies. 

4.  In  an  extremely  loose  sense,  clearly  recognizing  the  principle  that  the 
organism  develops  by  parts,  each  of  which  has  a  different  time  of  beginning  its 
development,  a  different  rate  of  ripening,  and  a  different  period  of  reaching 
maturity,  nevertheless  we  may  regard  the  period  of  infancy  as  one  of  predomi¬ 
nating  nascencies  of  the  oldest  fundamental  activities  largely  in  control  of  the 
lowest  level  of  the  nervous  system;  the  period  of  childhood  from  2  years  to 
puberty  as  the  period  bf  predominating  nascencies  of  the  special  sense  and  their 
association  one  with  the  other;  the  period  of  adolescence  as  the  period  of  predomi- 


344 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1800-1901. 


nating  nascencies  of  the  highest  form  of  associations;  i.  e.,  those  which  have  been 
developed  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

5.  The  child's  hand  at  the  age  of  commencing  school  is  relatively  immature  in 
power  of  rapidity  of  movement,  strength,  and  precision.  Roughly,  it  would  seem 
that  at  the  age  of  6  the  child  has  acquired  only  about  20  to  75  per  cent  of  the 
power  at  16  years  of  age.  It  is  clear  that  the  period  from  6  to  10  years  is  one  of 
extreme  nascency. 

6.  Deficiencies  in  the  structure  of  the  hand  and  in  freedom  of  its  movements 
are  significantly  frequent  as  accompaniments  of  deficiency  in  intelligence.  The 
human  hand  in  early  childhood  needs  opportunity  for  the  fullest  possible  develop¬ 
ment,  which  in  general  proceeds  from  fundamental  to  accessory  movements. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


INHIBITION.1 


Inhibition  is  used  in  its  widest  sense,  in  which  it  is  nearly  equivalent  to  natural 
selection. 


HERBART. 


For  Herbart  the  whole  story  of  psychology  is  the  story  of  the  struggle  of  con¬ 
cepts  for  the  possession  of  consciousness. 

The  strong  concepts  drive  out  the  weak;  “  but  as  soon  as  the  hindersome  yields, 
the  concept  by  its  own  effort  will  again  make  its  appearance  in  consciousness.” 
“  When  a  sufficiency  of  opposition  exists  among  concepts,  the  latter  are  m  equilib¬ 
rium.”  The  laws  of  the  movement  and  equilibrium  of  concepts  can  be  calculated 
by  mathematics.  The  first  law  is:  “In  the  case  of  two  concepts,  one  never  entirely 
obscures  the  other.”  “In  case  several  concepts  strive  together,  the  sum  of  arrest 
will  be  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  weaker  members.”  The  mechanical  threshold  is 
the  line  which  separates  the  conscious  from  the  unconscious.  Those  concepts  on 
the  mechanical  threshold,  while  “  out  of  consciousness,  are  still  effective  therein.” 
“  But  concepts  on  the  statical  threshold  are  in  a  state  of  complete  suppression,  and 
can  not  effect  consciousness  at  all.  It  may  be  observed  that  feelings  and  desires 
have  not  their  source  in  the  process  or  act  of  conception  in  general,  but  always  in 
certain  particular  concepts.  Hen&,  there  may  be  at  the  same  time  many  different 
feelings  and  desires,  and  these  may  either  agree  or  entirely  disagree  one  with  the 
other.” 

‘  ‘  The  basis  of  the  reason  is  the  coincident  operation  of  several  complete  series  of 
concepts.”  “Will  is  effort,  accompanied  by  the  idea  of  the  attainability  of  the 
object  of  effort.”  “  Freedom  of  the  will  is  the  assured  supremacy  of  the  strongest 
masses  of  ideas.”  Friendly  concepts  unite  into  apperception  masses  and  resist  the 
entrance  into  consciousness  of  concepts  antagonistic  to  them.  Sanity  is  the  equilib¬ 
rium  of  concepts. 

Hei  hart's  psychology  contains  three  chief  ideas;  prevailing  ideas  are  the  con¬ 
tent  of  consciousness;  defeated  ideas  tend  continually  to  return;  the  prevailing 
ideas  tend  to  ally  themselves  with  all  friendly  ideas  as  men  are  united  into  nations 
or  the  aggregate  of  cells  makes  up  the  individual  body. 

Herbart’s  empirical  psychology  describes  the  actual  events  of  consciousness. 
We  all  know  how  the  child  forgets  the  old  toy  in  the  new;  and  how  new  interests, 
loves,  hopes,  and  fears  are  continually  driving  out  their  predecessors,  and  being 
in  turn  driven  out  by  those  which  follow  them.  It  emphasizes  above  all  the 
economy  of  a  monoideistic  state  of  consciousness.  Its  interest  for  us  is  that  it 
shows  a  form  of  intellectual  inhibition  which  is  practically  equal  to  the  “  struggle 
for  existence.”  It  is  inhibition  by  individuals  rather  than  by  central  control. 


BENEKE. 

The  system  of  Beneke  derives  much  from  Herbart.  Every  idea  leaves  a  trace 
behind  in  the  original  powers,  and  when  this  is  again  stimulated  either  from 
within  or  without  the  idea  is  brought  again  into  consciousness.  These  traces  he 


Digest  of  article  by  H.  S.  Curtis. 


345 


346 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


calls  “  formed  primitive  powers/’  Each  faculty  is  only  a  summation  of  all  the 
soul’s  acts  of  a  particular  kind,  according  to  the  law  that  “  all  products  of  .a  like 
kind  attract  each  other,  and  as  a  consequence  fuse  into  a  whole.”  He  says:  “  We 
give  the  name  of  understanding  to  the  totality  of  concepts  existing  in  the  soul; 
judgments  to  the  totality  of  judgments;  inferential  power  to  the  totality  of  con¬ 
clusions;  will  to  the  totality  of  all  ready  formed  acts  of  willing;  consequently  the 
totality  of  feeling  is  nothing  more  than  the  totality  of  all  the  feelings  that  arise  in 
the  soul  and  are  permanently  existent  in  it.”  ‘‘The  developed  human  soul  is  a 
product  of  simple  original  powers  and  of  that  which  has  affected  them  and  been 
permanently  retained  by  them.”  “  For  all  our -powers  of  sense,  together  with  the 
products  springing  from  them,  form  one  intimately  connected  whole;  they  are  the 
soul.”  Beneke  has  dropped  Her  hart’s  transcendental  ego  and  made  use  of  his  doc¬ 
trine  of  apperception  to  explain  the  faculties  of  the  soul  and  the  soul  itself. 

TAINE. 

For  Taine,  as  well  as  Herbart,  all  mental  events  are  determined  by  the  mutual 
struggle  of  ideas,  though  Taine  takes  the  further  step  of  reducing  aii  ideas  to  sen¬ 
sations. 

All  the  psychic  life  can  be  reduced  to  sensations.  “All  that  observation  detects 
in  the  thinking  being  are,  in  addition  to  sensations,  images  of  various  kinds,  prim¬ 
itive  or  consecutive,  indued  with  certain  tendencies,  and  modified  in  their  devel¬ 
opment  by  the  concurrence  or  antagonism  of  other  simultaneous  or  contiguous 
images.  ”  “Just  as  the  living  body  is  a  polypus  of  mutually  dependent  cells,  so  the 
active  mind  is  a  polypus  of  mutually  dependent  sensations  and  images;  and  in  the 
.one  case  as  in  the  other  unity  is  nothing  more  than  a  harmony  and  an  effect.  The 
ego  is  a  mere  abstraction;  all  that  is  is  the  individual  sensation,  idea,  or  image 
which  may  occupy  consciousness  at  the  time.  As  Condiiac  has  said, 4  When  I  smell 
a  rose,  this  sensation  is  all  my  ego.’  ”  * 

Sensations  may  be  still  further  reduced  to  molecular  movements  in  the  brain 
cells.  There  is  no  mental  product  without  molecular  movement.  There  is  no 
molecular  movement  without  some  mental  result,  though  this  may  be  subconscious. 
Molecular  movement  and  sensation  are  really  the  same  thing,  and  the  reason  they 
do  not  seem  so  is  because  we  see  them  from  opposite  sides. 

The  most  important  point  in  Taine’s  system  is  that  the  elements  of  consciousness, 
sensations  and  images,  if  left  to  follow  their  inner  tendencies,  would  make  a  pan¬ 
demonium  of  the  human  mind.  It  is  only  through  their  mutual  checks  and 
repressions  that  sanity  results. 

ROUX. 

Just  as  Herbart  and  Taine  have  sought  to  account  for  all  psychic  phenomena  by 
the  struggle  of  ideas,  so  Roux  has  sought  to  account  for  all  psychic  phenomena  by 
the  struggle  of  the  parts.  Those  cells  which  are  most  often  stimulated  to  func¬ 
tional  activity  are  over  compensated  for  their  waste  and  are  thus  victorious  in  the 
struggle. 

In  the  struggle  of  the  tissues  and  organs  we  have  the  same  process  repeated. 
Roux  sums  up  the  results  of  his  theory  as  follows:  “  Those  cells  or  cell  parts  will 
be  established  which  are  in  the  position  to  bring  on  functional  adaptation,  and 
this  is  the  result  of  the  struggle  of  the  cells.”  “  On  the  other  hand,  the  struggle 
of  the  different  organs  and  tissues  among  themselves  leads  to  the  greatest  possible 
utilization  of  the  space  in  the  organism,  to  inner  harmony,  to  the  perfection  of 
the  physiological  significance  of  the  parts  to  the  corresponding  morphological 
significance.”  “  Through  this  struggle  a  much  more  perfect  adaptation  to  ends 
must  be  brought  about  and  much  quicker  than,  according  to  the  Darwinian  prin¬ 
ciple,  of  the  selection  of  formal  variations  among  individuals/’  This  view  pre¬ 
supposes  the  same  conditions  in  the  body  as  exist  in  the  external  world,  namely, 


INHIBITION. 


847 


that  there  are  germs  of  many  more  cells  in  the  body  than  can  possibly  find  place 
there  and  a  consequent  struggle  for  room,  and  that  the  amount  of  food  is  always 
limited,  and  the  high  nourishment  of  some  means  the  low  nourishment  of  others. 

In  the  vegetable  world  the  struggle  of  the  parts  seems  to  be  yet  more  apparent. 
Each  twig  and  leaf  struggles  for  space  and  sunlight  as  best  it  can.  The  upper 
branches  overshadow  the  lower  and  they  dry  up  and  drop  off,  just  as  unused  mem¬ 
bers  atrophy  and  disappear  from  the  animal  body.  Each  spring  a  twig  starts  from 
beneath  the  scar  of  each  old  leaf  along  the  branch,  but  if  you  look  again  after  a 
year  you  will  find  scarce  one  in  a  dozen  has  survived.  Only  those  that  have  found 
or  won  space  and  sunlight  are  left.  The  length  of  the  leaf  stalk  and  size  of  the 
leaf  are  determined  by  their  relations  to  the  sunlight. 

THE  VAGUS  OR  PNEUMOGASTRIC  NERVE. 

Despite  the  immense  amount  of  investigation  to  which  the  vagus  has  been  sub¬ 
jected  of  late  years,  its  function  is  still  far  from  clear  in  details. 

The  ordinary  phenomena  seen  in  the  stimulation  of  the  vagus  are  that  the  heart 
is  slowed  or  stopped  after  the  first  or  second  beat  and  held  thus  for  a  few  seconds, 
when  it  begins  to  beat  again  and  beats  more  strongly  than  it  did  before  stimula¬ 
tion.  Of  late,  however,  the  most  or  all  of  this  secondary  augmentation  has  been 
referred  to  sympathic  fibers,  bound  up  in  the  same  sheath  with  the  vagus.  The 
action  of  the  vagus  varies  greatly  at  different  times.  With  many  investigators 
you  can  not  tell  whether  the  combined  nerve  (vagus  and  sympathic)  or  the  vagus 
alone  was  stimulated. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  vagus  is  not  satisfactory.  That  it  inhibits  the  heart 
seems  certain,  as  its  rhythm  is  accelerated  on  the  section  of  the  vagi  and  retarded 
by  their  stimulation.  That  it  has  something  to  do  with  the  nourishment  of  the 
heart  seems  very  probable,  inasmuch  as  the  same  stimulus  will  not  repress  the 
heart  long  at  a  time,  and  there  is  often  a  secondary  augmentation.  Sending  a 
blood  solution  through  the  heart  after  a  salt  solution  has  the  same  effect.  If  the 
vagus  is  cut  and  the  animal  allowed  to  live,  the  heart  atrophies,  although  with 
the  vagus  intact  the  animal  may  be  starved  to  death  without  this  occurring. 

Wundt  says  every  sensory  stimulus  first  causes  nutrition,  and  nutrition  inhibits 
activity  for  a  time.  There  seems  to  be  good  evidence  also  that  nerve  cells  and 
muscles  atrophy  without  their  proper  stimuli. 

He  has  sought  to  reduce  nerve  phenomena  to  terms  of  physics  and  chemistry, 
so  far  as  possible.  The  nerve  stimulus  is  the  potent  factor  in  nerve  growth, 
activity,  and  inhibition  of  activity.  The  first  effect  of.every  stimulus  is  the  nutri¬ 
tion  of  the  cell.  The  nerve  stimulus  is  turned  into  a  growth  force.  By  this 
means  it  is  made  latent  in  the  fiber  for  about  one  two-hundredth  of  a  second  and 
for  a  somewhat  longer  period  in  the  cell. 

W undt’s  system  contains  two  important  principles — that  the  nerve  stimulus  is 
nutritive  and  inhibitive,  and  that  nerve  energy  tends  to  equalize  itself  by  overflow 
from  points  of  higher  to  points  of  lower  tension. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  STRUGGLE  OF  THE  PARTS  AS  APPLIED  TO  ACTIVITIES. 

The  general  activities  repress  one  another.  The  store  of  energy  at  the  command 
of  the  organism  is  always  limited,  and  the  using  energy  in  one  way  must  prevent 
its  use  in  another. 

Dr.  Sargent  represents  the  amount  of  force  expended  by  an  average  man  weigh¬ 
ing  150  pounds  at  8,400  foot-tons  daily.  He  divides  this  expenditure  among  the 


various  activities  as  follows: 

Foot- tons. 

Calorific  work . • . . . 2, 840 

Internal  (nervous  and  vital)  work . . . . .  260 

External  (muscular)  work . . .  300 


348 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


If  these  estimates  are  correct,  then  several  inferences  may  be  drawn.  If  we 
suppose  the  capacity  of  the  individual  for  continuous  work  is  3,400  foot-tons,  the 
requiring  of  400  tons  in  muscular  work  instead  of  300  tons  would  only  leave  3,000 
tons  for  nervous  and  vital  processes.  Thus  a  demand  upon  any  one  of  these 
activities  beyond  what  nature  is  prepared  to  furnish  by  an  increased  nutrition 
must  be  drawn  from  the  others. 

Just  as  the  heart  and  brain  will  starve  the  rest  of  the  body  and  still  be  undi¬ 
minished  themselves,  so  it  seems  to  be  nature’s  law  that  active  parts  shall  be  fed 
at  the  expense  of  inactive  ones,  if  necessary,  or  even  at  the  expense  of  parts  active 
in  a  lower  degree.  Sargent  says: 

Porters,  draymen,  heavy  iron  workers,  and  a  certain  class  of  athletes  often  illus¬ 
trate  the  effects  of  an  excessive  use  of  the  muscular  system.  Where  the  body’s 
nutriment  is  expended  in  this  direction  the  impairment  of  the  heart  and  lung  tissue 
is  likely  to  follow. 

When  a  child  is  growing  very  fast  he  is  disinclined  to  exercise.  Reversely,  too 
much  exercise  will  probably  check  growth.  -  But  the  effects  on  the  brain  are  most 
disastrous  of  all.  Many  children  set  to  work  at  7  or  8,  and  worked  hard,  have 
grown  up  very  dull.  Intellectual  workers  are  usually  incapacitated  for  hard  work 
by  severe  exercise.  It  is  a  common  experience  of  students  that  if  they  play  three 
hard  sets  of  tennis  in  the  afternoon  they  can  not  work  afterwards. 

Mosso  gives  many  examples  of  the  effect  of  physical  fatigue  on  mental  ability. 
He  says  he  has  climbed  Mount  Blanc  several  times,  but  he  can  remember  nothing 
of  the  view  from  the  summit. 

Intense  cold  produces  an  intellectual  lethargy,  complained  of  by  Arctic  explorers. 
There  is  a  tendency  to  go  to  sleep. 

Spencer  says  the  present  race  of  Englishmen  are  inferior  to  their  fathers  in 
height,  weight,  and  resistance  to  disease.  He  thinks  the  overwork  of  the  school 
children  is  the  cause.  He  says  this  belief  has  been  thrust  upon  him  by  observing 
the  constant  physical  breakdowns  in  overpressure  schools.  For  every  one  that 
breaks  down  there  must  be  at  least  half  a  dozen  injured,  he  thinks. 

There  is  a  great  deal  more  or  less  experimental  evidence  to  show  the  influence 
of  bra^n  activity  on  the  various  bodily  and  vital  functions. 

That  growth  may  be  checked  is  difficult  of  proof.  Still  it  appears  that  children 
grow  faster  during  the  summer  vacation.  On  this  point  European  statistics  seem 
to  be  agreed. 

Binet  and  Henri,  after  careful  study  of  the  boarding  schools  of  France,  conclude 
the  weight  of  the  children  may  be  actually  diminished  by  excessive  brain  work. 

Mosso,  after  speaking  of  how  the  other  tissues  are  consumed  to  supply  the  heart 
and  brain  in  death  by  starvation,  and  the  effect  of  severe  brain  work  on  the 
strength  of  the  muscles,  says: 

And  therefore  I  hold  it  for  probable  that  not  only  by  starving,  but  also  by  exhaust¬ 
ing  the  brain  by  excessive  work,  the  muscles  may  give  up  a  part  of  their  albumi¬ 
noids  to  the  blood  currents  to  be  carried  to  the  brain.  I  notice  in  my  own  case 
that  I  grow  lean  when  I  am  working  hard,  and  begin  to  gain  flesh  with  a  vacation. 

Mosso  and  Binet  both  found  that  a  brigf  period  of  intellectual  activity  increased 
physical  strength,  but  a  long  period  reduced  it.  Dr.  Maggiora  tested  the  strength 
of  the  middle  finger  of  his  right  hand  on  the  ergograph  in  the  morning  with  40 
contractions,  amounting  to  3,694  kilogrammeters.  At  5.15,  after  examining  19 
candidates,  he  could  only  make  11  contractions,  amounting  to  1,086  kilogram- 
meters.  Mosso  says:  “  The  tiring  the  brain  diminishes  the  strength  of  the  mus¬ 
cle.”  “  The  requirement  for  rest  after  a  period  of  severe  mental  work  rests  in  the 
fact  that  the  nerve  centers  are  depleted  and  the  muscles  are  weak.” 

Binet  and  Henri  found  that  hard  mental  work  began  to  reduce  the  rate  of  res¬ 
piration  after  fifteen  minutes,  and  of  the  heart  beat  after  half  an  hour.  Spencer 
says  this  result  may  become  permanent  as  the  result  of  overwork. 


INHIBITION.  549 

There  seems  to  be  a  general  agreement  that  dyspepsia  may  be  caused  by  exces¬ 
sive  brain  work,  and  the  resistance  to  disease  lowered. 

Inasmuch  as  the  function  of  sleep  is  mainly  brain  rest,  we  may  expect  the  same 
results  from  loss  of  sleep  as  from  excessive  brain  work. 

In  experiments  carried  on  in  Italy  it  was  found  that  dogs  could  be  kept  without 
food  for  twenty  days,  and  lose  more  than  half  their  original  weight,  and  still  sur¬ 
vive;  but  loss  of  sleep  for  four  or  five  days  proved  fatal.  If  a  hibernating  animal 
wakes  up  too  soon  it  is  apt  to  starve  to  death,  it  is  said. 

In  what  we  have  said  thus  far  we  have  spoken  as  though  the  energy  for  all  the 
activities  was  drawn  from  a  common  reservoir,  into  which  exactly  the  same 
amount  was  poured  each  day;  so  that  any  excess  of  use  in  one  direction  meant  a 
deficiency  in  some  other  direction.  We  have  seen  that  these  suppositions  agreed 
fairly  well  with  the  facts.  Still  the  case  is  by  no  means  so  simple  as  this.  All 
'activities  increase  the  metabolism  so  as  to  compensate  for  the  extra  work  up  to  a 
certain  limit  or  even  overcompensate  it.  Beyer  has  shown  from  the  measurement 
of  naval  cadets  that  the  height  may  be  increased  1  inch  and  weight  50  to  60 
pounds  by  systematic  exercise  during  the  years  from  16  to  20.  Years  in  which 
gymnastics  were  taken  were  compared  with  years  in  which  they  were  not  taken* 

In  every  muscular  movement  there  are  three  factors  involved — the  muscle,  the 
nerve,  and  the  nerve  cell.  It  seems  to  be  well  established  that  the  nerve  itself 
does  not  tire,  but  the  muscle  or  nerve  cell  may  be  fatigued.  To  this  fatigue  there 
are  two  elements — that  due  to  loss  of  energy,  and  that  due  to  clogging  by  waste 
products.  As  a  rule  the  nerve  cell  seems  to  fatigue  first,  as  a  muscle  which  can 
no  longer  be  contracted  voluntarily  still  responds  for  some  time  to  the  electrical 
stimulation.  The  importance  of  the  nerve  cell  to  physical  strength  is  much  under¬ 
rated  in  most  estimates.  If  the  nerve  cell  is  injured  the  muscle  lies  inert  and 
soon  atrophies. 

It  has  been  shown  that  students  have  a  stronger  hand  clasp  than  laboring  men, 
although  they  have  probably  done  very  little  to  develop  it.  It  is  also  well  known 
that  the  strength  varies  with  various  conditions.  As  has  been  abundantly  shown, 
any  sensory  stimulus  may  greatly  augment  the  knee  jerk  or  the  pressure  on  the 
dynamometer,  if  it  occurs  at  the  right  time.  The  knee  jerk,  rapidity  of  tapping, 
and  power  of  clasp  are  all  increased  by  brief  intellectual  activity.  But  intellec¬ 
tual  fatigue  again  reduces  them  below  the  normal.  In  a  series  of  experiments 
which  I  carried  on  last  year  strength  seemed  to  be  in  a '  very  close  relation  to 
mental  excitement.  Normally  I  could  press  from  115  to  120  pounds.  But  on  one 
occasion,  after  working  for  an  hour  and  a  half  on  my  thesis  and  getting  very 
much  interested,  the  average  ran  up  to  127,  with  132  as  the  highest  contraction. 
As  similar  results  were  obtained  by  Binet  and  Henri,  I  refer  to  them  instead  of 
treating  more  of  my  own  results.  These  facts  show  the  close  dependence  of 
physical  strength  upon  brain  states. 

Those  who  would  explain  muscular  fatigue  by  mental  work  by  saying  we  think 
with  our  muscles  must  take  into  account  the  experiment  of  MacDougal,  who 
found  the  finger  was  relaxed  during  mental  effort,  and  Binet  and  Henri,  who  found 
the  muscles  of  the  eye  in  a  similar  condition.  This  theory  can  not  well  account 
for  any  increase  of  strength  due  to  mental  activity. 

There  is  plenty  of  direct  evidence  for  discharges  from  one  brain  area  to  another. 
Stimuli  to  a  single  sense  stimulate  the  entire  brain.  All  sensory  and  motor  areas 
are  under  voluntary  control.  This  can  only  mean  discharges  from  the  association 
areas  upon  the  areas  concerned.  If  this  were  continuous  there  would  be  mental 
exhaustion  from  muscular  work.  Perhaps  this  is  the  explanation  of  the  mental 
heaviness  of  laborers.  In  case  of  intense  mental  work  the  current  may  set  in  the 
other  direction.  Motor  areas  would  discharge  upon  the  associational  areas  and 
the  muscles  would  be  weakened. 


350 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


More  than  two- thirds  of  the  entire  mass  of  the  brain  is  made  up  of  the  fibers,  and 
of  these  by  far  the  larger  part  are  associational.  This  would  be  meaningless  if 
discharges  could  not  take  place  over  them.  Whenever  a  discharge  takes  place, 
there  is  a  transference  of  force.  If  one  area  could  not  assist  another  we  might 
expect  its  degeneration  to  follow  the  loss  of  iis  appropriate  organ.  This,  however, 
does  not  occur  except  in  case  of  a  very  young  child.  The  blind  do  not  have  visual 
dreams  if  they  become  blind  before  5  or  6.  If  associations  become  established 
with  other  areas  the  visual  seems  to  be  retained. 

SUMMARY. 

The  amount  of  energy  which  can  be  developed  by  any  organism  is  limited.  Up 
to  a  certain  point  exercise  causes  a  muscle  to  increase  in  strength;  beyond  this  it 
is  weakened.  But  this  point  is  only  reached  when  all  available  supplies  are  no 
longer  sufficient  to  repair  its  waste.  Long  before  this  point  is  reached  it  begins  to 
draw  on  the  other  activities.  Active  parts  are  fed  at  the  expense  of  resting  ones. 

Excessive  physical  exercise  may  stunt  growth,  reduce  the  flesh  and  strength, 
impair  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  dwarf  the  intelligence  or  impair  its  efficiency  for 
*the  time  being.  WThere  great  drains  are  made  on  the  energy  to  maintain  bodily 
heat,  as  in  polar  regions,  maturity  is  attained  later  and  intelligence  is  often  defi¬ 
cient.  By  excessive  brain  work  growth  may  be  checked,  weight  reduced,  muscu¬ 
lar  strength  lessened,  the  heart  beat  slowed,  and  dyspepsia  and  a  physical  break¬ 
down  brought  on. 

One  activity  may  inhibit  another:  (1)  By  poisoning  the  blood  with  its  waste 
products:  (2)  by  robbing  the  blood  of  its  nourishment;  (3)  by  consuming  the 
resting  parts;  (4)  by  using  its  brain  area. 

The  nerve  cell  is  as  important  as  the  muscle  to  muscular  strength.  Different 
brain  areas  are  connected  by  associational  fibers.  These  must  imply  discharges 
from  one  to  the  other,  and  hence  a  transference  of  energy.  If  one  area  could  not 
assist  another  its  degeneration  would  follow  the  loss  of  its  appropriate  organ. 
This  does  not  occur  unless  the  loss  comes  very  early  in  life.  The  hand  can  be  kept 
inactive  without  the  hand  area’s  discharging  spontaneously.  The  brain  is  on  the 
way  to  unity  not  yet  entirely  reached;  connections  are  very  poor  in  the  child. 
41  Second  breath,”  or  warming  up,”  means  the  drafting  in  of  other  areas  to  assist 
the  primary  activity.  Constant  use  tends  to  associate  the  area  used  with  other 
areas.  Intense  effort  tends  to  unify  the  brain.  The  brain  owes  most  of  its  endur¬ 
ance  of  mental  toil  to  its  motor  areas.  Develop  each  area  and  interest  in  childhood, 
and  use  the  energy  of  all  in  a  single  activity  in  manhood. 

RESTLESSNESS. 

Restlessness  is  movement  without  any  apparent  cause  or  purpose,  resulting 
seemingly  from  some  inner  physiological  necessity.  Children  are  very  restless,  a 
quality  which  4s  shared  by  the  young  of  all  animals  as  well.  It  is  the  root  from 
which  the  play  impulse  springs,  a  surplus  of  energy  requiring  employment.  As  the 
young  animal  grows  to  maturity  and  requires  all  his  energy  to  secure  his  living 
play  disappears:  but  whenever  food  is  provided  and  the  struggle  for  existence  is 
made  easy  a  surplus  again  accumulates  and  manifests  itself  in  a  vague  uneasiness. 

But  anyone  who  observes  children  must  very  soon  perceive  that  they  differ 
greatly  in  activity  from  their  earliest  years.  In  the  hope  of  securing  a  more  accu¬ 
rate  measure  of  this  I  secured  four  American  pedometers  and  put  them  on  adults 
and  children  of  various  ages,  and  asked  some  responsible  person  to  keep  record  of 
the  daily  activity  for  a  week.  The  results  were  not  as  satisfactory  as  might 
have  been  hoped,  as  the  pedometers  were  not  very  reliable  and  had  to  be  regu¬ 
lated  every  week  or  two  to  keep  them  running  together.  The  records  given 
are  not  really  accurate  for  miles,  as  the  pedometers  were  all  set  to  a  20-inch  step. 


INHIBITION. 


351 


This,  of  course,  would  be  too  long  for  a  small  child 1  and  too  short  for  a  man,  being 
an  average  step  for  a  woman  of  medium  height.  This,  however,  shows  the  num¬ 
ber  of  steps  each  person  took  in  a  day,  or  the  real  activity,  which  was  the  thing 
desired.  This  means  2,754  steps  for  every  mile  represented  in  the  record. 


City  children  out  of  school  (miles). 

Country  children  in  school  (miles). 

Sex  and  age. 

Satur¬ 

day. 

Sun¬ 

day. 

Mon¬ 

day. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

Sex  and  age. 

Satur¬ 

day. 

Sun. 

day. 

Mon¬ 

day. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

Male,  6 . 

Male,  2 . 

Male,  1) . . 

Male,  4' . . 

Male,  6 . 

Male,  4 . . 

IB 

9) 

6f 

7 

101 

3) 

6! 

6 

8 

7) 

6' 

7) 

P 

7) 

13) 

141 

8 

lOf 

It 

lr>i 

!  7f 

Male,  11. _ 

Male,  13 . 

Male,  9 . 

Male,  16 _ 

Male,  11 . 

Male,  16 . . 

94 

10) 

12) 

8 

11) 

3) 

6) 

3) 

7) 

7) 

10) 

8 

6 

7) 

7) 

9? 

9? 

7? 

10 

6 

Average .. 

Average..- 

■  sS 

61 

10 

9| 

10f  5£ 

1 

7$ 

City  children  in  school  (miles). 

Adults  (miles). 

Sex  and  age. 

Satur¬ 

day. 

Sun¬ 

day. 

Mon¬ 

day. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

Sex  and  age. 

Satur¬ 

day. 

Sun¬ 

day. 

Mon¬ 

day. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

Female,  14 . 

Male,  10  . . . . 

Female,  6  _ . 

Female,  12 . 

Male,  15  . 

Female,  17 . 

Female,  10 . 

Female,  8 . 

Female,  10 . 

Female,  10 . 

Female,  13 . 

?,  15 . 

Average  _ . 

104 

n 

IB 

Ilf 

101 

oi- 

ii 

131 

.  10) 
m 

14 

4) 

81 

7) 
Ilf 

6f 

13 

4 

10) 

5) 

7- 

8) 
10 

8) 

51 

8) 

11 

17) 

5) 

11 

84 

7) 

9) 

13 

7) 

7# 

6)1 

11 

87 

12f 

6 

10) 

8 

u 

13A 

5) 

Female,  34 . 

Female.  36 . 

Female'  60 . 

Female,  32 _ _ 

Male,  36. . 

(Female,  34 . . 

Male,  26 . 

Female,  21 . 

Female,  26 . 

Male,  28 . 

Average... 

13) 

10 

14) 
10) 

7) 

54 

15) 
*  11 

I1 

5) 

9) 

4) 
3) 

12 

3) 

5) 
3) 

6f 

9) 

17 

9) 

6) 

84 

9' 

8 

6) 

2) 

■7f 
9f 
10? 
C  6 
*7 
6) 

1 

6) 

2) 

10) 

7'X3 

8x2 

8§ 

'  9) 

6) 

8| 

7) 

From  these  tables  and  curves  it  will  be  seen  that  the  averages  of  children  below 
the  school  age  are  largest;  it  would  also  appear  that  country  children  are  more 
active  than  city  children.  But  the  activity  of  the  country  children  from  whom 
the  records  were  obtained  was  considerably  above  the  average.  The  activity  of 
the  girls  and  boys,  men  and  women,  is  nearly  the  same.  The  adults  were  engaged 
in  various -occupations;  the  lowest  record  is  my  own  while  teaching  in  a  country 
school. 

The  activity  is  least  on  Sunday  for  all,  and  greatest  on  Saturday  for  all  but  the 
small  children.  Wednesday  and  Thursday  seem  to  be  days  of  low  activity  also. 


SITTING  STILL. 

The  syllabus  brought  in  something  over  200  returns,  of  which  the  larger  part 
were  from  one  normal  school.  The  first  purpose  of  the  syllabus  ^vas  to  deter¬ 
mine,  if  possible,  whether  the  restlessness  of  children  is  areal  physiological  neces¬ 
sity,  as  is  so  often  stated,  or  that  it  is  merely  the  result  of  inclination. 

The  first  question  was  as  follows: 

1.  Ask  your  child,  or  if  you  are  a  teacher  ask  a  few  children  at  a  time  in  your 
room,  to  take  some  easy  position  and  see  how  long  they  can  sit  still  without  any 
movement;  meanwhile,  with  watch  or  clock  in  sight,  note  time  and  put  down  (a) 
which  part  moves  first— fingers,  feet,  head,  arms,  legs,  etc.;  ( b )  what  kind  of 
motion,  usual  or  unusual,  violent  or  gentle.  - 

What  efforts  do  you  see  to  prevent  these  spontaneous  movements,  a3,  e,  g.,  ten¬ 
sion  of  all  the  muscles,  clenching  mouth,  hands,  etc.? 


1  The  real  distance  traveled  may  not  be  so  very  different,  as  children  run  a  great  deal  and  take 
longer  steps  at  such  times. 


352 


EDUCATION  REPORT?  1900-1901. 


From  the  nature  of  the  returns  it  would  be  difficult  to  make  a  table  of  just  how 
long  each  child  sat  without  moving.  The  differences  are  very  great,  but  the  tests 
in  the  returns  (so  far  as  the  exact  time  is  given)  will  justify  the  statement  that 
children  under  5  will  not,  as  a  rule,  sit  still  more  than  thirty  seconds,  though  now 
and  then  one  will  sit  still  as  long  as  ten  minutes.  Children  under  10  will  not  usually 
sit  still  more  than  one  and  one-half  minutes,  and  oftentimes  less  than  half  a  min¬ 
ute,  though  one  or  two  have  sat  as  long  as  twenty  minutes.  These  results  seem 
to  show  that  the  average  child  can  not  sit  still  in  a  test  for  more  than  a  very  short 
time. 

Probably  one  reason  children  do  not  sit  still  longer  in  a  test  is  because  they 
make  so  great  an  effort  to  sit  still.  They  usually  clinch  their  hands,  contract 
their  brows,  and  set  their  teeth,  as  though  they  were  going  to  lift  a  thousand 
pounds  instead  of  merely  doing  nothing.  Their  breathing  is  often  irregular  and 
they  frequently  try  to  hold  their  breath.  They  have  the  consciousness  of  being 
watched  also. 

All  these  circumstances  tend  to  make  sitting  still  more  difficult,  but  their  influ¬ 
ence  is  probably  less  than  we  might  suppose  at  first.  There  are  many  children 
who  do  not  make  a  great  effort  to  sit  still,  but  they  do  not  succeed  much  better 
than  the  others.  In  the  clinching  of  the  hands  and  setting  the  teeth  also  you  have 
an  expression  of  the  child’s  judgment  that  sitting  still  is  a  hard  thing  to  do.  In 
speaking  with  adults  I  find  that  some  of  them  still  remember,  with  a  feeling  of 
pain,  the  times  they  were  required  to  sit  still  as  children. 

I  think  that,  all  things  considered,  the  evidence  will  justify  the  conclusion  that 
the  ordinary  child  can  not  sit  still  voluntarily. 

The  answers  received  in  reply  to  the  following  question  show  a  much  greater 
restlessness. 

Question.  Will  you  compose  yourself  in  a  comfortable  position  sitting,  lying, 
and  standing,  and  remain  as  still  as  if  you  were  having  a  slow  photograph,  and 
describe  your  experience  .freely? 

The  results  are  very  different  from  those  obtained  from  the  university  students, 
but  the  conditions  were  also  very  different. 

Sensibilitiy  is  much  increased.  Many  sensations  which  normally  remain  below 
the  threshold  of  consciousness  are  raised  into  distinctness,  and  it  is  the  little  itch¬ 
ing,  pricking,  rheumatic  sensations  which  soon  make  sitting  still  disagreeable  if 
any  one  allows  himself  to  notice  them.  So,  also,  the  motor  tendencies  of  all  sen¬ 
sations  become  apparent.  Infinitesimal  impulses  to  move  are  magnified  into 
strong  desires  by  the  attention  they  receive. 

I  think  it  is  both  true  that  the  child  is  restless  because  he  is  inattentive  and 
inattentive  because  he  is  restless.  But  the  latter  is  primary. 

RESTLESSNESS  IN  SLEEP. 

Question.  If  you  have  an  opportunity  to  observe  children  or  adults  in  sleep, 
notice  if  they  are  ever  perfectly  still  for  any  considerable  period,  or  do  their  eye¬ 
lids  or  lips  move,  expression  of  the  face  change,  fingers  clinch,  etc.? 

Out  of  97  observations  on  children  and  adults  under  this  head,  83  report  move¬ 
ments  and  14  report  none.  Most  of  the  observations  were  for  not  more  than  ten 
minutes,  and  a  larger  number  might  have  proved  restless  on  longer  observation. 

THE  RESTLESS  CHILD.  ~ 

Question.  Describe  one  of  the  most  restless  children  you  know — complexion, 
health,  stature,  flesh,  color  of  eyes,  hair,  etc.,  bright  or  dull,  good  or  bad  natured, 
regimen,  discipline,  etc.,  association  gay  or  sad. 

The  number  of  cases  was  152.  The  significant  characteristics  seem  to  be  as 


INHIBITION. 


353 


follows:  Good  health,  93;  poor  health,  25;  bright,  123;  of  these,  very  bright,  71; 
dull,  10;  tall,  41.  These  characteristics  came  out  in  answering  the  questions  of 
the  syllabus.  The  following  also  came  out  preeminently,  though  only  incident¬ 
ally  mentioned.  They  are  apt  to  be  boisterous  and  rude  in  their  play  and  often 
hurt  other  children  without  intending  to.  They  are  mischievous  and  disobedient 
to  parental  authority.  They  are  often  whipped,  but  do  not  mind  the  whipping. 
They  seem  very  insensitive  to  pain.  The  majority  of  the  restless  children  described 
are  under  six  years  old.  Restlessness  appears  to  disappear  with  mental  occupation. 

The  restless  child  seems  to  be  an  especially  instructive  type  and  one  that  is  very 
little  understood.  He  is  the  child  who  makes  most  of  the  trouble  for  his  parents 
and  the  teacher.  He  is  often  thought  to  be  willful  ana  bad  and  may  be  made  so 
if  he  does  not  receive  proper  training. 

Restlessness  as  applied  to  children  below  the  school  age  may  be  taken  as  nearly 
equivalent  to  activity.  The  physical  activity  of  a  child  at  this  age  is  a  very  fair 
measure  of  the  energy  he  develops. 

The  restless  child  is,  as  a  rule,  a  peculiarly  good  animal,  as  well  as,  seen  from  the 
characteristics  given — boisterous,  rude,  mischievous,  disobedient,  talkative,  insen¬ 
sitive  to  pain,  fond  of  teasing,  often  cruel,  destructive,  social,  often  leaders,  bright, 
yet  thoughtless. 

Restlessness  in  children  up  to  six  or  seven  years  of  age  seems  to  be  a  good  sign, 
but  a  bad  sign  afterwards.  It  does  not  usually  last  much  later  than  this  in  its 
extreme  form.  The  restless  child  should  naturally  develop  into  a  man  of  action. 

THE  QUIET  CHILD. 

Question.  Describe  in  the  same  way  one  of  the  most  quiet,  inert  children  you 
know.  Are  they  lazy,  self-conscious,  companionable?  Do  they  associate  with 
older  children?  Are  they  studious,  thoughtful,  sad  or  gay,  etc.? 

Many  observers  said  they  did  not  know  any  quiet  children.  Their  character¬ 
istics,  as  compared  with  the  restless  children,  are  as  follows: 


Quiet 

child. 

Restless. 

Number  of  cases _ _ _ _ 

108 

152 

Good  health  (mentioned) _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _ 

44 

93 

Poor  health  _  .  _  _  _  .  _ _  _  . 

22 

25 

Bright  (all) . . . 

57 

123 

Very  bright. . . . . - . . . 

14 

71 

Self-conscious . . . . . . . . . . . 

28 

Thoughtful . , . . . 

45 

Studious  . . . . . . 

27 

It  would  appear  that  the  health  of  the  quiet  children  is  not  as  good,  and  they 
are  not  as  bright  as  the  restless  children.  But  of  course  the  numbers  are  too  small 
for  safe  conclusions. 

Several  types  of  quiet  children  can  be  made  out — 

1.  There  is  the  child  who  seems  to  lack  energy  all  around.  He  is  inactive  men¬ 
tally  and  physically.  He  is  the  typical  dull  scholar  at  school.  He  can  not  be 
educated  without  unusual  stimulation. 

2.  There  is  the  child  who  is  inactive  from  sheer  rapidity  of  growth.  He  grows 
5  or  6  inches  in  a  year,  and  lies  around  all  day. 

3.  Fat  children  are  nearly  always  inactive. 

4.  The  large  number  who  are  said  to  have  poor  health  would  indicate  that  loss 
of  energy  due  to  disease  is  one  very  important  factor. 

5.  Overwork,  mental  or  physical,  produces  quietness. 


ED  1901- - 23 


354 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


CONDITIONS  OF  RESTLESSNESS. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  When  are  children  most  restless?  there  were  148 
replies. 

Out  of  the  148  returns  2  said  children  were  most  restless  in  the  morning,  112  in 
the  evening,  14  on  bright  days,  107  on  cloudy  days,  8  in  the  fall,  110  in  the  spring; 
15  said  exercise  increased  restlessness;  116  said  exercise  decreased  restlessness. 

That  children,  as  well  as  adults,  are  most  restless  in  spring  agrees  with  general 
observation.  Children  certainly  are  more  restless  if  kept  from  active  exercise, 
and  on  bad  days.  These  two  cases  are  often  one,  but  not  always.  Several  teach¬ 
ers  from  different  parts  of  the  country  have  said  that  children  are  more  restless 
on  days  preceding  a  storm. 

When  the  class  becomes  restless  the  teacher  may  take  it  as  a  sign  that  the  work 
or  method  should  be  changed. 

The  conditions  of  restlessness  seem  to  be  about  the  same  in  adults  as  in  children. 

There  were  114  cases:  Restless,  75;  gloomy,  11;  fatigue,  7. 

Going  without  exercise,  123  cases:  Nervous,  13;  stupid,  20;  headache,  10;  stretch, 
47;  irritable,  17;  yawn,  67;  gloomy,  6;  restless,  66;  sleepy,  18;  impulsive  move¬ 
ments,  51. 

In  the  case  of  a  change  from  an  active  to  a  sedentary  life  the  resulting  restless¬ 
ness  would  seem  to  indicate  a  certain  accumulation  of  energy  for  motor  uses, 
which  is  either  used  for  other  purposes  later  or  the  rate  of  metabolism  of  motor 
areas  shows  up  to  a  slower  expenditure.  In  case  of  going  without  regular  exer¬ 
cise  the  case  is  apt  to  be  complicated  with  overwork  and  the  disturbing  of 
rhythms. 

The  physical  effects  seem  to  be  a  violent  beating  of  the  heart,  flushing  of  the 
face,  increased  circulation  in  the  brain,  and  great  irritability  of  all  cerebral  cells, 
which  results  in  a  diffuse  discharge  upon  all  the  muscles  and  glands,  causing  tre¬ 
mors,  nausea,  and  various  similar  phenomena.  The  individual  is  very  restless 
and  often  nervous.  The.  cerebral  excitement  is  too  general  to  be  inhibited.  A 
person  is  thoughtless  and  impulsive.  He  tends  to  speak  all  his  thoughts,  is  apt  to 
be  irritable,  and  takes  offense  at  the  slightest  cause.  He  loses  control  of  his  mus¬ 
cles;  his  hand  trembles;  it  becomes  absolutely  impossible  to  sit  still;  all  autom¬ 
atisms  become  very  pronounced ;  he  is  unable  to  sleep  at  night. 

The  characteristics  of  childhood  resemble  those  of  a  constant  state  of  excitement. 


SUMMARY. 

The  activity  of  children  below  6,  as  shown  by  pedometer  records,  is  greater 
than  at  any  later  period.  But  children  differ  greatly  in  activity. 

Children  under  5  could  not  sit  still  longer  than  30  seconds  in  the  test.  Children 
under  10  could  not  sit  longer  than  one  and  one-half  minutes. 

Blind  children  are  more  restless  than  other  children. 

Children  are  most  restless  near  the  close  of  school,  on  cloudy  days  in  the  spring, 
when  they  go  without  exercise. 

Auditory  stimuli  are  perhaps  of  great  assistance  in  maintaining  the  activity  of 
the  brain.  Hearing  is  inhibited  by  thought. 

PEDAGOGICAL  INFERENCES. 

From  what  has  been  said  there  may  be  seen  on  the  one  hand  a  great  danger, 
excessive  brain  work,  and  on  the  other  a  great  need,  physical  exercise. 

The  child  is  still  in  the  animal  stage  of  his  existence.  The  irresistible  impulse 
which  has  come  down  from  that  struggle  in  ages  when  life  and  food  depended  on 
fleetness  of  foot  and  strength,  is  still  surging  within  him  and  drives  him  on  to 
action.  Not  only  does  he  refuse  to  sit  still  for  a  half  minute  at  a  time,  but  he 


INHIBITION. 


355 


seldom  walks  when  going  anywhere,  but  runs  or  gambols  along  like  a  young 
animal.  Of  the  children  I  have  questioned  as  to  whether  they  liked  to  go  to 
school  or  not,  nearly  every  one  who  has  said  “no”  has  given  as  the  reason, 
“because  he  had  to  sit  still,”  or  “stay  indoors,”  or  some  other  reason  which  meant 
restraint  of  motion. 

If  childhood  is  the  animal  period  of  life  it  should  be  the  time  for  animal  (physi¬ 
cal)  culture.  It  is  then  that  interest  in  and  love  for  physical  movement  is 
greatest.  The  greatness  of  childhood  consists  in  swiftness  of  foot  and  strength  of 
body  and  limb.  The  school  hero  is  usually  the  boy  who  possesses  these  qualities. 

We  have  seen  that  excessive  brain  work  may  dwarf  the  stature  and  weaken  the 
constitution.  We  know,  also,  that  from  15  to  60  per  cent  of  our  children  become 
nearsighted  before  leaving  our  schools;  that  a  very  large  proportion,  especially  of 
the  girls,  have  curvature  of  the  spine;  that  a  great  many  become  nervous,  and  not 
a  few  have  chorea;  that  among  the  girls  at  least  only  a  very  small  proportion 
finish  the  high  school  in  a  state  of  good  physical  health.  Not  all  of  these  evils  are 
due  to  the  school,  but  at  least  a  part  are.  To  that  part  for  which  the  school  is 
responsible  there  are  two  elements— the  one  due  to  overwork  and  worry  and  the 
other  to  being  indoors  and  enforced  inactivity.  W e  have  seen  how  difficult  it  is  for 
the  child  to  sit  still;  that  it  is  this  which  makes  school  disagreeable  to  him;  that 
his  personal  discomfort  makes  it  hard  for  him  to  keep  his  mind  on  his  task;  that 
long  restraint  tends  to  make  him  nervous.  However,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
lesson  of  quietness  is  one  which  it  is  necessary  for  the  child  to  learn,  There  is  no 
probability  of  his  acquiring  the  power  of  deliberation  until  he  has  learned  to  be 
still.  We  have  conjectured  also  that  the  high  pressure  of  motor  areas  maybe 
instrumental  in  making  their  associated  connections  permeable. 

We  are  suffering  from  a  false  ideal  of  education  which  has  been  handed  down 
to  us  from  the  Renaissance.  We  seem  to  think  that  to  master  books  is  the  only 
way  to  become  learned,  and  to  become  learned  is  the  object  of  education,  whereas 
neither  of  these  propositions  are  true.  One  can  gain  nothing  but  second-hand 
information  from  books,  and  the  object  of  education  is  not  to  make  men  scholars. 
The  time  when  a  man  can  become  learned  from  books  alone  has  already  passed. 
We  live  in  an  age  of  science,  and  observation  and  experiment  are  its  fundamental 
methods.  Our  ideal  student  is  no  longer  an  emaciated  consumptive  with  a  wet 
towel  about  his  brows,  bending  over  his  Homer  in  the  small  hours  of  the  morn¬ 
ing,  but  rather  the  well-rounded  man  of  the  world;  one  who  knows  books,  but 
who  knows  men  and  affairs  as  well;  one  who  has  drunk  deeply  from  every 
experience  an  honorable  life  can  offer  him;  one  who  has  ideals  of  action  as  well 
as  thought.  How  absurd  in  the  face  of  modern  culture  to  teach  the  child  the 
contents  of  a  few  books  and  think  we  are  educating  him!  All  our  cities  are 
becoming  cosmopolitan.  Almost  anything  that  can  be  learned  from  books  can  be 
better  learned  from  the  observation  of  the  things  around  us.  The  city  in  its 
parks,  museums,  libraries,  art  galleries,  theaters,  sermons,  business,  etc.,  offers  a 
liberal  education  to  everyone  whose  mind  is  open  to  receive  it. 

The  charge  of  impractibility  can  always  be  preferred  against  book  learning.  It 
is  less  often  called  up  by  our  everyday  experience;  its  lessons  are  less  easily 
applied;  they  are  acquired  with  greater  difficulty  and  more  easily  forgotten  than 
lessons  from  observation  and  experience.  It  is  at  least  as  important  that  a  child 
be  able  to  observe  well  as  that  he  be  able  to  master  books.’  Observation  is 
usually  of  things  right  about  us  which  will  touch  our  lives  the  oftenest.  The 
problems  which  life  gives  every  man  to  solve  can  not  be  solved  from  books.  He 
must  learn  to  study  from  nature  herself  those  things  on  which  his  success  depends. 
That  man  is  best  educated  who  best  knows  how  to  solve  his  life  problems,  draw¬ 
ing  on  every  resource  everywhere  that  can  help  him  to  that  solution.  But  knowl¬ 
edge  in  its  largest  sense  is  a  very  small  part  of  a  well-rounded  education.  It  is 


356 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


surely  as  worthy  an  aim  to  admire  a  beautiful  picture  or  poem  as  to  know  how  it 
was  constructed;  it  is  as  much  to  love  a  great  good  man  as  to  know  his  biography ? 
and  to  be  able  to  do  a  thing  is  surely  greater  than  to  know  how  it  is  done. 

There  are  five  aims  to  be  gained  by  a  well-rounded  education:  (1)  A  good  phy¬ 
sique;  (2)  to  know  what  our  life  requires  us  to  know;  (3)  to  be  able  to  do  what¬ 
ever  we  need  to  do;  (4)  to  admire  the  beautiful;  (5)  to  love  the  good. 

In  woods  or  flowers  or  animals  the  child  sees  companions,  and  his  imagination 
seeks  to  fathom  the  motives  of  their  actions  and  the  pleasure  of  their  lives.  Could 
anything  cultivate  the  heart  more  than  thi3  living  world  and  make  it  responsive 
alike  to  the  fancies  of  the  poet  and  the  teachings  of  religion?  Here  in  this  primi¬ 
tive  nature  love  are  the  roots  of  the  love  of  the  beautiful  and  the  good.  The 
nature  lover  is  always  reverent;  he  believes  naturally  in  the  divine.  The  child’s 
attitude  combines  the  religious  and  scientific.  All  true  science  must  be  guided 
by  love  and  reverence. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE  COMMON  SCHOOL  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES  BEYOND 
THE  MISSISSIPPI  RIVER,  FROM  1830  TO  1860. 


By  A.  D.  Mayo,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


LOUISIANA. 

The  present  essay  deals  with  the  attempt  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  system  of  public  instruction,  from  the  year  1840  until  the  close  of 
the  civil  war. 

Previous  to  this  date,  from  the  year  1503,  when  the  immense  territory  known  as 
Louisiana  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  Government,  the  record 
of  the  educational  history  of  this  people  finds  itself  in  contact  with  an  intelligent 
and  active  common  school  public,  as  this  term  was  then  understood.  From  1805 
to  1808  the  Territorial  legislature  worked  at  the  problem  of  schooling  the  few  thou¬ 
sand  white  children  and  youth  by  a  plan  in  some  way  broader  and  more  generous 
than  before  had  prevailed  in  the  country.  It  included  a  central  “  University  of 
Orleans,”  with  academies  in  each  county,  seminaries  for  young  women,  and  a 
library  in  each  county.  The  corporation  of  the  university,  besides  a  number  of 
eminent  citizens,  consisted  of  the  leading  officials  of  the  city  and  Territory,  and  it 
was  intrusted  with  ample  power  and  backed  by  two  lotteries.  Ail  authority  was 
vested  in  this  close  corporation  to  establish  such  educational  organizations  ‘  ‘  as 
should  appear  to  them  most  convenient.” 

In  1806  Governor  Claiborne  informed  the  legislature  of  the  lack  of  success.  In 
1807  the  lottery  scheme  was  dropped.  In  1809  the  governor  pronounced  the  grand 
scheme  a  failure,  only  one  parish  having  established  schools  under  its  authority. 
Nothing  daunted  by  this  collapse  of  a  romantic  project,  the  legislature,  in  1811, 
voted  $39,000,  of  which  $15,000  was  for  the  central  college  in  New  Orleans,  and 
$2,000  for  one  or  more  schools  in  each  county,  with  three  school  trustees  for  each 
county.  By  this  and  subsequent  acts  a  school  of  the  higher  grade  was  kept  alive 
in  New  Orleans  for  fifteen  years,  until  1828,  with  less  than  100  students,  largely  of 
the  charity  order.  In  that  year  the  State  subsidy  was  transferred  to  the  College 
of  Louisiana,  at  Jackson,  East  Feliciana  Parish.  Despite  the  lottery,  the  taxing  of 
the  growing  population  of  New  Orleans,  and  other  financial  devices,  the  people  did 
not  respond,  the  two  public  schools  subsidiary  to  the  college  in  the  most  progress¬ 
ive  municipality  of  New  Orleans  containing  less  than  100  poor  children. 

The  numerous  changes  which  this  and  similar  attempts  subsequently  went 
through,  like  the  swift  turns  of  the  kaleidoscope,  are  unimportant  in  a  general 
review  of  the  progress  toward  a  common  school.  They  are  deeply  interesting  as 
demonstrating  the  intense  desire  of  the  more  influential  and  zealous  body  of  school 
men  to  give  the  children  something  above  the  Catholic  parochial,  private,  planta¬ 
tion,  and  other  makeshifts,  on  which  a  large  portion  of  the  children  and  youth 
depended  for  their  only  educational  outfit  in  the  new  American  life.  The  conclu- 

357 


358 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


sion  of  the  whole  matter  was  that,  as  late  as  1840,  not  half  the  white  children  in 
thirty  or  forty  parishes  of  the  State  were  in  any  school. 

One  of  the  hindrances  to  the  success  of  these  preliminary  ventures  was  doubt¬ 
less  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of  the  white  population  of  Louisiana  were  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  whose  authorities,  then  as  now,  in  perfect 
and  honest  consistency  with  its  ecclesiastical  theories,  could  not  approve  a  school 
system  responsible  to  any  power  save  the  j)riesthood.  This,  with  the  scattered 
population,  the  great  mixture  of  peoples,  the  difficulties  of  travel,  and  the  obsti 
nate  habit  of  every  parish  caring  for  itself,  explains  the  fact  that  no  body  of  edu¬ 
cators,  however  influential,  intelligent,  or  zealous,  could  reasonably  expect  to 
hold  in  an  organization  like  the  American  common  school  a  people  in  conditions 
and  circumstances  so  indifferent  or  hostile  to  its  spirit  and  methods.  Up  to  that 
time  the  national  land  fund  was  increasing  and  money  had  been  liberally  spent, 
both  through  private  and  public  expenditure;  enough,  if  properly  administered, 
to  secure  the  most  favorable  results. 

But  the  educational  public  of  the  State,  nothing  discouraged  by  past  failures, 
rallied  and  placed  in  the  constitution  of  1845  one  of  the  most  radical  and  far- 
seeing  provisions  for  universal  education  to  be  found  in  any  Commonwealth  at  that 
period.  It  provided  for  a  State  system  of  public  instruction;  free  public  schools 
throughout  the  State,  to  be  “  supported  by  taxation  on  property  and  otherwise;  ”  the 
jealous  care  of  the  Government  school  lands,  and  the  formation  of  a  school  fund 
at  6  per  cent  interest  for  the  support  of  the  system;  the  establishment  of  a  State 
university,  composed  of  four  faculties — law,  medicine,  natural  science,  and  letters. 
The  only  seeming  neglect  was  the  provision  that,  after  the  organization  *of  the  uni¬ 
versity  and  its  endowment  by  the  national  land  fund,  the  State  should  “  be  under 
no  obligation  to  contribute  to  its  establishment  or  support  by  appropriation.  ” 

The  public  school  law,  passed  in  1847,  provided  for  the  schooling  of  all  youth 
under  21  by  a  State  tax  of  1  mill  on  a  dollar,  which,  with  the  income  of  the  school 
fund,  was  to  be  distributed  to  every  parish  (county)  that  chose  to  put  itself  in 
contact  with  the  system.  It  provided  that  each  parish  could  pass  over  its  own 
portion  of  the  school  lands  to  the  charge  of  the  State.  The  State  superintendent 
of  instruction  received  the  largest  salary  then  paid  to  that  official  in  the  country 
($3,000),  with  as  much  additional  for  clerk  hire  and  incidentals  as  Horace  Mann 
received  annually  for  all  his  prodigious  work  in  Massachusetts.  The  parish  school 
superintendent,  elected  by  a  vote  of  the  people,  was  a  salaried  officer,  at  $300  a 
year.  The  district  trustees  were  also  elected  by  popular  vote.  Mr.  Alexander 
Dimitry  was  appointed  State  superintendent  of  education  in  1847,  and  the  new 
system  was  launched,  like  a  magnificent  river  steamer,  sailing  down  the  Father  of 
W aters  on  the  crest  of  a  spring  overflow  that  changed  the  great  river  to  an  “  inland 
ocean.” 

The  historians  of  education  in  Louisiana  date  the  practical  beginning  of  the 
new  order  of  public  instruction  from  the  change  in  the  schools  of  New  Orleans, 
between  the  years  1841  and  1845.  The  transfer  of  the  College  of  Orleans,  in  1826, 
to  a  country  parish  had  left  on  the  ground  what  was  called  “  the  central  and  pri¬ 
mary  schools  of  New  Orleans.”  In  the  former  the  academical  studies  of  that 
period  were  taught.  In  each  primary  school  some  50  poor  children  were  instructed 
gratis.  Of  all  the  moneys  lavished  on  the  College  of  Orleans,  $7,000  remained  as 
the  capital  of  the  new  departure,  which  a  local  tax  on  theaters  increased  to  $10,000. 
A  general  director  and  twelve  “  professors”  were  appointed,  and  the  work  again 
undertaken.  The  number  of  beneficiary  students  was  raised,  in  1827,  to  100  for 
each  of  the  three  schools.  In  1828  there  were  250  pupils  in  attendance  in  all  the 
departments,  and  $8,800  had  been  expended  during  the  past  year.  In  1831,  245 
scholars  were  reported,  and  the  system  was  steadily  drifting  to  a  pauper  school. 
For  the  following  ten  years  there  seems  to  have  been  little  improvement.  The 
better-off  people  obstinately  clung  to  the  private,  church,  family,  and  neighbor- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


359 


hood  methods  of  educating  their  offspring  that  largely  prevailed  in  the  South 
until  1865  and  in  England  until  a  later  date.  Several  hundred  thousand  dollars 
had  been  expended  during  the  thirty-eight  years  from  1803  to  1841  in  the  attempt 
to  found  something  resembling  the  proper  American  system  of  universal  educa¬ 
tion  among  a  people  probably  more  foreign  to  its  spirit  and  methods  than  any  in 
the  Union.  The  ideal  of  the  higher  education  was  a  term  in  Paris  for  that  portion 
of  the  people  of  Louisiana  still  the  uppermost  in  social  affairs.  The  reformed 
New  Orleans  schools  were  somewhat  the  result  of  the  movement  of  Horace  Mann 
and  Henry  Barnard,  who  were  consulted  in  their  organization. 

In  1841  a  new  spirit  was  infused  into  the  schools  of  New  Orleans  by  a  legislative 
grant  of  $7,500,  on  condition  that  the  city  raised  half  the  sum.  One  or  more  schools 
were  organized  for  each  of  the  three  municipalities  and  one  for  the  secondary  edu¬ 
cation.  In  1842  there  were  in  the  several  portions  of  the  city  BOO  children  in  pri¬ 
vate  schools  and  2,000  in  no  school  at  all.  In  1842  the  city  was  divided  into  three 
separate  municipalities,  but  the  improved  facilities  offered  began  at  once  to  tell. 
The  attendance  in  the  public  schools  ros8  in  one  year  to  1,000,  and  by  1844  to  4,000 
pupils.  It  is  stated  that  “  the  proportion  of  the  pupils  to  the  school  population  in 
these  schools  was  as  large  as  in  Baltimore  or  Cincinnati,  being  equal  to  St.  Louis 
and  New  York,  and  only  surpassed  in  Philadelphia  and  Boston.”  In  1844  a  single 
municipality  raised  by  taxation  and  otherwise  $11,000,  and  the  people  of  New 
Orleans  were  fast  learning  the  fundamental  lesson  of  the  common-school  system— 
to  put  their  own  hands  in  their  own  pockets  through  the  agency  of  local  taxation 
to  supplement  the  State  or  charitable  aid. 

This  period,  1842-1845,  is  noted  as  the  end  of  the  policy  that  had  been  adopted 
by  the  State  for  thirty  years,  of  subsidizing  colleges,  academies,  and  county  schools. 
The  method  seems  to  have  been  to  charter  a  large  number  of  institutions  of  learn¬ 
ing  under  church,  private,  or  corporate  direction,  with  a  grant  of  legislative  sub¬ 
sidy  for  a  fixed  number  of  years.  In  the  case  of  the  more  important  institutions, 
like  the  College  of  New  Orleans  and  Jefferson,  there  were  annual  gifts  of  consid¬ 
erable  sums.  The  conditions  of  the  gift  were  the  obligation  to  school  a  certain 
number  of  indigent  children.  This  policy  was  pushed  with  a  zeal  that  testified 
more  to  the  interest  of  the  legislature  and  people  in  the  cause  of  education  than  to 
the  wisdom  of  the  method  of  its  promotion.  The  majority,  indeed  all  these  sem¬ 
inaries,  of  whatever  degree  of  merit,  were  burdened  with  the  same  disability. 
They  were  all  “living  from  hand  to  mouth,”  without  permanent  endowment, 
dependent  on  a  capricious  student  support;  the  school  often  little  more  than  the 
private  venture  of  some  enterprising  pedagogue.  The  large  number  of  the  schools 
thus  baptized  created  a  strong  suspicion  of  legislative  “logrolling;”  each  locality 
in  the  State,  through  its  representative,  putting  in  its  claims  for  a  chartered 
academy,  institute,  or  college.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  there  was  a  fair 
degree  of  good  schooling  through  this  multiplication  of  educational  institutions, 
whether  in  the  private  school  or  county  academy.  But  this  method  of  supporting 
education  by  State  subsidy  is  invariably  ruinous.  Thus  it  ran  its  race  and  died  of 
the  weariness  and  disgust  of  the  people,  who  were  stunned  by  this  great  clatter 
of  opposing  claims  and  the  “  thundering  in  the  index  ”  of  every  new  school  with 
a  lofty  name,  the  system  going  out  at  last  in  a  condition  of  affairs  that  left  the 
children  without  the  bread  and  water  of  mental  life. 

It  would  be  beside  the  purpose  of  this  essay  to  attempt  to  give  a  detailed  account  of 
this  destructive  experiment  through  a  long  generation.  The  historians  of  the  State 
have  given  us  the  names  of  six  colleges,  four  of  which  were  each,  for  a  brief  period, 
in  a  flourishing  condition,  with  a  promise  of  permanence.  Beside  these,  fifty 
academies  are  named  as  having  existed  during  a  period  of  less  than  twTenty  years. 
The  majority  of  these  no  longer  exist,  or,  if  their  buildings  survive,  they  are  appro¬ 
priated  to  the  uses  of  the  public-school  system  of  the  locality.  At  least  $125,000 
had  been  raised  by  lotteries.  More  than  $130,000  had  been  distributed  to  acade- 


360 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


mies  in  small  annual  installments.  The  subsidizing  of  parish  schools  had  cost  the 
State  in  thirty-four  years  $773,000.  The  nine  colleges  “footed  up  ”  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood  of  $1,767,637,  and  the  figures  that  report  the  activity  of  the  people  of  the 
State  in  this  experiment  of  giving  away  public  money  with  small  reservation  of 
the  power  of  control  over  it  furnish  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  the  result. 

The  experiment  came  to  an  end  about  the  year  1845.  The  success  of  the  new 
public  schools  of  New  Orleans,  under  the  superintendency  of  Dr.  Shaw,  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  sent  there  by  Horace  Mann,  although  they  had  not  been  able  to  reach 
one-half  of  the  school  population,  had  convinced  the  legislature  that  a  new  depar¬ 
ture  should  be  attempted.  In  1846  Governor  Isaac  Johnson,  in  his  message  to  the 
legislature,  suggested  a  broad  scheme  of  education,  consisting  of  a  university  of 
New  Orleans,  a  seminary  of  learning,  and  a  system  of  public  schools.  The  educa¬ 
tional  committee  approved,  and,  in  1847,  as  already  stated,  the  first  free-school  law  of 
the  State  was  passed.  It  was  estimated  that  there  were  in  the  State  at  the  time  29,334 
children  and  youth  between  the  years  of  5  and  16.  The  legal  school  age  was  fixed 
at  6  to  16,  while  any  youth  under  21  was  admitted  to  at  least  three  years’  school¬ 
ing.  A  tax  of  one  mill  on  the  dollar  and  a  poll  tax,  in  connection  with  the  income 
of  the  State  school  fund,  were  supposed  to  furnish  the  financial  motor  power  for 
the  new  system.  It  has  already  been  noted  that  Prof.  Alexander  Dimitry,  LL.  D., 
a  gentleman  of  undoubted  scholarship  and  a  zealous  friend  of  universal  education, 
was  chosen  State  superintendent  of  schools. 

In  1848  the  superintendent  reports  the  considerable  sum  of  $356,230.93  from  the 
mill  and  poll  taxes  of  the  State  and  the  income  of  school  funds.  In  1850  692 
school  districts  were  reported,  with  618  schools  and  22,000  children  enrolled.  In 
1852  the  number  of  schools  had  reached  647,  and  it  was  declared  that  over  50  per 
cent  of  the  school  population  was  in  attendance.  There  were  high  schools  in  nine 
parishes  (counties).  In  1861  there  were  96,000  educable  white  children  and  youth, 
of  whom  38  per  cent,  and  in  New  Orleans  48  per  cent,  were  reported  as  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  schools.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that,  with  the  exception  of 
New  Orleans,  none  of  these  localities  gave  the  average  daily  attendance,  which  is 
the  real  test  of  the  condition  of  the  school.  This  attendance  everywhere  falls 
below  and,  under  the  circumstances  in  Louisiana  fifty  years  ago,  must  have  fallen 
greatly  behind  the  enrollment. 

For  the  nine  years  from  the  establishment  of  the  new  system  of  public  schools 
in  New  Orleans,  the  advancement  had  been  steady  and  a  success  appeared  to  be 
assured.  In  1841  Hon.  Henry  Barnard,  of  Connecticut,  had  visited  the  city  and 
the  scheme  of  public  education  finally  adopted  was  in  the  line  of  his  suggestions. 
He  was  twice  urged  to  accept  the  superintendency  of  the  system.  Probably  it 
was  by  his  suggestion  that  application  was  made  to  Hon.  Horace  Mann,  then  sec¬ 
retary  of  the  board  of  education  in  Massachusetts,  who  suggested  Mr.  J.  A.  Shaw, 
of  the  Bridgewater  (Mass.)  State  Normal  School,  as  a  fit  person  for  the  place.  Mr. 
Shaw  came  to  New  Orleans,  and,  beginning  with  the  two  schools  in  the  second 
municipality,  in  1842,  wrought  with  such  vigor,  intelligence,  tact,  and  general 
acceptance  that,  from  13  pupils,  the  schools  had  reached  840  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year.  By  1850  he  had  built  up  a  system  with  3,155  pupils  and  63  teachers.  In 
the  first  municipality  of  the  city  the  schools  were  open  in  1844,  and  from  3 
schools,  11  teachers,  and  615  pupils,  in  1850  reached  the  number  of  12  schools  with 
50  teachers  and  2,010  scholars.  In  the  third  municipality,  with  even  a  smaller 
opening  in  1842  of  2  schools,  2  teachers,  and  110  pupils,  we  find,  in  1850, 17  schools, 
21  teachers,  and  1,121  pupils  in  attendance.  In  the  first  and  second  municipalities 
the  system  was  graded  with  primary,  intermediate,  and  high  schools,  established 
in  1843-45. 

These  great  gains  from  the  feeble  condition  of  public  education  that  had  prevailed 
up  to  the  year  1842  were  doubtless  largely  attributable  to  the  superintendency  of 
Mr.  Shaw,  v/ho,  with  Mr.  Baldwin  as  president  of  the  school  board,  for  the  first 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1830  TO  1860. 


861 


time  placed  a  system  of  common  school  education  fairly  before  the  people  of  the 
larger  cities  and  more  populous  centers  of  the  Southwestern  States.  This  success 
of  the  free-school  system  in  New  Orleans  is  regarded  by  the  educators  of  Louisiana 
as  the  final  transition  from  the  inefficient  policy  of  subsidizing  all  sorts  of  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  prior  to  1840,  to  the  proper  common-school  system  of  1845-1847, 
which,  in  spite  of  its  only  partial  success,  did  keep  the  idea  of  universal  education 
before  the  people  and  educate  the  State  to  receive  the  new  departure  as  the  end  of 
all  their  educational  woes,  for  a  permanent  policy  at  the  close  of  the  civil  war. 

Until  the  year  1842  the  State  had  labored  on  the  plan  of  subsidizing  a  succession 
of  schools,  really  academical,  but  wearing  the  title  of  colleges,  and  in  this  vain 
attempt  to  build  up  the  higher  education  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  had 
been  invested. 

With  the  rejection  of  this  policy  in  1842  and  the  passage  of  the  school  law  of 
1847,  began  the  inquiry  concerning  the  establishment  of  “  a  seminary  of  learning.” 
It  was  decided  that  the  public  interest  would  not  warrant  the  moving  on  a  line  so 
expensive,  especially  after  a  generation  of  large  expenditure  and  disappointment 
in  this  direction.  But  in  1848  a  committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the  subject 
of  a  site  for  the  seminary.  After  four  years  of  the  usual  campaigning,  the  legisla¬ 
ture  secured  the  amount  necessary  for  the  establishment  of  the  “seminary  ”  and 
selected  a  plantation  near  the  town  of  Alexandria,  in  the  parish  of  Rapides,  as  the 
site.  In  1853  the  bill  was  passed  providing  for  the  founding  of  the  institution. 
A  private  estate,  fitly  named  “Pine  Woods  Seat,”  was  purchased,  4  miles  from 
Alexandria,  which,  with  a  subsequent  addition,  made  a  generous  school  estate  of 
80  acres,  valued  at  $4,000.  The  site  appears  to  have  been  chosen  on  the  principle 
of  the  regulation  location  of  the  old-time  New  England  country  public  school- 
house,  as  near  the  center  of  the  State  as  was  possible,  with  the  view  in  this  case 
also  of  obtaining  favorable  water  communication  on  one  of  the  large  navigable 
rivers,  which  were  mainly  relied  upon  for  transportation  at  that  date.  This  parish 
and  the  town  had  also  a  reputation  for  interest  in  education,  founded  upon  the 
establishment  of  an  academy  as  early  as  1811.  From  the  usual  national  grant  of 
two  townships  of  land,  80,000  acres,  and  such  additional  sums  as  the  legislature 
could  be  induced  to  appropriate,  the  means  of  building  up  the  educational  support 
of  the  seminary  were  to  be  obtained. 

But  it  was  late  in  1857,  ten  years  from  the  passage  of  the  school  law  of  1847, 
when  this  moderate  movement  culminated  in  the  appointment  of  Col.  (afterwards 
General)  William  Tecumseh  Sherman,  of  Ohio,  as  president  of  the  new  “  semi¬ 
nary  of  learning.”  The  president,  at  the  beginning,  seems  to  have  manifested 
his  characteristic  energy  of  administration  and  undoubted  patriotism.  In  his 
original  address  he  reminds  the  students  that  their  seminary  is  the  gift  of  the 
Republic.  He  also  took  issue  at  once  with  the  mischievous  diffuseness  of  instruc¬ 
tion  by  crowding  the  mind  with  a  great  array  of  all  the  arts  and  sciences  and 
wrecking  the  student  on  the  barren  shore  of  mental  indigestion  or  distraction  by 
•weighting  him  with  more  than  was  possible  for  ordinary  human  nature  to  endure. 
As  President  William  Preston  Johnston,  of  Tulane  University,  more  than  forty 
years  later  declared,  President  Sherman  told  the  people  that  there  was  little  fit 
material  in  the  State  even  for  such  an  institution  as  this  to  set  about  its  studies. 
Of  71  candidates  for  the  first  class,  13  had  been  rejected  as  not  sufficiently  pre¬ 
pared,  and  the  president  tells  his  hearers  in  his  address,  “to  coerce  the  institution 
to  receive  State  cadets  who  could  not  read  and  did  not  know  anything  of  the 
studies  there  pursued  would  drag  it  down  to  a  mere  common  school.”  The  cur¬ 
riculum  included  the  English,  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish  languages,  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry.  One  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  invested  in  the  build¬ 
ings  and  the  property  was  estimated  at  $136,000.  In  1860  $15,000  per  annum  was 
voted  as  a  beneficiary  fund  for  students,  and  with  an  income  of  $56,000  and  an 


362  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

annual  expenditure  of  $43,700  the  new  ship  sailed  onward,  confronting  the  polit¬ 
ical  perils  of  1862. 

The  history  of  this  institution  is  soon  told.  At  the  secession  of  the  State,  -Colo¬ 
nel  Sherman  resigned  his  presidency,  even  before  he  had  been  able  to  get  his  hand 
fully  on  the  machinery  of  instruction  or  discipline.  The  State  seminary  was 
closed  in  June,  1861;  but  under  a  new  management  it  was  opened  until  closed 
again  by  the  invasion  of  the  Union  forces  in  1863.  At  the  end  of  hostilities 
nothing  was  left  of  the  institution  save  the  bare  walls  of  the  building.  In  1865 
the  seminary  was  again  opened  under  the  presidency  of  Col.  D.  F.  Boyd,  already 
professor  of  English  literature  and  ancient  languages  in  an  institution  at  Baton 
Rouge.  After  a  troubled  career  of  four  years,  the  seminary  under  financial  diffi¬ 
culties  staggered  toward  destruction  by  the  loss  of  its  buildings  by  fire  in  1869. 
The  institution  was  then  transferred  to  Baton  Rouge,  where,  under  a  new  organ¬ 
ization — the  State  University — it  now  exists.  Up  to  1861,  112  cadets  had  been 
graduated. 

During  the  troubled  period  of  reconstruction  the  State  government  then  in 
power  made  large  appropriations  to  the  university,  burdened  with  the  policy  of 
admitting  students  of  the  emancipated  colored  race.  In  1872  the  legislature 
refused  to  make  further  appropriations  and  the  university,  as  it  was  then  named, 
was  again  suspended.  The  change  in  political  affairs  during  the  administration 
of  President  Hayes,  in  1876,  brought  the  institution  again  into  favor  with  the  rul¬ 
ing  class.  In  1877  it  was  reorganized  by  uniting  the  State  University  with  the 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  in  the  capital  city  of  Baton  Rouge,  where  it 
now  remains. 

The  only  proper  State  institution  for  the  higher  education  in  Louisiana  from 
1845  to  1860  was  the  university  in  New  Orleans.  It  was  established  by  the 
adoption  of  a  private  medical  college,  founded  in  1835,  the  State  and  city  entering 
into  a  sort  of  educational  partnership.  Between  1843  and  1847  the  State  Univer¬ 
sity  was  legislated  into  existence,  with  the  two  faculties  of  medicine  and  law,  the 
great  Charity  Hospital  being  connected  with  the  medical  department  for  all  pur¬ 
poses  of  professional  instruction.  In  1850  a  chair  of  political  economy  and  an 
academical  or  preparatory  department  were  added  to  the  university,  beginning 
with  40  pupils. 

With  the  exception  of  an  appropriation  for  buildings,  the  support  of  the  medical 
and  law  departments,,  and  a  portion  of  an  estate  as  a  site  for  the  erection  of  a 
mechanics’  institute,  where  lectures  on  scientific  and  mechanical  topics  were  deliv¬ 
ered  and  a  library  collected,  no  great  success  attended  this  new  departure.  By 
1860  there  were  40  academical  students  and  113  graduates.  The  medical  depart¬ 
ment  was  closed  during  1863,  1864,  and  1885.  Before  the  war  there  had  been  4,119 
students  and  1,084  graduates  in  the  medical  school.  This  was  the  oldest  medical 
college  in  the  Southwest,  the  third  south  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers,  and  the 
fifteen th,  established  in  the  United  States.  The  proper  university  inauguration 
dates  from  1845.  The  State  had  contributed  generously  to  the  original  depart¬ 
ments  from  that  period  until  the  close  of  the  war. 

The  constitution  of  1845  provided  for  the  four  faculties  of  the  University  of  Loui¬ 
siana.  The  authority  was  vested  in  thirteen  trustees,  with  the  governor,  chief  jus¬ 
tice  of  the  State,  and  mayor  of  New  Orleans  as  ex-officio  members,  appointed  by  the 
governor  with  the  consent  of  the  senate.  The  department  of  law  was  known  and 
noted  for  the  legal  talent  represented  in  its  professors,  among  whom  Hon.  Randall 
Hunt  was  conspicuous  until  his  death  in  1888.  The  founding  of  the  legal  system 
of  Louisiana  on  the  Roman  civil  law  has  always  given  to  this  school  of  jurispru¬ 
dence  an  especial  eminence  in  this  department  of  professional  education. 

As  early  as  1847  an  attempt  was  made  to  found  the  academic  department  of  the 
University  of  Louisiana,  but  the  State  was  estopped  by  a  constitutional  provi- 
sioa  from  the  granting  of  additional  contributions,  and  with  the  exception  of  a 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


363 


few  small  private  schools  nothing  was  attempted.  For  a  time  the  Rev.  F.  L. 
Hawks,  D.  D.,  LL.  D..  was  president  of  the  university,  and  Prof.  Geo.  C. 
Anthon,  later  of  Columbia  College,  New  York,  occupied  the  chair  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages.  The  failure  of  the  legislature  in  1846  to  make  an  appropria¬ 
tion  compelled  Professor  Anthon  to  establish  a  preparatory  school.  President 
Hawks  resigned  in  1849  and  Professor  Anthon  in  1850.  The  appropriation  was 
continued  for  four  years,  at  the  end  of  which,  in  1850,  a  full  faculty  was  appointed. 
In  1851-52  there  were  15,  and  in  1853-54,  13  students.  A  succession  of  presidents 
succeeded  and  the  legislature  was  persuaded  to  make  a  few  small  contributions 
for  buildings  and  furnishing.  From  a  feeble  existence  the  collegiate  and  prepar¬ 
atory  departments  emerged,  about  1860,  when  there  were  but  40  students  in  the 
one  and  100  in  the  other.  In  1861  the  institution  closed,  not  to  be  opened  until 
1876.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  this  essay  to  state  that  all  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  University  of  Louisiana  in  New  Orleans  are  now  included  in  the 
corporation  of  Tulane  University,  by  far  the  greatest  achievement  ever  made  in 
the  State  of  Louisiana  in  the  direction  of  the  higher  education,  and  one  of  the  most 
hopeful  and  justly  distinguished  of  the  new  seats  of  learning  that  have  sprung 
up  in  the  South  since  the  dark  days  of  .sectional  strife.  Under  the  able  presidency 
of  William  Preston  Johnston,  with  an  increasing  attendance  and  a  very  able 
faculty  in  all  departments,  including  the  admirable  arrangement  of  the  Sophie 
Newcomb  College  for  young  women,  Tulane  University,  in  its  beautiful  group  of 
new  buildings,  enters  upon  the  century  with  a  splendid  prospect  for  its  own  suc¬ 
cess  and  a  brilliant  prophecy  for  the  educational  future  of  the  city  and  State. 

Although  the  purpose  of  the  present  essay  is  to  present  an  accurate  -record  of 
the  development  of  the  common  school  under  State  and  local  support  and  super¬ 
vision  in  Louisiana,  the  story  would  be  incomplete  without  a  glance  at  the  com¬ 
mon-school  environment,  especially  the  denominational  religious  schools.-  We 
have  seen  that  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union,  from  their  earliest  colonial  or 
Territorial  condition  to  their  present  situation  as  commonwealths,  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  public  instruction  has  depended  largely  on  the  state  of  public  opinion 
concerning  the  fundamental  question  of  the  right  and  duty  of  the  different 
religious  bodies  to  assume  the  chief,  or  sometimes  the  absolute,  control  over  the 
secular  education  of  children  and  youth.  In  several  of  the  foremost  of  the  older 
States,  largely  settled  and  administered  by  a  Protestant  Christian  population, 
the  establishment  of  the  common  school  was  delayed  sometimes  well  into  the 
present  century  by  the  obstinate  rivalries  of  the  religious  sects  concerning  what 
is  called  “the  religious  question.”  They  all  held  in  greater  or  less  degree  to  the 
belief  that  the  school  is  practically  an  annex  of  the  church,  and  should  be  used  as . 
a  legitimate  agency  of  sectarian  religious  propagandism.  But  in  a  State  like 
Louisiana,  settled  and  for  many  generations  dominated  socially  and  politically  by 
a  population  drawn  from  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  it  is  not  remarkable  that  even  to  the  present  day  this  factor 
must  be  considered  in  estimating  the  growth  of  the  American  system  of  unsectarian 
public  instruction  for  all  classes  and  conditions  of  people,  in  schools  common  to 
all  and  responsible  only  to  the  whole  people  as  represented  in  the  State.  It  would 
be  manifestly  unjust  to  bring  against  such  communities  the  charge  of  indifference 
to  education,  or  of  unusual  ignorance  among  the  well-to-do  class,  on  the  ground 
of  their  long-continued  neglect  of,  or  even  hostility  to,  a  system  of  education  at 
variance  with  the  teaching  of  their  church  on  this  point  of  honest  and  radical 
difference  of  opinion. 

While  the  State  of  Louisiana,  despite  a  very  intelligent  and  zealous  common 
school  public,  generally  backed  by  the  public  authorities,  State  and  national,  has 
never  succeeded  in  achieving  the  success  in  the  working  of  a  public- school  system 
of  the  majority  of  American  States,  it  is  also  true  that  few  American  Common¬ 
wealths  can  boast  a  more  attractive  and  justly  distinguished  body  of  superior 


364 


EDUCATION  KEPOKT,  1900-1901. 


people  in  all  departments  of  life.  This  to  a  degree  can  he  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  within  the  past  century  no  Southern  American  State  has  so  profited  by  the 
immigration  of  able  and  even  celebrated  people  from  all  parts  of  the  Union  and 
all  foreign  nations  as  Louisiana.  The  present  writer  calls  to  mind  a  private  din¬ 
ner  in  New  Orleans,  given  by  the  learned  and  worthy  rabbi  of  one  of  the  Hebrew 
synagogues,  where  the  eight  guests,  beside  the  host  and  hostess,  represented  as 
many  European  nationalities,  ail  gentlemen  of  high  personal  consideration  in  the 
city. 

And  among  the  descendants  of  the  original  settlers  of  Louisiana  from  the  Latin 
nations  has  been  developed  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  many  constituents 
of  our  cosmopolitan  American  life.  From  the  earliest  period  of  colonization  until 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  it  had  been  the  habit  of  the  superior  class  of  these 
people  to  send  their  sons  to  Europe  for  the  secondary  and  higher  educational 
training.  Their  young  women  had  been  to  a  great  extent  schooled  at  home, 
although  many  were  sent  North  or  even  abroad.  A  complete  history  of  the  ele¬ 
mentary,  secondary,  and  higher  education  of  this  portion  of  the  people  of  Louisi¬ 
ana  would  throw  light  upon  the  past  record  of  the  common  school  in  the  State, 
which  is  greatly  needed  for  a  just  estimate  of  the  education  of  the  superior  class. 

The  first  of  the  seminaries  established  under  the  auspices  of  the  Catholic 
Church  for  the  schooling  of  girls,  was  founded  by  the  Ursuline  Sisters  in  1727,  and 
remains  to  this  day  one  of  the  most  prominent  of  its  class.  It  has  always  been 
under  the  management  of  a  high  grade  of  teachers,  and  has  aimed  to  fill  out  the 
highest  ideal  of  female  culture  cherished  in  this  communion.  Its  influence  upon 
the  social  and  public  life  of  the  State  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  This  was  one 
of  the  earliest  schools  for  young  women  established  in  the  South;  and  it  may  be 
well  questioned  if  the  training  therein  received  in  New  Orleans,  from  its  earliest 
settle.ment,  for  the  class  of  girls  who  represented  the  majority  of  its  people,  was 
not  equal  to  that  at  the  same  period  obtained  by  a  corresponding  class  in  any  city 
of  N  ew  England  or  the  older  Middle  States. 

In  1818  the  Order  of  the  Sacred  Heart  established  a  seminary  of  that  type  in  St. 
Louis.  In  1821-1825  this  work  was  transferred  to  Louisiana,  and  several  primary 
schools  were  set  up  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  It  should  be  noted  that  all 
these  church  schools  did  not  confine  their  labors  to  the  daughters  of  the  better-off 
families,  but  labored  faithfully  among  the  Indians  and  negroes,  and  to  a  consider¬ 
able  extent,  especially  in  the  earlier  days  of  the  colony,  did  hospital  duty. 

In  1887  the  Society  of  Jesus  established  St.  Charles  College  in  the  State  and  a 
similar  institution  in  New  Orleans  in  1847.  The  latter  was  indorsed  in  1856  by 
the  legislature  as  a  full  university,  as  the  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
under  which  name  it  still  remains  a  flourishing  institution,  with  an  attendance 
in  1890  of  more  than  460  pupils  of  all  grades.  / 

In  1856  the  Silliman  Female  Collegiate  Institute  was  located  at  Clinton,  East 
Feliciana  Parish,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  has  retained 
its  importance  until  the  present  time.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  Mansfield  Female  College,  in  De  Soto  Parish,  founded  in  1854,  with 
some  assistance  from  the  State  in  1855.  After  a  suspension  during  the  war  it  was 
revived  and  is  still  in  successful  operation. 

The  Centenary  College  was  a  descendant  of  a  college  before  mentioned.  It  dates 
from  the  year  1839,  and  owes  its  present  existence  to  the  zeal  of  several  eminent 
divines  of  the  Mississippi  Methodist  Church  South.  Its  present  name  com¬ 
memorates  the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  John  Wesley.  First 
established  at  Brandon  Springs,  Miss.,  in  1845,  it  was  removed  to  Jackson,  La., 
and  set  up  in  the  buildings  of  the  College  of  Louisiana  at  that  place.  In  1860  it 
had  reached  an  attendance  of  more  than  200  students.  In  1886  the  number  had 
increased  to  259.  During  the  war  it  suffered  greatly  from  the  alternate  occupa- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


365 


tion  of  the  place  by  both  armies,  and  seems  never  to  have  entirely  recovered  from 
the  wreckage  of  that  period. 

Jefferson  College  was  reclaimed  for  a  season  from  the  decline  suffered  by  it 
abandonment  as  a  State  institution.  During  the  years  1862-63  it  was  occupied  as 
barracks  and  almost  destroyed  in  its  building,  furnishing,  educational  apparatus, 
and  library.  In  1884  it  passed  into  the  charge  of  a  Catholic  order  and  now  exists 
under  the  name  of  St.  Mary’s  Jefferson  College.  Franklin  College,  one  of  the 
original  beneficiaries  of  the  State,  is  now  ruined. 

The  Baptist  denomination  is  represented  by  Mount  Lebanon  University,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1853.  During  the  war  the  endowment  funds  were  lost,  with  the  usual 
damage  experienced  from  military  and  hospital  occupation.  A  fire  in  1887  com¬ 
pleted  the  wreck  and  swept  away  all  that  had  been  done  since  the  doleful  days  of 
1861-1865.  The  institution  is  now  in  operation  and  is  one  of  the  few  coeducational 
colleges  in  the  State. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  great  number  of  schools  of  every  grade,  private, 
neighborhood,  family,  denominational,  and  corporate,  that  within  the  past  one  hun¬ 
dred  years  have  been  so  largely  the  educational  dependence  of  the  more  favored  class 
of  the  people  of  Louisiana.  Although  but  few  of  any  importance  survive,  the 
buildings  of  many  are  utilized  by  the  common  schools  of  the  State,  notably  one 
by  the  State  Normal  School  at  Natchitoches,  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans  even  to 
the  present  day  occupies  a  large  number.  The  majority  of  these  schools  have 
labored  under  the  disadvantage  of  an  incompetent  ideal  of  the  education  of  young 
women.  Although  often  assuming  the  much-abused  titles,  college,  institute,  etc., 
the  majority  of  them  have  never  risen  above  the  ordinary  high-school  grade, 
with  a  distinct  emphasis  on  “  accomplishments,”  although  an  ambitious  student 
could  often  acquire  the  foundation  for  a  superior  training  in  the  classics.  The 
great  defect  in  these,  as  in  the  majority  of  schools  of  this  class,  is  found  in  a  super¬ 
ficial  and  pretentious  habit  of  making  “art'5  and fancy  work”  of  various  sorts 
a  prominent  feature  in  the  curriculum.  But  in  almost  every  school  of  this  sort 
there  was  found  at  least  one,  and  sometimes  more  than  one,  really  superior  teacher. 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  advised  his  daughter  on  going  to  a  boarding-school  “to 
find  out  who  was  the  best  teacher,  and  study  what  he  taught.  ”  And  as  every 
successful  student  in  any  institution  of  learning  can  usually,  like  Thomas  Jeffer¬ 
son  at  William  and  Mary  College,  trace  his  first  impulse  to  honest  mental  work 
and  the  love  of  learning  to  one  man  or  woman  who  for  the  time  has  been  to  him 
the  representative  of  all  that  is  worthy  of  achievement  in  the  realm  of  knowledge, 
we  should  not  underrate  the  importance  of  this  class  of  institutions  in  the  past. 

The  Catholic  parochial  school  system  has  been  an  important  element  in  the 
schooling  of  large  numbers  of  the  original  population  in  the  Louisiana  territory, 
and  to-day  is  responsible  for  the  entire  school  training  of  multitudes  of  children 
in  this  and  other  States  of  the  Union.  While  it  has  prevented,  and  still  does 
largely  prevent,  the  complete  development  of  the  common  school,  it  has  furnished 
the  only  opportunity  of  even  an  elementary  schooling  for  many  thousands  of  the 
children  and  youth  of  the  State,  and  has  been  a  powerful  influence  in  the  moral- 
and  religious  training  of  the  least  instructed  class  of  the  white  population. 

At  a  later  period,  until  the  occupation  of  Louisiana  by  the  Union  Army  under 
Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  fresh  from  his  experience  in  the  common- school  work  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  the  negro  population  of  the  State,  with  occasional  exceptions,  was 
left  in  absolute  educational  destitution.  Even  at  present  more  than  two-thirds  of 
this  people,  until  recently  a  majority  of  the  population,  are  illiterate,  after  a  gen¬ 
eration  of  such  schooling  as  has  been  possible  in  this  all-out-doors  Commonwealth. 
But  of  late,  largely  owing  to  the  influence  of  several  great  schools  established  by 
the  Northern  churches,  and  the  support  of  a  State  academical  and  industrial 
seminary,  all  of  them  every  year  more  interested  in  the  introduction  of  indus- 


366  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

trial  training  for  both  sexes,  the  prospect  for  this  important  class  appears  to  be 
improving. 

The  revised  State  constitution  of  Louisiana  for  1845  provided  for  a  complete 
system  of  public  education,  including  free  public  schools,  a  “seminary  of  learn¬ 
ing,”  and  a  “  University  of  Louisiana,”  with  stringent  provisions  for  the  protection 
of  State  school  funds  and  a  State  superintendent  of  education  to  supervise  this 
department.  In  1852  a  second  revised  constitution,  in  even  more  elaborate  lan¬ 
guage,  pledged  the  Commonwealth  to  the  same  policy.  For  sixteen  years,  from 
1845  to  1861,  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  the  State  authorities  labored  in 
apparent  good  faith  to  translate  this  beneficent  promise  into  an  equally  beneficent 
fact  for  every  parish  and  school  precinct  of  the  46,301  square  miles  of  the  extended 
area  of  Louisiana.  It  is  estimated  that  during  this  period  of  sixteen  years,  while 
the  public  schools  were  in  actual  operation,  the  State  expended  the  sum  of  $3,840,000 
(according  to  some  authorities  $4,890,000)  on  the  upbuilding  of  the  system. 

The  public  schools  were  supported  by  the  income  of  the  State  fund  from  the 
school  lands  donated  by  the  United  States  (788,000  acres),  the  taxation  of  1  mill 
on  the  dollar  of  all  assessed  property,  and  after  1855  an  additional  poll  tax  of  $1 
levied  upon  all  the  white  male  population  over  21  years  of  age.  The  appointment 
of  Mr.  Alexander  Dimitry  as  State  superintendent  was  an  assurance  of  the  inten¬ 
tion  of  the  public  authorities  of  the  Commonwealth  to  try  the  experiment  of 
universal  education  in  good  faith. 

The  number  of  educable  white  children  from  5  to  16  was  estimated  in  1845  at 
30,000,  although  the  schools  were  open  for  at  least  three  years  to  every  white  per¬ 
son  under  the  age  of  21.  In  1847  the  revenue  available  for  the  schooling  of  the 
children  and  youth  was  $356,000.  In  1850  there  were,  by  a  somewhat  loose  esti¬ 
mate,  692  school  districts  and  618  State  public  schools,  with  22,000  children  in 
attendance.  In  1852  there  were  647  schools  outside  the  city  of  New  Orleans, 
attended  by  half  the  school  population  from  6  to  16,  with  high  schools  in  several 
of  the  parishes.  By  1881  the  attendance  had  declined  to  39  per  cent  of  the  96,522 
educable  children,  although  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans  48  per  cent  was  claimed. 
A  superior  high  school  was  in  operation  at  Baton  Rouge,  the  capital  city.  In  1855 
it  was  reported  that  in  681  school  districts  687  schools,  in  87  parishes,  were  in 
operation  eight  months  in  the  year,  there  being  62,682  children  in  the  State 
between  6  and  16,  of  whom  the  average  school  attendance  was  36,000,  with  1,000 
teachers  employed,  $250,500  being  expended. 

With  this  flattering  record  it  is  not  easy  to  understand  why  the  governor  of  the 
State  in  1855  could  report  the  public  school  system  as  in  “an  unsatisfactory  con¬ 
dition — almost  a  failure.”  In  1856  the  State  superintendent,  Dr.  Samuel  Bard,  in 
an  address  delivered  before  the  general  assembly  of  the  State,  declares  that  more 
than  $2,000,000  had  been  appropriated  for  the  public  schools  since  their  first 
organization;  yet  the  fathers  of  the  State  had  made  no  adequate  provision  for 
schooling  the  children,  and  in  great  measure  this  large  expenditure  had  produced 
no  effect.  He  declares  that  “within  the  past  year,  1855,  in  30  parishes  12,000 
children  attended  school  and  11,000  did  not.  there  being  paid  out  to  teachers 
$114,000  from  an  appropriation  of  $142,000.”  These  figures  he  presents  “to 
exhibit  the  present  operation  of  the  system.”  It  was  evident,  according  to  the 
speaker,  that  “nearly  one-half  of  the  white  children  of  the  parishes  had  not 
derived  any  advantage  from  the  system.”  He  urges  on  the  legislature  the  passage 
of  “a  plain  common-sense  school  law,  such  as  could  be  drawn  up  by  three  busi¬ 
ness  men  in  a  short  time.”  He  complains  that  the  State  superintendent  of  educa¬ 
tion  is  compelled  to  work  “in  a  sort  of  cane-brake  entanglement  of  faulty  and 
inefficient  laws,”  and  demands  that  he  should  have  an  opportunity  to  be  indeed 
the  head  of  a  working  system  of  education.  He  urges  the  training  of  teachers 
from  “home  material,”  and  deprecates  the  habit  of  depending  for  teachers  on 
he  North,  as  they  are  out  “of  sympathy  with  Southern  ideas  and  conditions,’ 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


367 


etc.,  and  suggests  for  this  purpose  the  establishment  of  a  State  normal  school, 
with  a  model  school  annex,  to  create  a  proper  teaching  profession.  About  this 
time  we  hear  of  the  formation  of  a  school  teachers’  association,  which  seems  to 
have  been  an  attempt  to  revive  a  similar  organization  founded  in  1838. 

In  1855  Governor  Herbert  confirms  the  declaration  of  the  State  superintendent 
that  “the  scheme  may  be  considered  almost  a  failure.  This  was  predicted  several 
years  earlier  by  men  who  had  made  the  subject  of  public  education  the  study  of 
their  lives.  But  their  warnings  were  not  heeded.  A  plan  was  inaugurated  at  one 
session  of  the  legislature  and  entirely  modified  at  the  next.  This  system  was  first 
deprived  of  some  of  its  legitimate  power  and  of  its  means  of  influence.  The  func¬ 
tions  of  the  body  were  thus  transferred  to  some  other  agent,  whose  labors  were 
afterwards  curtailed  of  their  proportions.  It  is  not  a  system;  it  is  a  weltering 
confusion  of  chaos.” 

One  has  only  to  study  carefully  the  amazing  medley  which,  under  the  name  of 
the  school  laws,  in  1855,  was  sent  forth  from  the  statehouse,  with  the  addition 
of  the  numerous  enactments  in  behalf  of  favored  localities,  with  a  commentary  of 
the  social  and  material  conditions  of  life  in  a  rural  country  like  Louisiana  half  a 
century  ago,  to  understand  the  deceptiveness  of  the  educational  statistics  in  the 
department  of  common-school  instruction  during  those  sixteen  years.  It  is 
almost  incredible  that,  with  such  a  division  of  responsibility  and  with  so  little 
power  for  the  enforcement  of  the  statutes,  anything  could  be  well  done,  or  that 
the  different  agents  employed  could  work  with  any  degree  of  energy  without  per¬ 
petual  conflict  of  opinion  amid  “  confusion  worse  confounded.”  The  State  super¬ 
intendent  of  education  under  such  conditions  could  be  only  an  amiable  figurehead, 
poised  on  his  educational  lookout  of  contemplation  over  a  realm  of  confused 
and  misdirected  activity.  A  radical  mistake  seems  to  have  been  made  by  intrust¬ 
ing  the  most  important  duties  of  administration  to  officials  who  in  other  States 
would  be  working  on  a  good  salary,  but  these  were  police  justices-,  county  clerks, 
etc.  These  persons,  already  burdened  with  the  duties  of  their  own  peculiar 
offices,  could  only  be  held  to  the  additional  labor  of  superintending  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  a  system  of  common  schools  by  the  offer  of  a  competent  salary,  for 
which  there  was  no  provision.  In  many  cases  they  might  have  been  personally 
indifferent  or  even  hostile  to  the  public-school  system  and  would  labor  with  more 
effect  on  the  line  of  “  how  not  to  do  it  ”  than  elsewhere. 

Between  them  and  the  “  directors  ”  chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  school  districts 
there  must  have  been  an  endless  opportunity  of  collision  for  precedence  in  admin¬ 
istration  and  a  general  habit  of  misunderstanding.  The  complicated  business  of 
the  management  of  the  township  school  lands  not  under  the  control  of  the  State 
was  in  itself  sufficient  for  a  conflict,  even  among  officials  of  first  rate  executive 
ability.  When  we  add  to  this  the  environment  of  the  public  school,  the  constant 
pressure  of  an  ecclesiastical  power  always  and  everywhere  pledged  in  advance 
against  the  American  system  of  public  education,  a  power  which  to  a  majority  of 
the  white  people  of  Louisiana  was  practically  a  higher  law,  the  sparseness  of  popu¬ 
lation,  and  the  strange  mixture  of  peoples,  we  need  not  wonder  that,  with  the  best 
intentions  and  for  the  time  and  place  a  generous  expenditure  of  money,  the  work 
of  consolidating  the  people  in  the  support  of  an  expensive  system  of  common 
schools  should  have  languished  until  the  war  came  in  like  ‘  ‘  a  great  flood  and 
drowned  them  all.  ” 

The  attempt  to  treat  the  history  of  such  a  condition  of  affairs  as  prevailed  in 
this  long  period  of ,  maladministration  of  the  common-school  affairs  of  Louisiana 
during  the  twenty  years,  from  1845  to  1865,  would  be  a  well-nigh  hopeless  and 
certainly  unwelcome  task.  The  lack  of  cooperation  is  evident  at  every  point. 
Indeed,  it  was  virtually  impossible  in  a  state  of  society  so  essentially  aristocratic 
as  that  of  the  Louisiana  of  half  a  century  ago  to  find  that  remarkable  power  of 
public  administration,  at  once  conservative  of  the  best  in  the  past  and  always  on 


368 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  lookout  for  the  necessities  of  the  present  and  the  possibilities  of  the  future, 
which  is  the  marvel  of  our  American  republican  order  of  society,  and  never  can 
be  understood  save  by  a  people  trained  in  the  habit  of  ‘  ‘  working  together  for 
good.  ” 

One  exception  to  this  failure  in  Louisiana  was  the  success  of  the  public  schools 
of  New  Orleans,  which,  under  the  direction  of  a  capable  executive  and  an  able 
educator,  did  fairly  compass  what  they  set  out  to  do.  In  1858  a  boys’  department 
was  added  to  the  Girls’  Public  High  School  of  the  city,  subsidized  by  a  gift  of 
$5,000,  distributed  at  the  rate  of  $50  per  capita  to  the  students.  In  1860  the  State 
appropriation  was  raised  to  $10,000  for  buildings,  conditioned  on  the  city  raising  a 
similar  amount,  and  that  48  pupils  selected  by  the  governor  were  to  be  admitted 
free  of  tuition. 

The  testimony  of  the  faithful  Dr.  Lusher,  who  at  a  subsequent  period  acted 
as  local  agent  for  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund  in  the  State  and  as  principal  of 
the  Peabody  Normal  School,  is  to  the  effect  that  these  graduates  were  preferred 
above  others  and  justified  their  “  calling  and  election.”  But  after  the  year  1858 
every  step  in  educational  reform  was  a  step  toward  the  dark  cloud  of  the  oncoming 
civil  war  that,  in  1860,  swallowed  up  the  entire  South  in  a  horror  of  darkness  and 
confusion,  wherein  everything  done  for  the  common  school  since  1845  disappeared 
as  under  the  stroke  of  a  cyclone. 

The  outcome  of  the  twenty  years’  work  of  the  public  school  system  of  New 
Orleans— from  1841  to  1861 — is  given  in  the  reports  of  the  superintendent,  Mr. 
William  O.  Rogers,  so  long  a  faithful  servant  of  the  people  of  that  educationally 
afflicted  city  during  the  turbulent  years  of  war,  reconstruction,  and  rehabilita¬ 
tion  until  1882,  when  he  became  an  important  official  of  Tulane  University. 
According  to  this  document  it  appears  that,  beginning  in  1842,  with  a  little  group 
of  13  scholars  and  2  teachers,  in  one  schoolroom,  under  Mr.  J.  A.  Shaw,  the 
attendance  increased  to  319  in  a  month  and  1,397  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  with 
an  average  attendance  of  840.  From  that  date  the  number  steadily  increased 
until,  in  1859-60,  there  were  6,083  names  on  the  register,  with  an  enrollment  of 
3,415  and  an  average  attendance  of  3,044,  with  night  schools  containing  753. 
During  these  eighteen  years  12,379  boys  and  11,014  girls  had  entered  the  schools — 
23,393  in  all. 

The  system  in  the  first  district  was  graded  into  district,  high,  normal,  and  night 
schools.  Of  these,  ten  were  district  schools,  each  district  including  a  department 
for  boys  and  girls,  each  school  including  four  grades.  As  usual,  the  primary 
schoolrooms  were  densely  crowded,  and  the  superintendent  cried  aloud  for  more 
and  better  houses  and  more  ample  outdoor  room. 

Eighty-six  boys  had  been  admitted  to  the  high  school  in  1859-60.  The  superin¬ 
tendent  magnifies  the  importance,  now  unanimously  acknowledged,  of  separating 
the  small  number  preparing  for  college  from  the  majority  who  were  only  taking 
a  period  of  the  secondary  education  as  a  preparation  for  active  life,  and  urges  the 
necessity  of  a  high  school  building.  There  were  148  pupils  in  the  girls’  high  school, 
which  seems  to  have  been  organized  in  a  practical  way,  free  from  the  regulation 
incubus  of  Latin  as  a  compulsory  study,  while  the  French  language  was  very 
properly,  in  New  Orleans,  made  a  condition  of  graduation  and  promotion.  A 
library  and  lyceum  society  had  existed  in  the  city  since  1844,  with  a  collection  of 
nearly  10,000  volumes;  10,500  volumes  had  been  read  during  the  year,  one-half 
the  number  “  works  of  fiction.”  The  superintendent  of  schools  was  the  librarian, 
and  seems  to  have  been  working  on  the  SEtme  line  as  the  present  union  of  the  pub¬ 
lic  library  and  common  school.  A  night  school  of  753  pupils  and  model  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  500  were  testimony  to  the  interest  in  education  of  the  white 
laboring  class.  The  State  Normal  School  in  this  district  made  its  third  report. 
The  city  had  complied  with  the  conditions  of  the  State  appropriation  of  $10,000,  by 
the  erection  of  a  building  at  a  cost  of  $20,000.  One  hundred  and  sixteen  pupil 


4& 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860.  3  69 

teachers  had  been  admitted,  of  whom  67  remained  through  the  year.  A  prepara¬ 
tory  class  had  been  organized.  The  total  expense  for  the  entire  system  of  public 
schools  in  the  city  in  1860  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  $90,000. 

The  first  report  of  Superintendent  Dimitry,  first  of  the  State  superintendents, 
at  the  end  of  a  nine  months’  service,  gives  23,000  of  a  school  population  of  43,000 
in  attendance  on  the  schools,  at  an  average  cost  of  $6.21  for  the  school  term. 
Thirty-nine  of  the  47  parishes  of  the  State  showed  704  school  districts,  with  schools 
in  session  during  an  average  term  of  six  months  and  thirteen  days,  the  entire 
expenses  being  $340,000. 

It  would  be  instructive  to  quote  largely  from  the  report  of  Superintendent 
Dimitry  at  the  end  of  the  first  year's  experiment  of  the  new  system  of  general  edu¬ 
cation.  He  appreciates  the  difficulties  of  the  undertaking,  but  “he  has  never 
despaired  of  the  cause  if  it  shall  be  only  reasonably  fortified  against  unreasonable 
assault.  With  practical  fortitude  to  bear  the  toil,  with  intelligent  agents  to  carry 
the  schools  through  their  probation,  and  means  measurably  adequate  to  sustain 
them  in  their  growth,  there  is  no  mistaking  the  result.  Many  a  day  will  the 
friends  of  education  have  to  struggle  before  they  can  get  the  people  to  realize  the 
idea  that  the  first  of  rights  is  the  right  of  mind  and  that  all  others  are  denomina¬ 
tions  of  this.  It  is  a  question  between  money  and  mind,  the  gift  of  God  to  crea¬ 
tures  fashioned  after  His  own  image  for  incomprehensible  destinies.”  Lofty 
words  and  true;  a  stern  and  wise  summons  to  the  people  of  any  State  yet  battling 
in  the  everlasting  conflict  of  mind  with  all  its  enemies. 

The  chronic  weakness  of  the  system  of  American  common  schools  appears  here, 
as  in  every  State  of  the  Union.  It  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  system  of  uni¬ 
versal  education  is  so  largely  conditioned  upon  the  development  of  an  urban  as 
opposed  to  a  rural  civilization.  In  the  governments  of  central  Europe  a  despotic 
civil  power  does  compel  the  masses  of  the  people,  even  in  the  densely  populated 
cities,  to  give  their  children  a  moderate  amount  of  schooling  for  the  use  of  the 
common  life  of  the  European  subject.  In  our  own  land,  whose  institutions  all 
tend  to  the  creation  of  an  exaggerated  individuality  of  opinion  and  action,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  Southern  States,  where  this  feature  of  society  was  always  most  evident, 
it  requires  more  than  laws  on  the  statute  book  or  the  most  enthusiastic  acceptance 
of  educational  systems  to  keep  our  strangely-mingled  populations  up  to  their  full 
duty  to  their  children.  Compulsory  education  in  the  European  form  is  here  a 
virtual  impossibility.  Only  a  degree  of  popular  interest  never  before  attained  in 
any  land  can  suffice  for  the  steady  support  of  a  system  of  free  education  subsi¬ 
dized  by  the  State  and  sustained  by  local  taxation.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
moral  and  patriotic  obligation  to  do  this  and  the  doing  it  in  any  degree  is  in 
itself  a  most  valuable  training  of  the  whole  community  in  the  duties  of  a  good 
citizenship  in  a  republican  state.  That  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  a  cen¬ 
tury  following  upon  a  great  civil  war  that  swallowed  up  all  educational  affairs  in 
the  16  Southern  States  of  the  Union,  the  responsible  classes  of  all  these  Common¬ 
wealths  have  at  one  supreme  effort  lifted  themselves  up  to  “  the  height  of  the 
great  argument  ”  of  universal  education  for  all  their  people,  is  the  best  proof  that 
the  stern  experience  of  their  past  half  century  of  school  life  has  not  been  in  vain. 

This  appeared  when,  at  the  first  opportunity  offered  for  concentrated  public 
action,  from  1865  to  1880,  the  superior  class  in  every  State  of  the  South  took  up 
the  common  school  for  all  classes  under  the  most  discouraging  conditions  and 
carried  it  on  after  a  fashion  that  won  the  approval  of  all  civilized  portions  of  the 
earth.  The  entire  expenditure  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  in  the  attempt  to  support 
an  adequate  system  of  public  instruction  from  1847  to  1866,  the  close  of  the  civil 
war,  was  $4,795,000.  Of  the  large  sums  voted  during  the  war  and  the  early  period 
of  reconstruction  a  considerable  portion  evidently  did  not  reach  the  schools.  Add¬ 
ing  to  this  the  sum  appropriated  to  colleges  and  academies  and  other  secondary 


ED  1901- 


■24 


370 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


institutions,  the  entire  sum  expended  for  thirty  years  reached  the  amount  of 
$16,450,000.  We  must  remember  that  this  was  in  the  day  everywhere  of  compar¬ 
atively  small  expenditure  for  public  education.  We  can  not  withhold  the  testi¬ 
mony  to  the  public  spirit  and  zeal  of  the  people  of  Louisiana  in  the  cause  of 
universal  education.  In  New  Orleans  in  1860  the  salaries  of  teachers  in  the 
public  schools  were  well  in  advance  of  the  majority  of  cities  in  the  Union,  $2,280 
for  principal  of  high,  $1,500  for  master  of  a  grammar,  $1,020  for  several  lady 
principals,  and  $600  for  yeomen  assistants.  Well  might  President  William  Preston 
Johnston,  of  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  in  his  able  address  on  “Education 
in  Louisiana”  before  the  National  Association  of  Teachers,  in  1886,  say:  “The 
scattering  of  resources  is  really  a  squandering  of  public  funds,  and  means 
waste  and  ruin,  while  concentration  insures  strength,  stability,  and  ultimate 
success.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  more  pertinent  illustration,  and  the  lesson 
has  its  value  elsewhere  than  in  Louisiana.” 

Mention  may  be  made  of  the  singular  misappropriation  or  absolute  waste 
of  several  large  benefactions.  Several  years  ago  Hon.  Randall  Hunt,  of  New 
Orleans,  read  an  address  upon  the  subject  of  these  large  gifts  which  had  been  left 
to  the  State  of  Louisiana  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  The  record  was  a  startling 
history  of  the  loss  of  great  benefactions  and  the  strange  neglect  and  misuse  of 
golden  opportunities  for  the  children  and  youth.  Beginning  with  gifts  of  houses 
and  lands  during  the  first  years  of  the  colonial  life  of  the  country  in  New  Orleans, 
an  illustrious  company  of  benefactors  could  be  named. 

Julian  Poydras,  in  1838,  established  the  Poydras  Academy  in  Pointe  Coupe© 
Parish.  The  sum  donated  is  not  given,  but  it  was  amply  sufficient  for  the  addi¬ 
tional  support  of  two  primary  schools  in  each  ward  of  the  city.  In  addition  to 
this  Mr.  Poydras  established  an  orphan  asylum.  Both  these  institutions  are  in 
operation  to-day. 

Alexander  Milne,  a  native  of  Scotland,  left  in  1839  a  large  amount  of  real  estate 
in  New  Orleans  to  found  an  asylum  for  white  orphan  boys  and  girls,  of  which  no 
trace  remains  to-day.  He  also  founded  a  school  in  his  native  place  in  Scotland, 
which  has  been  cherished  and  is  still  a  reliable  seminary  of  the  secondary  type. 

The  most  munificent  gift  to  the  cause  of  education,  perhaps  the  largest  single 
benefaction  of  the  sort  in  the  country  at  the  date,  was  found  in  the  will  of  John 
McDonogh,  who  died  in  1825  in  New  Orleans,  leaving  behind  what  was  estimated 
as  the  largest  fortune  in  the  Southern  States,  for  purposes  of  general  education 
and  charity.  John  McDonogh  was  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1779.  His  parents 
were  Scotch  people,  in  very  moderate  circumstances,  but  evidently  persons  of 
strong  character  and  unusual  intelligence.  They  gave  to  the  boy  such  schooling 
as  was  at  hand,  and  especially  a  love  for  music,  which  he  says  “acted  as  the 
charm  of  my  existence,  and  was  in  many  ways  essentially  the  source  of  the  little 
religion  I  possess.”  At  an  early  age  he  was  put  to  work  as  a  commercial  clerk  in 
a  house  concerned  in  large  American  and  European  transactions.  In  1804,  as  the 
result  of  two  voyages  in  the  interest  of  his  employers  to  New  Orleans,  he  settled 
and  lived  there  until  his  death,  in  1850,  at  the  age  of  71.  In  commercial  pursuits 
he  amassed  what  was  then  regarded  a  great  fortune,  and  was  reported  as  living 
in  “magnificent  style,”  a  notable  character  in  society,  as  early  as  1809,  at  the  age 
of  30.  He  served  in  the  defense  of  the  city  under  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  in  1815, 
and  in  1819,  at  the  age  of  40,  removed  to  a  plantation  on  the  “shore”  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  River,  opposite  New  Orleans,  where  he  lived  in  great  seclusion,  indulging 
his  personal  humors,  with  many  of  the  eccentricities  of  bachelor  life,  until  his 
death.  He  is  said  never  to  have  passed  a  night  in  the  city  after  this  removal,  and 
every  morning  was  rowed  in  his  skiff  by  his  colored  servant  across  the  broad 
water  to  attend  to  his  business  in  town.  His  later  occupation  was  the  making 
and  caring  for  his  real-estate  investments  in  the  growing  metropolis  of  New 
Orleans  and  in  various  other  favorite  localities.  His  correspondence  with  learned 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


371 


men  in  the  country  was  extensive,  and.  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  press. 
He  never  married  and  had  no  heirs  at  law  in  whom  he  was  especially  interested. 
In  his  will  he  left  a  small  estate  in  lands  to  the  children  of  a  sister;  he  emanci¬ 
pated  his  slaves  and  gave  to  each  a  Bible,  and  made  arrangements  for  a  free 
passage  to  Liberia,  with  a  direction  of  how  to  get  a  living  when  there. 

The  remainder  of  his  widely  scattered  property  he  bequeathed,  in  equal  por¬ 
tions,  to  the  city  authorities  of  New  Orleans  and  Baltimore,  for  the  establishment 
of  free  schools  and  institutions,  where  the  poor  of  all  classes  and  both  races  should 
be  educated,  free  of  expense,  in  the  common  branches  of  an  English  education, 
with  a  proviso  that  the  Bible  should  be  always  used  as  a  principal  reading  book 
in  all  the  schools.  The  will  provided  that  none  of  his  real  property  should  ever  be 
sold,  but  be  loaned  to  good  tenants  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  twenty-five  years  at 
a  time  in  order  that  all  his  possessions  might  be  concentrated  in  a  permanent 
fund  to  be  forever  appropriated  to  the  cause  of  education.  One  annuity  was 
reserved  of  $25,000  a  year  to  the  American  Colonization  Society  for  the  colonizing 
of  free  people  of  color  during  forty  years  in  Africa.  A  second  annuity,  one-eighth 
part  of  the  net  yearly  income  from  his  entire  estate,  was  to  be  paid  annually  until 
the  entire  sum  was  $600,000,  for  an  asylum  for  the  poor  of  both  sexes  and  races. 
A  third  annuity  of  one-eighth  of  all  the  yearly  income  of  his  estate  was  given 
for  an  institution  for  the  relief  of  destitute  orphan  boys  to  the  extent  of  $400,000. 
To  his  native  city,  Baltimore,  he  bequeathed  one-eighth  of  his  estate,  to  the  extent 
of  $3,000,000,  for  the  establishment  of  a  “  school  farm”  for  the  use  of  poor  male 
children,  first  in  Baltimore,  afterwards  in  every  city  and  village  of  the  State  of 
Maryland,  then  in  all  the  chief  manufacturing  cities  of  the  East,  the  recipients  to 
be  of  all  classes  and  conditions  of  children  and  youth  from  4  to  16.  The  pupils 
were  to  be  supported  in  the  institution,  given  a  good  English  education,  taught 
agricultural  and  mechanical  trades,  and  instructed  in  the  Bible  and  the  Christian 
religion,  the  school  farm,  after  forty  years,  becoming  the  residuary  legatee  of  the 
asylum  fund.  After  the  lapse  of  the  other  testamentary  funds  all  the  property 
was  to  be  concentrated  in  two  grand  portions  for  the  education  of  the  poor 
children  of  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans. 

During  his  thirty  years  of  recluse  residence  opposite  the  city  Mr.  McDonogh 
fought  hard  in  various  ways  with  large  numbers  of  people  in  the  city.  He  com¬ 
plains,  in  his  will,  that  44  every  man’s  hand  is  against  him,”  and  draws  up  his 
severe  indictment  of  a  popular  desire  to  plunder,  harass,, and  generally  insult 
him.  But  he  writes  that  he  leaves  behind  money  enough  to  educate  in  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  Lord  and  in  the  schooling  of  a  good  English  education,  if  possible, 
every  poor  child  in  the  States  of  Louisiana  and  Maryland. 

The  list  of  his  estates  thus  bequeathed  to  the  holy  cause  of  education,  if  reliable, 
would  seem  to  indicate  a  fortune  larger  than  any  man  at  that  day  possessed  in  the 
South,  perhaps  larger  than  any  estate  in  the  country.  The  bulk  of  it  was  in  real 
estate,  estimated  by  himself  at  a  large  future  valuation,  founded  on  his  expectation 
that  New  Orleans  “would  become  one  of  the  greatest  cities  of  the  world.”  If  it 
could  have  been  collected  and  administered  in  the  way  he  had  anticipated,  his 
anticipations  might  have  been  realized:  44  A  huge  mountain  of  property  that  would 
yield  its  increase  to  the  honor  of  God  and  the  benefit  of  generations  yet  unborn 
through  all  ages  of  the  world.  ” 

But  this  grand  benefaction  suffered  the  fate  that  befalls  so  many  magnificent 
schemes  of  public  philanthropy,  of  which  more  than  one  example  can  be  quoted 
to-day.  A  cloud  of  contestants  rushed  to  the  assault,  and  what  with  boundless 
litigation,  the  claims  of  defective  titles,  the  popular  clamor  over  his  personality, 
and  possibly  a  jealousy  of  his  including  the  colored  race  in  all  his  bequests,  the 
wreck  of  the  vast  estate  was  almost  completed.  The  result  of  several  years’  con¬ 
tention  was  that  $1,500,000  was  finally  passed  over  to  the  cities  of  Baltimore  and 
New  Orleans.  It  is  estimated  that  a  fair  treatment  of  the  property  would  have 


372 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


realized  $10,000,000.  From  wliat  is  left  the  city  of  Baltimore  has  established  an 
institution  of  the  kind  indicated  in  the  donor's  will.  The  city  of  New  Orleans 
realized  a  fund  of  $750,000,  from  which  eighteen  public  schoolhouses  had,  up  to 
1898,  been  erected,  with  a  fund  estimated  at  $1,800,000.  An  asylum  for  white 
orphans  has  also  been  built  up  from  the  remains  of  the  McDonogh  and  Milne  funds. 

The  popular  opinion  of  the  wreck  of  an  immense  estate  is,  however,  believed  by 
well-informed  authorities  to  be  not  well  founded.  The  estate  is  said  to  have  been 
greatly  overestimated  by  the  owner,  its  value  depending  on  the  optimistic  dream 
of  a  metropolitan  greatness  of  New  Orleans  that  never  came.  The  plan  itself,  it 
is  believed,  was  impracticable  and  so  complicated  and  weighted  with  impossible 
conditions  that  it  could  never  be  executed,  and  in  consequence  it  went  the  way  of 
ail  exaggerated  and  romantic  bequests  conceived  in  the  dreams  of  a  recluse. 

One  result  of  this  benefaction,  which  bears  on  its  face  the  impress  of  the  conse¬ 
cration  of  its  donor  to  the  cause  of  universal  education,  though  hidden  from  him, 
has  in  a  way  come  near  the  accomplishment  of  his  benevolent  intention.  The 
school  system  of  New  Orleans,  for  which  so  much  had  been  attempted  in  its  earlier 
days,  during  the  years  following  the  civil  war  was  so  depressed  from  various  causes 
that  its  most  intelligent  and  devoted  friends  anticipated  the  most  serious  damage 
to  the  cause  of  free  education  in  the  city.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  provision 
of  the  present  McDonogh  fund,  which  resulted  in  the  building  of  eighteen  com¬ 
mon-school  houses  of  a  style  that  attracted  crowds  of  pupils  and  kept  the  schools 
before  the  people,  was  a  very  decided  element  in  the  final  turn  of  the  tide  in  the 
cause  of  public  education  in  that  great  city,  now,  after  many  years  of  trial,  appar¬ 
ently  once  more  embarked  on  the  flowing  sea  of  industrial  prosperity.  One  of  the 
most  attractive  features  in  the  condition  and  spirit  of  public-school  affairs  in  New 
Orleans,  as  noted  by  the  author  of  this  essay  in  a  visit  in  the  spring  of  1898,  was  a 
revival  of  interest  in  the  memory  of  John  McDonogh  among  the  entire  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  city.  In  the  schoolhouses  bearing  his  name  his  portrait  was  every¬ 
where  present,  often  framed  in  evergreens,  with  a  perpetual  gift  of  flowers  supplied 
by  the  children.  His  birthday  is  now  observed  with  beautiful  ceremonies,  his 
biography  read  by  the  pupils  of  the  schools,  and  a  fund  is  being  made  up  by  the 
contributions  of  the  scholars  of  all  schools  and  both  races  for  a  monument,  to 
occupy  a  conspicuous  situation.  The  change  from  the  old  estate,  in  which  the 
lonely  man,  writing  his  will,  declares  that  “every  man’s  hand  is  against  him, 
while  the  children  follow- him  in  the  streets  with  perpetual  annoyance  and  insult,” 
to  the  spectacle  of  to-day  is  only  another  proof  of  the  fact,  too  often  forgotten  by 
the  benefactors  of  the  coming  generation,  that,  with  all  its  follies,  failures,  and 
depravities,  our  human  nature  never  forgets  those  that  trust  in  its  essential  recti¬ 
tude.  “  The  righteous  are  held  in  everlasting  remembrance.” 

Other  bequests  of  a  similar  character  for  the  city  of  New  Orleans  might  be 
noted,  though  somewhat  apart  from  the  purpose  of  this  essay.  The  last  of  these 
large  bequests  has  been  the  gift  of  Paul  Tulane,  a  native  of  New  Jersey,  for  many 
years  a  resident  of  New  Orleans,  which,  united  with  the  bequests  of  Miss  Howard 
and  Mrs.  Newcomb,  both  of  Northern  descent,  though  for  many  years  residing  in 
the  city,  and  the  later  bequest  of  Mrs.  Richardson  to  the  medical  department  of 
•  Tulane  University,  have  resulted  in  the  absorption  of  all  the  departments  of  the 
University  of  Louisiana  in  the  present  Tulane  University,  of  which  the  Sophie 
Newcomb  College  for  young  ladies  is  the  female  department,  as  far  as  the  univer¬ 
sity  course,  to  which  its  graduates  are  admitted  on  equal  terms  with  young  men. 
This  noble  foundation  can  hardly  fail  to  realize  the  uttermost  expectations  of  the 
educational  public  of  Louisiana  from  the  beginning.  The  united  gifts  of  Paul 
Tulane  and  Mrs.  Newcomb  possibly  already  have  reached  the  sum  of  $5,000,000. 
By  the  depreciation  of  real  estate  in  New  Orleans  the  institution  lias  been  able  to 
place  itself  in  probably  the  most  attractive  groups  of  university  buildings  in  the 
South.  In  thoroughness  of  instruction,  the  ability  of  its  faculty,  the  breadth  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1830  TO  1860. 


373 


adaptability  of  its  curriculum,  the  fame  of  its  professional  departments,  and  the 
■well-deserved  distinction  of  its  late  president,  William  Preston  Johnston,  it  leaves 
nothing  to  be  desired  except  the  hearty  appreciation  and  cooperation  of  the  State 
for  its  great  success.  Although  the  university  was  established  in  cooperation  with 
the  State,  its  present  organization  as  a  private  corporation  removes  it  from  any 
dangerous  complication  with  the  ups  and  downs  of  State  or  municipal  politics, 
while  its  unsectarian  religious  platform  and  hearty  sympathy  with  the  public- 
school  interest  of  the  city  and  Commonwealth  give  to  the  people  the  assurance 
against  any  narrowness  or  exclusiveness  in  its  administration. 

Especially  in  the  departments  of  natural  science  and  its  application  to  the  lead¬ 
ing  industries  of  the  State,  of  the  higher  industrial,  artisan,  and  artistic  training 
of  its  students  of  both  sexes,  its  broad  and  generous  education  in  the  English 
language  and  literature,  its  vigorous  development  of  university  extension  through 
courses  of  popular  lectures  and  instruction  of  classes  outside  its  regular  student 
body,  it  has  already  proved  itself  a  model  people’s  university.  One  of  its  most 
valuable  services  to  the  city  has  been  the  gathering  of  an  excellent  library,  reading 
rooms,  and  a  museum.  In  connection  with  the  munificent  gift  of  the  Howard 
family  for  the  establishment  of  a  valuable  institution  for  general  study  and  con¬ 
sultation,  the  city  of  New  Orleans  has  now,  for  the  first  time,  a  thoroughly  organ¬ 
ized  public  library,  steadily  increasing  in  value. 

The  difficulties  that  have  hitherto  beset  the  establishment  of  the  public-school 
system  of  the  city  seemed  in  1898  to  be  overcome.  Under  the  efficient  superin¬ 
tendence  of  the  Hon.  Warren  Easton  every  department  of  the  common  schools 
for  both  races  was  firmly  grounded  and  making  decided  progress.  A  new  feature 
is  the  revival  of  the  former  normal  school  for  teachers,  with  a  broader  administra¬ 
tion  and  superior  opportunities  for  a  practice  department.  The  arrangements  for 
the  secondary,  higher,  and  industrial  education  of  colored  youth  in  the  State  insti¬ 
tution  and  several  valuable  seminaries  supported  by  the  Northern  churches  are 
amply  sufficient  for  all  reasonable  requirements  of  the  city,  with  large  attendance 
of  students  from  all  portions  of  the  State.  \ 

Altogether  it  can  be  said  with  truth  that  in  no  State  of  the  Union  has  the  intel¬ 
ligent  and  persistent  determination  of  the  educational  public  to  extend  the  blessings 
of  the  American  common  school  to  its  entire  population  been  more  conspicuous 
than  during  the  long  period,  covering  nearly  an  entire  century,  since  the  acquisi¬ 
tion  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana  by  the  United  States.  Nowhere  have  the  diffi¬ 
culties  and  complications  of  nationality,  race,  and  religion  been  more  serious  and 
apparently  insurmountable,  and  nowhere  have  the  “staying  qualities”  of  an 
educational  public  of  the  American  type  been  more  apparent,  and  nowhere  appar¬ 
ently  more  destined  to  be  crowned  at  the  opening  of  the  new  century  with 
permanent  success. 


MISSOURI. 

The  loud  call  of  the  far-away  Republic  of  Texas  for  free  schools  for  the  children, 
which  resounded  through  the  corridors  of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts,  the 
foremost  common-school  Commonwealth  in  the  inauguration  of  the  great  revival 
of  popular  education  from  1835  to  1860,  was  followed  by  the  State  of  Missouri. 
In  1839,  two  years  after  the  election  of  Horace  Mann  as  secretary  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  board  of  education,  the  State  of  Missouri  enacted  its  first  school  law, 
under  which  it  has  gone  on  “from  strength  to  strength  ”  during  more  than  a  half 
century  to  its  present  high  distinction  in  the  cause  of  universal  education.  This 
revival  of  1835-1860  was  not  the  monopoly  of  any  State,  even  the  States  of  New 
England,  which  first  became  conspicuous  in  it.  It  was  a  great  and  widespread 


374 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


uprising  of  the  whole  American  people  in  behalf  of  a  more  effectual  system  of 
educational  training  for  American  citizenship. 

Through  the  first  half  century  of  the  Republic,  until  1830,  much  had  been  done 
in  the  way  of  disseminating  information,  collecting  materials,  and  making  various 
experiments  in  the  direction  of  the  best  methods  of  educating  the  whole  people. 
The  result  was  that  in  the  most  favored  school  commonwealths  the  conviction  was 
the  strongest  that  a  radical  reform,  especially  in  the  organization,  support,  and 
supervision  of  common  schools,  was  imperative.  The  entire  group  of  the  North¬ 
ern  States  was  moved  in  accord  with  the  heroic  labors  of  Mann,  Barnard,  and 
their  associates  in  the  old  Northeastern  States.  Even  the  Southern  States,  that* 
hitherto  had  resisted  the  appeals  of  their  own  most  eminent  statesmen  and  edu¬ 
cators  for  a  more  extended  schooling  of  their  white  population,  were  profoundly 
stirred,  and  in  several  of  them  efforts  were  made  to  bring  the  people  and  legisla¬ 
tures  into  line  with  the  general  movement  of  the  country.  In  some  cases  these 
efforts  were  not  without  success;  in  all  cases  they  were  really  a  step'  forwaid,  by 
a  considerable  body  of  their  people,  for  better  things. 

We  have  already  shown  to  what  extent  this  invitation  had  been  responded  to  in 
all  the  States  of  the  South.  It  remains  to  put  on  record  the  action  of  Missouri,  one 
of  the  most  characteristic  of  the  new  States  of  the  Union,  in  this  direction.  The 
preliminary  steps  by  which  this  State  paved  the  way  for  definite  action,  from  1830 
to  1889,  have  already  been  detailed  in  a  former  essay  by  the  present  writer.  The 
real  common-school  history  of  the  State  of  Missouri  began  in  1839,  when  the  first 
law  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  common  schools  was  put  upon  the  statute, 
books. 

At  this  date  there  would  seem  to  have  been  the  most  ample  provisions  for  the 
support  of  an  effective  scheme  of  public  instruction,  from  the  generous  donations 
by  the  National  Government  of  large  areas  of  public  lands,  made  in  1830,.  on  the 
admission  of  the  State  to  the  Union,  and  during  the  subsequent  years  by  impor¬ 
tant  additions.  In  1839  the  public  funds  for  the  support  of  a  complete  system  of 
common  schools,  including  a  State  university  in  Missouri,  were: 

First.  All  past  and  prospective  moneys  deposited  with  the  State  by  the  act  of 
Congress  of  183G,  commdnly  called  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  revenue. 

Second.  The  proceeds  of  all  school  and  other  lands  vested  in  the  State  by  escheat, 
purchase,  or  forfeiture  for  taxes,  with  all  the  interest,  dividends,  proceeds,  and 
profits  of  such  moneys  and  lands.  All  these  were  known  as  the  “  State  school 
moneys.” 

Third.  The  county  school  funds,  consisting  of  all  moneys  that  should  be  paid  into 
the  county  treasuries  for  the  use  of  common  schools  on  account  of  fines,  forfeit¬ 
ures,  or  otherwise.  These  were  known  as  the  “County  school  moneys.” 

Fourth.  The  original  sixteenth  section  public  lands,  distributed  to  all  the  new 
States  after  the  admission  of  Ohio  to  the  Union,  retained  by  the  different  town¬ 
ships,  of  which  the  sixteenth  section  was  a  component  part.  All  these,  with  their 
income  and  the  forfeitures  and  fines  enforced  for  waste,  trespass,  or  other  causes, 
constituted  a  fund,  denominated  “the  township  school  fund,”  for  the  use  of  the 
township  to  which  it  belonged. 

The  State  fund  had  been  so  administered  that  there  could  be  only  a  distribution 
of  60  cents  per  capita  to  the  50,000  children  and  youth  between  the  ages  of  6  and 
18  in  1840.  What  were  the  additions  from  the  county  and  township  funds  there 
seem  to  be  no  means  of  determining. 

If  the  question  of  “  The  school  in  politics”  were  to  be  determined  by  an  attempt 
to  comprehend  the  intricate  and  political  relations  of  this  remarkable  school  law 
of  1839,  we  fear  that  a  somewhat  mythioal  personage,  the  educational  politician, 
would  find  less  favor  than  at  present  in  the  eyes  of  ;  ‘  the  plain  people.  ”  The  school 
law  of  Missouri  in  1839  is  intolerably  prolix,  and  seems  constructed  on  the  prin¬ 
ciple  that  common  intelligence  and  honesty  were  so  rare  commodities  in  Missouri, 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


375 


twenty  years  after  it  had  emerged  from  its  experience  as  a  savage  territory,  that 
every  act  and  device  of  a  public-school  official  should  be  surrounded  by  a  thorny 
and  exasperating  environment  of  preventives  and  defenses.  Nothing  could  have 
been  so  sure  to  invite  reaction  among  the  friends,  and  furnish  abundant  satisfac¬ 
tion  to  the  enemies  of  a  common-school  system  as  a  statute  of  this  quality,  requir¬ 
ing  the  professional  training  of  “a  Philadelphia  lawyer  ”  for  its  comprehension 
and  an  omniscient  court  for  its  enforcement. 

In  brief,  its  provisions  were— 

First.  The  determination  of  the  school  fund  of  the  State,  as  already  noted,  and 
the  direction  of  the  legislative  and  executive  power  of  the  State  as  the  guardian  and 
dispenser  of  its  bounty  to  the  children. 

Second.  A  State  superintendent  of  education,  to  be  chosen  by  the  State  legisla¬ 
ture  and  commissioned  by  the  governor,  to  hold  office  for  two  years. 

Third.  The  governor,  attorney-general,  and  State  superintendent  of  schools 
were  made  a  board  of  commissioners  for  the  management  of  the  State  school 
fund.  A  portion  of  the  stock  of  this  fund  had  already  been  invested  in  the  Bank 
of  Missouri. 

Fourth.  The  sum  distributed  from  the  State  fund  should  not  exceed  60  cents 
for  each  child  in  the  State,  from  the  ages  of  6  to  18. 

Fifth.  No  township  or  school  corporation  could  receive  State  moneys  unless  sup¬ 
porting  a  school  of  three  months  in  the  year  by  a  qualified  teacher. 

Sixth.  The  moneys  remaining  after  the  general  distribution  should  be  added  to 
the  principal  of  the  fund. 

Seventh.  The  salary  of  the  State  superintendent  of  schools,  for  the  vast  labor  of 
organizing  and  supervising  the  common  schools  of  a  commonwealth  70,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  with  a  population  in  1840  of  383,702,  of  whom  58,240  were  negro 
slaves,  with  a  very  imperfect  appreciation  among  the  people  of  the  meaning  and 
functions  of  the  common  school,  was  $600  a  year. 

Eighth.  Each  Congressional  township  was  constituted  a  school  district,  which, 
in  educational  affairs,  was  subject  to  the  county  court,  which  exercised  the  gen¬ 
eral  executive  educational  power,  and  used  the  common  county  officials  as  its 
agents. 

Ninth.  This  county  court  managed  the  county  and  township  school  funds  and 
had  the  power  of  loaning  them,  at  a  legal  rate  of  interest,  for  a  fixed  term  of  jmars. 
When  a  school  township  was  organized,  the  court,  by  the  agency  of  the  county 
officials,  distributed  the  respective  moneys  from  the  income  of  the  township,  State, 
and  county  funds. 

Tenth.  The  township  was  authorized  to  elect  a  commissioner  and  two  to  four 
inspectors  of  common  schools,  and  a  township  clerk,  this  board  constituting  the 
school  directors  of  the  township.  This  local  board  should  divide  the  township  into 
a  convenient  number  of  school  districts  and  apportion  the  township  moneys  among 
them,  the  conditions  of  the  distribution  being  that  each  district  should  maintain 
a  school  of  three  months  with  a  qualified  teacher.  The  commissioners  were  the 
custodians  and  distributors  of  the  township  funds,  and  in  case  the  funds  were  not 
used,  they  should  be  returned  to  the  custody  of  the  county  court.  These  directors' 
should  report  to  the  county  clerk  all  needful  particulars  of  the  condition  of  the 
schools.  The  commissioner  and  inspectors  of  the  township  should  examine  teach¬ 
ers.  All  these  officials  were  surrounded  by  an  almost  impenetrable  fortress  of 
rules  and  regulations  concerning  the  faithful  performance  of  their  duties  and  the 
penalties  of  failure,  and  a  fine  of  $5  was  exacted  of  any  man  elected  as  a  school 
official  who  refused  to  serve. 

Eleventh.  Every  school  district  should  be  furnished  with  a  complete  outfit  of  offi¬ 
cials,  consisting  of  three  trustees,  a  clerk,  and  a  collector,  elected  by  popular  vote. 
The  district  majority  of  voters  could  raise  money  by  a  tax  on  the  people  for  the 
building  and  care  of  schoolhouses;  also  had  the  choice  of  the  site;  the  tax  not  to 


376 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


exceed  50  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  taxes  imposed  by  law  for  State  purposes.  This 
body  of  local  trustees  should  have  power  to  hire  teachers  and  fix  their  salaries,  to 
establish  schools  for  four  terms  in  the  year,  and  to  fix  a  rate  bill  to  cover  the 
expense  of  the  schools  above  the  sum  donated  from  the  State  fund.  Each  person 
sending  a  child  to  school  should  be  assessed  for  a  due  proportion  of  the  fuel  used  in 
the  schoolhouse.  The  trustees  should  report  to  the  directors  of  the  township.  All 
these  local  officials  had  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  State  superintendent  in  any  case 
affecting  their  administration. 

Twelfth.  By  action  of  the  county  court,  all  towns  and  neighborhoods  to  which 
the  United  States  Government  granted  special  donations  of  school  lands  in  1812 
might  be  incorporated  for  school  purposes.  Their  school  affairs  should  be  under 
a  board  of  five  to  nine  directors,  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  place,  who 
should  have  entire  control  of  the  educational  affairs  of  the  corporation.  The  city 
of  St.  Louis  was  especially  authorized  to  conduct  its  educational  municipal  depart¬ 
ment  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  president  and  directors  of  the  St.  Louis 
public  schools.” 

By  an  amendment  to  the  school  law  in  1841,  the  power  of  appeal  to  the  State 
superintendent  of  education  was  taken  away  and  given  to  the  county  court.  In 
the  same  year  the  office  of  State  superintendent  was  abolished  and  his  duties  added 
to  those  of  the  secretary  of  state,  with  an  additional  salary  of  $300  per  annum. 
By  an  amendment  in  1843  the  sum  distributed  by  the  State  must  be  limited  to  $1 
per  scholar,  and  the  moneys  not  called  for  must  be  reinvested. 

It  can  not  be  a  surprise  that  the  second  report  of  Superintendent  James  L.  Minor 
presents  the  facts  in  the  response  made  by  the  people  of  the  State  to  this  elaborate 
and  exhaustive  statute.  In  the  introduction  to  this  report,  November  30,  1842, 
three  years  after  the  passage  of  the  law,  the  superintendent  says:  “  I  regret  that 
I  have  not  the  satisfaction  of  reporting  to  the  legislature  the  fact  that  our  system 
of  common  schools  has  been  adopted  generally  through  the  State.  The  citizens  of 
some  counties  have  good  schools  under  the  provisions  of  our  law,  and  have  availed 
themselves  of  the  advantages  which  it  offers.  But  with  many  others  a  lamen¬ 
table  indifference,  and  in  some  instances  a  decided  repugnance,  to  the  system  have 
been  manifested,  which  have  had  the  tendency,  I  fear,  to  retard,  so  far  as  the 
influence  extended,  the  progress  of  general  instruction.”  He  acknowledges  that 
objections  have  been  made  to  the  law  itself  as  a  formidable  obstacle  to  the  desired 
progress  in  education.  “  Its  length,  the  number  of  officials  which  it  creates,  and 
the  complicated  detail  of  duty  which  it  imposes  ”  have  been  urged  against  it,  as 
well  as  the  sparseness  of  our  populalation  and  the  freshness  of  our  country  and  the 
migratory  and  unsettled  prospects  of  our  people. 

The  superintendent  devotes  a  good  share  of  the  middle  space  of  his  report  to 
controverting  this  impression,  and  proving  that  the  law  is  especially  adapted  to 
meet  the  present  and  future  needs  of  the  rapidly  increasing  population  of  the 
State.  But  the  results  of  the  three  years'  experience  do  not  seem  to  justify  his 
contention.  Of  the  52,000  persons  of  school  age  in  Missouri  in  1841  only  three 
counties,  containing  4,774  children,  organized  schools  under  the  law,  and  they 
were  attended  by  only  2,741  pupils.  The  State  school  fund  had  reached  the  sum 
of  $558,032.91,  and  the  income  available  for  distribution,  at  the  rate  of  60  cents 
per  pupil,  was  $19,531.15.  Of  this,  in  1841,  only  $1,999.60  was  appropriated;  leav¬ 
ing  $17,531.54  to  be  reinvested  as  an  increase  to  the  permanent  fund  of  the  State. 
The  superintendent  argues  strongly  against  the  policy  of  piling  up  the  general 
fund  while  the  su.m  appropriated  is  such  a  pittance  as  to  discourage  the  friends 
and  confirm  the  foes  of  public  education.  The  largest  amount  given  to  any  school 
district  was  $49.20  and  to  any  township  of  several  districts,  $134.40.  He  says  that 
the  sum  distributed  should  be  raised  to  $2  per  capita.  The  superintendent  not 
only  bewails  the  lack  of  competent  teachers,  but  he  pointedly  adds  the  uncertainty 
of  their  compensation,  and  the  consequent  want  of  respect  in  which  they  are  held 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


377 


by  the  community.  The  habit  of  loaning  the  county  and  township  school  funds 
was  bearing  its  legitimate  fruit.  “In  many  cases  the  interest  on  this  loan  is  paid 
very  irregularly,  and  in  some  counties  scarcely  paid  at  all.  Very  little  certainty 
exists  in  relation  to  any  payment  of  the  teachers  from  the  State,  and  the  chief 
source  of  dependence  is  the  voluntary  subscription  of  the  patrons  of  the  school, 
and  the  interest  of  the  school  fund  frequently  becomes  merely  a  perquisite.  ”  The 
uncertainty  of  the  payment  of  dividends  on  the  State  funds  by  the  State  Bank  was 
so  great  that  “  assistance  from  the  State  seldom  enters  into  the  estimate  of  the 
salaries  paid  to  the  teachers.”  In  general,  this  form  of  investment  seems  to  have 
been  characterized  by  “  a  total  want  of  all  calculation  upon  the  probable  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  bank.  The  air  is  full  of  high-sounding  plans  for  the  better  manage¬ 
ment  of  these  funds;  all  meaning  that  a  great  number  of  people  desire  to  get 
their  hands  into  this  great  pile  of  public  money.”  The  superintendent  urges  the 
legislature  to  hold  fast  to  the  present  law  and  push  to  the  uttermost  all  the  oppor¬ 
tunities  for  its  more  thorough  enforcement. 

The  third  report  of  Superintendent  Minor  reaffirms  the  apprehensions  expressed 
for  the  safety  and  protection  of  the  State  school  funds.  Although  in  1845  the 
fund  had  increased  to  $600,000,  the  State  Bank,  in  which  it  was  invested,  had 
failed  to  pay  dividends.  The  legislature  of  1844  had  enacted  that  only  $1  should 
be  appropriated  for  each  pupil.  But  the  failure  of  the  bank  to  declare  a  dividend 
had  thrown  the  school  authorities  back  on  the  residue  of  the  dividends  left  unap¬ 
propriated  in  the  treasury  by  the  superintendent  on  the  1st  of  January,  1842.  This 
failure  was  even  more  critical  than  any  before.  The  total  amount  distributed  by 
the  State  in  1848  was  $6,043.80,  in  the  ratio  of  60  cents  to  every  child  from  6  to  18. 
The  amount  available  for  1844  would  be  only  $11,882.42  and  in  a  ratio  of  54  cents 
to  each  child.  Meanwhile  the  number  of  children  in  the  schools  had  increased 
from  6,192  in  1842  to  12,652  in  1843.  The  counties  which  had  accepted  the  system 
were  28  in  1842,  and,  in  1843,  42  of  the  77  in  the  Commonwealth.  The  superin¬ 
tendent  urges  the  removal  of  the  general  school  fund  from  the  State  Bank  and  the 
reinvestment  in  State  stocks.  He  also  urges  the  division  of  500,000  acres  of  land 
donated  to  the  State  for  internal  improvement,  which  will  furnish  a  very  insuffi¬ 
cient  sum  for  any  important  movement  in  this  direction— to  the  cause  of  popular 
education.  By  the  combination  of  these  funds  he  maintains  that  the  sum  of 
$1,200,556.46  could  be  reorganized  as  a  State  educational  fund,  at  8  per  cent, 
invested  in  State  securities,  which  would  give  to  every  school  child  from  the  State 
76  cents.  The  township  funds  from  the  sixteenth  section  lands  should  further 
increase  the  sum  by  $2  for  each  child  of  school  age.  This  sum,  $2.76,  says  the 
superintendent,  “would  relieve  the  parent  from  the  whole  expense  of  education, 
except  the  board  of  the  teachers,  which  would  impose  a  very  slight  burden.”  He 
also  urges  the  establishment  of  a  State  normal  school  for  the  instruction  of 
teachers. 

There  is  no  more  convincing  argument  for  the  American  common  school  than 
the  fact  that,  when  the  people  of  any  American  State  have  for  even  one  year  had 
experience  of  its  benefits,  it  has  been  impossible,  save  by  a  revolutionary  crisis  like 
the  great  civil  war,  to  abolish  it  or  permanently  impede  its  progress.  Notwith¬ 
standing  the  discouragement  of  the  first  six  years  of  the  experiment  in  Missouri, 
the  fourth  report,  November,  1846,  signed  by  Falkland  H.  Martin  as  State  super¬ 
intendent,  shows  a  decided  advance.  “Although,”  he  says,  “our  school  system  is 
still  in  a  state  of  incipiency,  and  must  retrograde  unless  it  is  cherished  by  the 
watchful  solicitude  and  permanent  interest  of  the  general  assembly,  yet,  up  to  the 
present  period,  the  public  expectation  has  not  been  disappointed.”  The  superin¬ 
tendent  is  able  to  report  the  satisfactory  information  that  “considerably  more  than 
half  the  counties  of  the  State  have  proceeded  to  organize  and  report  to  the  public 
officials.  In  two  more  years  the  State  school  moneys  will  be  appropriated  to  the 
children  in  every  county  in  Missouri.”  In  1845  $16,481.70  was  distributed  among 


378 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


31,695  children  of  school  age — 6  to  18 — giving  the  sum  of  52  cents  per  capita.  In 
1846  $23, ,702.02  was  distributed  among  40,896  children,  6  to  20,  at  58  cents  per 
capita.  But  as  the  procession  of  the  children  increased  in  number,  the  per  cent  of 
the  distribution  of  funds  diminished;  $20,148.88  available  for  the  army  of  children 
50,000  strong  being  practically  less  than  before.  The  radical  difficulty  seems  to 
have  been  that  the  State  school  fund,  then  amounting  to  $575,000,  was  invested  in 
the  Bank  of  Missouri,  which  paid  only  occasional  dividends,  at  3|  per  cent,  amount¬ 
ing  to  only  $110,000  for  the  six  years  of  the  operation  of  the  school  law,  whereas  at 
8  per  cent,  then  and  there  a  reasonable  rate  of  interest,  the  schools  would  have 
received  an  income  of  $300,000.  The  superintendent  urges  the  legislature  to  remove 
the  funds  from  this  financial  prison  house  and  liberate  the  bounty  provided  by  the 
General  Government  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  whole  people.  He  also  emphasizes 
the  suggestion  of  his  predecessors,  that  the  500,000  acres  of  land  donated  by  the 
General  Government  for  internal  improvements,  having  been  divided  among  the 
counties  by  legislative  act,  will  at  best  afford  $6,000  to  each,  not  enough  to  build  a 
court-house,  and  urges  their  diversion  to  the  State  educational  fund.  He  also 
renews  the  plea  for  a  State  normal  school.  The  original  school  law  of  1839  had 
proved  to  be  a  formidable  hindrance  to  the  cause  of  universal  education.  “It  is,” 
the  superintendent  declares,  “much  too  complicated.  In  order  to  understand  it 
sufficiently  well  for  the  most  ordinary  transaction,  a  thorough  and  elaborate  study 
is  required,  demanding  a  larger  share  of  the  time  of  the  various  officers  (all  of 
whom  render  their  services  gratuitously)  than  can  well  be  spared  by  them.  Many 
of  its  provisions  are  so  conflicting  as  to  be  utterly  irreconcilable.”  He  urges  “a 
thorough  and  complete  revision.” 

In  1845-1847  the  general  assembly  reenacted  the  school  law  of  1839,  with  a  large 
number  of  amendments  and  a  few  important  additions.  Among  the  latter  was 
one  altogether  in  the  line  of  progress.  By  the  statute  of  February  11,  1847,  the 
school  moneys  of  the  State  were  ordered  to  be  distributed  among  all  the  children 
and  youih  between  the  ages  of  6  and  20.  Superintendent  Martin,  in  his  report  of 
1848,  shows  that  in  1847  $48, 579. 78; was  distributed  among  55,204  children,  88  cents 
per  capita,  although  the  revised  law  indicated  $1  per  capita  as  the  sum  to  be  appro¬ 
priated.  In  the  appropriation  of  1848  all  the  counties  save  six  were  included.  In 
the  542  municipal  townships  the  justices  of  the  peace,  empowered  by  the  revised 
law  to  make  the  enumeration,  reported  142,398,  an  increase  in  one  year  of  the 
school  population  of  90,294,  exclusive  of  the  children  in  the  towns  which  had 
received  special  grants  of  lands  from  the  General  Government  and  were  operating 
schools  under  local  authority. 

Under  these  conditions  the  sum  received  per  capita  would  be  less  than  half  the 
previous  appropriation.  Another  year  would  finish  this  game  of  working  at  cross 
purposes,  which  had  been  the  point  of  chronic  weakness  in  the  action  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  assembly.  The  superintendent  declares  that  in  1849  200,000  children  will 
claim  a  share  in  the  distribution  of  the  State  fund,  and  the  number  will  increase 
in  accumulating  ratio  as  the  years  go  on.  “Unless  the  State  school  fund  is  in 
some  way  largely  increased  in  a  very  short  time  the  amount  received  by  each 
child  will  be  too  small  an  inducement  to  keep  up  the  organization  which  alone 
can  entitle  them  to  the  use  of  the  money.  Unless  prompt  measures  are  adopted 
on  this  subject  the  system  itself  must  gradually  decline.”  He  again  empha¬ 
sizes  the  project  of  securing  what  is  left  of  the  internal  improvement  fund,  now 
being  distributed  in  the  characteristically  shiftless  way  by  which  those  precious 
gifts  of  the  General  Government  were  often  wasted,  as  an  addition  to  the  school 
moneys.  The  revised  school  act  of  1845  is  said  to  have  so  reduced  the  respon¬ 
sibility  of  the  State  superintendent  that  he  could  not  be  supposed  to  know  more 
of  the  actual  condition  of  the  public  schools  of  the  State  than  any  active  citi¬ 
zen  interested  in  the  subject.  The  tendency  in  all  the  States  of  the  South  at 
this  period  to  divert  power  from  the  State  in  favor  of  the  local  governments,  in 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


379 


this  case  had  made  the  State  superintendency  of  education  a  practical  impossi¬ 
bility.  The  superintendent  calls  attention  to  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the  years 
1845-1847,  and  once  more  urges  the  establishment  of  a  State  normal  school.  The 
ratio  of  appropriation  in  1848  gave  but  40  cents  to  each  child  between  the  ages  of 
6  and  20. 

The  new  secretary  of  state  and  superintendent  of  common  schools,  Hon.  Ephraim 
B.  Ewing,  in  the  sixth  biennial  report,  December  30,  1850,  takes  the  educational 
bull  vigorously  by  the  horns.  He  shows  that  in  1850  the  income  of  the  State 
fund  $27,750.52,  apportioned  among  173,447  children,  gave  to  each  only  16  cents. 
The  Bank  of  Missouri  continued  its  disappointing  career  of  making  only  occasional 
dividends.  The  estimate  for  1851  gives  $64,000,  to  be  appropriated  among  the 
children  of  all  save  five  delinquent  counties.  A  new  flirtation  with  the  school  law 
had  fixed  the  minimum  school  age  at  5  years.  The  revision  of  1847  had  made  it 
impossible  that  the  State  superintendent  should  be  able  to  collect  reliable  statistics 
of  public  education.  His  attempts  to  interest  the  county  authorities  to  make 
reports  had  confirmed  Washington’s  favorite  declaration,  ‘"Influence  is  not  gov¬ 
ernment.”  Only  half  the  counties  had  responded  to  his  request.  A  vigorous  guess 
estimated  the  townships  and  school  corporations  at  900,  with  1,600  school  districts. 
The  secretary  insists  on  the  necessity  of  the  reinstatement  of  the  State  superin¬ 
tendency,  clothed  with  power  to  obtain  the  statistical  information  needed  for  the 
proper  administration  of  the  system,  and  a  supervision  of  the  involved  local 
machinery.  He  insists  that  the  number  of  supervisors  should  be  reduced  to  one 
county  and  one  township  superintendent,  with  full  power  to  act  in  cooperation 
with  the  State  superintendent. 

An  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  the  township  sixteenth  section  fund  revealed 
the  fact  that  the  amount  donated  in  this  way  to  townships  was  1,132,920  acres,  of 
which  581,883  acres  had  been  sold  for  $727,000,  leaving  551,037  acres  unsold,  valued 
at  87|  cents  per  acre.  This,  added  to  the  sum  already  realized,  would  give  a  State 
fund  of  $1,206,755.  There  was  a  great  difference  in  the  value  of  the  township 
lands,  some  being  of  good  quality  and  furnishing  an  income  sufficient  to  educate 
the  children,  while  others  were  almost  worthless.  The  county  school  funds  seem 
to  have  been  of  little  account,  the  moneys  belonging  to  them  being  often  appro¬ 
priated  to  the  general  purposes  of  county  expenditure.  The  school  lands  granted 
to  the  State  were  40,000  acres,  of  which  31,000  had  been  sold.  On  the  State  school 
fund  of  $575,000  there  had  been  realized  in  eleven  years  $342/172.41,  an  average 
of  $34,106.58  per  annum. 

In  short,  the  chronic  failing  of  many  of  the  new  States,  acting  on  the  fallacious 
theory  of  magnifying  local  and  distrusting  State  superintendency,  seems  to  have 
culminated  in  1850  in  Missouri  in  a  condition  of  affairs  in  which  the  entire  system 
Of  public  instruction  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin  through  the  lack  of  suffb 
cient  funds  to  meet  the  increasing  demand  for  free  public  education,  a  scheme  of 
‘  ‘  making  bricks  without  straw  ”  that  wrought  the  death  of  many  a  well-constructed 
scheme  put  on  the  statute  books  of  State  and  nation  for  the  promotion  of  the 
“general  welfare.” 

A  small  beginning  had  been  made  by  the  statute  appropriating  $1,000  a  year 
for  the  establishment  of  a  department  of  pedagogics  in  the  State  University, 
which  had  been  established  in  the  village  of  Columbia,  Boone  County,  in  1844,  by 
the  combining  of  $177,900  from  local  sources  with  a  sale  of  seminary  lands,  which 
had  yielded  $70,000.  It  was  asserted  that  in  this  sale  the  State  authorities  “  traded 
off,”  for  less  than  $100,000,  lands  now  valued  at  $4,500,000,  and  emphasized  the  act 
by  refusing  for  twenty -five  years  to  grant  the  university  any  support.  The  super¬ 
intendent  exposes  the  infamy  of  this  scheme  for  capturing  the  trust  funds  of  the 
State,  and  indorses  in  full  the  suggestion  of  his  predecessor  in  favor  of  a  general 
normal  school,  with  the  added  recommendation  of  the  State  teachers’  institute. 

In  conclusion,  he  indorses  the  statement  of  his  predecessor,  that  after  ten  years 


380 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  experience  “  the  school  system  was  complicated  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render 
many  of  its  legal  provisions  almost  unintelligible,  and  greatly  to  impair  its  use¬ 
fulness.”  In  addition  to  this,  he  notes  “  the  want  of  a  faithful  and  vigilant  super¬ 
vision  and  inspection  of  schools  and  suitable  methods  of  insuring  the  success  of 
teachers.  ”  All  the  early  schemes  of  the  new  States  for  the  improvement  of  the 
teaching  force,  owing  to  the  unwillingness  of  the  people  to  impose  more  stringent 
methods,  seem  to  have  reacted  with  redoubled  force  on  this  State. 

The  superintendent  sets  forth  \yith  great  cogency  the  argument  for  an  effective 
State,  city,  and  township  superintendency  of  education,  each  concentrated  in  one 
person  ‘  ‘  with  power  to  act.  ”  He  closes  by  showing  that  the  entire  available  school 
fund  of  the  Commonwealth — State,  city,  and  township — can  not  amount  to  more 
than  $1,800,000,  which,  with  an  annual  income  of  $150,000,  would  give  every  child  of 
sufficient  age  but  75  cents  per  annum,  and  the  steady  increase  of  population  would 
only  add  to  the  deficiency.  In  this  report  the  assertion  is  made  for  the  first  time 
that  during  the  eleven  years  of  the  existence  of  the  common  school  system  no 
responsible  public  official  had  plainly  revealed  to  the  people  of  Missouri  the  extent 
to  which  their  great  gift  for  universal  education  was  being  hampered  by  the  action 
of  the  legislature,  under  the  influence  of  political  and  financial  theorists,  who,  in 
the  endeavor  to  favor  everybody  and  allow  to  every  citizen  the  largest  private  free¬ 
dom,  so  weakened  the  central  power  of  the  State  that  nothing  but  confusion  and 
disaster  could  be  expected  in  a  cause  so  dependent  on  wise  administration  as  the 
education  of  the  children  of  a  great  and  rapidly  growing  Commonwealth. 

In  the  seventh  report,  January  6,  1853,  Superintendent  Ewing  does  little  but 
reiterate  the  substance  of  his  former  contention,  in  even  more  eloquent  and  con¬ 
vincing  terms,  at  greater  length,  and  with  an  earnestness,  directness,  and  force  so 
decisive  that  it  was  evident  that  the  State  had  found  the  first  official  who  had  com¬ 
prehended  the  height  and  depth  and  length  and  breadth  of  this  great  public  interest. 

In  1852  there  was  appropriated  $58,411.08  among  193,840  children— 30  cents  per 
capita  in  all  save  five  or  six  of  the  counties  of  the  State.  The  impossibility  of  obtain¬ 
ing  reliable  statistics,  with  no  power  to  command  returns,  the  wasteful  use  of  the 
public  moneys  as  manipulated  by  the  numerous  local  officials,  the  lack  of  expert 
supervision,  the  fearful  incompetency  of  teachers,  and  the  startling  fact  that  from 
the  entire  fund,  State  and  township,  the  children  could  obtain  only  38  cents  per 
capita,  and  that  ‘‘the  whole  income  accruing  from  this  fund  at  the  highest  rate  of 
interest  would  be  sufficient  only  to  support  a  three- months’  school  for  a  tenth  of 
the  present  educable  population  of  the  State,”  was  a  revelation  indeed  to  the  edu¬ 
cational  public  of  Missouri.  In  the  56  counties  from  which  statistics  had  been 
obtained  it  was  ascertained  that  of  64,000  children  more  than  26,000  were  not 
attending  school,  and  a  large  population  received  instruction  in  no  school  what¬ 
ever.  The  superintendent  squarely  faces  the  conclusion  that  taxation  is  the  only 
remedy  for  the  present  unsatisfactory  condition  in  which  all  the  people  wish  to 
educate  the  children,  but  do  not  realize  what  universal  education  demands  from 
an  American  Commonwealth.  The  superintendent  urges  the  privilege  and  obli¬ 
gation  of  public  taxation  as  the  only  way  out  of  the  present  dilemma,  which  is 
rapidly  passing  over  from  a  popular  delusion  to  a  public  disgrace. 

The  report  of  J.  W.  Henry,  “late  superintendent  of  common  schools,”  in  1854, 
is  a  decided  falling  off  from  the  public  declarations  of  his  predecessors.  He  seems 
to  have  almost  no  effective  “grip  ”  on  the  work  he  was  set  to  do,  and  in  his  gen¬ 
eral  information  concerning  education  in  Missouri  he  appears  to  be  “  all  at  sea.” 
The  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  the  State  is  estimated  at  203,658,  of  whom 
only  67,924  had  attended  the  common  schools  during  the  past  year.  The  superin¬ 
tendent  concludes  that  at  least  67,000  children  had  attended  no  school  at  all. 
While  he  seems  to  believe  the  legislature  has  made  a  liberal  provision  for  the  sup¬ 
port  of  the  common  schools,  he  goes  off  into  an  eloquent  arraignment  of  the 
indifference  of  the  people  to  a  system  of  public  education  supported  by  an  expen- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


381 


diture  of  30  cents  per  capita.  There  is  a  disparity  in  the  supply  of  schoolbooks,  the 
local  commissioners  of  each  township  school  system  adhering  to  their  own  ideas. 
He  pleads  for  an  increase  of  the  salary  of  the  superintendent,  who  by  law  is  required 
to  visit  103  counties  annually  and  deliver  an  address  in  each,  and  denies  the  use¬ 
fulness  of  such  an  address,  “which  would  be  listened  to  only  by  a  few  literary 
men  of  the  town.”  The  act  of  1849,  requiring  the  State  University  to  establish  a 
department  of  pedagogics,  had  never  gone  into  effect,  and  probably  “can  not  be 
accomplished  without  further  legislation.”  In  short,  the  Commonwealth  of  Mis¬ 
souri  had  not  yet  recognized  its  practical  leader  in  the  cause  of  universal  educa¬ 
tion,  although  more  than  twenty  years  had  elapsed  since  the  great  note  of  progress 
had  been  sounded  on  the  far-off  Atlantic  coast  by  the  “grand  commanders,” 
Henry  Barnard  and  Horace  Mann. 

But  the  period  of  awakening  was  at  hand.  The  seventeenth  general  assembly 
had  reestablished  the  office  of  State  superintendent  of  education  and  located  it  at 
the  seat  of  government  in  Jefferson  City;  a  room  in  the  capitol  building  had  been 
assigned  and  the  records  of  the  educational  department  removed  to  it.  But  the 
new  superintendent  of  education,  Hon.  E.  C.  Davis,  turned  to  the  archives  of  the 
State  for  statistical  information  and  found  himself  disappointed.  Although  the 
State  had  established  a  system  of  public  instruction  in  1842  and  during  the  thir¬ 
teen  years  of  its  continuance  had  expended  $1,000,000,  independent  of  large  plans 
and  professions,  yet,  writes  the  superintendent,  “  we  can  boast  of  no  educational 
statistical  materials  upon  which  to  base  a  system  or  to  aid  the  department  in  the 
discharge  of  its  duties.”  “An  infirm  policy  and  a  mistaken  economy  has  long 
held  this  department  subordinate  to  others.  ”  The  honor  of  inaugurating  a  more 
generous  policy  by  the  legislature  is  ascribed  to  “a  gentleman  from  Holt  and 
a  member  from  Boone  County.”  The  superintendent,  after  an  extended  essay 
on  the  blessings  of  universal  education,  comes  to  the  point  of  recommending  to 
"■  the  legislature  a  practice,  already  established,  providing  for  the  education  of  all 
by  free  tuition  of  students  from  each  county  in  the  State  University,  to  whom 
shall  be  furnished  the  expense  of  training  for  the  profession  of  teacher.  Money 
was  to  be  appropriated  for  erecting  buildings  and  providing  the  cost  of  instruction 
in  the  preliminary  departments.  The  teachers’  institute  had  sprung  up  in  a  num¬ 
ber  of  counties  and  wa3  recommended  by  the  State  superintendent.  A  recom¬ 
mendation  concerning  the  selection  of  schoolbooks  and  methods  of  instruction 
furnishes  an  appendix  to  the  report,  in  accordance  with  the  provision  of  the 
revised  school  law  of  1855.  The  number  of  school  children  and  youth  in  all  the 
counties  was  200,346,  the  number  taught  in  1854,  74,084;  number  of  male  teachers 
1,807,  of  female,  440.  The  whole  amount  paid  to  teachers  was  $266,338.25,  of 
which  the  sum  of  $159,367.56  was  derived  from  the  common-school  fund.  There 
were  1,572  schoolhouses,  built  at  an  expense  of  $30,487.  The  total  amount  applied 
to  the  counties  was  $178,032,79. 

The  remarkable  improvement  in  the  school  affairs  of  the  State  here  indicated 
had  culminated  in  the  enactment  of  a  revised  school  law  in  1855.  By  this  enact¬ 
ment  the  office  of  State  superintendent  of  education,  with  a  salary  of  $1,500,  had 
been  established.  His  duties  were  similar  to  those  belonging  to  the  office  in  all 
the  foremost  States  of  the  Union,  among  which  we  notice  that  of  making  recom¬ 
mendations  for  the  management  of  school  lands,  preparing  a  uniform  course  of 
instruction,  and  collecting  and  disseminating  information  in  regard  to  the  plan 
and  construction  of  schoolhouses.  Another  most  important  step  forward  was  the 
setting  apart  25  per  cent  of  the  school  revenue  for  the  use  of  the  schools.  By  the 
new  law  a  village  of  200  inhabitants  could  be  organized  as  a  school  township  and 
receive  a  special  subsidy  from  the  State  fund.  The  townships  still  remained  under 
the  educational  direction  of  the  county  courts,  as  far  as  the  management  of  the 
county  and  township  moneys  was  concerned.  The  practice  of  loaning  the  school 
moneys  was  rescued  from  the  loose  business  habits  of  the  past,  and  no  loans  could 


382 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


be  made  for  a  longer  period  than  one  year,  with  ample  securities,  and  the  duties 
of  the  county  officials  in  this  respect  were  more  plainly  defined. 

A  still  more  important  new  departure  was  the  establishment  of  the  office  of 
county  commissioner  of  education,  to  be  appointed  every  two  years  by  the  county 
court,  with  the  power  to  confer  the  office  upon  the  county  clerk.  The  duties  of 
the  county  commissioner  were  to  apportion  the  school  moneys  to  the  townships, 
visit  and  inspect  every  district  school  in  the  county  once  a  year,  direct  the  gen¬ 
eral  course  of  instruction  as  it  might  be  prescribed  by  the  State  superintendent, 
give  encouragement  and  advice  and  examine  all  candidates  for  teachers,  and  have 
a  general  oversight  and  care  for  the  entire  business  of  schooling  the  children  of 
the  county,  the  compensation  to  be  not  exceeding  $2  a  day  for  one  hundred  days 
in  the  year,  save  in  the  large  towns  and  cities  of  the  State.  The  old  arrangement 
of  three  trustees  in  each  district,  elected  by  popular  vote,  was  retained.  The  dis¬ 
trict  meetings  should  have  power  to  raise  money  for  building  schoolhouses, 
purchasing  a  library,  apparatus,  and  school  supplies,  determine  the  site  of  school- 
houses,  and  distribute  the  payment  for  teachers’  wages  according  to  the  length  of 
the  different  school  terms  of  the  year.  They  could  elect  and  remove  teachers, 
expel  pupils  for  improper  conduct,  call  meetings  for  the  imposing  of  a  school  tax 
by  a  majority  of  the  voters  of  the  district,  and  generally  have  charge  of  the  school 
life  in  their  respective-  beats;  they  were  also  to  make  out  rate  bills,  from  which 
only  indigent  parents  were  exempt.  Strict  directions  were  given  to  the  trustees 
for  the  moral  instruction  of  the  pupils.  “The  English  language  and  its  rudi¬ 
ments  ”  were  to  be  taught  in  all  common  schools, 

A  separate  article  of  the  school  law  makes  special  provisions  for  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  towns  and  villages  that  have  received  United  States  Government  land 
grants  for  the  use  of  the  schools.  Each  of  these  can  be  chartered  as  a  separate 
school  corporation,  with  a  board  of  five  to  nine  directors,  chosen  by  the  votes  of 
all  qualified  electors,  each  elector  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  and  a  resi¬ 
dent  and  householder  of  the  community.  This  board  of  directors  can  manage 
the  local  school  funds,  lease  or  loan  lands  and  lots  for  a  period  not  exceeding 
twenty  years,  determine  the  number  of  schools,  build  schoolhouses,  employ  and 
fix  the  salary  of  teachers,  make  out  rate  bills,  and  generally  manage  the  school 
affairs  of  the  place.  All  these  different  bodies  were  required  to  send  elaborate 
reports  to  the  acting  supervisors,  and  they  to  the  State  superintendent. 

The  report  of  Superintendent  W.  B.  Starke  in  1857  confirms  the  good  omens  of 
his  predecessor.  In  the  year  1856  there  was  subject  to  appropriation  by  the  State 
the  comfortable  sum  of  $217,684,  to  be  distributed  among  272,093  children,  in  a 
ratio  of  80  cents  to  each  child.  In  1857  there  was  $242,801.25,  and  the  number  of 
school  children  had  risen  to  302,323,  a  ratio  of  78  cents  per  capita.  One  thousand 
and  ninety-nine  schoolhouses  were  built  in  the  year  1856,  in  most  cases  by  pri¬ 
vate  subscription,  with  $32,500  by  direct  taxation.  In  1856  there  were  2,409  male 
and  480  female  teachers;  and  a  total  of  $379,800  was  paid  for  public  instruction, 
an  excess  of  $113,400.77  over  1855,  $91,000  of  this  excess  being  raised  by  the 
patrons  of  the  schools  from  private  funds.  This  report  for  the  first  time 
attempted  to  state  the  number  of  private  schools  of  various  grades  in  the  State. 
It  was  believed  that  the  number  of  children  attending  this  class  of  schools  was  at 
least  as  large  as  the  attendance  upon  the  common  schools.  This  estimate,  in  1856, 
would  give  195,000  children  altogether  attending  school  in  Missouri,  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  between  the  ages  of  5  and  20.  There  were  9  “  col¬ 
leges  ”  and  48  academies,  besides  a  large  number  of  private  schools  of  lower  grade, 
in  addition  to  the  arrangements  for  schooling  in  public  institutions. 

In  1858  Superintendent  Starke  was  able  to  report  that  every  county  in  the  State 
was  organized  into  the  common-school  system.  In  1857  the  amount  appropriated 
was  $235,811.94,  the  number  of  children  from  5  to  20,  302,323;  ratio,  78  cents 
per  capita.  In  1858  the  amount  had  increased  to  $244,993  and  the  number  of 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


383 


children  to  841,121,  only  a  ratio  of  70  cents  per  capita.  Of  the  sum  appropriated 
in  1858  there  was  realized  from  bank  dividends  on  the  State  fund  $80,440;  from 
one-fourth  of  the  State  revenue,  $165,600.  Of  the  341,000  children  of  school  age, 
141,328  were  in  the  district  schools  and  as  many  more  in  private  schools  and 
academies,  leaving  about  58,000  between  5  and  20  years  of  age  unaccounted  for. 
But  a  considerable  portion  of  those,  from  12  to  20,  had  probably  been  under 
instruction  at  an  earlier  age. 

The  superintendent  returns  again  to  the  all-important  matter  of  the  qualifica¬ 
tion  of  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools.  4  4  Not  one  in  a  hundred  has  ever  thought 
of  teaching  as  a  life  business  or  spent  time  and  labor  in  making  special  prepara¬ 
tions  for  the  duties  of  this  noble  calling/’  Of  a  majority  of  the  teachers  he  says: 
44  They  are  neither  of  us  nor  with  us,  for  they  come  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  if  they  live  long  enough  some  of  them  will  be  in  all  parts  of  the  world  again 
before  they  die.  Nearly  half  a  million  dollars  is  annually  taken  from  Missouri  to 
pay  teachers  who  have  no  permanent  interest  or  residence  in  our  State.”  The 
transition  from  this  statement  to  the  imperative  necessity  of  normal  schools  is 
apparent,  and  the  superintendent  enlarges  on  the  history  and  uses  of  these 
important  institutions.  The  critics  of  popular  education  who  to-day  are  depre¬ 
ciating  the  success  of  the  normal-school  system,  State  and  city,  will  do  well  to 
refresh  their  memory  by  a  perusal  of  the  reports  of  all  the  early  State  superin¬ 
tendents  of  public  schools,  especially  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  con¬ 
cerning  the  fearful  incompetency  of  the  teaching  force.  The  fact  that  after 
sixteen  years  of  the  common  schools  in  the  great  State  of  Missouri  there  were  less 
than  500  women  teaching  school  is  in  itself  a  point  well  worthy  of  consideration. 
And  the  additional  fact  that  largely  from  the  multiplication  of  facilities  for  the 
training  of  teachers  in  State  and  city  normal  schools  the  same  State  is  now 
becoming  a  great  source  of  supply  for  superior  teachers  for  the  entire  vast  region 
at  the  Southwest,  and  is  known  through  the  Union  as  a  nursery  of  eminent  educa¬ 
tors,  is  a  conclusive  answer  to  the  reckless  and  unintelligent  criticisms  from  the 
friends  of  the  old-time  haphazard  method  of  supplying  the  country  with  the 
teachers  of  all  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  The  superintendent  wisely  dis¬ 
credits  the  attempt  to  supply  the  present  want  by  the  subsidizing  of  existing 
colleges  and  academies,  as  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  States.  He 
closes  this  eloquent  and  practical  document  by  the  blunt  statement:  44  The  right 
to  hang  a  man  involves  the  right  to  educate,  and  it  costs  more  to  try  and  hang 
one'criminal  than  to  educate  one  hundred  children.” 

Superintendent  Starke  returned  to  the  field  in  1859  in  a  report  which,  in 
length  and  importance,  casts  into  the  shade  every  document  of  its  kind  that  had 
hitherto  been  addressed  to  the  half-awakened  people  of  Missouri.  Its  opening 
pages  are  devoted  to  a  succinct  account  of  the  past  educational  history  of  the 
Commonwealth.  He  pays  the  professional  compliment  to  Ricky,  of  Holt,  and 
Hickman,  of  Boone  County,  who  were  the  active  authors  of  the  revised  school  law 
of  1853,  under  which  the  State  had  experienced  so  great  a  revival  in  popular  edu¬ 
cation.  In  1858  there  were 4,916  school  districts,  3,878  schoolhouses,  31  4 4 colleges,” 
100  academies,  4,198  male  and  855  female  teachers,  367,248  children  of  school  age, 
159,941  attending  school,  $580,767.50  paid  to  teachers,  and  $107,599.76  to  build  and 
repair  schoolhouses;  total  expenditure  upon  the  school  system,  $688,367.26. 

Under  the  head  of  “Defects  of  the  system”  the  earnest  superintendent 
enlarges  on— 

First.  The  defects  from  the  sparse  population  of  portions  of  the  State. 

Second.  The  opposition  and  indifference  of  large  numbers  of  people,  who 
rely  on  the  State  distribution  for  a  school  of  three  or  four  months  in  the  year. 
44  Some  of  the  schoolhouses  are  little  better  than  a  primeval  log  pen,  with  a  hori¬ 
zontal  gap  on  one  side  for  a  window  and  a  vertical  opening  on  the  other  for  a 
door;  without  air  in  the  summer  and  without  light  and  warmth  in  the  winter,  in 


384 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


which  the  children,  perched  upon  high  slab  seats,  spend  a  few  months  in  the  year 
in  acquiring  knowledge  under  difficulties;  and  with  a  broken  door,  it  is  not  infre¬ 
quently  extemporized  into  a  sheepfold  or  a  pigsty  during  the  long  vacation.” 

He  returns  to  the  “  old,  old  story”  of  the  incompetence  of  the  teachers,  with  a 
hearty  compliment  to  the  excellent  public  schools  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  in  the 
same  State,  and  declares  with  emphasis  that  “the  great  and  radical  defect  of  our 
school  system  is  the  lack  of  well-qualified  teachers  to  carry  out  its  wise  designs.” 

In  view  of  the  apathy  of  multitudes  of  people  to  the  value  of  education,  he 
quotes  from  the  racy  address  of  Hon.  Henry  A.  Wise,  of  Virginia,  to  his  constitu¬ 
ents,  setting  forth  the  many  absurdities  that  have  been  gathered  about  that 
familiar  term  “a  self-educated  man,”  and  quotes  largely  from  the  most  eminent 
Americans  in  support  of  education  through  schools  and  books.  As  a  remedy,  he 
calls  attention  to  the  publication  of  The  Missouri  Educator,  a  journal  of  educa¬ 
tion;  suggests  teachers’  institutes,  and  quotes  from  Superintendent  Powell,  of 
Illinois;  Draper,  of  Wisconsin,  and  Hon.  Henry  Barnard,  of  Connecticut,  in  support 
of  his  ideas  of  professional  training  for  teachers.  He  enlarges  on  the  importance 
of  teachers’  and  common-school  libraries  and  puts  in  a  plea  for  the  organiza¬ 
tion  and  management  of  the  latter.  The  needs  of  the  local  and  county  commis¬ 
sioners  are  noted,  and  the  failure  of  their  futile  and  incompetent  policy  set  forth. 
After  twenty  years,  the  school  laws  have  been  revised  and  re-revised  into  “a  maze 
of  casuistry  and  confusion,”  and  the  superintendent  urges  that  no  material  fur¬ 
ther  change  be  made.  He  urges  the  importance  of  the  uniformity  of  text-books, 
and  says:  “If  all  the  discarded  schoolbooks  of  Missouri  could  be  collected  and 
sold  at  the  price  for  which  they  were  purchased,  they  would  yield  money  enough 
to  found  a  first-class  college.  ” 

A  bill  was  before  the  legislature  for  the  establishment  of  a  State  normal  school, 
with  an  appropriation  of  $6,000,  and  the  superintendent  argues  that  the  granting 
for  the  improvement  of  teachers  of  practically  “  the  u  e  of  2  per  cent  of  the  school 
money  will  make  the  remaining  98  per  cent  worth  a  great  deal  more  than  the  whole 
of  it  is  worth  now.”  He  says  that  the  policy  of  establishing  a  normal  school  for 
every  quarter  of  the  State,  where  the  people  would  furnish  buildings  and  pupils, 
should  be  inaugurated.  The  State  now  has  a  population  of  1,000,000;  5,000  teachers 
were  reqired  in  1859,  and  in  ten  years  it  is  certain  that  10,000  will  be  required  for 
this  service.  He  calls  it  “fooling”  and  “mischievous”  to  look  to  the  private 
schools,  colleges,  and  academies  for  this  supply  of  instructors.  “They  will  do 
just  what  they  have  been  doing  in  this  matter  for  years  past,  and  that  is  pretty 
near  nothing  at  all.”  The  report  closes  with  an  eloquent  and  forcible  appeal  for 
this  much-needed  “new  departure”  in  the  interest  of  the  better  training  of  the 
children  of  the  people. 

It  was  fortunate  for  the  State  of  Missouri  that  it  followed  the  example  of  the 
New  England  States  in  retaining  its  State  superintendent  of  education  for  a  long 
term  in  office,  in  the  case  of  Superintendent  W.  B.  Starke.  The  State  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts  during  the  past  sixty  years,  since  the  first  appearance  of  Horace  Mann, 
has  appointed  only  six  men  as  secretaries  of  the  board  of  education,  including  Mr. 
Mann  and  the  present  occupant  of  the  office.  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  can 
show  even  a  better  record  of  the  continuous  service  of  able  men  in  this  position. 
The  Western  and  Southern  States  have  suffered,  and  still  do  suffer  greatly,  from 
their  habit  of  frequent  change  in  their  most  important  civil  functionary,  the  term 
of  four  years  in  several  of  them  being  the  utmost  period  of  the  administration  of 
an  official,  too  often  nominated  for  political  rather  than  educational  considera,- 
tions.  At  all  events  it  is  refreshing  to  open  the  record  of  1861  in  Missouri  with 
the  name  of  Starke  still  appearing  on  the  pages  of  the  stimulating  document  which 
his  reports  invariably  were. 

In  the  fourteenth  report,  January  15,  1861,  the  superintendent  states  that  in 
1860  $667,314  were  paid  for  the  wages  of  5,670  teachers— $215,472  from  State  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1830  TO  1860. 


385 


$140,044  from  township  funds,  $60,500  from  county  funds,  and  the  remainder  by 
rate  bills  and  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  people.  In  addition,  $184,808 
had  been  raised  by  taxation  to  build  and  repair  schoolhouses,  making  over 
$850,000  expended  for  the  instruction  of  170,800  school  children;  but  with  this 
gratifying  increase  of  schocl  funds  the  superintendent  is  still  haunted  with  the 
spectre  of  incompetency  in  the  teaching  force.  He  says:  “  It  is  fearful  to  reflect 
how  few  of  this  number  have  the  intellectual  and  moral  qualifications  for  this 
great  work.”  He  expatiates,  with  the  breadth  of  view  of  a  true  statesmanship,  on 
the  value  of  the  common-school  system  as  the  chief  agency  in  training  the  children 
of  great  numbers  of  people  now  drifting  into  the  State  from  all  the  nationalities, 
classes,  and  religions  in  the  world  into  the  great  art  of  living  together  in  the  exer¬ 
cise  of  a  true  American  citizenship,  and  dilates  on  the  necessity  of  trained  teachers 
to  meet  this  important  movement.  His  words  read  like  a  prophecy  of  the  calam¬ 
ities  that  fell  upon  his  State  during  the  four  subsequent  years  of  civil  war,  when 
the  people  of  every  community  were  arrayed  in  contention  over  its  final  adhesioa 
to  or  the  repudiation  of  its  union  with  the  great  Republic. 

Indeed,  the  prophetic  warnings  of  the  wise  and  eloquent  superintendent  were 
scarcely  uttered  before  the  verification  was  at  hand.  The  legislature  of  1881 
indorsed  the  cause  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  abolished  the  office  of  State 
superintendent  of  education,  suspended  the  appropriation  of  the  school  funds  and 
devoted  them  to  the  cause  of  civil  war.  A  later  movement  of  the  loyal  people  of 
the  State,  in  convention  assembled,  prevented  this  diversion  of  the  school  funds. 
The  result  of  this  was,  in  the  year  1862,  “  the  almost  total  suspension  of  the  com¬ 
mon  schools  all  over  the  State,  the  disorganization  of  all  civil  affairs,  and  the 
fearful  distraction  pervading  all  classes.”  January  13,  1863,  it  is  said,  “  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  the  war  which  has  with  unparalleled  ferocity  distracted  the  State  for 
the  last  twenty  months,  the  common  schools  are  prostrated  and  broken  up,  the 
colleges  have  been  converted  into  hospitals  and  schoolhouses  into  barracks,  school 
teachers  have  laid  down  the  ferule  and  taken  up  the  sword,  and  parents  have  sent 
their  children  to  learn  war.”  It  was  not  until  1864  that  the  legislature  rallied  and 
began  over  the  great  work  of  the  training  of  young  America.  This  educational 
revival  in  nation  and  State  for  the  past  thirty  years  is  the  most  reliable  pledge 
that  whatever  may  happen  hereafter  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  their  own 
connection  with  each  other  “  will  not  learn  war  any  more.” 

In  January,  1883,  after  the  civil  war  had  wrought  its  worst  in  the  conflict  that 
divided  the  people  of  Missouri,  Mr.  M.  Oliver,  secretary  of  state  and  ex-officio 
superintendent  of  schools,  in  the  report  already  quoted  from,  remarks:  “One  of 
the  surest  ways  of  restoring  and  perpetuating  peace,  and  of  making  things  resume 
their  former  happy  and  prosperous  appearance,  is  to  be  found  in  the  organization 
and  opening  of  schools  in  every  neighborhood  in  the  State.”  By  act  of  the  legisla¬ 
ture,  February  13,  1864,  Secretary  Oliver  wTas  ordered  to  resume  the  distribution 
of  school  funds.  On  the  basis  of  the  enumeration  of  children  of  school  age,  in 
1860,  he  reported  385,649  between  the  ages  of  5  and  20.  The  fund  available  for 
apportionment  was  $169,685,  and  this  was  distributed  at  a  ratio  of  44  cents  per 
capita.  The  secretary  reports:  “Nearly  all  the  counties  north  of  the  Missouri 
River  have  their  common  schools  in  full  operation,  and  in  many  counties  south  of 
the  river  (the  disturbed  region  of  the  State)  schools  are  opened,  and  daily  more 
are  in  session.”  According  to  his  statement,  the  war  had  cost  Missouri  nearly 
one-third  her  population  of  1860.  He  urges  with  great  force  that  “Nothing 
will  promote  a  healthy  immigration  to  the  State  like  a  system  of  common 
schools  that  is  vigorous  and  effective.  All  immigrants,  before  leaving  their  old 
homes,  who  have  the  interest  of  their  sons  and  daughters  at  heart,  will  always, 
other  things  being  equal,  select  that  county  or  locality  where  their  children  can  b© 
educated.”  He  urges  the  reestablishment  of  the  offices  of  State  and  county  com- 

25 


ED  1901 


386 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


missioner  of  education,  which  were  abolished  during  the  war  period  The  progress 
of  the  war,  by  1864,  had  practically  determined  that  the  slave  population  of  the 
entire  South  arrayed  against  the  Union  would  be  emancipated.  Indeed,  the  proc¬ 
lamation  of  President  Lincoln  to  that  effect  had  already  been  issued.  It  was  left 
to  the  five  Southern  States  not  in  arms  against  the  National  Government, 
Maryland,  Delaware,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  to  dispose  of  their 
colored  population  in  accordance  with  the  almost  universal  convictions  of  the 
loyal  States.  The  people  of  Missouri  had  called  a  convention  that,  early  in  1865, 
would  be  expected  to  decide  on  this  important  subject.  The  secretary  wisely 
places  before  the  legislature  the  new  obligations  that  will  confront  the  State  in 
several  public  matters  dealing  with  the  question  of  the  civil  status  of  the 
negro  after  emancipation.  In  any  probable  event,  he  urges  the  importance  of  ele¬ 
mentary  education,  to  prepare  him  for  whatever  condition  he  maybe  left  in  by  the 
great  act  of  deliverance  from  the  chattel  slavery  that  for  forty-five  years  had, 
more  than  all  other  causes  combined,  retarded  the  progress  of  a  Commonwealth 
so  richly  endowed  by  nature  and  so  admirably  placed  for  the  occupation  of  man. 

Here  the  present  record  may  be  suspended.  In  the  year  1866  a  new  school  law 
was  passed  by  the  legislature,  more  comprehensive  and  thoroughgoing  than  any 
previous  statute,  an  event  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  regarded  the  inauguration 
of  the  new  era  of  school-keeping,  in  which  this  great  State  has  figured  during  the 
past  thirty  years  with  conspicuous  energy  and  success.  In  1866  a  State  teachers’ 
convention  was  held  in  St.  Louis  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  petition  the 
general  assembly  for  the  establishment  of  a  State  normal  school.  The  names 
appended  to  this  document  include  Mr.  T.  A.  Parker,  State  superintendent  of  edu¬ 
cation,  and  Mr.  Ira  Divol,  well  known  for  his  connection  with  the  public-school 
system  of  St.  Louis.  The  chairman  of  the  committee  was  Mr.  William'  T. 
Harris. 

It  remains  to  notice  the  condition  of  public  education  in  several  of  the  large 
towns  and  cities  which,  at  an  early  period,  had  received  special  appropriations  of 
school  lands  from  the  National  Government.  These  towns,  by  all  legislation  pre¬ 
vious  to  1860,  were  treated  as  separate  school  corporations,  each  in  charge  of  its 
own  board  of  school  directors.  In  several  of  these,  important  movements  had  been 
made  previous  to  the  war,  and  the  coming  peace  that  set  in  motion  the  increasing 
tide  of  population  from  the  open  country  to  the  large  villages  and  cities  imparted 
a  remarkable  energy  to  their  educational  affairs. 

The  city  of  St.  Joseph,  by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature  in  1860,  had  established 
a  system  of  public  education.  Its  population  was  10,000.  Two  small  schoolhouses 
were  erected  and  6  teachers  engaged  for  360  pupils.  The  coming  of  the  war  sus¬ 
pended  operations  till  1864,  when  the  work  was  again  taken  up  with  renewed 
vigor.  Additional  taxation  was  solicited  and  obtained  from  the  legislature. 
Schoolhouses  were  built  and  seats  provided  for  1,000  pupils  in  all  the  departments 
of  the  graded  system.  The  city  in  1866  had  risen  to  a  population  of  18,000  to 
20,000,  with  4,000  children  of  school  age. 

The  city  of  Springfield  had  not  moved  for  a  municipal  organization  of  schools  in 
1866.  A  large  number  of  smaller  places,  some  of  them  now  important  educational 
and  social  centers,  at  this  time  made  their  first  effort  at  the  local  organization  of 
their  public  graded-school  systems. 

The  history  of  Missouri  during  this  period  culminates  in  the  establishment  of 
the  public-school  system  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  the  chief  city  of  the  State,  and 
still  the  most  populous  and  every  way  important  city  of  the  Union  west  of  the 
Mississippi. 

This -deeply  interesting  history  dates  from  the  act  of  Congress  in  1812,  setting 
apart  vacant  lands  in  St.  Louis  and  other  towns  in  the  Territory  for  school  pur¬ 
poses.  This  act  was  supplemented  in  1824  and  1831  by  laws  compelling  individual 
claimants  to  prove  titles  within  a  specified  time  in  four  of  the  towns  aforesaid. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


387 


The  result  of  this  legislation  was  that  a  residuum  of  the  original  grant  of  less  than 
50  acres  was  reserved  to  the  city  in  1874-75,  valued  at  $1,252,893,  but  for  various 
reasons  realizing  the  amount  of  only  $52,833.75. 

The  twenty  years  during  which  the  city  of  St.  Louis  seriously  undertook  the 
tedious  work  of  establishing  its  title  to  this  munificent  land  grant,  from  1813 
until  1833,  were  chiefly  spent  in  litigation  over  this  disputed  title.  In  1833  a  school 
board,  entitled  “The  board  of  president  and  directors  of  the  St.  Louis  public 
schools,”  was  chartered  by  the  legislature.  Its  chairman  was  the  distinguished 
citizen,  the  Hon.  Edward  Bates,  afterwards  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States 
during  the  administration  of  President  Lincoln.  The  usual  popular,  perhaps  una¬ 
voidable,  mistake  was  made  of  loaning  the  most  valuable  of  the  school  lands  for 
fifty  years  at  an  interest  of  8  per  cent,  a  transaction  that  for  years  deprived  the 
city  of  the  proper  use  of  its  great  educational  endowment.  Ten  years  later,  in 
1845,  the  legislature  was  called  upon  for  a  more  stringent  statute  to  arrest  what 
were  suspected  to  be  evidences  of  mismanagement  in  the  administration  of  this 
important  fund. 

In  1836-37  the  first  public  schoolhouse  under  this  new  dispensation  was  built, 
at  an  expense  of  $3,500.  Teachers  were  paid  $900  for  males  and  $500  for  females. 
The  board  continued  the  building  of  school  houses  from  1841  to  1850.  But  the 
meager  income  from  the  valuable  landed  estate  of  the  city  was  a  source  of  con¬ 
stant  financial  embarrassment.  Up  to  1851  the  building  of  new  schoolhouses  was 
a  constant  source  of  contention.  Indeed,  the  system  was  so  unsatisfactory  that 
in  1843  Dr.  William  G.  Eliot,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  workers  in  the 
upbuilding  of  ail  good  things  in  St.  Louis,  replies  to  an  inquiring  friend  from  the 
East:  “There  is  no  public-school  system  in  St.  Louis.  There  are  four  public 
schools  for  boys  and  girls  with  500  pupils;  their  management  almost  entirely  left 
to  the  teachers,  although  nominally  under  a  board  of  directors  chosen  by  the 
people.  Only  $4,000  income  can  be  secured  from  the  landed  property.  There 
were  80,000  people  in  St.  Louis  before  there  was  anything  done  in  behalf  of  popu¬ 
lar  instruction.” 

By  1854  the  schools  had  so  gained  the  favor  of  the  people  that  several  new 
buildings  had  been  erected  and  a  high  school,  with  70  pupils,  had  been  organized. 
For  a  time  the  city  had  been  deprived  of  the  participation  in  the  State  educational 
fund,  on  account  of  its  great  prospective  land  endowment,  but  in  the  years  of 
1853  and  1854  this  law  was  repealed.  In  1848  Doctor  Eliot  led  the  first  advance 
movement  that  has  given  the  public  schools  of  St.  Louis  their  present  celebrity 
by  offering  a  resolution  in  the  school  board  to  the  effect  that  a  committee  of  three 
be  appointed  to  petition  the  legislature  for  an  amendment  of  the  city  charter, 
authorizing  the  laying  a  tax  of  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent  on  all  the  property  of  the 
city  for  the  public  schools.  The  doctor  was  appointed  chairman  of  this  committee, 
and  largely  owing  to  the  wonderful  energy,  wisdom,  and  tact  of  Doctor  Eliot  in 
the  educational  and  philanthropic  affairs  of  the  city,  the  petition  was  granted  on 
condition  that  it  should  be  confirmed  by  a  popular  vote.  The  city,  by  a  unani¬ 
mous  vote,  confirmed  the  act  of  amendment  to  the  charter,  and  from  that  mem¬ 
orable  day  a  new  era  dawned  on  the  cause  of  popular  education  in  that  city. 

The  effect  of  the  high  school,  for  a  long  time  moving  in  the  usual  grades,  was 
gradually  felt  in  the  schools  of  the  State.  It  supplied  the  need  of  the  secondary 
education,  until  that  time  entirely  in  charge  of  private  and  denominational  acad¬ 
emies.  The  growth  of  the  city  was  so  rapid  that  the  building  of  schoolhouses  was 
continuous,  and  the  schools  suffered  even  for  the  lack  of  tenements  for  temporary 
occupation.  It  is  claimed  that  the  growth  of  the  St.  Louis  school  system  has 
been  a  powerful  influence  on  the  great  revival  of  public  educational  affairs 
through  the  State,  especially  in  procuring  the  legislation  of  1855,  which  appro¬ 
priated  25  per  cent  of  the  entire  revenue  of  the  State  government  to  public  educa¬ 
tion.  The  Lancasterian  system  of  instruction,  that  had  prevailed  at  the  opening 


388 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  the  city  schools,  disappeared  after  the  usual  demonstration  of  its  incompetence 
for  the  needs  of  an  American  community. 

In  1857  the  normal  school  of  St.  Louis  was  established,  with  Mr.  Richard 
Edwards  as  principal.  It  had  been  so  difficult  to  obtain  competent  teachers  for 
the  schools  that  in  1848  fifteen  were  brought  from  the  East.  Indeed,  until  a  later 
date,  the  majority  of  the  teachers  in  the  public  schools  of  Missouri  were  imported, 
and  the  State  still  held  back  from  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school,  the  plan 
for  a  department  of  pedagogy  in  the  State  university  not  having  gone  into  effect. 
In  1857  the  school  interest  scored  a  great  point  by  the  election  of  Mr.  Ira  Divol  as 
successor  of  Mr.  John  N.  Tice  as  city  superintendent  of  schools,  a  position  he  held 
for  several  years  with  great  and  increasing  usefulness.  Superintendent  Divol 
visited  the  different  cities  of  the  United  States  and  reported  the  results  of  his 
investigations  on  his  return.  In  consequence  several  important  reforms  were 
inaugurated  in  respect  to  the  structure  of  schoolhouses  and  organization  of  the 
schools.  In  1857  St.  Louis  had  a  population  of  135,000,  with  a  public-school  popu¬ 
lation  of  25,000,  with  only  seating  capacity  in  its  buildings  for  5,361.  The  city 
was  full  of  children  who  were  not  in  any  school  and  the  public  demand  for  addi¬ 
tional  accommodations  was  rising  to  a  clamor.  By  the  payment  of  obligations 
due  the  city  $80,000  was  invested  in  buildings  and  the  old  schoolhouses  were 
repaired  for  the  present  occupancy.  One  of  them,  built  in  1850,  was  named  from 
Rev.  Dr.  William  G.  Eliot,  the  Eliot  School. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  schools  was  arrested  by  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil 
war.  The  city  of  St.  Louis,  during  the  five  years  of  its  continuance— 1881  to 
1865 — was  the  storm  center  of  a  great  agitation,  in  which  public  opinion  was 
divided,  exasperated,  and  terribly  tried  by  the  military  and  civic  operations  that 
held  the  State  to  the  Union  and  paralyzed  the  operations  of  the  Confederate  party 
in  this  important  Commonwealth.  At  one  period  the  schools  of  St.  Louis  were 
reduced  to  one-third  of  their  former  magnitude,  and  for  two  years  they  were 
impeded  in  this  way.  But  the  clearing  of  the  political  atmosphere  and  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  the  rate  bill  brought  educational  matters  again  to  the  front.  A  graded 
course  of  instruction  was  adopted  in  1864;  and  in  the  same  year  the  city  tax  for 
public  education  was  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent;  during  1865-66,  two-tenths;  in  1867, 
four-tenths;  and  from  1888  to  1875,  six-tenths  of  1  per  cent  on  the  entire  valuation 
of  the  city. 

It  was  at  this  time,  when  the  cause  of  public  education  was  becoming  enveloped 
in  the  cloud  of  civil  war  that  Mr.  William  T.  Harris  appeared  in  St.  Louis  as  a 
teacher  in  the  public  schools.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  principal,  and  afterwards 
became  superintendent  of  the  public-school  system  of  St.  Louis.  *  *  * 

The  history  of  the  State  University  of  Missouri,  though  established  before  the 
period  of  the  civil  war, 'properly  belongs  to  the  same  period  as  that  of  the  State 
normal  schools,  the  years  following  the  close  of  the  war — 1865  to  1800. 


ARKANSAS. 

In  the  year  1875  an  excursion  of  editors,  chiefly  from  the  Western  States,  made 
a  tour  of  the  State  of  Arkansas.  At  the  regulation  banquet  by  which  this  class 
of  the  traveling  public  is  usually  entertained,  a  toast  “The  common-school  sys¬ 
tem;  without  it  the  nation  can  not  permanently  prosper,  with  it  the  success  of 
free  institutions  is  placed  beyond  peradventure  or  doubt,”  drew  from  Mr.  Edward 
Goodman,  of  Chicago,  Ill.,  a  striking  object  lesson,  furnished  by  a  comparison  of 
the  States  of  Arkansas  and  Michigan.  Both  these  States  were  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1837.  With  a  smaller  physical  area,  a  more  severe  climate,  and  a  lower 
degree  of  fertility  than  its  neighbor  in  the  South,  the  State  of  Michigan,  in  the 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


389 


forty  years  since  its  admission  to  the  Republic,  had  become,  in  1875,  a  powerful 
commonwealth,  with  a  voting  constituency  of  231,000,  a  population  of  1,250,000, 
of  which  320,000  were  children  and  youth  of  school  age,  and  a  taxable  property 
valuation  of  $372,000,000.  The  dense  forests  had  been  subdued,  the  orignal 
unhealthiness  of  the  country  had  been  overcome,  and  already  the  mining  interest 
represented  an  annual  outcome  of  $15,000,000.  In  contrast,  the  State  of  Arkan¬ 
sas  in  1870  polled  less  than  90,000  votes,  with  a  population  below  500,000,  with  less 
than  63,000  children  in  common  schools,  and  the  taxable  property  of  the  State  less 
than  half  that  of  its  modern  sister.  Meanwhile  the  vast  mineral  wealth  of  the 
State  was  still,  as  far  as  development  was  concerned,  an  unknown  quantity. 

The  object  of  this  speech  was  not  to  make  an  unfavorable  comparison  of  these 
two  States  in  the  presence  of  the  generous  people  who  had  welcomed  their  distin¬ 
guished  visitors  with  a  true  Southwestern  hospitality.  But  the  occasion  furnished 
an  admirable  opportunity  to  enforce  the  vast  importance  of  popular  education  in 
a  new  American  State.  The  eloquent  speaker  continued:  “The  rapid  advance¬ 
ment  of  Michigan  is  owing,  first,  to  teeming  immigration,  and  second,  to  her 
unsurpassed  system  of  education.  For  years,  while  xArkansas  lay  in  silence  on  the 
western  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  comparatively  unknown,  the  sons  and  daughters 
of  New  England  were  moving  by  hundreds  and  thousands  to  take  possession  of 
the  beautiful  prairie  of  the  State  of  Michigan.  At  the  very  beginning  they  laid, 
deep  and  broad,  the  foundations  of  universal  education.  The  result  to-day  is  a 
schoolhouse  in  every  school  district,  academies  in  every  county,  agricultural, 
normal,  mechanical,  theological,  and  other  professional  and  industrial  colleges 
through  the  State,  and,  above  them  all,  the  University  of  Michigan.  What 
Michigan  now  is,  Arkansas  shall  be,  and  more.” 

A  visit  to  the  capital  of  Arkansas,  the  beautiful  city  of  Little  Rock,  and  a  true 
comparison  of  its  present  estate  to  that  witnessed  by  the  crowd  of  exploring  editors 
twenty-five  years  ago,  would  reveal  the  potency  of  prophecy,  when  addressed  to 
the  great  cause  of  popular  education  in  this  Republic.  Perhaps  no  State  of  the 
South  since  that  festival  day,  all  conditions  and  circumstances  considered,  has 
done  more  for  the  education  of  its  entire  people  than  this  commonwealth,  that, 
until  1860,  was  regarded  as  almost  on  the  border  land  of  civilized  America,  and 
within  the  past  twenty-five  years  has  made  such  remarkable  advances  in  popular 
education. 

It  was  true  that  at  the  organization  of  the  State  in  1836  the  duty  to  educate  the 
people  was  recognized  in  the  following  clause  of  its  constitution: 

[The  Constitution  of  Arkansas,  June  15,  1836.] 

Article  VII. — Education. 

Sec.  1.  Knowledge  and  learning,  generally  diffused  through  a  community, 
being  essential  to  the  preservation  of  a  free  government,  and  diffusing  the  oppor¬ 
tunities  and  advantages  of  education  through  the  various  parts  of  the  State  being 
highly  conducive  to  this  end,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  general  assembly  to  pro¬ 
vide  by  law  for  the  improvement  of  such  lands  as  are  or  hereafter  may  be  granted- 
by  the  United  States  to  this  State  for  the  use  of  schools,  and  to  apply  any  funds 
which  may  be  raised  from  such  lands  or  from  any  other  source  to  the  accomplish¬ 
ment  of  the  object  for  which  they  are  or  may  be  intended.  The  general  assembly 
shall  from  time  to  time  pass  such  laws  as  shall  be  calculated  to  encourage  intel¬ 
lectual,  scientific,  and  agricultural  improvement  by  allowing  rewards  and  immu¬ 
nities  for  the  promotion  and  improvement  of  arts,  science,  commerce,  manu¬ 
factures,  and  natural  history,  and  countenance  and  encourage  the  principles 
of  humanity,  industry,  and  morality. 

This  section  was  included  in  the  constitution  of  1864-1865,  as  Article  VIII, 
section  1. 

The  State  of  Arkansas,  with  an  area  of  52,138  square  miles  and  33,456,720  acres 
of  land,  had  received  from  Congress  886,460  acres  for  common  schools  and  46,180 


390 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

acres  for  a  university.  In  1840  the  State  had  a  population  of  97,574.  It  has 
already  been  shown  in  a  former  essay  of  this  series  how  this  munificent  donation 
was  wasted  by  the  reckless  and  careless  handling  that  wrought  havoc  with  so 
many  of  these  large  donations  for  the  children.  As  late  as  1854  the  secretary  of 
state,  who  was  ex  officio  State  commissioner  of  common  schools,  reported  only  40 
public  schools,  and  complains  of  “the  indifference  that  pervades  the  public  mind 
on  the  subject  of  education.”  So  complete  had  been  the  ruin  of  the  original  land 
grants  of  the  nation  that  in  1870  the  permanent  income  from  this  source  was  but 
$85,192,  while  a  careful  administration  of  this  patrimony  would  probably  have 
yielded  a  State-school  fund  of  $2,000,000,  possibly  $3,000,000.  It  was  not  till  1889 
that  the  first  public-school  system  for  the  State  was  established,  and  great  additions 
have  since  been  made  to  its  efficacy  by  a  score  of  able  and  zealous  school  officials, 
and  the  hearty  cooperation  of  the  legislature  and  people.  More  than  half  a  mil¬ 
lion  of  dollars  was  expended  for'  education  in  1870,  three-fifths  from  direct  taxa¬ 
tion.  There  were  70,000  children  under  instruction  in  1870.  But  the  process  of 
raising  a  State  from  a  long  period  of  indifference  to  education  is  necessarily  slow, 
and  as  late  as  1870  there  vrere  111,799  persons  in  the  State  unable  to  read  and 
133,339  who  could  not  write.  The  new  constitution  of  the  State,  of  1868,  under  the 
reconstruction  government,  contains  an  elaborate  section  providing  for  a  complete 
system  of  popular  education. 

[Constitution  of  Arkansas,  as  amended  in  1868.] 

Article  I —Bill  of  rights. 

Sec.  23.  Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge  being  essential  to  good  government, 
the  general  assembly  shall  pass  suitable  laws  to  protect  every  religious  denomina¬ 
tion  in  the  peaceable  enjoyment  of  its  own  mode  of  public  worship;  and  to 
encourage  schools  and  the  means  of  instruction. 

Article  VI. — Executive  department. 

Sec.  1.  The  executive  department  of  this  State  shall  consist  of  *  *  *  and 
superintendent  oi  public  instruction,  all  of  whom  shall  hold  their  several  offices 
for  the  term  of  four  years  and  until  their  successors  are  elected  and  qualified. 
They  shall  be  chosen  by  the  qualified  electors  of  this  State,  at  the  time  and  places 
of  choosing  the  members  of  the  general  assembly. 

Sec.  18.  The  *  *  *  and  superintendent  of  public  Instruction,  shall  severally 
reside,  and  keep  all  their  public  records,  books,  papers,  and  documents  which 
may  pertain  to  their  respective  offices,  at  the  seat  of  government. 

Sec.  19.  The  returns  of  every  election  for  *  *  *  and  superintendent  of  pub¬ 
lic  instruction,  shall  be  sealed  up  and  transmitted  to  the  seat  of  government  by 
the  returning  officers,  and  directed  to  the  presiding  officer  of  the  senate,  who,  dur¬ 
ing  the  first  week  of  the  session,  shall  open  and  publish  the  same  in  presence  of 
the  members  there  assembled.  The  person  having  the  highest  number  of  votes 
shall  be  declared  elected;  but  if  two  or  more  shall  have  the  highest  and  equal  num¬ 
ber  of  votes  for  the  same  office  one  of  them  shall  be  chosen  by  a  joint  vote  of  both 
houses.  Contested  elections  shall  likewise  be  determined  by  both  houses  of  the 
general  assembly,  in  such  manner  as  is  or  may  hereafter  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Sec.  21.  The  *  *  *  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  shall  perform 
such  duties  as  are  now  or  may  hereafter  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Sec.  22.  In  case  of  the  death,  impeachment,  removal  from  the  State,  or  other 
disability  of  the  *  *  *  and  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  vacancies 
in  their  several  offices  thus  occasioned  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  gov¬ 
ernor,  which  appointment  shall  be  made  for  the  unexpired  terms  of  said  offices, 
or  until  said  disabilities  are  removed,  or  until  elections  are  held  to  fill  said 
vacancies. 

Sec.  24,  The  officers  of  the  executive  department  mentioned  in  this  article 
shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  to  be  established 
by  law,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  they  shall  have 
been  elected  or  appointed. 

Sec.  25.  The  officers  of  the  executive  department  and  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  shall  not  be  eligible,  during  the  period  for  which  they  may  be  elected  or 
appointed  to  their  respective  offices,  to  any  position  in  the  gift  of  the  qualified 
electors  or  of  the  general  assembly  of  this  State. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


391 


Article  IX. — Education. 

Sec.  1.  A  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  intelligence  among  all  classes 
being  essential  to  the  preservation  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  the 
general  assembly  shall  establish  and  maintain  a  system  of  free  schools  for  the 
gratuitous  instruction  of  all  persons  in  this  State  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21 
years,  and  the  funds  appropriated  for  the  support  of  common  schools  shall  be  dis¬ 
tributed  to  the  several  counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  and 
youths  therein  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21  years,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  pre¬ 
scribed  by  law;  but  no  religious  or  other  sect  or  sects  shall  ever  have  any  exclusive 
right  to  or  control  of  any  part  of  the  school  funds  of  this  State. 

Sec.  2.  The  supervision  of  public  schools  shall  be  vested  in  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  and  such  other  officers  as  the  general  assembly  shall  provide. 
The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  shall  receive  such  salary  and  perform 
such  duties  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Sec.  3.  The  general  assembly  shall  establish  and  maintain  a  State  university, 
with  departments  for  instruction  in  teaching,  agriculture,  and  the  natural  sciences, 
as  soon  as  the  public-school  fund  will  permit 

Sec.  4.  The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been  or  hereafter  may  be  granted 
by  the  United  States  to  this  State,  and  not  otherwise  appropriated  by  the  United 
States  or  this  State;  also  all  moneys,  stocks,  bonds,  lands,  and  other  property  now 
belonging  to  any  fund  for  purposes  of  education;  also  the  net  proceeds  of  all  sales 
of  land  and  other  property  and  effects  that  may  accrue  to  this  State  by  escheat,  or 
from  sales  of  estrays,  or  from  unclaimed  dividends  or  distributive  shares  of  the 
estates  of  deceased  persons,  or  from  fines,  penalties,  or  forfeitures;  also  any  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  which  may  have  been  or  may  hereafter  be  paid 
over  to  this  State  (Congress  consenting);  also  the  grants,  gifts,  or  devises  that 
have  been  or  hereafter  may  be  made  to  this  State  and  not  otherwise  appropriated 
by  the  terms  of  the  grant,  gift,  or  devise,  shall  be  securely  invested  and  sacredly 
preserved  as  a  public-school  fund,  which  shall  be  the  common  property  of  the 
State,  the  annual  income  of  which  fund,  together  with  $1  per  capita,  to  be  annu¬ 
ally  assessed  on  every  male  inhabitant  of  this  State  over  the  age  of  21  years,  and 
so  much  of  the  ordinary  annual  revenue  of  the  State  as  may  be  necessary  shall  be 
faithfully  appropriated  for  establishing  and  maintaining  the  free  schools  and  the 
universitv  in  this  article  provided  for,  and  for  no  other  uses  or  purposes  whatever. 

Sec.  5.  No  part  of  the  public-school  fund  shall  be  invested  in  the  stocks  or  bonds 
or  other  obligations  of  any  State  or  any  county,  city,  town,  or  corporation.  The 
stocks  belonging  to  any  school  fund  or  university  fund  shall  be  sold  in  such  man¬ 
ner  and  at  such  times  as  the  general  assembly  shall  prescribe,  and  the  proceeds 
thereof  and  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  any  lands  or  other  property  which  now 
belongs  or  may  hereafter  belong  to  said  school  fund  may  be  invested  in  the  bonds 
of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  6.  No  township  or  school  district  shall  receive  any  portion  of  the  public- 
school  fund  unless  a  free  school  shall  have  been  kept  therein  for  not  less  than 
three  months  during  the  year  for  which  distribution  thereof  is  made.  The  general 
assembly  shall  require  by  law  that  every  child  of  sufficient  mental  and  physical 
ability  shall  attend  the  public  schools  during  the  period  between  the  ages  of  5  and 
18  years  for  a  term  equivalent  to  three  years,  unless  educated  by  other  means. 

Sec.  7.  In  case  the  public-school  fund  shall  be  insufficient  to  sustain  a  free 
school  at  least  three  months  in  every  year  in  each  school  district  in  this  State  the 
general  assembly  shall  provide  by  law  for  raising  such  deficiency  by  levying  such 
tax  upon  all  taxable  property  in  each  county,  township,  or  school  district  as  may 
be  deemed  proper. 

Sec.  8.  The  general  assembly  shall,  as  far  as  it  can  be  done  without  infringing 
upon  vested  rights,  reduce  all  lands,  moneys,  or  other  property  used  or  held  for 
school  purposes  in  the  various  counties  of  this  State  into  the  public-school  fund 
herein  provided  for. 

Sec.  9.  Provision  shall  also  be  made  by  general  law  for  raising  such  sum  or  sums 
of  money  by  taxation  or  otherwise  in  each  school  district  as  may  be  necessary  for 
the  building  and  furnishing  of  a  sufficient  number  of  suitable  schoolhouses  for 
the  accommodation  of  all  the  pupils  within  the  limits  of  the  several  school  districts. 

Article  X. — Finance ,  taxation,  public  debt,  and  expenditure. 

Sec.  1.  *  *  *  The  general  assembly  shall  never  levy  a  poll  tax,  excepting  for 
school  purposes. 

Sec.  2.  *  *  *  Burying  grounds,  public  schoolhouses,  houses  used  exclusively 
for  public  worship,  institutions  of  purely  public  charity,  and  public  property  used 
exclusively  for  any  public  purpose  shall  never  be  taxed. 


392 


EDUCATION  EE  PORT,  1900-1901. 


Sec  15.  The  principal  arising  from  the  sale  of  all  lands  donated  to  the  State  for 
school  purposes  shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury,  and  the  State  shall  pay  interest 
thereon  for  the  support  of  schools  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent  per  annum. 

In  1850  the  census  returns  gave  to  Arkansas  3  “  colleges,”  with  14  teachers  and 
150  students,  with  an  annual  income  of  $3,100;  90  academies,  with  126  teachers 
and  2,407  pupils,  and  an  income  of  $34,304,  and  353  public  schools,  with  355  teach¬ 
ers  and  8,493  pupils,  with  an  annual  income  of  $68,411.  The  entire  number  attend¬ 
ing  school,  as  returned  by  families,  was  23,350,  with  16,817  white  persons  over  20 
years  of  age  unable  to  read.  The  population  in  1850  was  209,897,  with  a  school 
population  of  40,000.  In  1860  there  were  reported  in  the  State  4  “  colleges,”  with 
225  students  and  an  income  of  $5,585;  727  public  schools,  with  19,242  pupils  and 
$120,613,  of  which  $13,356  was  from  public  funds;  109  academies  and  other  schools, 
with  4,415  pupils  and  $98,146  income,  of  which  $8,645  was  from  public  funds.  At 
this  date  the  population  of  the  State  was  324,143  white  and  111,259  slaves  and  free 
colored,  and  48  Indians,  435,450  in  all,  an  increase  of  107,000,  46  per  cent,  from  1850. 
The  period  from  1850  to  1860  was  a  time  of  great  material  prosperity — a  six-fold 
increase  in  the  short  period  of  ten  years.  In  1860  there  were  518  manufacturing 
establishments,  with  an  annual  product  of  $2,850,578. 

In  1866  Governor  Murphy  said:  “No  State  in  the  Union  is  at  present  behind 
Arkansas  in  educational  progress,  and  never  in  the  history  of  the  State  have  the 
people  indicated  a  stronger  demand  for  the  establishment  of  a  thorough  system  of 
common-school  education  at  thp  public  expense.”  With  proper  regard  for  the 
fervor  of  official  rhetoric,  it  does  appear  that  despite  the  wreck  of  the  public-school 
funds  at  an  early  period  the  people  by  their  own  efforts  had  begun  the  good  work 
of  educating  the  white  population  in  earnest  by  1860.  Fortunately  the  State  was 
not  to  any  great  extent  the  theater  of  military  operations  during  the  civil  war, 
and  it  emerged  from  the  conflict  in  measurably  good  condition  to  move  onward 
toward  the  encouraging  state  of  affairs  that  now  appears  to  prevail. 

If  the  State  of  Arkansas,  during  the  twenty-five  years  between  its  organization 
in  1836  and  its  secession  from  the  Union  in  1861,  did  not  have  a  satisfactory  system 
of  public  instruction  it  was  from  no  lack  of  legislation  upon  educational  affairs. 
The  statute  books  are  crowded  with  acts  and  amendments  of  acts  looking  to  the 
building  up  of  a  complete  system  of  common  schools,  not  to  speak  of  the  frequent 
incorporation  of  academies.  Indeed,  at  the  first  session  of  its  legislature- several 
of  these  academies  were  chartered,  all,  not  excepting  a  parochial  school,  under 
the  significant  clause:  “No  preference  shall  at  any  time  be  given  or  any  discrim¬ 
ination  made  in  the  choice  of  trustees,  professors,  instructors,  instructresses, 
teachers,  or  students  on  account  of  religious  sentiments,  nor  shall  [any  of  these 
aforesaid  officials]  at  any  time  make  by-laws,  ordinances,  or  regulations  that  may 
in  any  way  interfere  with  or  in  any  manner  control  the  rights  of  conscience  or 
the  free  exercise  of  religious  opinion  or  worship.”  But  in  the  case  of  one  school 
and  church  two  exceptions  were  made  to  this  broad  statement  of  religious  liberty 
to  the  effect  that  “proselytes  of  abolition  or  Mormon  doctrines  shall  be  excluded 
from  this  seminary.”  The  Antique  Historical  Society  of  Arkansas,  at  Little  Rock, 
was  chartered  with  the  introduction:  “  Whereas  that  encouragement  of  learning 
and  the  dissemination  of  useful  and  entertaining  knowledge  are  objects  of  vital 
importance  to  the  people  of  the  State,”  etc. 

In  1838  the  Government  was  authorized  to  sell  what  remained  of  the  seminary 
lands  (for  the  State  University)  and  deposit  their  proceeds  in  the  Bank  of  Arkan¬ 
sas  until  appropriated  for  the  establishment  of  a  university.  In  1843  the  legisla¬ 
ture  established  a  State  board  of  education,  consisting  of  the  governor,  president 
of  senate,  speaker  of  house  of  representatives,  supreme  judg*1  of  the  State,  and  ten 
members  of  the  general  assembly,  elected  by  ballot  of  the  legislature,  intrnsted 
with  full  power  to  administer  such  a  scheme  of  general  education  as  the  legisla¬ 
ture  might  be  disposed  to  set  up.  This  was  followed  by  the  enactment  of  an 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


393 


elaborate  common-school  law,  sufficient,  if  it  could  have  been  enforced,  to  put  and 
keep  in  school  every  child  and  youth  in  the  State.  The  county  court  was 
authorized  to  appoint  a  commissioner  to  sell  the  school  lands  belonging  to 
any  district  on  request  of  its  people  and  to  order  the  election  of  three  trustees  who 
should  have  local  control  of  the  school  established  under  this  statute,  to  serve  for 
two  years.  The  land  could  be  sold  on  a  credit  of  ten  years  at  not  less  than  $2  per 
acre,  in  40-acre  lots,  the  debt  to  be  at  interest  at  8  per  cent.  The  trustees  could 
build  a  schoolhouse  and  hire  a  teacher  able  to  instruct  in  orthography,  writing, 
English  grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  good  morals.  The  commissioner 
could  buy  school  lots,  or  reserve  20  acres  from  the  public  domain  for  schoolhouse 
or  cemetery  lots.  Only  the  interest  of  the  school  fund  could  be  used  for  the  sup¬ 
port  of  schools,  which  were  maintained  chiefly  by  tuition  fees  of  the  pupils.  The 
central  board  was  to  receive  reports  and  set  on  its  teachers  the  seal  of  certification 
that  would  reach  every  district  in  the  State.  A  board  of  three  commissioners, 
elected  by  the  people,  with  the  county  clerk  and  judge,  constituted  a  county  board 
of  education,  which  had  the  distribution  of  all  school  funds  outside  the  sixteenth 
section  originally  granted,  examined  teachers,  and  visited  schools  once  a  year. 
The  trustees  could  loan  the  funds  at  6  per  cent  interest.  The  State  was  authorized 
at  first  to  spend  $1,000,  afterwards  a  more  generous  sum,  $1,515,  to  purchase 
books.  All  escheated  lands,  with  the  income  of  salt  springs  and  other  public 
properties,  were  devoted  to  the  same  fund.  A  portion  of  the  surplus  revenue 
received  by  the  State  was  appropriated  to  the  increase  of  the  school  fund.  The 
townships  were  allowed  to  establish  “laboring,”  probably  industrial,  schools. 

In  1848  the  university  or  seminary  lands  were  diverted  from  their  original  pur¬ 
pose  and  distributed  among  the  counties  as  a  part  of  the  common- school  fund. 
At  a  later  date  the  counties  were  authorized  to  build  up  academies,  in  connection 
with  adequate  subscriptions  by  the  friends  of  secondary  education.  In  1850-51 
a  new  turn  of  the  legislative  wheel  placed  the  entire  oversight  of  the  public  schools 
in  the  county  court  and  put  an  elected  commissioner  in  place  of  the  local  trustees, 
evidently  with  the  hope  that  the  interests  of  the  schools  would  be  belter  served  by 
a  small  and  responsible  tody  of  officials.  Subsequent  revision  of  the  school  laws, 
in  1853,  provided  for  county  commissioners  or  superintendents  of  schools,  chosen 
for  two  years,  whose  duties  were  those  ordinarily  performed  by  those  officials, 
and  who  were  required  to  report  every  year  to  the  secretary  of  state,  on  whom 
were  imposed  the  duties  of  State  superintendent  of  instruction. 

But  it  was  this  very  State  official  who  in  his  report  could  name  only  forty 
schools,  and  complains  of  a  general  indifference  to  education  among  the  people. 
It  was  evident,  with  the  State  law  for  this  ruinous  system  of  loaning  to 
everybody  who  would  agree  to  pay  interest,  with  the  fact  that  once  out  of  the 
charge  of  the  county  commissioner  there  was  no  security  for  the  handling  of  the 
funds,  and  the  provision  of  a  rate  bill,  that  the  system  would  not  be  adequate  to 
the  needs  of  a  State  one-third  of  which  was  always  at  the  mercy  of  a  rise  in  the 
Father  of  Waters,  another  area  liable  to  frequent  overflow,  the  great  hill  country 
of  the  west  and  southwest  still  a  wilderness,  the  capital  (Little  Rock)  as  late  as. 
1854  described  by  an  English  traveler  as  a  village  of  500  people  without  any  fea¬ 
ture  of  a  political  capital  town,  with  a  population  of  little  more  than  200,000  in 
1850  and  less  than  half  a  million  in  1860,  scattered  over  a  vast  area  of  52,000 
square  miles,  twice  the  extent  of  the  State  of  New  York.  All  this  explains  the 
partial  failure  of  the  State  to  educate  its  people.  The  “  peculiar  institution  ”  held 
one-fourth  its  entire  population  in  a  bondage  so  relentless  that  in  1859  the  State 
law  forbade  the  emancipation  of  slaves  and  banished  free  negroes  from  the  State. 
It  was  only  after  the  baptism  of  fire  through  which  the  people  passed  dur¬ 
ing  the  four  years  of  the  civii  war  that  this  great  border  State  righted  itself  and 
entered  on  a  career  of  educational  progress  which  in  one  short  generation  has 
made  it  an  educational  “  object  lesson  ”  for  all  its  neighboring  States  of  the  South. 


394 


EDUCATION-  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
TEXAS. 


A  year  before  Horace  Mann,  in  Massachusetts,  inaugurated  the  great  revival  of 
the  American  common  school,  at  the  close  of  the  first  half  century  of  the  Republic, 
a  “  far  call  ”  was  heard  from  the  new  Republic  of  Texas  in  behalf  of  universal  edu¬ 
cation,  as  then  understood,  below  the  line  of  36°  30',  in  the  Union  before  1860.  In 
1833,  by  a  law  of  the  newly  established  government  in  Mexico,  in  the  States  of  Coa- 
huila  and  Texas  all  children  were  to  be  trained  in  Catholic  schools  and  taught  to 
kneel  reverentially  before  the  altar  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Against  this 
edict  Stephen  F.  Austin,  in  the  spirit  of  old  Connecticut,  one  of  his  various  abid¬ 
ing  places  on  his  eventful  journey  from  the  cradle  to  the  source  of  his  final 
distinction  as  a  father  of  a  new  country,  embodied  the  protest  of  the  American 
community,  then  domiciled  in  Texas,  in  the  significant  words,  “We  want  free 
schools  for  our  children.  ” 

On  this  line  the  battle  of  universal  education  has  been  fought  from  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  the  Republic  of  Texas,  in  1836,  through  the  more  than  sixty  years  of  the 
dramatic  history  of  that  remarkable  State.  We  are  not  surprised  to  find  in  the 
declaration  of  independence  of  the  province,  in  1835,  the  following  impeachment 
of  the  Mexican  Government:  “  It  has  failed  to  establish  a  public  system  of  educa¬ 
tion,  although  possessed  of  almost  boundless  resources  in  the  public  domain,  and 
although  it  is  an  axiom  of  political  science  that  unless  a  people  are  educated  and 
enlightened  it  is  idle  to  expect  the  continuance  of  civil  liberty  or  the  capacity  of 
self-government.” 

The  constitution  of  the  Republic  of  Texas,  1838,  declared,  “It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  Congress,  as  soon  as  circumstances  will  permit,  to  provide  by  law  a  general 
system  of  education.”  In  1839  the  Republic  inaugurated  the  generous  and  states¬ 
manlike  policy  that  has  characterized  this  Common wealth  through  all  the  muta¬ 
tions  of  its  changeful  history  of  consecrating  a  great  domain  of  public  lands  to 
the  cause  of  universal  education.  By  this  act  the  area  of  3  leagues  was  granted 
to  each  county  for  establishing  “a  primary  school  or  academy.”  This  was 
equivalent  to  a  grant  for  common  schools,  as  every  academy  would,  by  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  the  population,  include  all  white  pupils  from  6  to  16,  afterwards  declared 
the  public  school  age.  The  natural  result  of  this  experience  of  ecclesiastical 
interference  in  public  affairs  under  the  Mexican  rule  appears  in  the  provision 
of  the  constitution  of  1886  that  no  minister  of  religion  should  be  eligible  to  the 
presidency  or  to  a  seat  in  Congress. 

In  1837  we  find  the  first  record  of  the  long  line  of  statutes  for  incorporating 
academies  and  colleges,  which,  by  1860,  had  filled  the  State  with  private  and 
denominational  schools,  often  a  hindrance  to  development  of  a  public-school  sys¬ 
tem — a  system  here  provided  for  on  paper  not  only  by  the  magnificent  donation  of 
public  lands  but  by  a  succession  of  laws,  either  of  which,  if  thoroughly  enforced, 
would  have  placed  Texas  at  an  early  date  at  the  head  of  the  common-school  States 
of  the  South.  These  academies  and  colleges  were  chartered  on  the  nonsectarian 
system.,  as  far  as  the  provision  that  the  school  should  be  open  to  pupils  of  every 
religious  faith.  In  one  the  payment  of  $10  entitles  a  member  of  the  corporation 
to  a  vote  on  the  election  of  school  trustees  of  the  town  where  the  school  is  situated. 

This  policy  of  donating  large  tracts  of  land  as  a  basis  for  a  permanent  school 
fund  through  frequent  grants  to  academies,  colleges,  and  literary  institutions  has 
resulted  in  sixty  years  in  providing  the  great  prospective  endowment  of  the  com¬ 
mon  school  system  of  Texas.  In  1839,  in  addition  to  the  3  leagues  given  to  each 
county,  50  leagues  were  ordered  to  be  surveyed  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
President  for  the  endowment  of  two  colleges  in  the  eastern  and  western  sections 
of  the  Republic.  In  1841,  4  leagues  of  land  were  given  to  a  college  at  Gonzales 
and  for  a  hundred  years  the  descendants  of  all  the  defenders  of  the  Alamo  fortress, 
in  1836,  were  to  be  entitled  to  free  tuition  in  this  institution.  In  the  same  year 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1830  TO  1860. 


395 


the  Austin  Lyceum  was  chartered,  under  the  presidency  of  Burnet.  In  1844  Her¬ 
mann’s  German  University  was  chartered,  with  a  stringent  provision  that  no 
religious  test  should  be  exacted  of  any  teacher  in  the  school;  that  all  professors 
should  be  able  to  use  the  English  language,  and  no  strong  liquors  should  be  sold 
within  a  mile  of  the  college.  A  league  of  land  was  thrown  in  as  “a nest  egg  ”  for 
a  future  endowment.  Baylor  University,  at  W aco,  that  has  become  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  Baptist  denominational  schools  of  the  State,  was  one  of  the  last 
chartered  by  the  Republic.  Several  of  the  more  prominent  cities  of  the  State  have 
realized  a  handsome  sum  from  the  sale  of  these  lands,  originally  donated  for  “  a 
primary  school  or  academy.” 

In  1845-46  the  Republic  of  Texas,  after  nine  years  of  experience  as  a  “lone  star,” 
was  admitted  to  the  Union,  with  the  proviso  that  four  additional  States  might  be 
carved  out  of  its  enormous  area  of  274,356  square  miles,  thirty-four  times  the  area 
of  Massachusetts,  larger  than  the  united  Commonwealths  of  New  England,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  Ohio.  The  original  necessity  for 
the  multiplication  of  slave  States  no  longer  exists,  but  it  is  by  no  means  improb¬ 
able  that  the  people  of  Texas  will  yet  insist  on  this  privilege  of  division.  Settled 
as  densely  as  Massachusetts,  Texas  wmuld  support  a  population  of  40,000,000. 
The  State  has  750  miles  of  seacoast  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  rapidly  develop¬ 
ing  capabilities  for  a  foreign  commerce  that  will  drain  the  boundless  region 
between  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  and  the  great  mountains.  Its  situation 
between  the  twenty-seventh  and  thirty-ninth  degrees  of  latitude  brings  it  abreast 
of  Greece,  Rome,  Egypt,  and  Palestine. 

The  policy  of  donating  school  lands  continued  after  its  admission  to  the  Union, 
In  1854  the  State  set  apart  $2,000,000  of  the  $10,000,000  received  from  the  United 
States  for  a  State  school  fund.  In  the  same  year  the  State  donated  a  certain 
quantity  of  land  to  all  chartered  railroad  corporations  for  every  mile  of  road  put 
in  running  order,  with  the  proviso  “that  they  shall  survey  and  set  apart  at  their 
own  expense  every  alternate  section  for  public  free  schools.”  In  1856  the  same 
condition  was  annexed  to  an  act  donating  public  lands  for  the  benefit  of  navigation 
on  the  rivers  of  the  State.  It  is  understood  that  on  the  admission  of  Texas  the 
State  was  accorded  the  unusual  privilege  of  retaining  sole  possession  of  its  entire 
territory.  In  1873,  after  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  the  first  legislature  following 
the  continued  Federal  occupation  of  the  State  emphasized  this  already  generous 
policy  by  a  donation  of  half  the  remaining  public  domain,  84,000,000  acres,  to  free 
schools.  In  1877  it  was  asserted  that  the  State  of  Texas  was  in  possession  of 
70,000,000  acres  of  public  school  lands,  valued  at  $50,000,000.  The  extent  of  the 
school  lands  of  this  great  Commonwealth  exceeds  the  entire  area  of  all  the  New 
England  States.  In  addition  even  to  this,  at  different  times  the  legislature  has 
voted  one-tenth  or  one-fourth  its  entire  revenue  for  schools,  with  a  liberal  pro¬ 
vision  for  general  and  local  taxation  for  education.  In  fact,  though  one  of  the 
least  of  the  educational  States  in  the  Republic  in  1846,  Texas  authorized  the  city 
of  Galveston  to  impose  a  local  tax  of  one-half  of  1  per  cent  for  free  schools,  and  in 
1848  an  additional  act  provided  for  a  system  of  public  instruction  in  that  city. 

The  first  constitution  of  the  new  Commonwealth  of  Texas  in  1845  contains  the 
following: 

[The  constitution  of  Texas,  December  24,  1845.  ’] 

Article  X. — Education. 

Sec.  1.  A  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  being  essential  to  the  preservation  of 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  legislature  of  this 
State  to  make  suitable  provision  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  schools. 

Sec.  2.  The  legislature  shall,  as  early  as  practicable,  establish  free  schools 

1  The  constitution  of  the  Republic  of  Texas,  1836,  declared:  “  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  Congress, 
as  soon  as  circumstance  will  .permit,  to  provide  by  law  a  general  system  of  education.” 


396 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


throughout  the  State,  and  shall  furnish  means  for  their  support  by  taxation  on 
property;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  legislature  to  set  apart  not  less  than  one- 
tenth  of  the  annual  revenue  of  the  State,  derivable  from  taxation,  as  a  perpetual 
fund,  which  fund  shall  be  appropriated  to  the  support  of  free  public  schools;  and 
no  law  shall  ever  be  made  diverting  said  fund  to  any  other  use;  and  until  such 
time  as  the  legislature  shall  provide  for  the  establishment  of  such  schools  in  the 
several  districts  of  the  State,  the  fund  thus  created  shall  remain  as  a  charge  against 
the  State,  passed  to  the  credit  of  the  free  common  school  fund. 

Sec.  3.  All  public  lands  which  have  been  heretofore,  or  which  may  hereafter  be, 
granted  for  public  schools  to  the  various  counties  or  other  political  divisions  in 
this  State  shall  not  be  alienated  in  fee,  nor  disposed  of  otherwise  than  by  lease  for 
a  term  not  exceeding  twenty  years,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

Sec.  4.  The  several  counties  in  this  State  which  have  not  received  their  quantum 
of  lands  for  the  purposes  of  education  shall  be  entitled  to  the  same  quantity  here¬ 
tofore  appropriated  by  the  Congress  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  to  other  counties.1 

This  document,  it  will  be  seen,  reaffirmed  the  determination  of  the  State  to 
educate  its  white  children,  approved  the  principle  of  State  and  local  taxation  for 
schools,  appropriated  one-tenth  of  the  public  revenue  raised  by  taxation  to  the 
same  object,  secured  the  inviolability  of  the  State  school  fund  and  provided  that 
the  original  grant  of  lands  by  the  Republic  of  Texas  to  the  counties  should  be  con¬ 
firmed  and  extended  to  all  the  new  counties  organized  in  the  Commonwealth. 
The  population  of  the  State  in  1836  was  50,0C0;  in  1850, 154,034  white,  58,161  slave, 
and  397  free  negroes,  total  212,592.  There  were  then  130  organized  counties  in 
the  State.  Five  hundred  and  twenty  leagues,  2,302,560  acres,  were  set  apart  at 
the  admission  of  the  State  to  the  Union  for  education. 

But  from  the  beginning  a  succession  of  hindrances,  despite  the  liberal  action  of 
successive  legislatures,  wrought  a  practical  nullification  of  the  intent  of  the 
superior  class,  until  the  close  of  the  civil  war  brought  with  it  the  possibility  of  the 
great  educational  success  of  the  State  during  the  past  thirty-five  years.  These 
generous  grants  of  the  public  domain  were  coupled  with  the  proviso  that  the  land 
should  only  be  loaned  for  a  limited  term  of  years.  At  that  period  there  was 
land  “to  burn”  in  Texas.  And  with  such  an  opportunity  to  buy  at  a  nominal 
price,  even  to  shirk  the  payment  of  interest  or  to  buy  on  long  credit,  with  a  final 
repudiation  of  the  debt  and  the  reversal  of  the  property  to  the  State,  operations 
capable  of  being  repeated  through  an  entire  lifetime,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that 
available  funds  for  the  establishment  of  universal  education  were  not  at  hand. 
Besides  the  fact  that  in  1850  the  entire  white  (the  only  school)  population  of  Texas 
was  but  154,000  (not  more  than  one  of  the  present  first-class  cities  of  the  Union) 
scattered  over  an  illimitable  area,  with  no  modern  facilities  for  traveling,  its  vast 
prairies  almost  impassable  during  several  of  the  school  months  of  the  year,  explains 
the  reason  why  the  establishment  of  schools  demanded  in  the  declaration  of  inde¬ 
pendence  was  so  long  delayed.  Meanwhile  the  local  education  of  the  people, 
grouped  in  little  neighborhoods,  separated  by  material  and  social  barriers  during 
the  twenty-five  years  previous  to  the  great  war,  was  largely  carried  on  by  private 
and  denominational  agencies.  Of  course  this  multiplication  of  private  and 
denominational  “colleges  ”  and  academies  gave  to  the  people  able  to  educate  their 
children  in  this  way  the  opportunity  for  the  kind  of  schooling  then  regarded  com¬ 
petent  for  the  exigencies  of  private  and  public  life.  In  this  way  there  was  fur¬ 
nished  to  the  country  the  group  of  able  and  energetic  public  men  sent  to  W  ash- 
ington  and  retained  for  the  public  service  at  home. 


1  An  act  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  approved  January  26, 1839,  granted  to  each  county  3  leagues 
of  land  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  primary  school  or  academy.  The  lands  were  to  be 
located  in  the  county,  if  good  lands  could  be  found' vacant,  and  they  might  be  surveyed  in  any 
sized  tracts  of  not  less  than  160  acres.  If  lands  proper  for  this  use  did  not  exist  in  the  county 
they  might  be  surveyed  upon  any  of  the  vacant  lands  of  the  Republic  at  the  expense  of  the 
county. 

The  same  act  directed  a  tract  of  50  leagues  of  land  to  be  set  apart  for  the  establishment  and 
endowment  of  two  colleges  or  universities  thereafter  to  be  created,  the  cost  of  survey  being 
paid  by  the  general  treasury. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860. 


397 


By  1855  the  school  fund,  as  the  result  of  all  legislation,  supplied  an  income  of 
only  §128,668.  In  1851  the  first  general  school  law  was  passed.  It  was  an  elective 
statute,  containing  among  other  provisions  the  following: 

The  chief  justice  and  county  commissioners  of  each  county  were  made  a  county 
board  of  education,  empowered  to  divide  the  county  into  practicable  school  districts, 
and  call  an  election  for  three  trustees,  to  serve  one  year  in  succession.  To  these  offi¬ 
cials  was  entrusted  the  general  working  of  the  schools.  The  school  revenues  of 
the  State  were  to  be  distributed  per  capita  among  these  districts  by  the  State 
treasurer,  who  was  appointed  ex  officio  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and 
by  the  county  officials.  The  $2,000,000  spoken  of  was  made  a  special  school  fund, 
which  at  5  per  cent  furnished  an  income  of  $100,000.  Bach  district  was  expected 
to  furnish  a  schoolhouse  before  receiving  its  share  of  the  public  funds.  The  free¬ 
dom  of  the  schools  was  not  yet  established — there  being  a  rate  bill  for  all  able 
to  pay— especially  for  filling  out  the  time,  while  one- tenth  of  the  State  revenue 
was  largely  appropriated  to  the  free  schooling  of  poor  children.  Any  primary 
department  of  a  college  or  academy  could  be  made  a  public  school  and  subsidized 
by  public  funds.  Amendments  of  the  law  in  1856  provided  that  the  English 
language  should  be  taught  in  all  schools.  In  1856  a  mischievous  law  authorized 
the  loaning  of  the  school  funds  to  railroad  corporations.  While  this  probably  did 
facilitate  the  development  of  a  large  portion  of  the  State  by  more  rapid  transit,  it 
turned  out  a  wasteful  use  of  the  school  funds,  large  amounts  of  which  were  lost 
by  the  collapse  of  many  of  these  corporations. 

In  1856  $10,000  was  appropriated  for  the  establishment  of  a  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum  at  Austin,  and  arrangements  were  made  to  locate  20,000  acres  of  univer¬ 
sity  lands.  For  many  years  the  State  benevolent  institutions  at  Austin  were 
under  the  management  of  the  Bakers— uncle  and  nephew — originally  from  Maine, 
but  well  known  as  eminent  teachers  in  Massachusetts.  In  1858  the  county  courts 
were  authorized  to  appoint  boards  of  examiners  for  teachers.  The  amendments 
to  the  laws  of  1851  in  1856  abolished  the  trustees  and  local  district  system,  and 
made  the  county  courts  the  guardians  of  public-school  interests,  the  teachers  being 
instructed  to  report  directly  to  them.  A  subsequent  amendment  of  the  law  in 
1858  endeavored  to  arrest  the  waste  of  the  school  funds  from  the  indiscreet  loans 
to  railroad  and  other  corporations,  and  added  the  entire  income  of  the  sales  of  all 
public  lands  to  the  school  fund. 

Besides  this  record  of  legislation,  gathered  from  the  statutes  of  the  State,  there 
are  few  reliable  sources  of  information  concerning  the  actual  result  of  so  much 
lawmaking  and  such  full  and  statesmanlike  provisions  for  universal  education. 
Superintendent  E.  V.  Whittaker,  who  served  during  the  period  of  reconstruction, 
in  1868  reports  as  follows:  “  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  official  statement  or 
record  of  the  progress  of  education  in  Texas  under  these  various  laws,  nor  of  the 
number  of  schools  and  teachers.  There  seems  to  have  been  but  little  inspiration, 
discernment,  or  progress.  The  State  treasurer  in  his  report  complains  of  the 
clerical  remissness  of  the  counties  in  furnishing  data.  In  the  year  1861,  for 
instance,  out  of  a  total  of  124  original  counties  but  12  of  the  county  courts  made 
their  reports  as  required  by  law.  While  the  State  was  disbursing  upward  of 
$100,000  annually  for  the  support  of  public  education,  no  summary  of' facts  and 
school  statistics  were  published  or  preserved.”  The  superintendent  presents  such 
“fragmentary  data”  as  the  following: 

“In  1854-55  the  State  treasurer,  ex  officio  State  superintendent  of  schools,  reports 
a  disbursement  for  public  education  of  $27,137.  In  1856,  72,826  scholars  with 
$101,588  expended,  $1.38  per  capita.  In  1857,  87,000  pupils,  $106,000  expended, 
$1.21  per  capita.  In  1858,  102,772  children,  $105,855  disbursed,  $1.03  per  capita. 
In  1859,  101,181  scholars,  $113,154  expended,  $1.12£  per  capita.  In  1860,  104,447 
pupils,  $104,447  expended,  $1  per  capita.  In  1861,  105,200  children,  $65,224  dis¬ 
tributed,  62  cents  per  capita.” 


398 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


That  the  statements  made  by  the  superintendent  of  schools  referred  to  did  not 
misrepresent  the  actual  condition  of  common- school  education  in  the  State  during 
the  period  from  1845  to  1860  is  shown  by  a  report  of  the  State  treasurer,  James 
H.  Raymond,  ex  officio  superintendent  of  common  schools,  in  1855.  He  states 
that  4  4  there  is  no  provision  in  the  law  of  1854  by  which  the  ex  officio  superintend¬ 
ent  is  to  be  furnished  with  a  particle  of  material  to  construct  a  report.”  His 
source  of  information  is  the  reports  of  twenty-eight  chief  justices,  44  not  one  of 
whom  has  thoroughly  complied  with  his  demand  for  information.”  From  the 
published  communications  of  these  justices  we  gain  an  insight  into  the  condition 
of  educational  affairs  that  explains  the  reason  for  the  ill  success  of  the  generous 
action  of  the  legislature.  Of  twenty-one  school  districts  in  one  county  in  1854 
only  two,  and  in  1853  only  three,  elected  trustees.  The  slender  amount  of  the 
fund  to  be  distributed,  $27,138  in  all — less  than  $1  per  capita — is  assigned  as  one 
reason  for  this  neglect.  Another  county  reports  but  one  district  organized:  “Almost 
everyone  in  our  county  being  able  to  educate  his  own  children,  but  little  interest 
is  manifested  in  the  common-school  system.”  Another  county  reports  in  1855: 
44  There  are  no  schools  organized  under  the  statute.”  The  small  sum  to  be  received, 
the  sparse  population,  the  difficulty  of  getting  schoolhouses,  etc.,  are  assigned. 
Others  report:  “Some  neighborhoods  have  very  good  schools  on  their  own  hook.” 
In  another  county  only  2  of  35  districts  are  organized,  the  reason  assigned  being 
“ignorance  of  the  law,  which  is  believed  to  be  too  prolix.”  Others  make  a  better 
showing.  In  one  6  of  10  districts,  in  another  18  of  37,  are  organized.  But  still 
another  reports  only  4  in  15,  and  only  2  trustees  qualified.  One  flatly  repudiates 
the  duty  to  organize,  and  2  assert  that  there  is  no  money,  and  the  negligence  of 
officials  is  largely  responsible  for  the  failure. 

The  city  of  Galveston,  for  which  a  special  school  law  had  been  passed,  elected 
trustees,  but  nothing  more  was  done.  The  lack  of  funds  is  alleged  as  a  cause  of 
the  failure.  Another  county  organized  10  of  its  21  districts.  The  judge  of  another 
county  reports:  44  The  lav/ is  a  failure.”  Other  justices  suggest  the  raising  of  a 
charity  fund,  with  a  small  amount  required  for  paying  tuition  for  poor  children. 
Many  counties  report  that  the  courts  have  no  interest  in  the  matter.  One  unfor¬ 
tunate  county  declares  that  it  has  no  schools,  and  none  have  been  asked  for  in  the 
county.  The  monotonous  report  still  comes  in,  44  But  little  interest;  only  few  dis¬ 
tricts  organized.”  Doubtless  the  sparse  population  of  the  majority  of  these  coun¬ 
ties  was  the  chief  hindrance.  The  plan  of  distributing  State  aid  to  private  schools 
did  not  seem  to  occur  to  any  of  these  writers.  It  can  not  be  questioned  that, 
according  to  the  report  of  one  county,  44  60  cents  a  year  is  of  no  use  in  educating  a 
child.”  The  number  of  school  children  returned  in  1854,  for  100  counties,  was 
41,198.  The  moneys  unexpended  were  supposed  to  lie  in  the  hands  of  the  county 
authorities,  and  became  the  occasion  of  legislative  acts  and  a  great  deal  of  litiga¬ 
tion.  All  the  judges  report  a  desire  among  the  people  to  educate  their  children. 
It  is  probable  that  there  were  at  this  date  a  fair  number  of  colleges  for  the  better- 
off  class,  and  a  portion  of  the  teachers  were  schooled  in  the  academies  and  colleges, 
which  were  but  another  name  for  schools  for  the  instruction  of  all  who  came. 

But  while  for  this  and  numerous  other  causes  the  people  of  Texas  during  the 
twenty-five  years  previous  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  did  not  realize  the 
opportunities  for  the  education  of  their  children  that  the  fathers  of  the  State  and 
the  acts  of  their  legislatures  seemed  to  provide,  the  original  declaration  of  Austin — 
“  The  people  desire  free  schools  for  their  children” — has  never  been  forgotten. 

In  the  year  1861  the  secession  of  the  State  of  Texas  from  the  Union  caused  the 
suspension  of  the  public-school  system  during  the  war.  The  State  school  fund  of 
$2,592,533.14  before  1855  had  suffered  depletion  to  the  extent  of  $1,285,327.  The 
railroads  had  all  forfeited  their  charters  and  were  generally  regarded  insolvent.  In 
1868  there  was  due  from  the  State  to  the  school  fund  the  large  sum  of  $3,549,418.58. 
The  superintendent  reports:  44  So  largely  has  this  great  endowment  been  depleted 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE*  SOUTH - 1830  TO  1860.  399 

that  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  in  its  present  condition  an  annual  income  of 
$30,000  can  be  realized  from  it  for  the  maintenance  of  schools.” 

The  constitution  of  1866,  prepared  during  the  temporary  revival  of  the  State 
government  under  the  policy  of  President  Andrew  Johnson,  contains  wise  provi¬ 
sions  for  the  reorganization  of  the  school  funds,  not  only  requiring  the  recogni¬ 
tion  of  the  land  grants  to  counties  and  the  alternate  sections  of  railroad  lands,  but 
adds  one-half  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  all  public  lands.  It  also  provided  for 
a  State  board  of  education  and  a  State  superintendent  of  public  schools. 

By  one  provision  the  counties  should  have  authority  to  negative  the  sales  of 
their  lands  by  the  boards  of  trustees.  The  explanation  of  this  apparent  invasion 
of  local  rights  seems  to  be  that  previously  large  losses  had  been  incurred  by  the 
local  officials  disposing  of  these  valuable  properties  for  “  a  song.” 

This  constitutional  provision,  although  only  of  temporary  effect,  is  here  quoted 
entire,  as  a  proof  that  even  through  the  dismal  period  of  civil  war  the  determina¬ 
tion  of  the  people  of  Texas  to  educate  their  children  was  never  abandoned.  No 
fact  in  the  history  of  popular  education  in  the  United  States  is  more  impressive 
than  the  steady  growth  of  a  common  school  public,  from  its  inauguration  under 
the  leadership  of  Thomas  Jefferson  in  Virginia,  even  before  the  establishment  of 
the  National  Union,  through  long  years  of  varied  success  and  failure,  until  it 
emerged  into  public  view  from  the  wreck  of  the  civil  war  as  the  most  vital  element 
remaining  in  the  demoralized  civilization  of  the  seceding  States,  at  once  putting 
itself  in  friendly  relations  with  the  similar  body  of  people  in  the  North,  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  short  generation  from  1870  to  the  present  time  achieving  such  results  as 
under  similar  circumstances  find  no  corresponding  record  in  the  annals  of  man¬ 
kind  in  any  age  or  land. 

[Constitution  of  Texas,  June  25,  1866.] 

Article  X. — Education. 

Section  1 .  A  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  being  essential  to  the  preservation  of 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  legislature  of  this 
State  to  make  suitable  provisions  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public 
schools. 

Sec.  2.  The  legislature  shall,  as  early  as  practicable,  establish  a  system  of  free 
schools  throughout  the  State;  and  as  a  basis  for  the  endowment  and  support  of 
said  system,  all  the  funds,  lands,  and  other  property  heretofore  set  apart  and 
appropriated,  or  that  may  hereafter  be  set  apart  and  appropriated,  for  the  support 
and  maintenance  of  public  schools  shall  constitute  the  public  school  fund;  and 
said  fund  and  the  income  derived  therefrom  shall  be  a  perpetual  fund  exclusively 
for  the  education  of  all  the  white  scholastic  (inhabitants)  of  this  State,  and  no  law 
shall  ever  be  made  appropriating  said  fund  to  any  other  use  or  purpose  whatever. 
And  until  such  time  as  the  legislature  shall  provide  for  the  establishment  of  such 
system  of  public  schools  in  the  State,  the  fund  thus  created  and  the  income  derived 
therefrom  shall  remain  as  a  charge  against  the  State,  and  be  passed  to  the  credit 
of  the  free  common  school  fund. 

Sec.  3.  And  all  the  alternate  sections  of  land  reserved  by  the  State  out  of  grants 
heretofore  made,  or  that  may  hereafter  be  made,  to  railroad  companies  or  other 
corporations  of  any  nature  whatever,  for  internal  improvements,  or  for  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  wealth  and  resources  of  the  State,  shall  be  set  apart  as  a  part  of  the 
perpetual  school  fund  of  the  State  (and  the  legislature  shall  hereafter  appropriate 
one-half  of  the  proceeds  resulting  from  all  sales  of  the  public  lands  to  the  perpetual 
public-school  fund):  Provided ,  That  if  at  any  time  hereafter  any  portion  of  the 
public  domain  of  this  State  shall  be  sold,  and  by  virtue  of  said  sale  the  jurisdiction 
over  said  land  shall  be  vested  in  the  United  States  Government,  in  such  event 
one-half  of  the  proceeds  derived  from  said  sale  shall  become  a  part  of  the  perpetual 
school  fund  of  the  State. 

Sec.  4.  The  legislature  shall  provide  from  time  to  time  for  the  sale  of  lands 
belonging  to  the  perpetual  public-school  fund,  upon  such  time  and  terms  as  it  may 
deem  expedient:  Provided,  That  in  cases  of  sale  the  preference  shall  be  given  to 
actual  settlers:  And  provided  further.  That  the  legislature  shall  have  no  power  to 
grant  relief  to  purchasers  by  granting  further  time  for  payment,  but  shall,  in  all 


400 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

cases,  provide  for  the  forfeiture  of  the  land  to  the  State  for  the  benefit  of  a  per*= 
petnal  public-school  fund,  and  that  all  interest  accruing  upon  such  sales  shall  b© 
a  part  of  the  income  belonging  to  the  school  fund  and  subject  to  appropriation 
annually  for  educational  purposes. 

Sec.  5,  The  legislature  shall  have  no  power  to  appropriate,  or  loan,  or  invest, 
except  as  follows,  any  part  of  the  principal  sum  of  the  perpetual  school  fund  for 
any  purpose  whatever,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  legislature  to  appropriate 
annually  the  income  which  may  be  derived  from  said  fund  for  educational  pur¬ 
poses,  under  such  system  as  it  may  adopt,  and  it  shall,  from  time  to  time,  cause 
the  principal  sum  now  on  hand  and  arising  from  the  sales  of  land  or  from  any 
other  source  to  be  invested  in  the  bonds  of  the  United  States  of  America,  or  the 
bonds  of  the  State  of  Texas,  or  such  bonds  as  the  State  may  guarantee. 

Sec.  6.  All  public  lauds  which  have  been  heretofore  or  may  be  hereafter  granted 
for  public  schools  to  the  various  counties  or  other  political  divisions  in  this  State 
shall  be  under  the  control  of  the  legislature  and  may  be  sold  on  such  terms  and 
under  such  regulations  as  the  legislature  shall  by  law  prescribe,  and  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  said  lands  shall  be  added  to  the  perpetual  school  fund  of  the  State. 
But  each  county  shall  receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  interest  arising  from  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  lands  granted  to  them  respectively:  Provided ,  That  the 
lands  already  patented  to  the  counties  shall  not  be  sold  without  the  consent  of  such 
county  or  counties  to  which  the  lands  may  belong. 

Sec.  7.  The  legislature  may  provide  for  the  levying  of  a  tax  for  educational  pur¬ 
poses:  Provided ,  The  taxes  levied  shall  be  distributed  from  year  to  year  as  the 
same  may  be  collected:  And  provided ,  That  all  the  sums  arising  from  said  tax 
which  may  be  collected  from  Africans  or  persons  of  African  descent  shall  be 
exclusively  appropriated  for  the  maintenance  of  a  system  of  public  schools  for 
Africans  and  their  children,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  legislature  to  encour¬ 
age  schools  among  these  people. 

Sec.  8.  The  moneys  and  lands  heretofore  granted  to,  or  which  may  hereafter  be 
granted  for,  the  endowment  and  support  of  one  or  more  universities  shall  con¬ 
stitute  a  special  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  said  universities,  and  until  the  uni¬ 
versity  or  universities  are  located  and  commenced  the  principal  and  the  interest 
arising  from  the  investment  of  the  principal  shall  be  invested  in  like  manner  and 
under  the  same  restrictions  as  provided  for  the  investment  and  control  of  the 
perpetual  public-school  fund  in  sections  4  and  5  in  this  article  of  the  constitution, 
and  the  legislature  shall  have  no  power  to  appropriate  the  university  fund  for  any 
other  purpose  than  that  of  the  maintenance  of  said  universities,  and  the  legislature 
shall  at  an  early  day  make  such  provisions  by  law  as  will  organize  and  put  into 
operation  the  university. 

Sec.  9.  The  400,000  acres  of  land  that  have  been  surveyed  and  set  apart  under 
the  provisions  of  the  law  approved  August  30,  A.  D.  1856,  for  the  benefit  of  a 
lunatic  asylum,  a  deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  a  blind  asylum,  and  an  orphan  asylum, 
shall  constitute  a  fund  for  the  support  of  such  institutions,  one-fourth  part  of  each, 
and  the  said  sum  shall  never  be  directed  to  any  other  purpose.  The  said  lands 
may  be  sold  and  the  fund  invested  under  the  same  rules  and  regulations  as  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  lands  belonging  to  the  school  fund.  The  income  of  said  fund  only 
shall  be  applied  to  the  support  of  such  institutions,  and  until  so  applied  shall  be 
invested  in  the  same  manner  as  the  principal. 

Sec.  10.  The  governor,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  two-thirds-of  the 
senate,  shall  appoint  an  officer  to  be  styled  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
His  term  of  office  shall  be  four  years,  and  his  annual  salary  shall  not  be  less  than 
$2,000,  payable  at  stated  times.  And  the  governor,  comptroller,  and  superintendent 
of  public  education  shall  constitute  a  board  to  be  styled  a  board  of  education,  and 
shall  have  the  general  management  and  control  of  the  perpetual  school  fund  and 
common  schools,  under  such  regulations  as  the  legislature  may  hereafter  prescribe. 

Sec.  11.  The  several  counties  in  this  State  which  have  not  received  their  quan¬ 
tum  of  the  lands  for  the  purposes  of  education  shall  be  entitled  to  the  same  quan¬ 
tity  heretofore  appropriated  by  the  congress  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  (and*  the 
State)  to  other  counties.  And  the  counties  which  have  not  had  the  lands  to  which 
they  are  entitled  for  educational  purposes  located  shall  have  a  right  to  contract 
for  the  location,  surveying,  and  procuring  the  patents  for  said  lands,  and  of  paying 
for  the  same  with  any  portion  of  said  lands  so  patented,  not  to  exceed  one-fourth 
of  the  whole  amount  to  be  so  located,  surveyed,  and  patented,  to  be  divided  accord¬ 
ing  to  quantity,  allowing  to  each  part  a  fair  proportion  of  land,  water,  and  timber. 

The  brief  period  of  reorganization  under  the  Johnson  administration  afforded 
no  opportunity  for  the  reorganization  of  the  school  system.  By  1868  the  State 
found  itself  in  the  hands  of  the  General  Government  during  the  period  known  as 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1830  TO  1860. 


401 


the  disturbed  era  of  reconstruction.  A  State  superintendent  of  instruction,  acting 
under  these  conditions,  as  we  have  already  shown,  could  do  little  but  lick  educa¬ 
tional  affairs  somewhat  into  shape.  It  was  stated  by  the  authorities  that  the- 
school  fund  of  Texas  was  an  imperial  domain  of  4,850,630  acres.  At  an  established 
price  of  $2  per  acre  it  was  estimated  that  the  State  could  realize  $9,000,000.  But 
the  public  lands  of  the  State  at  this  period  had  been  so  loaned  that  there  was  little 
left  of  value  to  save  from  the  gigantic  waste. 

The  sum  obtained  from  one-fifth  of  the  revenue  of  the  State,  with  what  could 
be  realized  from  other  sources,  it  was  thought  would  set  on  the  ground  44  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  primary  schools,  suited  to  the  peculiarities  of  our  country  and  population,, 
and  place  instruction  within  the  reach  of  every  child  of  whatever  color,  condition,, 
or  race.” 

The  generous  provision  for  the  State  University  in  1839,  221,000  acres  of  land, 
reinforced  in  1858  by  $100,000  in  United  States  bonds,  and  one-tenth  of  the  railroad 
lands,  were  set  apart  for  the  establishment  of  this  institution.  The  lands  had 
been  offered  for  sale  on  a  credit  of  twenty  years  and  were  sold  for  $3.34  per  acre. 
But  of  this  sum  $379,168  was  absorbed  during  the  civil  war.  In  1868  there  was* 
left  $134,478  in  Government  paper.  The  cheering  words  of  the  State  superintend¬ 
ent  read  not  so  much  as  an  encouragement  and  warning  to  the  600,000  people  of 
Texas  as  a  prophecy  of  what  the  present  Commonwealth  has  achieved  during  the’ 
thirty  years  since  their  utterance.  He  writes:  44  From  this  war  we  have  emerged 
with  changed  purposes  and  an  altered  destiny.  We  are  not  the  same  people  that 
we  were,  and  we  can  never  be  the  same.  For  us  the  task  is  set  to  place  our  Com¬ 
monwealth  in  line  with  the  nineteenth  century,  and  to  readjust  the  course  of  the 
ship  of  state  for  a  new  distant  voyage.  A  civilization  rehabilitated  and  enlight¬ 
ened  by  new  ideas  is  our  chief  end,  and  the  education  in  them  our  pressing  duty. 
Let  the  Commonwealth,  in  its  organized  capacity,  provide  the  bread  of  knowledge 
for  all  its  children  and  labor  to  establish  this  method  of  public  security.  Let  our 
motto  be,  ‘Universal  suffrage  requires  universal  education.’” 

Here  is  the  proper  halting  place  in  this  deeply  interesting  record  of  the  educa¬ 
tional  history  of  one  of  the  most  characteristic  States  of  the  Union.  During  the 
first  generation  of  thirty  years  the  broad  and  generous  ideals  of  the  fathers  of  the 
new  Republic  and  State  had  been  promptly  responded  to  by  the  very  liberal  action 
of  the  people,  as  represented  in  the  legislature.  But  the  difficulty  was  evidently 
at  the  point  where  these  ample  provisions  and  good  intentions  were  to  be  organ¬ 
ized  in  a  working  system  of  common  schools  for  the  children  of  the  white  race. 
V/hen  the  superior  class,  acting  on  the  educational  lines  of  the  Southern  States 
from  which  they  came,  had  supplied  themselves  with  private  family  instruction, - 
neighborhood,  academical,  and  what  were  known  in  the  South  as  collegiate  schools, 
there  was  left  too  small  a  margin  in  this  sparsely  populated  immensity  of  domain 
to  assure  any  permanent  success  in  organizing  what  was  so  little  known  and  gen¬ 
erally  distrusted  as  the  common  school  of  the  Northern  States.  The  remaining 
thirty  years  of  the  history  of  popular  education  in  Texas,  when  written,  will  be  a 
story  of  another  sort,  a  record  perhaps  as  remarkable,  in  view  of  all  the  circum¬ 
stances  and  environments  of  the  case,  as  any  that  can  be  shown,  either  in  our 
own  or  any  other  country  in  modern  times. 

ED  1901 - 26 


CHAPTER  XI. 


COMMON  SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH  FROM  THE 
BEGINNING  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR  TO  1870-1876. 

EMBRACING  THE  PERIOD  OF  PREPARATION  FOR  UNIVERSAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE 
ELEVEN  CONFEDERATE  STATES  DOWN  TO  THE  RECOGNITION  OF  THE  COMMON 
SCHOOL  SYSTEM  IN  THEIR  REVISED  CONSTITUTIONS  DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF 
RECONSTRUCTION. 


By  A.  D.  Mayo,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 


Contents.— Introductory.— Elementary  schooling  of  the  freedmen  in  Washington  during  the 
war. --Beginnings  of  education  for  the  freedmen  in  Virginia.— The  Government  of  the 
United  States  in  the  education  of  the  freedmen.— The  educational  work  of  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton 
among  the  freedmen  of  the  Department  of  the  South;  of  Gen.  John  Eaton  among  the  freed¬ 
men  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.— The  inauguration  of  the  common  school  system  among  the 
colored  people  of  Louisiana,  by  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  1863—64. — 1 The  Freedmen’s  bureau.— The 
Peabody  education  fund.— The  mission  schools  established  by  the  churches  and  people  of 
the  North.— The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute. 


In  several  previous  essays  in  the  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  an  attempt  lias  been  made  to  present  a  historical  record  of  the  growth 
of  popular  education  in  the  original  fifteen  Southern  or  slave  States,  from  the 
appearance  of  the  elaborate  scheme  for  schooling  the  whole  people,  proposed  by 
Thomas  Jefferson  as  early  as  1779,  to  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in  1861. 
By  reference  to  these  publications  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  these  States  had 
undeniably  more  than  once  been  moved  by  the  combination  of  the  educated  and 
the  upward  pressure  of  a  section  of  the  secondary  class  of  their  population  to  a 
periodical  establishment  of  the  people’s  common  school  for  white  children,  if  was 
only  in  a  few  of  them  that  anything  that  could  be  regarded  as  such  an  arrange¬ 
ment  existed  in  1860. 

In  the  new  State  of  Missouri  and  the  old  Commonwealth  of  Kentucky  a  public 
school  system  had  already  been  established,  and  in  several  of  the  principal  villages 
and  cities  in  other  States  a  good  foundation  was  laid  for  future  growth.  In  North 
Carolina,  where  at  that  time  no  city  of  considerable  proportions  existed,  even  few 
villages  containing  5,000  people,  a  public  school  system  for  white  children  and 
youth,  under  the  general  State- superintendency  of  Rev.  Calvin  Wiley,  had  been 
maintained  for  several  years.  In  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
and  Missouri,  a  State  university  or  college  foundation  claiming  this  rank  had  been 
in  operation  for  periods  of  various  duration.  But  in  the  majority  of  these  States, 
outside  a  few  chief  cities  like  Baltimore,  Md. ;  Wilmington,  Del,;  Charleston,  S.  C.; 
Savannah,  Ga. ;  Mobile,  Ala.;  New  Orleans,  La.;  Nashville  and  Memphis,  Tena,, 
and  other  less  important  places,  the  attempt  to  establish  the  common  school  for  all 

403 


404 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


white  youth  had  failed.  All  these  States  had  again  and  again  been  stirred  by 
agitation  for  a  system  of  popular  education,  proceeding  from  a  growing  educa¬ 
tional  public  under  eminent  leadership.  Attempts  had  been  made  in  several 
States,  more  than  once  repeated,  to  establish  an  arrangement  for  schooling  the 
white  population,  more  effective  than  the  unreliable  method  by  the  “old  field,” 
family  elementary,  private  and  parochial  school,  and  the  various  types  of  the 
academical  seminary  for  the  secondary  grade.  But,  owing  to  causes  fully 
referred  to  in  these  essays,  these  ventures  had  either  failed  entirely  or,  in  the  more 
numerous  instances,  fallen  into  partial  collapse. 

As  the  swift  and  troubled  years  drifted  all  these  States  toward  the  4  4  dread  arbit¬ 
rament”  of  war,  which  was  to  determine  the  future  of  the  American  Union,  these 
efforts  were  baffled  by  the  growing  estrangement  from  the  North  and  a  popular 
distrust  of  its  most  characteristic  institution,  the  common  school.  In  the  cities 
already  named  the  system  of  public  instruction  was  often  administered  by  teachers 
and  superintendents  from  the  great  educational  centers  of  the  North;  but  the 
masses  of  the  white  people  in  these  fifteen  States  were  denied  the  enjoyment  of  a  free 
or  even  a  competent  tuition  public  school.  The  illiteracy  of  the  white  population 
in  these  States  has  never  been  correctly  estimated  or  even  known  at  home. 

That  the  superior  class  in  these  Southern  States  was  found  at  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  in  a  condition  of  great  executive  efficiency  for  the  prodigious  work  to 
which  it  had  set  its  hands,  and  that  the  masses  of  the  nonslaveholding  people — 
probably  four  times  as  numerous — did  add  a  luster  to  the  American  name  by  their 
bravery  and  persistence,  their  spirit  of  sacrifice,  and  the  endurance  of  awful  suffer¬ 
ing  in  their  devotion  to  their  great  leaders,  is  now  a  matter  of  history.  It  must 
never  be  forgotten  that  of  all  modern  peoples  the  people  of  the  United  States  is  the 
one  that  has  been  least  dependent  on  what  can  be  learned  from  books  and  taught 
through  the  agency  of  schools  for  the  development  of  a  national  character,  for 
the  very  form  of  government,  order  of  society,  the  condition  and  opportunities  of 
industrial  life,  and  experience  in  public  affairs  by  all  classes  of  white  people  in  the 
United  States  during  the  long  colonial  and  nearly  a  century  of  the  national  life 
had  from  the  first  been  in  itself  a  university  more  stimulating,  disciplinary,  and 
inspiring  than  had  ever  before  existed. 

Even  the  5,000,000  negro  slaves,  on  their  emergence  from  the  darkness  and  twi¬ 
light  of  their  condition  into  the  common  life  of  freedom,  will  be  best  understood 
in  their  relations  to  a  republican  civilization.  Here,  in  contact  with  a  superior 
class,  through  a  period  of  more  than  two  hundred  years,  this  people  underwent 
the  most  rapid  and  effectual  transition,  from  the  depths  of  pagan  barbarism  to  the 
threshold  of  a  Christian  civilization,  on  record  in  the  annals  of  mankind. 

There  was  certainly  found  during  the  period  of  the  great  conflict  and  the 
subsequent  years  of  reconstruction— a  period  of  fifteen  years  that  sorely  tested  the 
mental  and  executive  capacity  of  the  Southern  people— no  such  evidence  of 
incapacity  in  the  prosecution  of  a  gigantic  war  under  the  most  tremendous  diffi¬ 
culties  and  the  rapid  recovery  from  absolute  defeat  and  industrial  ruin  as  would 
remand  the  population  of  these  States  to  the  category  of  ignorance.  In  fact,  there 
was  not  in  1860  a  population  of  10,000,000  in  any  country  that  could  make  a  more 
notable  display  of  all  the  qualities  necessary  to  the  prosecution  of  a  great  war  and 
the  administration  of  public  affairs  than  in  these  fifteen  American  Commonwealths. 

Although  the  contest  through  more  than  seventy-five  years  for  universal  educa¬ 
tion  in  these  fifteen  States  had  borne  fruit  and,  in  1860,  was  represented  by  a 
larger  and  more  influential  public  than  ever  before,  yet  the  South  in  1860  was 
strongly  wedded  to  the  British  system  of  education  of  half  a  century  before.  It 
is  probably  true,  as  claimed,  that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  white  youth  of  the 
male  sex  were  gathered  in  institutions  bearing  the  name  of  college  and  university 
in  this  than  in  the  Northern  section  of  the  Union  in  1860.  It  is  true  that  many  of 
these  seminaries  were  in  no  elevated  sense  of  collegiate  rank  and,  with  a  few 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


405 


notable  exceptions,  the  majority  of  them  were  not  abreast  of  corresponding  foun¬ 
dations  of  the  higher  education  in  the  North.  But  the  very  absence  of  facilities 
for  good  common  school  education,  both  in  its  elementary  and  secondary  depart¬ 
ments,  forced  large  numbers  of  pupils  into  schools  above  their  capacity  and  com¬ 
pelled  the  colleges  for  both  sexes  to  confine  themselves  largely  to  the  work  of  what 
is  now  regarded  a  secondary  grade.  In  1860  the  South  was  better  furnished  than 
the  North  with  military  schools.  But  the  absence  of  any  thorough  system  of  edu¬ 
cation  under  public  supervision  and  the  consequent  dearth  of  reliable  statistical 
information  makes  all  attempts  to  set  forth  with  accuracy  the  real  condition  of 
Southern  education  in  1860  well  nigh  an  impossibility. 

But  of  all  that  was  actually  on  the  ground  in  1860,  whether  understated  or  over¬ 
stated  by  conflicting  estimates,  the  greater  portion  had  certainly  gone  the  way  of 
all  Southern  affairs  in  the  disastrous  wreck  of  the  entire  industrial  and  social 
order  through  the  utter  collapse-  of  the  Confederacy  and  the  emancipation  of  the 
five  or  six  millions  of  negro  slaves  in  1865.  The  attempt  to  recall  the  educational 
expedients  to  which  even  the  leading  families  of  the  country  were  left  during  the 
four  years  of  conflict  is  so  baffled  by  the  lack  of  reliable  information  that  it  is 
only  by  the  putting  together  of  fragments,  pieced  out  by  personal  recollections, 
that  any  competent  presentation  can  be  made.  It  is  certain  that  several  of  the 
State  universities,  especially  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  besides  a  number  of 
denominational  colleges,  were  held  in  session  until  the  final  collapse.  But  a 
majority  of  the  lower  schools  were  closed  at  an  early  period.  In  portions  of  the 
country  not  disturbed  by  the  ravages  of  war  certain  local  schools  were  kept  alive, 
although  the  terrible  drain  on  the  people  for  the  support  of  extensive  military 
operations  and  a  paralysis  of  industry  made  it  impossible  to  sustain  the  larger 
academical  schools  in  anything  like  their  usual  condition.  There  was,  doubtless, 
a  considerable  amount  of  teaching  of  young  children  in  the  homes  from  which, 
long  before  the  closing  campaign,  almost  every  capable  fighting  man,  often  the 
entire  population  of  competent  age,  had  been  drafted  away.  The  annals  of  this, 
the  most  picturesque  of  modern  wars,  are  lighted  up  by  the  accounts  of  whole 
regiments  of  soldiers  in  winter  quarters,  and  even  large  numbers  of  Confederate 
soldiers  in  Northern  prisons,  being  classed  in  school  work. 

In  one  notable  instance  a  school  was  organized  in  a  great  prison  camp  in  which 
a  college  professor  resumed  his  old  seat  and  laid  the  foundations  of  future  scholar¬ 
ship  in  the  more  ambitious  youths.  In  several  of  the  cities  which,  like  Mobile, 
Ala. ,  remained  until  a  late  period  in  possession  of  the  Confederacy,  the  public- 
school  system  was  kept  alive.  In  the  State  of  North  Carolina  it  is  told  that 
60,000  children  were  held  in  school  until  the  final  occupation  of  the  State  by  the- 
advancing  army  of  General  Sherman.  In  the  border  cities  like  Baltimore,  Wil¬ 
mington,  Louisville,  and  St.  Louis,  the  schools  remained  in  session,  although  half 
crippled  by  the  constant  drain  on  the  resources  of  the  people  and  by  the  inability 
of  the  country  to  endure  a  heavy  taxation. 

But  it  is  interesting  to  note  that,  amid  the  excitements  of  the  prodigious  con¬ 
flict,  the  more  thoughtful  men  of  the  South  were  pondering  the  future  educational 
needs  of  the  Confederacy.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  is  a  report  by  Prof.  E.  S. 
Joynes,1  then  of  Hollins  Institute,  in  Botetourt  County,  Va.,  one  of  the  best  of  the 
class  of  the  female  seminaries,  which  had  remained  in  session  almost  to  the  end  of 
the  war.  Professor  Joynes  was,  even  then,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
scholars  and  educators  of  the  Atlantic  South.  He  had  studied  abroad  and  enjoyed 
the  acquaintance  of  some  of  the  foremost  minds  of  that  period.  He  doubtless  rep¬ 
resented  a  considerable  body  of  the  leading  teachers  of  these  States  in  his  idea  con¬ 
cerning  the  building  up,  at  once  on  the  declaration  of  peace  and  the  establishment 
of  the  Confederate  government,  of  a  complete  system  of  public  instruction  mod- 


Reprinted  as  Chap.  XII  of  this  Report. 


406 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


eled  on  the  Prussian  schools.  So  engrossed  was  he  and  the  management  of  the 
Hollins  Institute  with  the  vision  of  the  coming  nation,  that  it  did  not  seem  to 
occur  to  them  that  the  Confederacy  itself  was  already  smitten  with  death  and 
tottering  to  its  fall. 

On  the  day  that  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Atlanta  by  the  army  of  General 
Sherman  was  received  in  Virginia,  August  20,  1864,  this  admirable  report  of  Pro¬ 
fessor  Joynes  was  read  to  the  trustees  of  Hollins  Institute  and  a  vote  recorded  to 
reorganize  that  institution  as  a  great  normal  school,  especially  for  the  preparation 
of  the  large  number  of  educated  women  of  the  superior  families  already  reduced 
to  poverty,  for  the  profession  of  teaching  in  the  new  public  schools  for  all  classes 
of  the  white  children  and  youth.  Professor  Joynes  has  lived  to  witness  the  reali¬ 
zation  of  far  more  than  he  prophesied,  under  a  restored  and  reconstructed  Union. 

The  most  notable  characteristic  of  our  great  civil  war,  wherein  it  differed  essen¬ 
tially  from  all  previous  similar  conflicts  of  national  importance,  was  that  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  upbuilding  the  new  American  in  place  of  the  destruction  of  the  old-time 
local  and  provincial  order  of  society  went  on  from  the  opening  guns  at  Fort  Sumter 
in  1861  until  the  last  State  was  relieved  from  military  occupation  and  its  affairs 
restored  to  the  charge  of  its  own  citizens,  in  1876.  This  radical  process,  though 
inevitably  misunderstood  by  the  people  of  the  eleven  seceding  States  and  very 
imperfectly  appreciated  even  by  the  majority  of  the. military  and  civic  officials 
who  were  often  compelled  to  participate  in  it  by  a  powerful  and  almost  uncon¬ 
scious  movement  among  the  loyal  people  of  both  sections,  was  evident  from  the 
first  to  the  more  thoughtful  observers  of  affairs. 

First  came  the  immediate  cooperation  of  the  friends  of  the  Union  with  the 
National'  Government  in  the  border  States  of  Maryland,  Delaware,  Kentucky, 
Missouri,  and  the  portion  of  Virginia  which,  by  geographical  position,  had  already 
become  a  portion  of  the  Northwest.  These  five  Commonwealths  were  held  fast, 
not  in  any  impossible  attitude  of  armed  neutrality,  but  in  open  and  assured  sup¬ 
port  of  the  national  cause.  Each  contributed  largely  to  the  preservation  of  the 
Union  in  all  patriotic  ways  and  at  a  far  greater  sacrifice  than  the  Northern  States. 
The  people  of  West  Virginia  had  also  to  overcome  the  natural  pride  of  citizenship 
of  the  Old  Dominion,  and  all  these  States  put  behind  them  the  sentiment  of  loyalty 
to  the  South  that  elsewhere  almost  annihilated  the  attachment  to  the  Union. 
From  these  five  States  went  forth  not  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  white  and 
colored  Union  soldiers,  the  former  not  inferior  to  the  best  fighting  material  in  the 
Union  armies,  and  the  latter,  with  a  larger  body  that  rose  up  to  welcome  the 
onward  march  of  the  Republic,  to  a  considerable  degree  at  least  neutralizing  the  aid 
and  comfort  given  to  the  Confederate  cause  by  the  work  of  the  slaves  at  home  and 
their  services  as  laborers  in  the  camp.  It  may,  indeed,  be  regarded  an  open  ques¬ 
tion  whether  the  Union  could  have  been  preserved  without  the  aid  of  this  reen¬ 
forcement  of  physical  and  moral  power  given  by  its  Southern  loyal  contingent  to 
the  growing  conviction  that  the  war  was  only  the  beginning  of  a  complete  revolu¬ 
tion  in  society  through  every  State  of  the  South.  By  no  one  was  this  important 
factor  in  the  great  problem  appreciated  so  completely  as  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  Mr.  Lincoln,  by  his  nativity  and  the  peculiar  training  of  his  entire 
younger  manhood,  was  himself  an  illustrious  representative  of  this  portion  of  the 
country  and,  from  the  first,  understood  the  vast  importance  of  its  cooperation  in 
the  mighty  undertaking  of  bringing  all  the  fifteen  Southern  States  into  line  with 
the  remainder  of  the  Union.  The  other  forces  that  wrought  to  the  same  end  were 
military  and  civic,  acting  in  another  environment  of  circumstances,  although,  of 
course,  dependent  on  the  emancipation  act  for  their  opportunity.  And  even  that 
momentous  act  would  have  gone  South  weighted  with  a  doom  of  destruction  had 
it  hot  been  anticipated  and  at  once  responded  to  by  these  movements  coming  in 
rapid  succession  during  the  ten  years  that  followed  the  advent  of  peace.  They 
were  all  the  offspring  of  the  same  moral  and  religious  conviction  that  in  both  sec- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1816.  407 

tions  of  the  Union,  from  the  foundation  of  the  Republic,  had  developed  the  agita¬ 
tion  against  the  existence  of  negro  slavery. 

For  half  a  century  this  movement  had  been  held  in  check  by  the  political  and 
industrial  interests  of  the  North,  so  complicated  in  their  relations  with  the  slave 
power.  It  was  everywhere  stigmatized,  even  in  the  free  States,  as  the  destructive 
agitation  of  a  party  of  religious  fanatics  and  political  impracticables.  It  was,  in 
reality,  the  result  of  the  moral  convictions  of  the  foremost  mind  and  heart  of  our 
own  and  all  civilized  lands.  But  it  was  better  understood  in  the  South  than  else¬ 
where  that,  if  permitted  to  go  on  unchecked,  it  would  not  only  abolish  negro 
slavery,  but  change  the  entire  organization  of  Southern  society  from  a  belated 
British  to  tne  coming  American  type.  It  was  for  a  full  generation  an  educational 
and  moral  rather  than  a  political  movement,  a  steadily  gathering  protest  wher¬ 
ever  the  influence  of  the  slave  power  appeared. 

But  now  that  the  great  conflict  for  the  preservation  of  the  Republic  had  ended 
by  the  virtual  destruction  of  the  entire  order  of  slave  society,  the  more  thought¬ 
ful  Northern  leaders  of  the  old  antislavery  movement  at  once  realized  the  perils 
of  the  situation;  for  the  end  came  only  by  the  extinction  of  all  the  vital  forces  of 
the  Confederacy.  Eleven  great  American  Commonwealths,  with  a  population  of 
10,000,000  white  and  5,000,000  emancipated  colored,  people,  lay  prostrate  at  the 
mercy  of  the  nation,  wielding  a  victorious  army  of  2,000,000  fighting  men,  under 
conditions  open  to  all  the  terrible  temptations  of  military  and  civic  ambition  which 
have  wrought  the  ruin  of  the  proudest  nations  in  history.  The  problem  now  was 
to  begin,  at  once,  the  work  of  reconstruction  at  the  foundations  of  society;  at  first 
to  prevent  the  vast  region  occupied  and  overrun  by  the  armies  from  lapsing  into 
anarchy  or  being  stricken  with  a  social  paralysis.  The  old  leading  men  of  these 
districts  during  the  war  were  away  in  the  army  or  “refugeeing5’  within  the  lines 
of  the  Confederacy.  The  negroes,  as  fast  as  emancipated  by  the  army,  even  before 
the  edict  of  the  Government,  were  in  peril  of  becoming  a  dangerous  element. 
Under  the  Confederacy  they  had  the  life  of  the  women  and  children  and  largely 
the  menial  offices  of  the  army  at  their  disposal.  Everything  was  to  be  done  for 
the  salvation  of  the  Southern  people  while  the  Union  army  was  steadily  battering 
down  the  strong  bulwarks  of  the  powerful  and  aristocratic  order  of  society  that 
represented  the  convictions  and  achievements  of  the  South  for  two  centuries. 

In  steady  succession,  evolved  from  the  profound  conviction  that  the  Union  could 
only  be  saved  when  these  States  were  not  only  conquered  by  arms  but  their  peo¬ 
ple  brought  in  line  with  the  progressive  ideals  of  society  and  government  certain 
to  prevail  in  the  Republic,  came  up  four  movements  which,  emerging  from  partisan 
controversy,  were  finally  everywhere  regarded  as  the  soul  of  all  the  successful 
life  of  the  future  in  the  new  South. 

First  came  the  appearance  of  the  Christian  people  of  the  North  following  the 
Army  as  an  agency  of  peace  and  good  will,  as  far  as  possible  restoring,  rebuilding, 
and  placing  on  the  ground  abandoned  by  the  Confederacy  the  beginnings  of  a  char¬ 
acteristic  American  society.  The  dominant  motive  of  that  original  body,  which 
reached  out  a  helping  hand  to  the  enemy,  was  not  only  patriotic  but  friendly  and 
Christian.  These  people  spent  themselves  in  giving  relief  to  the  helpless  of  both 
races  left  behind  the  retiring  Confederate  armies.  From  this  movement  was  devel¬ 
oped  the  necessity  of  organizing  the  swarming  multitudes  of  the  negroes,  left  behind 
in  a  conquered  territory,  into  some  scheme  of  civilized  society  through  legal  mar¬ 
riage,  free  labor,  and  civil  order.  Of  necessity  there  was  next  developed  the 
attempt  at  the  instruction  of  the  freedmen  in  letters,  which  was  the  beginning  of 
the  wonderful  educational  revival  which  in  less  than  forty  years  has  established 
the  American  common  school  in  its  full  significance  through  the  immense  territory 
of  these  sixteen  States.  In  this  great  work  the  army  officials  and  members  of 
benevolent  institutions  cooperated  in  behalf  of  all  who  would  accept  the  proffered 
aid.  This  primary  educational  movement  reached  its  culmination  in  the  placing 


408 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900*1901. 


of  a  provision  for  universal  education  in  the  revised  constitution  of  every  State 
during  the  early  period  of  reconstruction  by  the  vote  of  its  own  people  within  ten 
years  of  the  close  of  the  war.  In  doing  this  it  developed  a  system  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion  that  in  itself  created  the  public  opinion  which  has  taken  up  the  work  and 
borne  it  on  to  its  present  auspicious  result. 

Second.  Next  came  the  great  benefaction  of  the  educational  fund  of  $3,000,000 
by  George  Peabody;  as  he  declared,  “A  gift  to  the  suffering  South  for  the  good 
of  the  Union.  ”  At  the  time  this  was  the  largest  and  beyond  all  others  the  most 
important  contribution  to  the  education  of  a  whole  people  for  a  republican  gov¬ 
ernment  by  one  man  in  the  history  of  the  world. '  Its  donor  was  a  native  of  the 
State  of  Massachusetts,  for  a  time  a  resident  in  the  South,  and  ultimately  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  and  successful  merchant  and  banker  in  London,  never  having  trans¬ 
ferred  his  American  citizenship.  This  remarkable  gift  in  a  peculiar  way  repre¬ 
sented  the  entire  interest  of  Christendom  in  the  most  radical  feature  of  society  in 
the  reconstructed  slave  States. 

Third.  In  due  time  came  the  establishment  of  the  national  Bureau  of  Educa¬ 
tion.  Originally  it  was  one  of  the  many  fruitful  ideas  of  Henry  Barnard,  the 
chief  literary  apostle  of  the  great  educational  revival  in  the  North  from  1830  to 
1860.  The  idea  was  taken  up  in  an  enlarged  form  in  response  to  the  educational 
exigencies  of  the  time.  Before  this  the  National  Government  had  only  in  one 
way  shown  especial  interest  in  the  fundamental  enterprise  of  educating  the 
American  people  for  sovereign  citizenship.  By  the  great  act  of  the  Congress  of 
the  old  Confederation,  confirmed  by  the  National  Congress,  a  vast  domain  of  the 
public  lands  had  been  consecrated  to  the  schooling  of  the  children  and  youth  of 
all  the  States  hereafter  to  be  admitted  to  the  Republic.  By  this  act  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  not  only  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new  American  civiliza¬ 
tion  beyond  the  Alleghenies,  but  put  itself  on  perpetual  record  as  the  sponsor  for 
the  common  school.  Now,  by  the  creation  of  the  national  Bureau  of  Education, 
the  Congress  of  the  reconstructed  Republic  established  an  organization  that,  for 
the  first  time,  could  distribute  among  all  the  States  the  knowledge  of  what  was 
in  operation  at  home  and  of  what  was  best  done  abroad  in  all  departments  of  educa¬ 
tion,  To  the  South  especially  this  was  a  benediction,  for  without  it  the  schooling 
of  its  people  would  probably  have  longer  gone  on  in  the  channels  of  the  old-time 
British  aristocratic  methods  which,  until  a  short  generation  ago,  left  great  masses 
of  Englishmen  an  uneducated  population.  The  national  Bureau  of  Education  has 
become,  beyond  question,  the  most  effective  public  educational  organization  in 
Christendom,  not  only  by  its  admirable  work  at  home,  but  reaching  out  to  every 
nation  and  distributing  everywhere  the  best  results  of  that  wonderful  movement 
which  already  has  made  our  own  the  children’s  age. 

Fourth.  Largely  owing  to  the  influence  of  these  powerful  departures,  we  trace 
the  attempt  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from  1880  to  1890  to  inaugurate  a 
generous  system  of  national  aid  to  education,  virtually  for  the  relief  of  the  South. 
Although  finally  defeated,  for  the  first  time  in  American  history  this  movement 
brought  the  whole  subject  of  popular  education  for  debate  before  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States.  The  remarkable  series  of  discussions  in  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States,  which  three  times  passed  “  the  Blair  bill,”  will  stand  in  history  as, 
in  many  ways,  the  most  important  manifestation  of  the  higher  political  and  edu¬ 
cational  sentiment  of  the  South  at  that  period  since  the  close  of  the  civil  war. 
The  last  word  has  not  been  spoken  or  the  last  effort  made  in  this  direction.  It  has 
only  to  be  demonstrated  to  the  American  people  what  is  now  well  known  to  all 
competent  educators,  that  several  of  these  States  have  practically  reached  the 
limit  of  their  financial  ability  to  sufficiently  protect  themselves  from  the  wide¬ 
spread  and  perilous  illiteracy  which  has  already  become  a  national  peril  to 
awaken  another  effort,  even  more  radical  and  of  accepted  wisdom,  for  elevating 
the  quality  of  American  citizenship  among  several  millions  of  our  people. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


409 


It  was  not  by  accident,  or  even  in  answer  to  imperious  necessity,  that  these  four 
movements  were  along  educational  lines.  The  American  church  is  still  so  bound 
in  the  toils  of  ecclesiasticism  and  sectarianism  that  the  majority  of  its  vast  and 
beneficent  plans  for  the  public  benefit  of  the  people  are  prejudiced  by  its  perpetual 
internecine  war  of  sects,  creeds,  and  pt  lities.  But,  happily,  in  our  country  the 
educational  field  is  in  no  such  way  distributed  off  and  preoccupied  by  rival 
classes  and  schools.  Here  was  an  opening  into  the  very  heart  of  the  Confederacy 
and,  through  the  schools,  to  the  hearts -of  the  children.  Here  could  the  wise  and 
good  men,  and  especially  the  wise  and  good  women  of  every  sect,  church,  party, 
and  social  class,  unite  to  lift  up  the  illiterate  millions  of  this  extensive  realm  to 
the  condition  of  mental,  moral,  and  industrial  intelligence,  without  which  these 
States  would  have  forever  remained  a  conquered  province,  hopeless  of  genuine 
union  with  the  remainder  of  the  country. 

It  would  indeed  have  been  ‘  ‘  the  crime  of  the  ages ”  had  the  North  and  the  nation 
left  the  system  of  Southern  education  on  the  ground  in  1860  amid  the  rubbish  of 
the  general  wreck  of  1865.  That  system,  until  half  a  century  ago,  was  the  same 
that  prevailed  in  England  and  in  more  than  one  of  the  older  States  of  the  Union. 
Its  merit  was  that  it  did  give  to  the  more  favored  class  everywhere  the  best 
schooling  then  in  vogue,  and  was  the  most  efficient  element  for  its  training  in  the 
executive  capacity  in  public  affairs,  which  is  the  stronghold  of  every  great  aris¬ 
tocracy.  In  fifteen  States  it  did  lift  up  to  the  almost  supreme  control  of  public 
affairs  a  class,  probably  in  1860  more  powerful  for  evil  or  good  than  any  similar 
body  of  “first  people’’  in  any  land.  Its  destruction  at  the  downfall  of  the  Con¬ 
federacy,  if  not  followed  by  a  broader  and  more  rational  system,  would  have  been 
a  calamity  to  these  populations  for  which  the  people  who  saved  the  Union  would 
have  been  left  with  no  excuse  before  the  great  judgment-seat  of  history. 

It  was  the  instinctive  realization  of  this,  not  only  by  leading  educators,  but  by 
the  intelligent  people  of  all  orders,  including  all  the  great  historic  leaders  of  the 
people  through  the  whole  war  period,  that  brought  forth  in  succession  this  series  of 
movements  and  measures  by  the  cooperation  of  the  military,  civic,  religious,  indus¬ 
trial,  and  educational  forces  of  the  Union,  all  converging  upon  the  supreme 
enterprise  of  laying  in  these  States  the  final  and  permanent  foundation  of  the 
American  in  place  of  the  old-time  provincial  and  local  order  of  society,  which 
was  essentially  the  reproduction  of  the  British  order  of  a  century  ago. 

If,  indeed,  it  is  granted  to  the  great  departed  of  this  world  to  overlook  and 
rejoice  at  the  long-delayed  fruition  of  their  earthly  labors,  we  may  well  recall  the 
enthusiastic  exclamation  in  the  correspondence  of  Thomas  Jefferson  and  John 
Adams:  “  You  and  I  will  rejoice  in  heaven  over  the  coming  of  the  glorious  day  of 
the  education  of  the  whole  people!  ”  It  was  given  to  Thomas  Jefferson  in  his  life¬ 
time  to  see  only  the  upper  story  of  his  comprehensive  scheme  for  the  schooling’  of 
the  children  and  youth  of  his  native  State  in  actual  operation.  The  University 
of  Virginia  waited  half  a  century  before  the  people’s  right  to  universal  education 
was  assured  by  the  establishment  of  the  present  system  of  common  schools.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  Jefferson’s  original  plan  included  the  emancipation  and 
training  of  the  young  slaves  for  freedom;  but  the  Virginia  of  the  old  dispensation 
only  responded  to  her  great  educational  statesman  by  a  provision  for  the  schooling 
of  poor  white  children,  so  meager  and  unreliable  that  even  the  “lowTer  orders” 
either  rejected  or  remained  indifferent  to  it.  But  from  the  beginning  of  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  Virginia  as  a  State  in  the  Union  the  agitation  inaugurated  by  the  group 
of  eminent  public  men  who  first  represented  the  cause  went  on  with  increasing 
momentum.  The  movement  was  represented  by  a  remarkable  school  literature, 
frequent  educational  conventions,  and  occasional  trials  of  strength  in  the 
legislature. 

It  was  one  of  the  significant  and  almost  dramatic  events  with  which  the  fifteen 
years  of  the  civil  war  and  the  period  of  reconstruction  were  crowded  that  the  Gov- 


410 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


eminent  of  the  United  States  took  up  the  American  idea  of  universal  education  as 
related  to  the  colored  race  almost  in  the  opening  months  of  the  conflict.  After  a 
brief  period  of  uncertainty,  during  which  several  of  the  commanders  of  the  Union 
armies  indulged  themselves  in  sending  back  escaping  slaves  to  their  masters, 
Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  cut  the  legal  knot  in  th<  nuzzle  by  declaring  the  negro  bondmen 
in  the  districts  occupied  by  the  Union  force,  “contraband  of  war." 

General  Butler  arrived  at  Fortress  Monroe,  where  he  was  intrusted  with  an 
extensive  command,  including  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  on  May  22,  1861, 
scarcely  a  month  after  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  Harbor.  On  the 
same  day  the  State  of  Virginia  practically  seceded  from  the  Union  through  the 
passage  of  an  “ordinance  of  secession”  by  the  convention  called  to  decide  that 
question,  although  the  vote  of  the  people  indorsing  this  action  came  later.  On 
the  following  day  three  negro  slaves  belonging  to  Colonel  Mallory,  in  command  of 
the  handful  of  Confederate  militia  gathered  to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  national 
forces,  arrived  in  the  Union  camp.  Their  master  was  proposing  to  send  his 
numerous  family  of  colored  people  to  Florida,  and  these  intended  to  remain. 
General  Butler  at  once  declared  them  “  contraband  of  war.”  put  them  at  work,  and. 
informed  President  Lincoln  that  he  had  decided  on  this  way  of  treating  all  simi¬ 
lar  comers.  This  policy,  emphasized  by  its  striking  title,  at  once  struck  a  respon¬ 
sive  chord  of  sympathy  in  the  loyal  heart  of  the  North  and,  not  being  forbidden  by 
the  Government,  relieved  the  military  authority  from  the  prodigious  annoyance 
of  acting  as  a  vast  police  organization  for  enforcing  the  fugitive-slave  law  in  what 
was  declared  by  the  Government  “an  enemy's  country.” 

The  Elementary  Schooling  of  the  Freedmen  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
Vicinity  During  the  Civil  War. 

Even  before  the  action  of  General  Butler  had  borne  any  permanent  results  in 
educating  the  “  contrabands,”  the  first  considerable  movement  for  their  instruc¬ 
tion  had  been  inaugurated  in  Washington,  the  capital  city  of  the  nation.  One  of 
the  most  unique  spectacles  for  the  immense  crowd  of  loyal  people  from  the  North¬ 
ern  States  which  thronged  the  national  capital  from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of 
the  civil  war  was  the  camps  and  schools  of  the  colored  “contrabands.”  At  the 
first  disturbance  in  Virginia  beyond  the  Potomac  River,  the  drift  of  the  negroes 
either  from  the  estates  abandoned  by  their  seceding  owners  or  escaping  from 
slavery,  overwhelmed  the  metropolis  like  a  mighty  flood.  Common  humanity 
demanded  that  these  poor  people,  including  whole  families  and  neighborhoods, 
should  be  saved  from  starvation  and  disease  and  be  made  comfortable.  At  first 
they  were  “  corralled  ”  in  abandoned  buildings  and  barracks,  or,  through  the  warm 
season,  in  camps  located  in  different  parts  of  the  city;  one  of  the  groups,  in 
“  Duff  Green’s  Row,”  near  the  national  Capitol.  The  great  necessity  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  for  labor,  and  the  presence  of  thousands  of  soldiers  and  strangers  in  and 
near  the  city,  gave  occupation  to  the  able-bodied.  But  as  it  was  the  policy  of  the 
Confederates  to  carry  away  with  them  a  large  number  of  this  class  for  work  in  the 
army,  there  was  left  a  great  throng  of  the  old  and  sick,  women  and  children,  in 
the  growing  multitude. 

Doubtless  this  spectacle  of  the  actual  slave  population,  even  of  Virginia,  was  a 
shock  to  many  of  the  most  zealous  advocates  of  immediate  emancipation,  to  whom 
the  negro  had  been,  from  the  violent  contention  over  his  rights  and  wrongs  through 
long  years,  the  most  romantic  figure  of  his  time.  The  spectacle  of  miserable 
ignorance,  half-pagan  superstition,  and  often  beastly  vice,  furnished  by  these 
great  collections  of  unfortunates,  while  it  appealed  to  the  pity  and  charity  of  ali, 
must  have  suggested,  often  for  the  first  time,  the  tremendous  problem  of  the 
emancipation  and  development  of  the  5,000,000  slaves,  suddenly  thrust  upon  the 
American  people  by  the  clearing  away  of  the  smoke  of  the  first  gun  fired  upon  the 
flag  at  Fort  Sumter  in  April,  1861. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1876. 


411 


But  it  is  not  in  the  nature  or  the  habit  of  the  American  people  to  long  stand 
appalled  before  any  problem,  however  obscure,  in  the  domain  of  material,  moral, 
or  spiritual  affairs.  The  ready  response  of  the  benevolent  soon  relieved  the  desti¬ 
tute,  and  there  was  work  enough  for  those  who  were  able  and  willing.  As  soon 
as  the  question  of  support  was  settled  there  was  a  concerted  movement  upon  these 
people,  as  on  a  newly  discovered  mission  field,  from  all  the  ecclesiastical  and  edu¬ 
cational  agencies  in  the  North.  We  must  remember  that  for  an  entire  generation, 
while  the  Northern  people  had  been  profoundly  agitated,  even  wrought  up  to  the 
point  of  making  the  nonextension  of  negro  slavery  the  occasion  for  the  formation 
of  the  new  political  party  that  elected  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency  in  1860, 
it  had  been  absolutely  impossible  to  get  at  the  millions  of  slaves  in  the  South  for 
any  religious  or  educational  purpose  whatever. 

It  was  a  severe  legal  offense  in  nearly  all  the  Southern  States  to  teach  a  negro 
slave  to  read.  The  free  negroes  were  banished  from  several  States,  and  in  the 
latter  years  of  this  period  no  minister  or  teacher  could  safely  have  gone  South 
indorsed  by  any  mission  proposing  the  material,  mental,  moral,  or  industrial 
uplift  of  the  slave.  The  only  legal  contact  of  the  Northern  people  with  the  five 
or  six  millions  of  the  race  was  the  obligation  to*aid  the  master  in  hunting  his  fugi¬ 
tive,  or,  in  defiance  of  an  imperative  law  enforced  by  heavy  penalties,  help  the 
fleeing  bondman  to  escape  across  the  Canadian  border  to  the  protection  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  Government.  So  it  is  not  at  all  remarkable  that  on  the  appearance  of  a  swarm¬ 
ing  contingent  of  “contrabands,”  as  the  escaping 'slaves  were  called  by  General 
Butler  at  Hampton,  in  the  nation’s  capital,  the  grand  army  of  the  zealous  philan¬ 
thropic  and  charitable  organizations  and  private  recruits  from  all  the  loyal  States 
should  take  up  its  line  of  march  to  inaugurate  a  genuine  !  ‘  campaign  of  education,” 
the  mighty  work  of  training  these  new  candidates  for  American  citizenship.  In 
this  crusade  they  were  assisted  in  the  District  of  Columbia  by  an  enterprising  and 
courageous  colony  of  the  colored  people  who  had  already  established  schools  for 
their  own  children;  collecting  together  many  teachers  and  laying  the  foundation 
of  what  has  since  become  the  most  complete  system  for  the  education  of  the  col¬ 
ored  race  in  the  country. 

The  American  Tract  Society  seems  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  religious  organi¬ 
zations  to  appear  with  a  definite  plan  of  work  among  the  “  contraband”  camps. 
As  early  as  March,  1862,  a  meeting  was  held,  almost  under  the  shadow  of  the 
Capitol,  in  Duff  Green  Row,  by  an  agent  of  this  society,  aided  by  several  c’erks 
from  the  Government  departments,  to  enlist  60  candidates  for  common  schools. 
It  is  significant  that  on  this  first  day  these  poor  people  enjoyed  a  double  emanci¬ 
pation,  not  only  from  their  estate  of  chattel  slavery,  but  from  that  other  intoler¬ 
able  yoke  of  bondage  that  still  galls  the  neck  of  several  millions  of  children  of  all 
races  and  conditions  in  the  United  States,  the  learning  to  read  by  the  obsolete  and 
absurd  ABC  method.  This  fortunate  first  class  of  60  was  taught  to  read  by  a 
skilled  teacher,  after  the  “word  method,”  about  that  time  being  introduced  into 
the  best  elementary  schools  of  the  country.  The  first  lesson  was  drawn  from  the 
Bible,  and  it  was  a  great  triumph  to  the  pupils  to  be  able  to  “read  a  whole  verse 
in  half  an  hour.” 

This  school  increased  in  numbers  from  week  to  week.  A  lady  expert  in  the  new 
method  of  instruction  became  prominent.  Dr.  Lorenzo  D.  Johnson,  a  well-known 
and  able  citizen  of  Washington,  then  in  private  practice  and  afterwards  a  surgeon 
in  the  army  hospitals,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  work,  which  had  grown 
betimes,  and  conferred  on  its  early  workers  a  title  of  honor  more  grateful  than  any 
bestowed  by  institutions  of  learning. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  the  long  and  interesting  story  of  the  rapid  progress 
of  this  effort  for  the  uplift  of  the  poor  and  lowly,  beginning  with  the  war  and  in 
Washington  and  ending  only  with  its  transferral  to  the  charge  of  the  organized 
system  of  public  education  of  ail  grades,  supported  by  appropriations  from  Con- 


412 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


gress  and  local  taxation  in  1867.  An  elaborate  account  of  all  this  can  be  found  in 
the  nineteenth  volume  of  Dr.  Henry  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education  for  1870,  with 
other  interesting  material,  covering  200  closely  printed  pages,  giving  a  full  and 
fair  account  of  the  original  movement  in  Washington  for  the  schooling  of  the  col¬ 
ored  people,  encouraged  by  some  of  the  foremost  men  of  the  country,  until  it 
became  a  vital  department  of  the  common-school  system  in  every  Southern  State. 
Ail  the  religious  denominations  in  the  country,  from  the  West  and  the  North, 
during  the  years  of  the  war  came  to  the  rescue,  and  with  occasional  aid  from  the 
Government  and  constant  cooperation  from  the  nation  gave  the  movement  a  pro¬ 
digious  momentum.  Gen.  James  W adsworth,  of  New  York,  in  charge  of  the  forces 
at  Washington,  afterwards  killed  in  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  representing  a 
family  celebrated  at  home  both  for  its  great  wealth  and  zeal  in  the  cause  of  public 
education,  found  here  a  new  and  broad  field  for  his  favorite  philanthropy.  The 
most  distinguished  public  officials  were  attracted  by  the  spectacle  of  this  experi¬ 
ment  of  planting  the  American  order  of  society  at  the  nation’s  capital,  which  a 
year  before  had  been  one  of  the  most  noted  slave  marts  of  the  country.  On  the 
night  of  December  31,  1862,  the  entire  population  of  these  camps  were  found  on 
their  knees  in  prayer  to  welcome  the  stroke  of  the  city  clocks  on  January  1,  1863, 
that  ushered  in  “the  great,  the  important  day,  big  with  the  fate”  of  millions  of 
their  people,  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery  in  the  Republic. 

In  June,  1863,  a  freedmen’s  village  was  established  on  Arlington  Heights,  oppo¬ 
site  Washington,  in  Virginia,  where  250  children,  just  from  the  plantations,  were 
put  forth  as  the  nation's  “  awkward  squad”  in  the  elementary  drill  of  the  people’s 
common  school.  At  a  later  date  the  most  noted  slave-pen  of  the  city  was  remodeled 
into  a  common  schoolhouse  for  white  pupils.  Great  numbers  of  the  colored  elders 
bent  over  their  schoolbooks.  As  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  reported  from  .South  Carolina, 
the  colored  soldiers  carried  their  spelling  books  in  one  hand  while  tying  on  the 
field  of  battle,  under  fire,  clutching  their  muskets  with  the  other  hand.  Eminent 
visitors  to  the  capital  and  diplomatists  from  foreign  lands  were  escorted  through 
the  contraband  schools  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  Hon.  William  H.  Seward, 
whose  utterance  ten  years  before,  “the  irrepressible  conflict  between  freedom 
and  slavery”  was  denounced  by  the  leading  New  York  press  as  “bloody  and 
brutal.”  In  1863  there  were  40,000  colored  refugees  in  and  about  Washington, 
and  some  3,000  under  instruction.  Rev.  A.  E.  Newton,  of  Philadelphia,  now 
appeared,  and  afterwards  became  an  important  worker  in  the  building  up  of  the 
final  system  of  excellent  public  schools  for  colored  children  and  youth  in  the 
capital  city. 

Nearly  20  different  associations  and  organizations,  besides  a  large  number  of 
private  enterprises,  are  on  record  as  engaged  in  this  work  in  1864-65,  including, 
probably,  5,000  children  and  adults  in  religious  and  educational  training.  In  the 
autumn  of  1867  the  management  of  these  was  withdrawn,  as  it  was  believed  that 
the  trustees  of  the  public  school  system  were  able  to  deal  with  the  entire  colored 
population.  A  few  of  the  mission  schools  still  held  on,  and  out  of  this  movement 
has  been  developed  a  group  of  large  and  useful  seminaries  for  the  secondary  pro¬ 
fessional  and  industrial  education  of  colored  youth.  One  of  these,  Howard  Uni¬ 
versity,  still  receives  a  considerable  yearly  appropriation  from  Congress  in  aid  of 
its  secular,  industrial,  normal,  and  medical  departments.  The  account  of  this  and 
similar  institutions  will  be  given  farther  on,  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the 
Freedmen’s  Bureau  and  the  subsequent  establishment  of  the  present  public  school 
system  of  Washington  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  It  is  estimated  that  $160,000 
had  been  expended  by  the  various  benevolent  agencies  for  education  in  Washington 
during  the  four  years  until  1866.  But  this  is  doubtless  a  very  inadequate  estimate, 
for  during  these  years  few  persons  of  any  substance  visited  Washington  without 
leaving  a  substantial  token  of  their  interest. 

The  United  States  Government  did  not  at  any  time  assume  the  direct  support 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


413 


or  supervision  of  these  schools,  although  in  many  indirect  ways  it  gave  aid  and 
comfort  to  the  work.  It  was  not  here,  at  the  capital,  hut  in  the  field  of  military 
operation  on  the  Southern  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  coasts  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  that  the  great  movement  in  behalf  of  the  development  of  the  new 
freedmen  into  respectable  citizenship  was  organized  on  a  vast  scale,  including 
possibly  a  third  of  the  entire  colored  population  of  the  fifteen  slave  States  in  its 
direct  and  indirect  influence  and  the  expenditure  of  many  millions  of  money. 
We  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  account  of  these  important  operations,  of  which 
there  has  been  left  a  complete  record  in  the  great  library  of  public  documents  and 
private  pamphlets,  which  indicate  the  significance  of  these  fundamental  agencies 
in  the  establishment  of  the  complete  American  system  of  universal  education  in 
all  the  original  States  of  the  South. 

But  as  early  as  April,  1862,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  came  to  the 
rescue  in  the  most  practical  way  by  the  passage  of  an  act  requiring  that  “  10  per 
cent  of  the  taxes  collected  from  persons  of  color  in  Washington  and  Georgetown  be 
set  apart  for  tfie  purpose  of  establishing  a  system  of  primary  schools  for  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  colored  children  residing  in  these  cities.”  The  boards  of  trustees  of  these 
cities  were  made  custodians  of  the  funds  thus  collected  and  of  private  collections 
given  in  addition,  although  at  first  the  public  opinion  of  the  white  population  of 
Washington  did  not  especially  favor  this  beginning  of  the  education  of  colored 
children  at  public  expense.  The  result  was  that  the  sum  of  $736.86  only  was 
collected  in  1862  and  1863.  This  unjust  and  grossly  inadequate  method  of  com¬ 
pelling  the  most  destitute  class,  the  freedmen,  to  educate  themselves  was  a  failure 
from  the  beginning.  After  numerous  attempts  to  prop  up  a  bad  system  adminis¬ 
tered  With  no  good  will  by  the  local  trustees,  Congress,  under  the  leadership  of 
Senator  Patterson,  of  New  Hampshire,  who  came  into  public  life  from  a  profes¬ 
sorship  at  Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire,  and  later,  after  a  brilliant 
administration  of  the  office  of  State  superintendent  of  education  in  that  State, 
returned  to  his  alma  mater,  where  he  rendered  important  service,  placed  the 
support  of  the  colored  schools  of  the  city  and  District  on  the  just  foundation  of  a 
share  in  all  public  school  funds,  divided  according  to  the  per  capita  of  population. 

Under  this  law  the  first  public  school  for  colored  pupils  in  Washington  was 
opened  in  March,  1864,  in  the  Ebenezer  Church.  Miss  Emma  B.  Brown  was  engaged 
as  principal,  at  a  salary  of  $500  a  year.  The  school  began  wTith  40  children  and 
soon  increased  to  100.  A  year  later  the  first  public  schoolhouse  for  colored  children 
was  erected  by  a  donation  from  Connecticut  of  $1,000.  In  1867-68,  when  Congress 
finally  placed  the  system  on  a  working  foundation,  there  were  41  schools,  25 
under  private  and  denominational  religious  control,  with  3,000  pupils  and  70 
teachers.  The  colored  population  of  the  District  of  Columbia  then  was  55,000, 
making  a  school  population,  from  6  to  17,  of  9,225.  Of  the  entire  population  of 
the  District  of  Columbia,  including  Alexandria,  in  1800  (about  14,000),  3,244  were 
slaves  and  783  free  negroes.  In  1860  there  were  10,000  free  negroes  and  3,000  slaves 
in  Washington.  At  first  the  teachers  in  the  colored  schools  were  chiefly  white,  but 
their  places  were  taken  as  soon  as  suitable  persons  could  be  found  of  the  colored 
race.  The  board  of  three  trustees,  two  of  them  colored,  was  appointed  by  the  city 
authorities.  Subsequently  the  control  of  the  colored  schools  for  both  races  was 
assumed  by  a  board  of  education,  appointed  by  the  Commissioners,  in  whose  hands 
the  entire  administration  of  municipal  affairs  of  Washington  is  placed.  The  Com¬ 
missioners  are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  all  legislative 
power  of  the  District  resides  in  Congress.  There  were  some  2,000  colored  children 
in  1869  gathered  in  40  public,  church,  night,  and  industrial  schools  in  the  cities  of 
Washington  and  Georgetown. 

In  the  District  of  Columbia,  outside  the  two  cities,  an  attempt  to  establish  a 
system  for  colored  schools  was  defeated  by  the  adverse  vote  of  the  people.  The 
women  of  the  District  entitled  to  the  franchise  generally  acted  with  the  majority. 


414 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


In  the  region  outside  the  two  cities  the  progress  of  edncational  reform  was  similar 
to  that  already  recorded,  and  the  entire  District  was  finally  included  in  the  public 
school  system. 

The  famous  negro  mathematician  and  astronomer,  Banneker,  was  horn  in  1739, 
at  Ellicott  Mills,  Md.,  adjacent  to  the  District  of  Columbia,  of  free  parents. 
Prior  to  1809  free  people  of  color  voted  in  that  State.  Banneker  lived  alone  and 
unmarried  in  a  cabin  on  his  father’s  farm,  became  a  profound  student  of  his 
favorite  sciences,  and  died  in  1804  at  the  age  of  72.  For  thirteen  years  he  published 
an  almanac.  The  first  copy  was  sent  in  manuscript  in  1791  to  Thomas  Jefferson, 
who  sent  a  copy  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris.  Its  publication  greatly 
interested  Mr.  Pitt,  Fox,  Wilberforce,  and  other  celebrated  men  abroad.  Jeffer¬ 
son,  in  his  reply  to  Banneker,  reiterated  his  deliberate  opinion  on  the  capacity  of 
the  colored  race  for  education,  calling  them  “our  colored  brethren  and  fellow- 
citizens.” 

Beginnings  of  Education  for  the  Freedmen  in  Virginia. 

It  would  seem  like  the  “dispensation”  of  an  overruling  Providence  that  the 
land  clouded  by  the  shadow  of  the  first  slave  ship,  the  coast  of  Virginia,  on  Hamp¬ 
ton  Roads,  near  the  present  city  of  Newport  News,  should  also  have  become  the 
scene  of  the  opening  act  of  emancipation  by  the  mandate  of  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler, 
who  decided  that  the  slaves  who  wandered  into  his  camp  at  Hampton  were  ‘  ‘  con¬ 
traband  of  war.”  On  September  17,  1861,  not  six  months  from  the  opening  of 
the  great  civil  conflict,  Miss  Mary  S.  Peake,  a  colored  woman,  opened  a  school 
for  colored  children,  assisted  by  the  American  Missionary  Association,  which 
during  more  than  forty  years  past  has  been  such  a  potent  agency  in  the  training 
of  superior  colored  youth  for  the  leadership  of  their  race.  In  1862  five  additional 
schools  were  set  up  at  Norfolk  and  Newport  News,  one  in  the  old  court-house  at 
Hampton,  and  one  at  Suffolk.  The  Boston  Educational  Commission,  under  the 
presidency  of  Governor  John  A.  Andrew,  aided  in  the  fund  which  sent  more  than 
70  teachers  to  the  South.  In  1863  the  emancipation  proclamation  woke  up  the 
colored  people  of  every  age  to  reach  out  and  up  toward  the  elementary  schooling 
in  letters  and  intelligent  industry  which  was  the  only  assurance  that  the  new 
freedom  would  be  a  blessing  and  not  a  curse  to  their  people.  A  great  crowd  of 
teachers,  many  of  them  women  of  excellent  attainments,  high  character,  and 
assured  social  position,  from  all  the  Northern  States  and  from  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  went  into  the  portions  of  the  South  that  were  in  the  possession  of  the 
Union  armies.  In  Virginia  many  of  the  country  houses  of  the  “  first  families”  in 
the  seacoast  district  thus  occupied  were  appropriated  for  this  use.  The  mansion 
of  Hon.  Henry  A.  Wise,  of  Accomac  County,  one  of  the  most  zealous  advocates 
of  the  common  schools  for  white  youths  before  the  war,  was  among  the  number. 
There  were  no  less  than  50  of  these  schools  in  operation,  including  those  held  at 
night  for  adults.  In  the  city  of  Norfolk  not  less  than  1,200  pupils  were  taught  by 
15  colored  instructors.  The  year  1864  saw  the  number  of  schools  and  teachers 
doubled.  All  these  schools  passed  under  the  administration  of  the  Freedmen’s 
Bureau  in  1865.  They  were  supported  by  the  contributions  of  churches,  associa¬ 
tions,  and  private  benefactions,  although  the  Government,  through  the  Army, 
gave  indirect  aid. 

The  fall  of  Richmond  and  the  collapse  of  the  Confederacy  in  April,  1865,  found 
the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  on  the  ground  and  the  educational  work  was  greatly  aided 
during  the  five  years  of  its  operation.  Gen.  Samuel  C.  Armstrong,  after  the  close 
of  the  war,  was  placed  as  an  agent  of  the  bureau  in  ten  counties  of  eastern  Virginia 
and  there  received  the  first  training  in  the  normal  school  of  experience  in  the  inti¬ 
mate  dealing  with  the  people  of  both  races  for  the  remarkable  administration  of 
the  famous  Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  begun  in  1868.  It  was 
only  two  years  later  that  the  State  of  Virginia  launched  her  present  system  of  free 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 18.81  TO  1816. 


415 


common  schools,  the  same  year  that  the  British  Parliament,  nnder  the  lead  of  Mr. 
Forster,  put  on  the  ground  its  present  important  system  of  public  and  secondary 
instruction.  The  Virginia  system  was  thoroughly  American,  even  in  advance  of 
the  scheme  of  Thomas  Jefferson  proposed  nearly  one  hundred  years  before. 

The  first  public  schools  in  Richmond,  Va.,  were  established  by  a  group  of  ladies 
from  Boston,  Mass.,  as  a  commemoration  of  the  coming  of  peace,  and  among  the 
original  school  buildings  was  one  erected  for  the  manufacture  of  Confederate 
ammunition  and  another  the  home,  during  the  four  years  of  its  existence,  of  Mr. 
Jefferson  Davis,  president  of  the  Southern  Confederacy.  The  first  Southern  State 
that  moved  in  the  establishment  of  a  complete  system  of  common  schools,  includ¬ 
ing  the  colored  people,  was  West  Virginia,  in  1868.  By  this  act  the  townships 
were  authorized,  under  certain  conditions,  to  establish  free  schools  for  colored 
children  and  youth. 

In  later  times,  however,  at  the  national  capital  and  on  the  coast  of  Virginia, 
the  introduction  of  educational  work  for  the  negroes  was  largely  by  the  initiation 
or  under  the  direction  of  the  missionary  boards  of  the  different  churches  in  the 
Northern  States.  It  was  only  gradually  that  Congress  came  t n  the  aid  of  the 
work,  although  several  of  the  commanders  of  the  Union  armies,  by  contributions 
of  rations,  transportation,  and  shelter,  showed  a  deep  interest  therein.  But  grad¬ 
ually  the  growing  interest  of  the  country  in  the  training  of  teachers  wrought  its 
effect  at  the  capital,  beginning  with  annual  contributions  to  the  schools  and  fol¬ 
lowed  by  appropriations  that  assured  the  success  of  the  common  schools  of  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  effort  culminated  in  the  organization  of  the  Freed- 
men’s  Bureau  as  a  national  institution  in  1885.  The  movement  continued  during 
the  period  of  reconstruction  till  1876,  when  the  public  schooling  of  the  children  of 
the  section,  as  always  in  the  Northern  States,  passed  under  the  control  of  their 
own  people.  But  even  to  the  present  day  the  Government  has  occasionally 
extended  aid  by  the  donation  of  public  property  in  several  States. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  in  the  Education  of  the 

Freedmen. 

But  the  education  of  the  5,000,000  negro  slaves,  emancipated  by  the  triumph  of 
the  Union  in  the  civil  war  from  the  condition  of  chattels  to  that  of  American  citi¬ 
zens,  required  far  more  than  instruction  in  letters,  however  important  that  might 
be.  The  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  slavery  had  indeed  been  in  itself  a  great 
university,  and  the  history  of  the  world  may  be  challenged  to  present  a  spectacle 
so  remarkable  as  the  growth  of  the  pagan,  often  a  bondman,  African  of  three 
centuries  ago  into  the  American  negro  slave  of  1860.  Bad  as  the  “peculiar  insti¬ 
tution  ”  could  not  fail  to  be  in  its  relation  to  the  immediate  political  and  social 
South  and  the  Republic,  it  did  afford  the  African  pagan  savage,  often  a  slave  at 
home,  the  great  opportunity  of  a  training  in  a  republican  order  of  society  under 
an  arrangement  that  assured  active  contact  with  the  upper  strata  of  white  Ameri¬ 
can  citizens;  secured  him  from  the  curse  of  the  three  furies  of  the  prayer  book — 
“sword,  pestilence,  and  famine” — taught  him  to  work,  and  enabled  him  to 
obtain,  even  in  a  crude  state,  the  language  and  the  religion  of  the  most  progress¬ 
ive  of  northern  nations.  In  1860  he  already  stood  on  the  threshold  of  modern 
society.  All  his  training  had  been  American,  and  all  his  aspirations  were  in  the 
direction  of  the  higher  American  life. 

But  it  was  evident  that  the  old-time  system  of  missionary  effort  among  the 
“heathen,”  even  if  supplemented  by  schooling  in  letters,  was  only  a  portion  of 
what  was  needed  to  lift  this  race,  even  in  a  century,  to  its  fit  relations  with 
American  civilization.  What  Sir  Bulwer  Lytton,  as  a  university  student  in  Eng¬ 
land  seventy-five  years  ago,  declared  essential  to  the  education  of  the  ignorant 
lower  classes  of  Great  Britain— that  the  parents  should  be  educated  into  coopera¬ 
tion  with  the  schooling  of  their  children— was  here  of  the  first  importance.  It 


416 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

was  necessary  that  an  organization  sufficiently  extensive  and  powerful  to  enforce 
the  right  notions  of  living  should  become  the  motive  power  of  a  grand  movement 
to  change  the  entire  life  of  the  freedman;  first,  to  emancipate  him  from  his  bond¬ 
age  and  insure  him  in  the  rights  of  a  citizen,  and  then  to  place  him  in  a  condition 
where  he  could  learn,  not  only  to  read  the  English  language,  but  to  gradually 
change  his  entire  attitude  to  life  itself,  so  that,  sooner  or  later,  he  might  acquire 
that  habit  of  mental  and  moral  self-control  without  which  freedom  would  be 
always  and  everywhere  a  “  glittering  generality,”  a  curse  rather  than  a  blessing, 
to  any  people  of  any  race. 

The  Educational  Work  of  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  among  the  Freedmen  of 
the  Department  of  the  South. 

The  first  attempt  to  deal  with  the  colored  people  of  the  South,  beyond  Wash¬ 
ington,  in  any  large  and  decisive  way  along  the  lines  of  the  American  common 
school  was  made  at  Port  Royal,  S.  C.  Late  in  October,  1861,  a  naval  expedition 
was  sent  to  this,  the  most  accessible  seaport  on  the  Southern  Atlantic  coast  below 
Hampton  Roads,  and  with  it  an  army  of  14,000  troops.  The  capture  of  the  forts 
at  Hilton  Head  opened  up  the  entire  neighboring  region  of  the  famous  sea  islands 
on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  to  the  Union.  At  once  the  problem  of  dealing 
with  the  negroes  in  masses  was  forced  upon  Gen.  Thomas  West  Sherman,  in  com¬ 
mand.  These  islands  were  the  headquarters  of  slavery  on  the  South  Atlantic 
coast.  The  extreme  fertility  and  the  production  of  a  peculiar  and  superior  quality 
of  cotton  had  given  them  a  world-wide  reputation.  Among  their  landed  proprie¬ 
tors  were  owners  of  a  thousand  slaves.  The  sudden  irruption  of  the  Union  forces 
on  this  paradise  of  the  South  had  driven  the  white  inhabitants  away,  leaving  the 
standing  crops  in  the  fields  and  not  less  than  40,000  “contrabands”  to  be  dis¬ 
posed  of. 

In  this  emergency  General  Sherman  appointed  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  to  the  entire 
administration  of  this,  the  most  critical  feature  of  the  situation.  The  wisdom  of 
this  appointment  was  at  once  verified  by  the  result.  Rufus  Saxton  was  born  in 
the  village  of  Deerfield,  Mass.,  in  1824.  He  was  the  son  of  Jonathan  A.  Saxton, 
at  the  time  editor  of  the  Greenfield  Gazette,  the  leading  weekly  newspaper  of 
Franklin  County.  Soon  after  the  family  removed  to  the  neighboring  village  of 
Deerfield,  where  the  boy  received  ail  his  elementary  schooling  in  the  celebrated 
Deerfield  Academy,  situated  in  an  exquisite  valley  on  the  eastern  verge  of  the 
Berkshire  Hills,  under  the  principalsliip  of  Mr.  Luther  B.  Lincoln.  He  was  grad¬ 
uated  from  the  West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1849,  at  the  age  of  25,  and  at  his 
graduation  assigned  to  service  in  the  artillery.  For  several  years  before  the  war 
he  resided  at  West  Point,  as  instructor  in  military  tactics.  He  was  appointed 
quartermaster  of  the  fleet  and  army  in  the  expedition  to  Port  Royal,  and  it  was 
in  this  capacity  that  he  was  called  upon  by  General  Sherman  to  face  the  problem 
of  the  disposal  of  the  slave  population  before  the  proclamation  of  emancipation 
by  President  Abraham  Lincoln  in  1862. 

The  beginning  of  his  administration  was  happily  favored  by  circumstances.  A 
crop  of  cotton,  valued  at  many  hundred  thousand  dollars,  was  awaiting  the  labor 
of  the  freedmen  on  the  plantations  of  the  sea  islands.  In  the  cultivation  of  these 
fertile  lands  was  found  the  means  of  utilizing  the  labor  of  the  negroes  and  meet¬ 
ing  the  large  expense  of  supporting  their  families.  Help  from  the  North  also  at 
once  flowed  in.  There  was  little  confidence  at  first  in  military  quarters  in  this 
experiment.  The  most  discouraging  predictions  were  made  concerning  the  impos¬ 
sibility  of  working  this  great  army  of  vagrant  negroes.  To  undertake  the  formi¬ 
dable  task  of  caring  for  and  superintending  such  a  body  of  disorganized  people 
was  to  incur  the  coolness  of  friends,  the  social  contempt  of  enemies,  and  the 
loss  of  caste  in  military  society.  But  the  young  general  came  of  a  solid  Puritan 
stock  that  was  not  appalled  by  the  wrath,  the  contempt,  or  the  indifference  of  man 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1876. 


417 


when  in  the  path  of  duty.  For  six  months  he  kept  his  big  brigade  in  order  until, 
in  May,  1882,  relieved  for  service  in  northern  Virginia.  He  returned  in  June, 
1882,  to  the  department,  at  first  under  the  command  of  General  Hunter,  and 
remained  until  he  was  transferred  to  service  on  the  coast  and  in  the  city  of 
Charleston  on  the  appearance  on  the  coast  of  Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman’s  army  in  1865. 
On  returning  to  Port  Royal,  in  December,  1882,  General  Saxton  received  the 
following  order  from  the  Hon.  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Secretary  of  War: 


War  Department, 
Washington ,  D.  C.,  April  29,  1862. 

Brig.  Gen.  R.  Saxton. 

Sir:  You  are  assigned  to  duty  in  the  Department  of  the  South,  to  act  under  the 
orders  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  You  are  directed  to  take  possession  of  all  the 
plantations  heretofore  occupied  by  the  rebels,  and  take  charge  of  the  inhabitants 
remaining  thereon  within  the  department  or  which  the  fortunes  of  war  may  here¬ 
after  bring  into  it,  with  authority  to  take  such  measures,  make  such  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  and  for  the  protection,  employment, 
and  government  of  the  inhabitants,  as  circumstances  may  seem  to  require.  The 
major-general  commanding  the  Department  of  the  South  will  be  instructed  to  give 
you  all  the  military  aid  necessary  to  enable  you  to  carry  out  the  views  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment.  You  will  have  power  to  act  upon  the  decisions  of  courts-martial  which 
are  called  for  the  trial  of  persons  not  in  the  military  service  to  the  same  extent 
that  the  commander  of  a  department  has  over  courts-martial  called  for  the  trial 
of  soldiers  in  his  department,  and  so  far  as  the  persons  above  described  are  con¬ 
cerned,  you  will  also  have  a  general  control  over  the  actions  of  the  provost-marshals. 
It  is  expressly  understood  that  so  far  as  the  persons  and  purposes  herein  specified 
are  concerned,  your  action  will  be  independent  of  that  of  the  military  authorities 
of  the  department  and  in  all  the  cases  subordinate  only  to  the  major-general 
commanding.  In  cases  of  actual  suffering  and  destitution  of  the  inhabitants,  you 
are '  directed  to  issue  such  portion  of  the  army  ration  and  such  articles  of  clothing 
as  may  be  suitable  to  the  habits  and  wants  of  the  persons  supplied,  which  articles 
will  be  furnished  by  the  quartermaster  and  commissary  of  the  Department  of  the 
South  upon  requisitions  approved  by  yourself.  It  is  expected  that  by  encouraging 
industry,  skill  in  the  cultivation  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  general  self- 
improvement,  you  will,  so  far  as  possible,  promote  the  real  well-being  of  all  people 
under  your  supervision. 

Medical  and  ordnance  supplies  will  be  furnished  by  the  proper  officers,  which 
you  will  distribute  and  use  according  to  your  instructions. 

Yours,  very  truly, 

Edwin  M.  Stanton, 

Secretary  of  War. 

P.  S. — Report  frequently,  once  a  week  at  least. 


Under  these  orders,  as  herein  set  forth,  until  the  establishment  of  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau,  General  Saxton  administered  the  affairs  of  the  colored  people  over  a  vast 
district,  including  the  lowlands  of  South  Carolina,  Florida  and,  until  1866,  Georgia. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  it  was  his  opinion  that  the  Government  was  indebted  to 
the  negroes  for  their  labor  during  this  period.  Not  less  than  $2,000,000  worth  of 
cotton  and  other  crops  had  been  harvested  and,  as  in  the  similar  operations  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  under  Col.  John  Eaton,  jr.,  the  colored  contingent  fairly  paid 
its  way.  General  Saxton  was  also  called  to  organize,  equip,  and  drill  considerable 
bodies  of  negro  troops,  both  for  the  protection  of  the  district  assigned  to  him  and 
for  aggressive  operations,  in  which  they  gave  a  good  account  of  themselves  as 
soldiers. 

The  report  of  the  first  year’s  operations  under  the  order  of  the  Secretary  of  War 
by  General  Saxton,  with  the  accompanying  explanatory  documents,  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  a  generation  reads  more  like  a  romance  of  history  than  a  record  of  ordi¬ 
nary  military  affairs.  Apart  from  the  drafting  of  all  the  able-bodied  negroes  into 
four  regiments,  by  orders  from  Washington,  there  was  no  alarm  of  war  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Port  Royal,  although  when  several  of  the  islands  and  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  coast  were  evacuated  by  General  Hunter  4,000  destitute  negroes  were 
thrown  on  the  hands  of  the  military  commander  of  the  department.  Many  of  the 


ED  1901 - 27 


418 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


superior  slaves  of  the  entire  region  had  been  removed  by  their  masters  on  the 
appearance  of  the  Union  forces,  and  the  average  of  the  large  colored  population 
remaining  were  found  to  be  inferior  in  intelligence,  morality,  and  general  effi¬ 
ciency.  Shut  off  for  generations  from  contact  with  white  and  the  better  sort  of 
their  own  people,  they  had  never  gained  a  firm  footing,  and  the  romantic  South¬ 
land  had  been  virtually  their  prison  house.  There  was  a  general  conviction  in 
this  section  of  country  that  rice  and  cotton  could  never  be  grown  by  free  labor. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Union  Army  of  this 
department  w~ere  not  in  sympathy  wffth  the  idea  of  General  Saxton  and  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  that  here  should  be  tried  an  experiment  in  the  self-support,  education, 
and  general  right  living  of  the  freedmen  which  might  at  once  become  an  object 
lesson  to  the  country  in  demonstrating  the  wisdom  of  the  actual  emancipation 
which  came  on  January  1, 1863.  The  orders  and  circulars  of  General  Saxton  bear 
frequent  testimony  to  the  difficulties  of  the  position,  and  he  had  often  occasion  to 
remind  the  Government  of  the  numerous  hindrances  thrown  in  his  way,  and  the 
existence  of  practices  and  habits  among  the  soldiery  and  irresponsible  people,  who 
beset  the  plantations  and  camps,  that  were  a  disgrace  to  civilization.  But,  in 
view  of  all  that  happened  during  that  eventful  year,  the  General  declares  his  con¬ 
viction  concerning  the  freedmen  that,  ‘!  delivered  from  the  impediments  which 
have  crushed  them  so  long,  with  the  same  laws  and  institutions  to  govern  and 
protect  them  in  their  rights  as  white  men  and  the  teaching  necessary  in  their 
condition,  the  negroes  will  soon  make  rapid  strides  toward  improvement.  The 
elevation  of  the  mass  is  sure,  and  the  country  may  feel  no  apprehension  regarding 
the  future  of  the  freedmen.” 

Under  the  administration  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  a  special  agent, 
Mr.  E.  L.  Pierce,  had  been  sent  to  the  region  immediately  on  its  capture  and 
occupation  to  begin  the  work  of  planting  and  general  cultivation  among  the  aban¬ 
doned  negroes.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Mr.  Chase,  had  ordered  that  all 
the  standing  crops  found  on  the  island  should  be  harvested  and  used  for  the  benefit 
of  the  freedmen,  and  that  they  should  be  encouraged  to  labor  by  the  payment  of 
wages.  Here  was  expressed  the  fundamental  idea  of  a  republican  order  of  society, 
free  labor  under  the  protection  of  the  United  States  Government.  The  uttermost 
efforts  of  General  Saxton  during  this  critical  year  were  devoted  to  this  end.  The 
entire  district  of  the  sea  islands  and  such  of  the  adjacent  coasts  as  were  in  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  Army  was  placed  in  charge  of  3  division  and  55  district  superintend¬ 
ents,  who  were  occupied  with  the  working  out  of  this  problem  of  free  labor,  with 
the  most  careful  regard  to  economy,  the  training  of  the  blacks  as  “hired  men,” 
with  the  prospect  of  becoming  themselves  owners  and  freeholders  of  land.  The 
Government  aid  and  the  distribution  of  the  large  private  charities  that  came  to 
hand  was  restricted  to  the  absolute  necessities  of  the  case  and  aid  withheld  from 
those  who  would  not  work.  The  working  people  were  assessed  a  small  tax  for 
the  sick  and  destitute.  Every  effort  was  made  to  save  these  bewildered  and  too 
often  immoral  and  unmanageable  people  from  the  perils  of  universal  dependence 
on  the  Government  and  private  charity  which  could  have  no  result  but  the  abso¬ 
lute  pauperization  of  the  negro  race. 

More  than  10,000  acres  of  cotton  and  corn  were  put  in  crops  and  16,000  people 
were  thrown  upon  the  commander  for  support  and  protection,  including  all  that 
their  masters,  on  abandoning  their  plantations,  regarded  unprofitable  to  carry 
away.  This  number  was  increased  by  6,000  additional  refugees  from  the  territory 
evacuated  by  'the  general  in  command.  The  lateness  of  the  first  crop  was  the 
cause  of  serious  danger.  But  the  outcome  of  the  first  industrial  experiment  was 
$50,000  secured  from  the  cotton  and  the  gathering  of  corn  and  other  products; 
sufficient  to  support  the  entire  population  with  some  few  contributions  from  army 
rations.  The  principal  difficulty  seems  to  have  been  the  bad  behavior  of  some  of 
the  soldiers  and  the  indifference  and  opposition  of  certain  officers  to  the  success 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1816. 


419 


of  the  undertaking.  The  freedmen,  as  a  body,  were  amenable  to  order  and  more 
than  justified  the  expectations  of  the  commander  and  the  country. 

The  second  year  opened  with  more  than  10,000  acres  of  land  under  cultivation. 
General  Saxton  reports  “enough  has  been  done  to  demonstrate  that  the  cotton 
fields  of  South  Carolina  can  be  successfully  cultivated  by  free  labor,  that  the 
negroes  will  work  cheerfully  and  willingly  with  a  reasonable  prospect  of  reward, 
and  that,  as  a  race,  they  are  eminently  fitted  to  provide  for  themselves.  Their 
wants  are  few  and  simple,  they  are  exceedingly  anxious  to  acquire  property,  are 
fond  of  the  soil,  and  the  idea  that  they  may  become  owners  fills  them  with 
delight.” 

Happily,  the  man  endowed  with  the  power  to  inaugurate  and  responsible  for  the 
success  of  this  momentous  experiment  in  freedom  was  by  birth,  training,  and  all 
the  associations  of  his  previous  life,  “  the  right  man  in  the  right  place.”  He  fully 
comprehended  the  fact,  so  long  denied  or  doubted  by  too  many  in  high  places  in 
those  days,  that  the  guaranty  of  the  success  of  the  people  is  that  education  which 
is  the  training  of  the  head,  the  heart,  and  the  hand  for  self-support  and  well- 
ordered  American  citizenship.  He  at  once  looked  about  for  the  means  of  furnish¬ 
ing  instruction  to  the  negroes  of  all  ages  who  could  be  brought  under  its  influence. 
As  the  Government  had  not  yet  assumed  the  responsibility  for  this,  he  put  him¬ 
self  in  connection  with  associations  of  citizens  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Phila¬ 
delphia,  which,  under  the  direction  of  the  foremost  people  of  their  communities, 
entered  heartily  into  the  beginning  of  this  greatest  of  benefactions  to  the  emanci¬ 
pated  people.  At  once  schools  were  established  throughout  the  entire  department. 
Nearly  2,000  children  were  in  regular  attendance,  and  many  of  the  teachers,  coming 
from  the  North,  were  of  the  highest  capacity  for  culture,  character,  and  station 
in  life.  Among  those  appearing  from  Philadelphia  were  a  brother  and  sister 
representing  a  family  long  distinguished  in  the  antislavery  work.  The  sister  was 
soon  promoted  to  the  more  responsible  position  of  wife  of  the  young  military 
commander. 

The  General  reports:  “Experienced  teachers  report  that  the  progress  of  the 
pupils  does  not  compare  unfavorably  with  that  of-  children  in  the  common  schools 
North.  They  all  manifest  an  intense  desire  to  learn  to  read  and  seem  to  have  the 
intuition  that  it  is  by  means  of  education  they  are  to  rise  in  the  scale  of  citizen¬ 
ship.  During  the  planting  and  harvesting  seasons  it  is  a  common  sight  to  see 
groups  of  children  going  to  school  after  having  completed  their  tasks  in  the  field. 
The  Northern  associations  have  sent  down  large  numbers  of  experienced  teachers 
and  schoolbooks  and  thousands  of  dollars  in  valuable  articles  of  clothing  to  be 
distributed.” 

Here  was,  for  the  first  time  on  a  large  scale,  laid  the  enduring  foundations  of 
the  American  common  school  in  the  slaveholding  States,  on  the  soil  of  the  Com¬ 
monwealth  that  first  broke  away  from  the  Union,  in  the  heart  of  the  slave  popu¬ 
lation,  at  the  bottom  of  the  colored  “slough  of  despond.”  A  hundred  years  before, 
Thomas  Jefferson  had  seen  in  vision  the  possible  emancipation  of  the  negro  and 
his  preparation  for  extradition  to  Africa  or  freedom  at  home,  by  his  elementary 
instruction  in  letters  and  industries,  under  the  supervision  of  the  State.  The  one 
characteristic  of  the  American  system  of  common  schools  is  that  it  shall  “reach 
from  the  gutter  to  the  university.”  Through  seventy-five  years  of  the  national 
life  a  common  school  public  had  grown  up  in  all  the  States  of  the  South;  in  no  State 
more  earnest  and  intelligent  than  in  South  Carolina.  Several  attempts  had  been 
made  to  establish  an  efficient  system  of  common  schools  for  the  white  race,  but 
all  had  gone  to  wreck  on  the  reef  of  “local  option,”  by  which  it  was  left  to  the 
people  of  every  district  to  accept  or  reject  the  system.  Much  of  the  money  appro¬ 
priated  by  the  State  had  been  used  for  paying  tuition  for  the  poor  white  classes  in 
private  and  denominational  schools.  The  city  of  Charleston  was  an  exception,  and 
at  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  it  had  in  operation  a  system  of  graded  schools, 


420 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


under  the  supervision  of  the  Hon.  C.  J.  Memminger,  during  the  war  secretary  of 
the  Confederate  treasury.  Several  of  the  leading  teachers  came  from  the  North, 
one  of  whom  represented  the  State  of  South  Carolina  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  during  the  period  of  reconstruction.  But  never  in  all  these  15  States  had 
the  system  “touched  bottom”  in  any  provision  for  the  public  schooling  of  the 
blacks;  indeed,  in  several  of  the  States  it  was  a  crime  under  the  law  to  teach  a 
negro.  Here  was,  therefore,  the  real  beginning  of  a  scheme  of  literary  and  indus¬ 
trial  instruction,  established  and  superintended  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  carried  on  by  cooperation  with  the  benevolent  citizens  of  different 
States  of  the  Union.  There  had  already  been  sporadic  attempts  at  the  schooling 
of  the  negro  by  private,  church,  and  missionary  schools,  but  no  movement  cover¬ 
ing  an  area  so  large,  so  extended  in  its  administration,  with  result  so  gratifying 
as  here.  To  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  must  be  awarded  the  great  honor  of  inaugurating 
and,  for  several  years,  personally  superintending  this  experiment,  which  was 
practically  a  test  of  the  capacity  of  the  emancipated  race  to  meet  the  demands  of 
the  American  system  of  free  labor  and  free  citizenship. 

No  words  written  by  any  public  official  during  this  period  of  the  war  were 
more  effective  in  their  expression  of  the  spirit  and  intent  of  the  great  act  of  eman¬ 
cipation  than  these  from  the  first  report  of  General  Saxton:  “Our  first  duties  were 
to  provide  for  the  immediate  necessities  of  the  freedmen;  organize  their  labor  and 
fit  them  to  become  self-sustaining;  establish  schools  for  all  who  had  a  desire  to 
learn;  to  demonstrate  to  the  world  that  which  has  been  denied  and  disbelieved  by 
the  many,  that  the  South  could  be  cultivated  by  the  labor  of  free  people.” 

The  superintendents  appointed  for  the  management  of  the  plantations  were  all 
obliged  to  take  the  following  oath: 

I,  believing  that  negro  slavery  is  a  great  enemy  to  humanity,  do  solemnly  swear 
that  I  will  faithfully  perform  to  the  best  of  my  ability  my  duty  as  superintendent 
of  plantations  in  this  department,  and,  as  such,  will  use  all  the  means  in  my  power 
so  to  educate  and  elevate  the  people  under  my  control  as  to  fit  them  to  enjoy 
the  blessings  of  freedom;  that  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  I  will  deal  fairly  and 
honestly  with  them,  and  respect,  and  cause  all  others  under  my  jurisdiction  to 
respect  their  rights;  that  I  will  not  engage  in  trade  with  them  for  my  own  profit 
or  appropriate  any  of  the  proceeds  of  their  labor  to  my  own  personal  advantage. 
So  help  me  God. 

For  service  in  this  laborious,  most  disheartening  and  often  dangerous  field  of 
labor,  the  division  superintendents  received  $1,000,  and  the  district  agents  $600  per 
annnm. 

That  these  words  were  not  the  rhetoric  of  an  extreme  theorist  or  an  appeal  for 
popularity  at  home  is  shown  by  the  reading  of  the  entire  sum  of  orders  and  cir¬ 
culars  sent  forth  by  General  Saxton  during  the  five  years  of  his  administration  in 
the  department.  The  details  of  the  industrial  operations  were  watched  with 
sleepless  regularity,  and  every  avenue  to  abuse  noted  and  carefully  guarded. 
The  hindrances  from  the  lack  of  sympathy  and  cooperation  in  the  army  were 
often  accompanied  by  jealousy  and  opposition  in  high  places,  although  he  was 
always  sustained  by  President  Lincoln  and  Secretary  of  War  Stanton. 

In  August,  1862,  under  orders  from  Washington,  all  the  able-bodied  colored  men 
in  the  department  were  enrolled  in  military  organizations,  the  first  regiment  of 
colored  soldiers  being  under  the  command  of  Col.  T.  W.  Higginson,  well  known  in 
literary  and  reform  circles.  The  conduct  of  these  soldiers  in  action,  and  the  gen¬ 
eral  labors  that  came  to  them,  were  appreciated,  and  their  bravery  demonstrated 
by  the  subsequent  assault  of  Fort  Wagner,  and  the  death  of  their  young  com¬ 
mander,  Col.  Robert  Shaw,  was  commemorated  in  an  order  of  General  Saxton. 
An  important  movement  toward  the  ownership  of  land  by  the  freedmen  was  the 
building  of  houses  and  the  assignment  of  plats  of  10  acres  to  each  family  that 
would  undertake  the  labor  of  keeping  it  in  cultivation.  One  cause  of  great 
embarrassment  to  the  educational  officials  of  the  district  was  the  sale,  under  the 


►  COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1876. 


421 


law  imposing  a  tax  on  the  Southern  States  for  the  support  of  the  war,  of  large 
portions  of  the  plantation  lands  of  the  sea  islands.  These  estates  often  fell  into 
the  hands  of  private  owners,  who  were  able  to  offer  superior  inducements  to  labor, 
and  this,  with  the  enrollment  of  all  able-bodied  men  as  soldiers,  deprived  the  indus¬ 
trial  development  of  great  numbers  of  the  most  effective  workmen. 

But,  after  all  these  complications,  the  commander  of  this  great  college  of  indus¬ 
try  and  education  ‘ ‘  moved  upon  the  enemy’s  works,”  the  slough  of  ignorance, 
superstition,  shiftlessness,  vulgarity,  and  vice,  in  a  manner  to  “  come  off  conqueror 
and  more  than  conqueror  ”  in  this  first  experiment.  During  this  year  the  procla¬ 
mation  of  emancipation  had  come,  and  January  1,  1863,  witnessed  such  a  jubilee 
as  never  before  had  waked  the  echoes  of  these  mysterious  islands  of  the  sea.  An 
order  of  the  commander  established  the  routine  of  general  management,  and  a 
commissioner  was  appointed  to  deal  with  all  the  complications  of  the  statute. 
Frequent  circulars  from  headquarters  not  only  indicated  the  duties  of  every  class 
of  subordinates  but  used  every  fit  opportunity  to  convey  some  important  advice 
to  the  excited  and  restless  children  of  oppression,  almost  “dazzled  with  excess  of 
light”  by  their  sudden  introduction  to  freedom.  In  the  year  1863  the  important 
step  was  taken  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  sell  the  lands  of  the  sea 
islands  in  plots  of  20  acres  to  the  freedmen,  the  tracts  not  to  exceed  320  acres  to 
any  private  purchaser.  Any  family  could  locate  on  alternate  sections,  and  by 
the  payment  of  $25,  $1.25  per  acre,  secure  a  home  by  paying  for  it  by  install¬ 
ments,  one-fourth  paid  at  first,  with  credit  during  three  years.  This  privilege  was 
also  extended  to  discharged  prisoners  and  soldiers  of  the  army,  and  finally  included 
a  tract  of  40  acres.  A  commission  for  dividing  the  profits  was  formed  and  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  contracts  for  labor  was  established  by  which  the  rights  of  the  laborers 
were  protected,  A  savings  bank  was  established  in  the  town  of  Beaufort.  The 
wages  of  the  laborers  were  declared  the  first  lien  on  the  crops  upon  the  private 
plantations,  and  all  attempts  at  unfair  dealings  were  brought  under  military 
inspection.  All  contracts  for  laborers  were  brought  under  examination  at  head¬ 
quarters. 

i-  With  all  its  failures,  defects,  and  disappointments,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  on 
a  fair  review,  that  the  work  done  by  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  and  the  supervisors  and 
teachers  during  these  first  years  of  the  occupation  of  the  sea  islands  was  not 
excelled  in  any  of  the  military  or  civic  departments  elsewhere.  It  was  watched 
with  the  most  intense  interest  at  home  and  abroad  by  all  who  appreciated  the 
practical  significance  of  this  experiment  of  freedom  to  the  negro  and  its  result 
upon  the  South  and  the  entire  nation. 

The  second  and  final  report  of  General  Saxton  previous  to  his  retirement  from 
the  post  of  military  commander  of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Georgia  was  ren¬ 
dered  in  December,  1864.  It  is  largely  occupied  with  a  statement  of  his  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  important  and  difficult  duties  imposed  upon  him  by  the  original 
order  of  President  Lincoln,  through  the  Secretary  of  War,  in  June,  1862.  His 
understanding  of  the  purpose  of  the  President  and  War  Department  in  establish¬ 
ing  this  arrangement  is  expressed  in  the  following  quotation  from  the  order  of 
Secretary  Stanton:  “It  is  expected  that  by  encouraging  industry,  skill  in  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  general  self-improvement  you  will,  so  far  as 
possible,  promote  the  real  well  being  of  the  people  under  your  supervision.”  His 
efforts  to  comply  with  this  general  direction,  not  only  in  the  letter,  but  in  the 
spirit  of  the  President  and  his  great  Secretary  of  War,  are  detailed  in  this  report, 
and  the  explanation  of  the  apparent  failure  to  realize  more  of  the  results  fully  set 
forth.  Here,  in  the  first  general  attempt  on  a  large  scale  to  deal  with  the  compli¬ 
cated  problem  of  the  charge  of  the  freedmen,  the  National  Government  drifted 
through  a  series  of  experiments  and  was  embarrassed  by  conflicting  conditions 
that  might  well  make  a  complete  success  impossible. 

It  was  evidently  the  desire  of  President  Lincoln  that  here,  in  the  very  heart  of 


422 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  old  slave  empire,  should  be  fully  tried  the  crucial  experiment  that  was  to 
determine  the  wisdom  or  unwisdom  of  emancipation.  The  idea  included  the  train¬ 
ing  of  the  15,000  negroes  thrown  upon  the  care  of  the  army  of  occupation  at  Port 
Royal  for  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  freedom,  by  testing  their  capacity  for 
free  labor  and  the  personal  ownership  and  management  of  land,  their  ability  to 
serve  as  soldiers,  and  their  capacity  to  receive  the  instruction  in  letters  and  the 
Christian  virtues  essential  to  a  self-supporting  manhood  and  womanhood.  In 
view  of  all  these  intentions  in  the  working  out  of  the  problem,  to  General  Saxton 
was  assigned  the  command,  with  extraordinary  powers.  He  was  made  directly 
responsible  to  the  War  Department,  reporting  to  the  President,  as  far  as  his  own 
duties  were  concerned,  not  under  the  control  of  the  military  commander  in  chief 
of  the  Department  of  the  South.  In  pursuance  of  what  he  understood  by  this 
arrangement,  General  Saxton  seems  to  have  proceeded  during  the  first  year's 
administration  with  confidence  along  a  path  beset  with  dangers  and  conflicts  at 
every  step  with  a  success  that  warranted  the  most  favorable  anticipations  for  his 
colored  constituency. 

But  it  is  easy  to  see  by  the  light  of  subsequent  experience  that  the  position  itself 
almost  involved  an  impossibility.  As  it  included  both  the  organization  of  the 
negroes  as  laborers  with  a  view  to  their  becoming  permanent  occupants  of  the  soil 
abandoned  by  their  old  masters,  and  as  soldiers,  it  soon  became  apparent  that  a 
conflict  of  purpose  would  inevitably  interfere  with  success.  The  army  naturally 
claimed  the  services  of  these  people  in  their  old  capacity  of  laborers  and  servants, 
to  relieve  the  white  soldiery,  working  in  an  untried  climate,  of  all  save  actual 
fighting  or  purely  military  duties.  The  invitation  to  the  negroes  to  enlist,  with 
promise  of  fair  pay,  was  carried  out  only  in  respect  to  the  first  regiment,  and  the 
arrangement  was  changed  to  a  draft  of  all  the  able-bodied  men,  enforced  by  the 
most  stringent  military  methods,  while  their  pay  was  reduced  and  the  occupation 
of  General  Saxton  in  the  premises  practically  suspended.  This  policy  to  a  great 
extent  broke  down  the  experiment  of  organized  labor,  as  it  left  an  area  of  more 
than  10,000  acres  of  cultivated  land  to  be  worked  by  the  industrial  incapables  of  the 
colony,  the  old  and  infirm,  women,  and  children.  The  abandonment  of  a  portion 
of  the  territory  and  coast  threw  several  thousand  of  its  people  into  the  charge  of 
the  department,  overwhelmed  it  with  purely  charitable  work,  and  demoralized 
the  industrial  habits  of  the  people. 

At  first  the  entire  cultivated  area  of  the  islands  was  taken  in  charge  of  the  new 
commander.  General  Saxton  also,  under  an  arrangement  of  supervisors  of  divi¬ 
sions  and  districts,  established  a  strict  and  apparently  workable  system  of  cultiva¬ 
tion  that  provided  for  the  sale  of  cotton  and  the  raising  of  provisions  to  relieve 
the  Government  from  the  financial  expense  of  the  experiment,  give  fair  wages  to 
the  workmen,  and  support  the  schooling  and  clothing  of  the  15,000  freedmen.  But 
this  experiment  was  cut  short  by  the  action  of  Congress  imposing  a  direct  tax  on 
all  the  seceding  States  for  carrying  on  the  war.  Of  course  the  forced  sale  of  the 
sea  islands  was  the  only  method  of  collecting  the  tax  in  South  Carolina.  So  this 
entire  body  of  valuable  real  estate  was  sold  at  auction  and  passed  into  the  hands 
of  private  proprietors,  completely  upsetting  the  policy  of  the  past  year  and  dis¬ 
pensing  with  all  the  machinery  for  conducting  the  original  experiment.  A  subse¬ 
quent  attempt  was  made  to  meet  this  exigency  by  inviting  the  negroes  to  pur¬ 
chase  small  homesteads,  not  exceeding  20  acres,  sufficient  land  for  a  house  and  a 
small  farm,  enough  to  determine  the  ability  for  self-support.  But  this  arrange¬ 
ment  when  completed  was  upset,  and  the  land  sold  in  quantities  that  made  its 
purchase  practically  impossible  for  the  freedmen.  The  numerous  practical 
arrangements  of  General  Saxton  for  the  protection  of  the  negroes  against  the 
greed  of  the  new  proprietors,  with  frequent  interference  of  the  soldiery  and  the 
constant  perils  that  dogged  the  pathway  of  the  contraband  at  every  step  out  from 
his  house  of  bondage,  revealed  the  practical  impossibility  of  his  complying  with 
these  two  adverse  conditions. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1876. 


423 


The  worst  consequence  of  this  reversal  of  policy  was  the  almost  complete  loss  of 
faith  by  the  freedmen  in  the  Army  and  the  white  man.  Disappointed  and  baffled 
at  every  attempt  to  carryout  the  policy  of  the  President,  and  practically  impotent 
to  arrest  the  downward  rush  of  affairs,  General  Saxton  placed  his  resignation  in 
the  hands  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  was  relieved  from  his  special  duties  as  at 
first  outlined.  Tlae  result  of  this  change,  and  the  secret  history  of  the  relation 
of  the  negro  race  in  South  Carolina  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  dur¬ 
ing  the  period  of  reconstruction,  it  is  not  in  the  line  of  this  essay,  save  in  the 
educational  field,  to  place  on  record. 

But  according  to  this  report  the  one  feature  of  the  policy  that  seemed  an  excep¬ 
tion  to  this  general  experience  of  disappointment  was  the  schooling  of  the  negro 
children  and  youth.  Under  a  special  arrangement  with  the  missionary  and  other 
organizations  in  New  York,  New  England,  and  Philadelphia,  more  than  100 
teachers,  many  of  them  not  only  professionally  skillful,  but  often  of  superior 
culture,  Christian  and  social  standing  at  home,  were  sent  to  Port  Royal.  While 
the  small  salaries  of  the  instructors  were  paid  at  home,  the  Government,  through 
General  Saxton,  provided  shelter,  transportation,  and  army  rations,  and  assumed 
the  general  direction  and  supervision  of  this  most  interesting  experiment.  Sev¬ 
eral  thousand  of  the  children  and  adults  of  the  freedmen  were  instructed,  and  the 
ability  of  the  negro  to  receive  education,  as  far  as  related  to  the  elements  of 
learning,  was  vindicated. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  pass  judgment  on  the  complications  of  the  different 
portions  of  this  conflict  that,  like  a  blinding  sea  mist  charged  with  a  malignant 
malaria,  rose  and  obscured  the  entire  landscape  of  the  situation.  It  was  not 
strange  that  an  attempt  to  do  full  justice  to  the  freedmen  by  protection  against 
the  oncoming  of  the  host  of  greedy  adventurers  that  followed  on  the  heels  of  the 
army  to  profit  by  every  opportunity  should  have  failed  somewhat  of  success.  All 
subsequent  attempts  to  define  the  personal  rights  of  the  negro  to  the  land  were 
fated  to  come  to  naught,  by  the  final  policy  of  the  Government,  on  the  return  of 
the  Southern  people  to  their  old  possessions.  Indeed,  the  experiment  at  the  sea 
islands  was  swamped  in  the  changes  of  policy  that  ensued  from  the  condition  of 
political  opposition  in  the  North  and  the  furious  war  of  politics  that  followed 
hard  on  the  close  of  the  conflict  of  the  armies.  But  it  can  be  understood  how, 
amid  the  tremendous  exigencies  of  military  operations,  the  work  of  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  Confederate  armies  was  preliminary  to  everything  else,  since  every¬ 
thing  depended  on  the  triumph  of  the  Union  cause.  It  was  natural  that  the 
purely  military  man,  intent  on  his  own  side  of  the  great  business,  might  easily 
become  impatient  and  unjust  to  the  man  of  broad  ideas  and  Christian  philan- 
throphy  who  looked  beyond  the  present,  absorbed  in  laying  the  foundation  of  a 
new  civilization  for  these  people  still  wandering  in  the  wilderness,  not  yet  in 
sight  of  the  promised  land. 

But  it  is  a  great  tribute  to  the  intelligence  and  Christian  manhood  of  the  noble 
leader  of  this  first  great  experiment  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States  to 
plant  the  new  American  civilization  even  among  the  swamps  of  the  South  Caro¬ 
lina  sea  islands  and  coast,  that  m  the  closing  words  of  his  report  he  sums  up  his 
conclusions  on  the  general  theme  in  the  following  hopeful  and  prophetic  words: 

The  experiment  with  the  freedmen  in  this  department  is  a  success.  Amid  all 
their  obstructions  and  in  spite  of  all  they  have  made  constant  progress  and 
proved  their  right  to  be  received  into  the  full  communion  of  freemen,  They  have 
shown  that  they  can  appreciate  freedom  as  the  highest  boon;  that  they  will  be 
industrious  and  provident,  with  the  s$me  incitements  which  stimulate  the  indus¬ 
try  of  other  men  in  free  societies;  that  they  understand  the  value  of  property  and 
are  eager  for  its  acquisition,  especially  of  land;  that  they  can  conduct  their  pri¬ 
vate  affairs  with  sagacity,  prudence,  and  success;  that  they  are  not  ignorant  from 
natural  incapacity,  but  from  the  brutishness  of  their  former  condition:  that  they 
are  intelligent,  eager,  and  apt  to  acquire  knowledge  of  letters;  docile  and  receptive 
pupils;  that  they  aspire  to  and  adopt,  as  fast  as  means  and  opportunity  admit, 
the  social  forms  and  habits  of  civilization;  that  they  quickly  get  rid  of  in  freedom 


424 


1900*1901. 


EDUCATION  REPORT, 

the  faults  and  vices  generated  by  slavery,  and  in  truthfulness,  fidelity,  and  hon¬ 
esty  may  be  compared  favorably  with  men  of  another  color  in  conditions  less 
unfavorable  for  the  development  of  those  qualities;  that  they  are  remarkably  sus¬ 
ceptible  of  religious  emotions  and  in  the  inspirations  of  music;  that,  in  short,  they 
are  endowed  with  all  the  instincts,  passions,  affections,  sensibilities,  powers,  aspi¬ 
rations,  and  possibilities  which  are  the  common  attributes  of  human  nature. 
They  have  conquered  a  recognition  of  their  manhood  and  right  to  be  free,  and 
vindicated  the  wisdom  of  your  first  order,  to  place  arms  in  their  hands,  which  I 
had  the  honor  of  receiving  and  executing.  The  senseless  prejudices  and  bitter 
contempt  against  their  race  are  disappearing  before  their  peaceful  and  orderly 
conduct  under  their  trials  and  provocations,  their  patient  hope  and  heroism  in 
war.  Events  for  four  years  have  been  disciplining  the  mind  of  the  nation  to  pre¬ 
pare  it  to  give  them  full  recognition  and  ample  justice. 

In  this  view  it  may  be  that  the  obstacles  which  beset  their  earlier  path  toward 
freedom  were  blessings,  normal  elements  for  the  solution  of  the  great  problem  of 
their  manhood  and  their  rights,  as  the  atrocities  and  diabolisms,  the  murders  and 
martyrdoms,  the  countless  sacrifice  of  noblest  lives  in  the  war,  may  have  been 
necessary  to  convince  the  American  people  of  the  utter  and  undeniable  barbarism 
of  slavery,  and  to  inspire  them  with  a  determined  purpose  to  build  themselves  up 
into  a  new  nation  and  a  new  union  upon  the  enduring  foundation  of  justice,  free¬ 
dom,  and  equal  rights  of  all  men. 

By  the  swiftly  changing  fortunes  of  the  war,  General  Saxton  emerged  from  the 
special  labors  and  confusion  of  his  original  command  to  a  position  of  even  greater 
responsibility,  with  more  satisfaction  to  himself.  On  arriving  at  Savannah,  Ga., 
at  the  end  of  his  famous  “march  to  the  sea/’  on  January  16,  1865,  Gen.  William 
T.  Sherman  issued  an  order  concerning  the  sea  islands  from  Charleston  south,  the 
abandoned  rice  fields  along  the  rivers,  for  30  miles  back  from  the  sea,  and  the 
country  bordering  the  St.  Johns  River  in  Florida,  for  the  settlement  of  the  negroes 
already  made  free  by  the  act  of  war  and  the  President’s  proclamation.  This 
wholesale  disposal  of  a  territory  larger  than  several  of  the  older  States  of  the 
Union  to  the  freedmen  was  almost  compelled  by  the  fact  that  40,000  of  these  desti¬ 
tute  people  were  swept  down  to  the  seacoast  by  this  tremendous  march  that  thun¬ 
dered  like  a  cyclone  from  Atlanta  to  Savannah.  This  extensive  region  was  given 
absolutely  to  the  colored  people,  and  their  able-bodied  men  were  encouraged  to 
enlist  in  the  military  service  for  their  own  defense.  For  the  execution  of  this 
remarkable  order  General  Saxton  was  appointed  “inspector  of  settlements  and 
plantations.” 

•  Here  was  a  condition  even  more  appalling  than  his  original  position  of  military 
commander.  But  soon  after  he  engaged  in  this  work  he  was  appointed  to  the 
position  of  assistant  commissioner  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  for  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia.  On  March  3,  1865,  only  a  month  before  the  general  collapse  of  the 
Confederacy,  Congress  passed  the  act  establishing  this  important  bureau.  At  first 
the  General  had  in  charge  the  entire  States  of  South  Carolina,  Florida,  and  Georgia. 
But  in  due  time  he  was  relieved  from  duty  in  Florida  and  Georgia  and  his  over¬ 
sight  limited  to  South  Carolina.  His  operations  in  this  work  will  be  noted  in  the 
general  account  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  at  a  later  period. 

The  Administration  of  Gen.  John  Eaton,  Jr.,  in  the  Education  of  the 
Freedmen  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi. 

A  year  later  than  the  events  already  recorded  on  the  Atlantic  coast  we  shall  see 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  engaged  in  an  even  more  extended  scheme, 
in  the  work  of  laying  the  foundations  of  the  original  plan  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  in 
the  establishment  of  the  common  school  in  all  its  departments,  among  the  freed¬ 
men  of  the  Mississippi  V  alley  and  the  Southwest.  Almost  a  hundred  years  before, 
the  Congress  of  the  Confederation,  followed  by  the  first  Congress  of  the  Union, 
had  responded  to  the  act  of  Virginia,  which  ceded  to  the  Republic  her  title  in  the 
larger  portion  of  the  region  included  in  the  five  original  States  of  the  Northwest, 
by  the  magnificent  donation  of  one  thirty-sixth  of  all  the  public  lands  for  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  children  and  youth  of  the  coming  millions  of  people  that  occupy 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


425 


what  is  now  the  center  of  our  seventy  millions  of  population.  Now,  in  1861,  the 
Republic  returned  to  the  good  work  so  long  suspended,  and,  through  the  authority 
of  the  military  commanders  down  the  entire  coast  line  from  Washington  to  Florida, 
laid  the  foundations  in  the  soil  first  trodden  by  the  feet  of  the  bondmen  of  the 
vast  and  beneficent  system  of  common  schools  for  the  whole  people,  under  which 
more  than  5,000,000  of  children  and  youth  are  now  instructed  at  the  expense  and 
under  the  supervision  of  every  Southern  State  and  Southwestern  Territory. 

But,  as  has  been  seen,  at  this  early  date,  this  act  of  the  Government  was  supple¬ 
mented  and  to  a  great  extent  supported  by  the  efforts  of  the  missionary  bodies  of 
the  different  Northern  churches,  benevolent  organizations,  and  private  workers  in 
a  field  so  novel  and  interesting.  But  it  was  left  for  the  most  notable  educational 
feature  of  the  war,  like  so  much  then  originating  in  the  country,  to  date  from  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  to  find  its  originator  in  the  great  commander  who 
brought  the  four  years’  conflict  to  an  end  on  the  soil  of  Virginia. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  the  civil  war,  until  the  spring  of  1863,  the  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  Union  armies  in  the  States  of  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  which  still 
remained  within  the  Union,  prevented  the  extreme  complication  with  the  negro 
question  which  had  at  once  appeared  on  the  occupation  of  the  coast  of  Virginia  by 
the  army  of  the  East.  There  had  been  the  same  advance  of  the  church  missions 
and  teachers,  with  the  toleration  of  the  military  commanders,  in  the  wake  of  the 
armies  of  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland,  southward,  as  along  the  eastern  coast, 
and  already  a  great  deal  of  the  preliminary  work  of  charity  and  instruction  had 
been  inaugurated.  A  leading  book  publication  house  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  on  the 
occupation  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  by  the  Union  forces,  is  reported  to  have  sent  sev¬ 
eral  thousand  dollars’  worth  of  schoolbooks  gratis  for  the  use  of  the  negroes  and 
poorer  white  people,  and  the  wild  expectations  of  the  colored  folk  before  the  act 
of  emancipation  had  been  awakened  by  the  idea  that  the  knowledge  of  books  was 
the  key  to  the  superiority  of  the  dominant  race. 

But  the  first  overland  movement  of  the  army  of  General  Grant  through  southern 
Tennesse  and  northern  Mississippi  upon  Vicksburg,  following  the  desperate  battle 
at  Corinth,  in  the  autumn  of  1862,  found  the  headquarters  of  the  army  of  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  at  Lagrange,  a  village  in  the  southwest  corner  of  that  State,  while  the  base 
of  supplies  for  the  advancing  army  was  located  at  Holly  Springs,  Miss.  A  brigade 
of  Ohio  and  Missouri  troops,  stationed  at  Grand  Junction,  Miss.,  a  few  miles  from 
Lagrange,  was  commanded  by  Col.  J.  W.  Fuller,  of  the  Twenty-seventh  Ohio 
Infantry.  Its  chaplain  was  Rev.  John  Eaton,  jr. ,  who,  by  the  exigencies  of  war, 
was  performing  the  duties  of  chaplain  of  the  brigade.  The  route  of  the  advanc¬ 
ing  army  was  through  a  region  densely  populated  by  negroes,  and  the  appearance 
of  the  force  of  some  35,000  was  the  signal  for  the  abandonment  of  the  cotton  plan¬ 
tations,  with  their  growing  crops,  by  their  owners  and  a  rush  of  the  colored  hosts 
upon  the  camps  which  at  once  threatened  to  become  more  perilous  than  any 
danger  from  the  Confederate  armies  in  front.  This  condition  is  thus  described  in 
the  forcible  language  of  Chaplain  Eaton: 

A  slave  population,  springing  from  antecedent  barbarism,  rising  up  and  leaving 
its  bondage  of  centuries,  and  its  local  tendencies  and  associations  surrounding  the 
boasted  influences  and  attractions  of  the  master,  in  rags  or  silks,  feet  shod  or  bleed¬ 
ing,  individually  or  in  families,  and  pushing  toward  our  armies.  Their  comings 
were  like  the  arrival  of  cities.  Often  they  met  prejudices  against  their  color  more 
bitter  than  they  had  left  behind.  There  was  no  Moses  to  lead,  no  plan  in  this 
exodus.  The  decision  of  their  instinct  or  unlettered  reason  brought  them  to  us. 
*  *  *  They  grave  information  for  the  guidance  of  campaigns,  laborers  for  the 
various  staff  duties,  took  upon  themselves  all  the  serving  of  the  Army  for  officers, 
hospitals,  etc.,  and  soon  were  accepted  as  capable  of  the  soldier’s  discipline  and 
endurance  in  all  arms  of  the  service  and  worthy  of  the  soldiers’  pay  and  honor. 
Out  of. those  who  came  within  our  lines,  probably  not  less  than  80,000  have  either 
died  in  the  United  States  service  or  are  still  in  it  as  laborers  or  soldiers.  But  there 
was  a  background  to  this  sublime  march  of  events.  Ignorance,  perverted  ideas 
in  taking  liberty  for  idleness,  including  all  the  fostered  vices  and  crimes  of  the  old 


426 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


system;  cringing  deceit,  theft,  absence  of  chastity,  and  the  sundering  of  the  family 
relations;  tatters,  nakedness,  torn  limbs,  women  in  travail,  helpless  childhood,  age 
and  decrepitude,  multiplied  sickness  and  frequent  death.  The  sublime  dash  and 
roar  of  the  surge  could  not  conceal  the  wreck  or  drown  the  piercing  cry  of  distress. 
The  Army  shared  its  own  food,  shelter,  and  clothing.  Charity,  gathering  in  its 
small  rills  from  the  loyal  mountains  and  villages,  came  faster  in  a  full,  gushing 
stream,  bearing  gifts  and  material.  The  laws  of  Congress  had  freed  some;  the 
proclamation  all.  The  law  of  the  Army — here  the  only  expression  of  the  law  of 
the  land — began  to  declare  itself  in  behalf  of  the  blacks.  *  *  *  The  Army  did 
all  that  was  done  to  free,  feed,  shelter,  protect,  and  give  the  negroes  medical 
attendants,  and  furnished  the  only  safe  channel  for  the  benevolence  that  came  to 
its  aid.  added  to  protection,  transportation,  rations,  and  quarters,  *  *  *  it 
sought  out  of  its  forms  of  administering  justice  an  adaptation  to  the  peculiar 
condition . 

Here  was  the  appalling  condition  that  confronted  the  commander  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  forces  in  northern  Mississippi  in  the  autumn  of  1882,  so  different  from  any 
of  the  elaborate  theories  with  which  the  enthusiastic  antislavery  public  of  the 
nation  had  been  accustomed  to  entertain  the  country  and  Christendom  during  the 
long  generation  of  agitation  that  preceded  the  war.  Now  had  come  in,  as  with 
the  voice  of  a  tempest,  the  era  of  experiment  and  education;  and  like  an  advanc¬ 
ing  host  caught  in  a  tropical  hurricane,  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  found  itself 
arrested,  beseiged,  and  in  danger  of  absolute  demoralization  from  this  precipitation 
of  a  multitude  of  undefinable  extent  across  its  line  of  march  The  first  peril  was 
from  disease.  These  poor  people  brought  into  camp  all  the  hideous  complaints 
that,  like  demons  of  destruction,  dogged  the  steps  of  poverty,  squalor,  and  the 
uncontrollable  lives  of  an  ignorant  slave  population  at  once  set  free.  Every  man 
with  brains  in  his  head  and  a  heart  in  his  bosom  was  thinking  and  feeling  with  all 
his  might  what  could  be  done  to  evoke  order  from  this  fearful  chaos,  and  the 
great  contingent  of  mischief  that,  in  the  most  patriotic  army,  is  ever  on  the  alert 
to  gorge  itself  with  its  own  vices,  found  here  “an  open  city”  of  the  evil  one, 
wherein  to  find  for  itself  a  speedy  fate  of  demoralization  and  destruction. 

In  the  whole  career  of  Gen.  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  the  greatness  of  which  a  genera¬ 
tion  after  his  death  isnow  fully  becoming  apparent  to  the  American  people,  noth¬ 
ing  is  more  characteristic  than  the  decisive  way  in  which  he  faced  and -disposed  of 
this  terrible  crisis,  at  once  relieving  the  Army  in  its  perilous  mission  to  open  the 
Mississippi  to  the  Union  from  the  danger  of  being  smothered  in  this  cloud  of 
black  dust  raised  by  its  own  advance,  and  planting  in  the  very  heart  of  the  slave 
empire  the  permanent  foundations  of  the  broader  and  more  Christian  American 
civilization.  And,  as  by  a  special  favoring  Providence,  another  young  man  from 
the  same  State,  then  so  prolific  in  able  executive  characters— Ohio — was  thinking 
and  as  far  as  possible  acting  along  the  same  lines  of  advance  as  the  general  at 
headquarters.  How  it  came  about  that  at  just  this  emergency  the  eye  of  the 
great  commander  fell  upon  this  young  man,  to  whom  more  than  any  other  the 
South  owes  a  debt  of  boundless  gratitude  for  patriotic  aid,  comfort,  and  leader¬ 
ship  in  its  opening  “campaign  of  education,’’  -was  never  known  to  Chaplain 
Eaton.  He  does  tell  the  story,  like  the  chapter  of  a  thrilling  romance,  how,  after 
an  evening  in  camp,  passed  in  the  company  of  his  own  friends  of  the  Twenty- 
seventh  Ohio,  around  a  bonfire  in  the  pine  woods  of  Grand  Junction,  he  found  in 
his  tent  and  read  by  the  light  of  a  tallow  dip,  the  following  order: 

Headquarters  Thirteenth  Army  Corps, 

Department  of  the  Tennessee, 
Lagrange ,  Tenn. ,  November  11,  186?, 

Special  Order,  No.  15.] 

Chaplain  Eaton,  of  the  Twenty-seventh  Ohio  Infantry  Volunteers,  is  hereby 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  contrabands  that  come  into  camp  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  post,  organizing  them  into  suitable  companies  for  working,  seeing  that  they 
are  properly  cared  for,  and  setting  them  to  work  picking,  ginning,  and  baling  all 
cotton  now  out  and  ungathered  in  field. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1876.  427 

Suitable  guards  will  be  detailed  by  commanding  officers  nearest  where  the  par¬ 
ties  are  at  work,  to  protect  them  from  molestation. 

For  further  instruction  the  officer  in  charge  of  these  laborers  will  call  at  these 
headquarters. 

By  order  of  Maj.  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant. 

Well  may  the  recipient  of  this  “  Order,  N o.  15  ”  now  say,  thirty-eight  years  after 
he  read  this  astounding  summons,  “Never  in  the  entire  army  service,  through  the 
whole  war,  in  the  midst  of  battle,  imprisonment,  the  roar  of  cannon,  the  explosion 
and  destruction  of  ships,  the  horrors  of  the  hospital  or  the  terrors  of  surprise,  or 
my  own  exposure  to  assassination ,  do  I  recall  such  a  shock  of  surprise,  amounting 
to  consternation,  as  at  the  end  of  this  brief  summons  to  undertake  what  seemed  to 
me  an  enterprise  incapable  of  human  achievement.”  The  chaplain  had  never 
spoken  to  General  Grant,  and  his  previous  contact  with  superior  military  charac¬ 
ters  in  Missouri  and  the  Southwest  had  not  impressed  him  with  the  pleasure  of 
such  eminent  acquaintance.  Fie  already  knew  enough  to  see  at  once  the  prodi¬ 
gious  difficulties  that  would  beset  him  at  the  outset.  For  already  dissensions  had 
commenced.  Every  vile  or  weak  soldier  or  officer  was  already  mired  in  the  slough 
of  an  army  of  slave  women,  to  whom  chastity  was  like  a  word  spoken  in  an 
unknown  tongue.  Every  insolent  army  upstart  “  dressed  in  a  little  brief  author¬ 
ity”  was  longing  to  domineer  over  a  group  of  untrained  negroes.  In  all  that  con¬ 
cerned  the  vast  system  of  field  labor  he  anticipated  perpetual  collision  with  the 
discipline  and  movements  of  the  army.  The  clearing  of  the  camps  of  the  floating 
crowds  of  sick  and  dying,  suffering  with  contagious  diseases,  was  a  task  for  a 
national  sanitary  commission  rather  than  a  young  chaplain  of  volunteers.  Filled 
with  these  apprehensions  and  determined,  if  possible,  to  decline  the  honor  of 
leading  this  forlorn  hope  of  the  new  civilization,  the  chaplain  rode  to  Lagrange. 
To  his  surprise  no  obstacles  such  as  he  had  met  with  during  his  previous  expe¬ 
rience  barred  his  way  to  an  immediate  audience.  On  his  tap  at  the  door  of  the 
dining  room  of  the  hotel  of  the  little  village  where  the  general  held  his  quarters 
he  was  summoned  to  come  in.  On  opening  the  door  he  saw  a  man  of  low  stature, 
only  distinguished  in  a  room  full  of  officers  of  the  higher  rank  by  his  shoulder 
straps,  seated  at  a  little  table,  busy  giving  his  final  orders  for  the  immediate 
advance  of  the  army.  At  once  he  saw  that  all  these  persons  were  aware  their 
commander  in  chief  must  be  held  in  due  respect.  In  place  of  the  intemperate, 
incompetent,  vulgar  refugee  from  the  old  United  States  Army  drifted  into  a- post 
far  beyond  his  ability  to  fill,  as  was  the  common  report,  he  saw  that  here  was  a 
man  to  be  followed,  respected,  and  obeyed. 

The  chaplain  was  requested  to  be  seated,  and,  on  the  clearing  of  the  room,  the 
General  called  him  to  his  side  with  a  beckon  of  the  hand  and  the  salutation:  “  So, 
you  are  the  man  who  is  to  command  the  army  of  contrabands.  ”  He  listened  with 
admirable  patience  to  the  almost  pathetic  appeal  of  his  visitor  to  be  delivered 
from  a  fate  so  decisive  as  awaited  any  man  who  put  his  hand  to  that  plow,  and 
at  the  end  replied:  “You  will  at  once  proceed  to  carry  out  the  order  you  have 
received.  I  appreciate  the  difficulties  of  the  position.  But,  you  see,  I  have  called 
you  to  a  personal  cooperation.  I  have  issued  this  order  and  will  stand  behind  you 
in  its  enforcement.” 

From  this  time  forth,  in  connection  with  General  Grant’s  command  in  the  val¬ 
ley  of  the  Mississippi,  Chaplain  Eaton  realized  the  full  significance  of  his  com¬ 
mander’s  promise  to  “stand  behind  him.”  At  this  first  interview  the  General  in 
the  simple,  direct,  and  business-like  way  in  which  he  went  about  suppressing  the 
revolt  of  eleven  great  Commonwealths,  and  their  struggle  to  drive  four  additional 
border  States  into  the  maelstrom,  talked  out  his  own  views  concerning  the  “negro 
problem”  as  it  was  then  and  there  presented.  With  growing  astonishment,  the 
chaplain,  as  he  listened,  noted  with  what  a  breadth  of  statesmanlike  forethought 
and  what  marvelous  control  of  the  smallest  details  the  subject  had  already  been 


428 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900*1901. 


thought  out  before  he  moved.  He  had  a  practical  method  for  solving  the  prob¬ 
lem;  a  firm  grasp  on  the  labor  question,  as  far  as  it  affected  the  host  then  preying 
on  the  army.  He  already  appreciated  the  power  of  the  religious  and  philan¬ 
thropic  agencies  then  at  work,  while  he  foresaw  how  embarrassing  they  might 
become  in  the  hands  of  unwise  and  visionary  workers.  He  said  to  the  chaplain: 
“We  must  remember  that  these  people  are  now  freemen,  and  that  they  will  not 
only  become  laborers  but  soldiers  and  citizens  of  the  country.” 

Certainly  a  good  Providence,  working  through  a  providential  man,  directed  the 
choice  of  the  new  superintendent  of  the  freedmen  in  four  States,  densely  popu¬ 
lated  by  the  colored  race.  First  and  last,  700,000  of  the  freedmen  came  under  the 
supervision  of  the  new  “commander  of  the  army  of  contrabands.”  John  Eaton, 
jr..  was  born  in  1829,  in  southern  New  Hampshire,  one  of  a  family  of  many  chil¬ 
dren.  He  was  educated  in  the  common  schools  of  that  day,  and  by  work  at  the 
homestead  afterwards,  he  joined  the  great  crowd  of  scholars  that  were  drawn  to 
the  Thetford  Academy,  under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Hiram  Orcutt.  He  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1854,  and,  at  the  age  of  25,  went  to  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
wbere,  for  two  years,  he  was  principal  of  one  of  the  common  schools.  He  rose  in 
two  years  more  to  the  superintendency  of  the  common  schools  of  Toledo,  Ohio, 
then  a  growing  city  of  80,000  people.  Three  years  later  we  find  him  at  the 
Theological  School  in  Andover,  Mass.,  in  the  character  of  “resident  licentiate.” 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war  he  enlisted  as  chaplain  of  the  Twenty-seventh  Ohio 
Regiment  of  Volunteers,  composed  in  large  part  of  his  old  friends  and  associates 
at  Toledo.  His  early  service  was  in  the  campaign  in  Missouri.  He  was  present 
after  the  battle  at  Springfield,  was  twice  captured  and  held  as  a  prisoner.  Through 
a  series  of  disagreeable  experiences  he  found  himself,  in  1862-63,  following  the 
divided  command  of  Generals  Halleck  and  Grant,  and  was  present  at  many  of  the 
important  operations  and  engagements  that  culminated  in  the  final  attempt  of  the 
South  to  block  the  way  from  the  great  Northwest  to  the  Gulf  by  the  establishment 
of  a  stronghold  at  Vicksburg.  At  the  age  of  34  he  believed  himself  summoned,  as 
by  a  voice  from  above,  to  a  work  the  importance  of  which  he  only  dimly  under¬ 
stood  and  from  which  he  shrunk  instinctively  as  almost  too  great  for  human  nature 
to  encounter. 

But  the  word  of  command  had  gone  forth,  and  Chaplain  Eaton  was  not  the  man 
to  longer  hesitate  when  duty,  however  appalling,  pointed  the  way.  He  had  not 
mistaken  either  the  discouragement,  the  labor,  or  the  personal  peril  of  his  new 
position.  As  soon  as  it  began  to  take  on  the  contact  with  the  disaffected  popula¬ 
tions,  amid  which  the  army  was  operating,  his  life  was  in  constant  peril.  More 
than  one  man  was  assassinated  by  being  mistaken  for  him.  Within  a  week  he 
came  in  collision  with  a  military  official  who  defied  his  authority  by  depriving 
him  of  his  means  of  transportation.  He  appeared  with  him,  under  arrest,  before 
General  Grant,  who  quietly  informed  his  complainant  that  Chaplain  Eaton's 
authority  was  supreme  within  range  of  his  command.  This  decision  was  enforced 
six  days  after  the  original  order  by  a  second  document,  here  reproduced: 

Headquarters  Thirteenth  Army  Corps, 

Department  of  the  Tennessee, 
Lagrange ,  Miss. ,  November  17,  1862. 

Special  Order,  No.  21.] 

Lieut.  Col.  Charles  A.  Reynolds,  chief  quartermaster  of  the  department,  will 
furnish  Chaplain  J.  Eaton,  jr. ,  in  charge  of  the  contrabands  at  Grand  Junction, 
Tenn..  at  his  requisition,  such  tools  and  other  implements  as  he  may  require;  alao 
materials  for  baling  cotton,  and  clothing  for  contraband  men,  women,  and  chil¬ 
dren.  Unsalable  soldiers’  clothing  will  also  be  issued  to  him. 

By  order  of  Maj.  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant; 

Jno.  A.  Rawlins, 

Assistant  Adjutant-General,  Commanding. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


429 


The  operations  of  the  new  superintendency  were  further  aided  by  the  conferring 
of  the  title  of  ‘‘coloner’ on  Chaplain  Eaton.  After  some  delay  he  was  finally 
given  the  title  as  “Colonel  of  the  Ninth  Regiment  of  Colored  Volunteers  of  Loui¬ 
siana,”  with  a  body  of  subordinate  officers  especially  equipped  for  the  work 
assigned  him.  He  retired  from  the  service  at  the  end  of  the  war  with  his  present 
title  of  brigadier-general.  It  was  only  a  few  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  his 
labors  that  the  army  of  General  Grant  was  compelled  to  retreat  upon  Memphis, 
Tenn. ,  by  the  destruction  of  its  base  of  supplies  at  Holly  Springs,  Miss.  This 
necessitated  the  early  removal  of  the  superintendent  of  freedmen  to  that  city, 
then  a  swarming  hive  of  humanity,  requiring  the  uttermost  vigilance  of  adminis¬ 
tration  for  the  public  safety  against  all  the  perils  of  a  situation  so  complicated. 
It  was  only  by  gradual  steps  that  a  system  could  be  put  in  operation,  which  at 
once  minimized  the  danger  of  anarchy  and  placed  the  numerous  emancipated 
people  in  a  condition  to  go  onward  toward  the  practical  recognition  of  the  liberty, 
which  so  far  was  little  better  than  a  “glittering  generality.” 

The  first  efforts,  of  course,  were  directed  to  purging  the  camps  of  the  elements  so 
dangerous  to  the  order,  health,  and  efficiency  of  the  soldiery.  In  this  work  Gen¬ 
eral  Eaton  was  assisted  materially  by  the  sanitary  commissions,  under  the  eminent 
leadership  of  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  W.  Bellows,  of  New  York,  and  Rev.  Dr.  William  G. 
Eliot,  of  St.  Louis.  Then  came  the  organization  of  the  colored  working  force, 
male  and  female,  in  relieving  the  troops,  largely  serving  in  an  exhausting  and 
unusual  climate,  from  overwork,  and  in  gathering  the  crops  of  cotton  and  corn. 
The  cotton  was  sold  and  the  avails  turned  into  a  military  chest,  and  the  corn  and 
other  produce  contributed  to  the  support  of  the  army  and  its  colored  annex. 

By  the  following  summer,  1863,  the  scene  of  military  operations  was  transferred 
to  the  vicinity  of  Vicksburg.  Numbers  of  the  freed  people  were  gathered  into 
camps  and  employed  during  the  siege  of  the  city.  It  was  only  a  few  days  before 
the  surrender  of  Vicksburg,  on  July  4,  1863,  that  General  Grant,  amid  the  anxie¬ 
ties  of  the  closing  days  of  this  memorable  siege,  gave  several  hours  to  a  patient 
listening  and  discussion  of  the  first  general  report  of  Superintendent  Eaton,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  this  important  letter,  addressed  to  the  President  of  the  United  States: 

Near  Vicksburg  Landing,  June  11 , 1863. 
Hon.  A.  Lincoln,  President  of  the  United  States : 

Finding  that  negroes  were  coming  into  our  lines  in  great  numbers  and  receiving 
kind  or  unkind  treatment,  according  to  the  views  of  the  troops  they  first  come  in 
contact  with,  and  not  being  able  to  give  that  personal  attention  to  their  care  and 
use  the  matter  demanded,  I  determined  to  appoint  a  general  superintendent  over 
the  whole  subject  and  give  him  such  assistance  as  the  duties  assigned  him  might 
require.  Mr.  Eaton  was  selected  for  this  position.  I  have  given  him  such  aid  as 
was  in  my  power  by  the  publication  from  time  to  time  of  such  orders  as  seemed 
to  be  required,  and  generally  at  the  suggestion  of  the  superintendent. 

Mr.  Eaton’s  labors  in  his’  undertaking  here  have  been  unremitting  and  skillful, 
and  1  fear  in  many  instances  very  trying.  That  he  has  been  of  very  great  service 
to  the  blacks  in  having  them  provided  for,  when  otherwise  they  would  have  been 
neglected,  and  to  this  Government  in  finding  employment  for  the  negro,  whereby 
he  might  earn  what  he  was  raising,  the  accompanying  report  will  show,  and  many 
hundreds  of  visitors  and  officers  and  soldiers  near  the  different  corps  can  bear 
witness  to. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

U.  S.  Grant, 

Major-General  United  States  Volunteers. 

On  the  transfer  of  General  Grant  to  the  scene  of  war  around  Chattanooga,  Tenn. , 
in  the  autumn  of  1863,  Colonel  Eaton  was  placed  in  direct  communication  with 
the  Secretary  of  War,  acting  through  the  Adjutant- General.  By  the  order  issued 
March  5,  1863,  the  superintendent  of  freedmen  was  required  to  raise  colored  regi¬ 
ments  for  the  supervision  and  protection  of  the  negroes,  and  appoint  assistant 


430 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


superintendents,  all  subject  to  his  order.  By  this  comprehensive  arrangement  he 
found  himself  placed  virtually  in  military  control  of  the  colored  people  in  portions 
of  the  four  States  of  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  to  the  num¬ 
ber  of  nearly  800,000,  and  intrusted  with  financial  responsibilities  which  under 
ordinary  circumstances  would  have  amounted  to  $350,000.  During  the  first  year 
‘  ‘  not  a  cent  of  money  was  drawn  from  the  Government  for  the  f reedman  on  any 
account.  ”  A  temporary  tax  on  the  proceeds  of  labor  met  the  increasing  expenses 
of  this  masterly  campaign  of  practical  education. 

The  assistant  superintendents  were  chosen  with  great  discretion.  Spellman, 
Fisk,  Warren,  and  Hawley  were  assigned  to  the  different  States,  in  a  country 
double  the  extent  of  the  British  Islands,  and  Col.  Samuel  Thomas  was  appointed 
as  assistant  general  superintendent,  with  full  authority  to  act  in  the  absence  of 
Superintendent  Eaton. 

The  able-bodied  freedmen  of  both  sexes  were  provided  wTith  work  on  the  opening 
of  the  early  Southern  spring,  according  to  circumstances.  Partly  by  direct  leas¬ 
ing  of  land  upon  the  abandoned  plantations,  by  hiring  out  to  the  loyal  planters- 
and  arranging  for  their  employment  by  people  from  the  North  who,  in  great  num¬ 
bers,  flocked  to  the  new  field  of  enterprise  with  the  wild  expectation  of  realizing  a 
fortune  in  a  year,  the  complicated  and  exhausting  work  went  on.  At  a  later 
period,  through  the  transferral  of  large  portions  of  the  colored  department  to 
Washington,  a  condition  of  spoliation  was  developed  which  at  once  left  the 
suxjerintendent  of  freedmen  powerless  to  act,  with  the  result  that  a  grand  carnival 
of  mismanaged  business,  up  and  down  the  great  valley,  brought  discredit  to  the 
Government,  embittered  the  well-disposed  of  the  home-staying  Southern  white 
people,  and  wrought  demoralization  among  the  freedmen.  By  the  withdrawal  of 
the  main  army,  the  military  arm  could  only  give  protection  as  garrisons  at  a  few 
important  stations.  By  a  Government  order,  Assistant  Superintendent  Thomas 
was  made  provost  marshal  of  freedmen,  to  administer  justice  and  evoke  public 
order  out  of  chaos.  The  next  step  was  the  placing  the  entire  control  of  the  freed¬ 
men  under  the  direction  of  the  assistant  superintendents,  reporting  to  their  chief, 
and  in  1865,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  the  entire  direction  of  this  department  for 
several  years  was  given  to  the  Freedmen's  Bureau. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  most  of  the  disorder  and  friction  between  the 
authorities  of  the  National  Government  and  the  people  of  the  subjugated  States, 
which  has  been  by  popular  prejudice  imputed  to  the  Army,  was  really  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  great  crowd  of  civilians  who  thronged  the  entire  region,  and 
operated  in  a  way  practically  impossible  of  arrest  by  an  army  always  on  the  point 
of  being  transported  to  new  and  distant  fields  of  activity.  It  was  not  remarkable 
that  a  people  like  that  of  the  United  States,  which  during  the  entire  colonial  and 
national  existence  had  never  had  the  experience  of  a  great  civil  war,  and  never,  in 
large  force,  was  the  invader  of  any  country  save  a  wilderness  of  savages  and  brief 
campaigns  in  the  Canadas  and  Mexico,  should  have  been  quite  unaware  of  the 
European  severe  laws  of  war,  and  been  inclined  to  act  according  to  their  own 
good  will  and  pleasure  in  the  districts  left  without  the  protection  of  the  Army. 
The  extreme  bitterness  of  the  opposing  governments  and  the  greed  for  gain  that 
saw  visions  of  sudden  wealth  in  the  plantation  lands,  from  which  was  realized  such 
a  harvest  of  financial  dust  and  ashes,  the  terrible  hostility  of  the  unlettered  portions 
of  the  Confederate  people,  especially  toward  the  emancipated  negroes  and  their 
friends,  explain  much  that  no  candid  historian  can  attempt  to  justify.  It  was 
a  happy  day  for  the  American  people  when  this  era  of  discord  gave  place  to  the 
renewed  occupancy  and  local  government  of  the  conquered  section  by  its  own  peo¬ 
ple,  who  hereafter  must  be  held  accountable  for  all  that  has  henceforth  occurred 
in  the  same  direction.  In  the  midst  of  the  overwhelming  tumult  of  the  renewal 
of  industry  by  the  hiring  of  the  colored  people  for  work  on  the  plantations  from 
which  a  year  before,  during  the  war,  they  had  fled  as  slaves,  the  labors  of  Superin- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


431 


tendent  Eaton  and  his  faithful  and  able  corps  of  superintendents  read  like  the 
struggle  of  a  forlorn  hope  on  the  deck  of  a  ship  driven  before  a  tempest,  every 
instant  threatened  with  destruction. 

It  was  only  after  the  removal  of  Superintendent  Eaton  to  Memphis,  Tenn.,  in  the 
winter  of  1882,  that  an  organized  method  of  teaching  the  freedmen  in  schools  could 
be  inaugurated.  It  was  the  policy  of  the  G-ovemment  in  military  occupation  of 
any  Southern  city,  as  far  as  possible,  to  encourage  and  aid  in  the  reestablishment 
of  any  system  of  public  instruction  it  found  in  operation.  In  Tennessee  such  a 
system  was  found  in  the  cities  of  Nasnville  and  Memphis,  and  one  of  the  earliest 
tasks  of  Superintendent  Eaton  was  to  complete  the  arrangements  for  public  edu¬ 
cation  by  aiding  the  schools  for  the  instruction  of  the  freedmen  of  every  age.  The 
charge  of  the  public  schools  in  Memphis  for  the  whites  was  assigned  to  the  care  of 
the  military  authorities.  One  little  school  in  a  tent,  taught  by  a  woman,  was  the 
comer  stone  of  the  scheme  that  for  the  first  time  planted  the  American  system  of 
universal  education  in  its  most  characteristic  feature— the  education  of  all  chil¬ 
dren  and  youth  by  the  people — in  the  entire  region  of  the  lower  Mississippi  Yalley. 
In  rapid  succession  in  Memphis,  Vicksburg,  Natchez,  Little  Rock,  and  Pine  Bluff, 
Ark.,  and  on  the  islands  and  the  bluff s of  the  great  river,  the  colored  children  and 
youth,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  adults  of  these  people,  were  brought 
under  instruction.  A  small  tuition  fee,  ranging  from  25  cents  to  $1.50  per  month, 
was  required  of  such  families  as  were  able  to  pay,  while  the  destitute  were  taught 
freely.  The  teacheTS  were  almost  exclusively  from  the  North,  and  among  them 
were  many  of  the  excellent  men  and  women  that  came  on  an  errand  of  mercy  to  a 
benighted  people.  As  far  as  possible  the  poorer  class  of  the  white  population  of 
the  country  was  included  in  these  efforts,  although  thus  far  the  work  was  diffi¬ 
cult.  In  fact,  at  first  the  opening  of  the  schools  for  the  colored  people  was  received 
by  the  illiterate  and  unmanageable  class  that  for  years  had  made  the  conquered 
States  practically  an  enemy’s  country  almost  as  a  new  declaration  of  war.  It 
was  evident  both  to  the  Southern  and  Northern  people  that  a  body  of  youth,  ini¬ 
tiated  for  a  few  years  even  in  the  elements  of  letters,  could  never  again  be  enslaved, 
and  as  the  vast  majority  of  the  Southern  people,  even  to  the  very  last,  believed  the 
Confederacy  had  “  come  to  stay,”. it  was  noted  that  not  only  a  portion  of  the  old 
masters  but  especially  the  class  who,  never  having  owned  a  negro,  were  ready  to 
fight  and  die  to  keep  him  in  perpetual  bondage,  should  have  visited  these  schools 
on  their  opening  with  a  malignant  display  of  hatred,  often  amounting  to  violence. 
For  several  years  the  burning  of  colored  schoolhouses,  the  persecution  and  occa¬ 
sional  murder  of  their  teachers,  and  a  general  hostility  to  the  endeavors  of  the 
colored  race  to  obtain  schooling,  was  a  part  of  the  tumultuous  history  of  the  time. 
Superintendent  Eaton  was  marked  as  the  inaugurator  of  this  hateful  policy,  and 
only  by  the  protection  of  the  good  Providence  that  seems  to  guard  the  life  of 
every  man  essential  to  a  great  advancement  of  the  race  was  he  kept  alive.  During 
the  four  years  of  the  war  the  assistant  superintendents  stationed  at  the  different 
points  in  the  region  in  these  four  States  were  under  the  general  direction  of  his 
superintendency. 

Besides  this  difficulty  on  the  ground,  the  work  of  the  education  of  the  negroes 
was  greatly  complicated  by  the  rush  of  numerous  church  and  private  benevolent 
agencies  to  the  field.  The  schools  that  were  established  by  the  various  churches 
of  the  North  did  not  willingly  come  under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent  of 
freedmen,  while  they  often  did  expect  liberal  aid  and  comfort  by  the  furnishing 
of  army  rations,  the  transportation  and  housing  of  their  teachers,  and  the  general 
forwarding  of  their  enterprise.  Of  course  this  at  once  introduced  confusion  and 
the  working  at  cross- purposes  for  a  common  end.  It  was  found  for  a  time  almost 
impossible  to  maintain  schools  on  the  plantations  that  were  removed  from  imme¬ 
diate  military  protection.  This  matter  was  brought  to  an  issue  through  Order  No. 
26,  September,  1864,  by  which  Superintendent  Eaton  was  authorized  to  appoint 


432 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

superintendents  of  colored  schools  with  power  to  act  in  all  the  details  of  their 
office.  At  several  of  the  points  on  the  Mississippi  River  the  seven  gentlemen  dele¬ 
gated  assumed  direction.  They  only  attempted  to  introduce  the  colored  people, 
young  and  old,  to  the  proprietors  of  plantations;  to  give  industrial  training,  espe¬ 
cially  in  good  housekeeping  and  women’s  work  for  the  girls  and  their  elders;  to 
establish  orphan  asylums;  and  generally  to  act  as  a  benevolent  committee  of 
all  work  in  relation  to  this  people.  An  important  part  of  their  duty  was  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  legal  marriage  among  thousands  of  people  who  hitherto  had  lived 
under  a  system  that  was  a  proper  university  for  the  perpetuation  of  the  social 
evil  assumed  to  be  a  “  race  characteristic  ”  of  the  negro.  It  is  impossible  to 
decide  how  many  of  the  freedmen  were  included  under  the  immediate  protection 
of  the  Government  during  these  four  years’  administration  of  Colonel  Eaton  as 
superintendent  of  freedmen  in  the  Southwest.  The  reports  of  the  different  super¬ 
intendents,  as  summarized  in  1864,  give  more  than  6,000  at  school  in  nine  different 
points  on  the  Mississippi.  Of  course  this  includes  but  a  small  portion  of  the  mul¬ 
titude  that,  even  before  the  establishment  of  the  Freedmen ’s  Bureau  in  1865,  were 
brought  under  instruction  by  the  great  number  of  private  educational  and  church 
agencies  operating  in  this  new  and  inviting  field. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  essay  to  give  the  working  of  all  the  agencies  for  the 
education  of  the  colored  folk  of  the  South  during  the  war  in  detail.  It  is  still  to 
be  hoped  that  both  General  Eaton  and  General  Saxton  will  occupy  the  years  that 
remain  to  them  in  preparing  a  reliable  history  of  their  great  services  and  the  out¬ 
come  of  all  that  was  attempted  in  the  way  of  planting  the  American  in  the  place 
of  the  local  and  provincial  type  of  society  through  the  vast  regions  occupied  by 
the  armies  of  the  Union  and  left  to  the  perils  of  reconstruction  by  the  advent  of 
peace.  A  vast  literature  has  grown  up  out  of  this  important  work,  of  which  the 
proper  arrangement  and  completion  would  be  an  interesting  task  for  a  competent 
historian,  and  from  which  could  be  gathered  the  explanation  of  much  that  is  still 
hidden  in  obscurity  or  enveloped  in  the  cloud  of  prejudice  that  still  broods  over 
the  record  of  that  mighty  period.  Enough  to  say,  that  this  campaign  of  educa¬ 
tion  for  the  most  needy  and  neglected  6,000,000  of  the  American  people,  from  1861 
during  the  succeeding  years,  closed  by  the  incorporation  in  the  revised  constitu¬ 
tion  of  every  reconstructed  Southern  State  of  a  provision  for  the  establishment  of 
the  American  common  school,  under  the  protection  of  the  military  power  of  the 
General  Government  which  was  an  imperative  necessity.  It  is  doubtful  if  this 
purpose,  could  have  been  achieved  otherwise,  and  without  the  establishment  and 
the  vigorous  support  of  the  common  school  for  all  classes  and  both  races,  the  union 
between  the  reconstructed  States  and  the  Republic  would  have  been  far  more  a 
matter  of  after-dinner  oratory  and  a  periodical  interchange  of  “distinguished 
consideration  ”  than  that  living  and  working  together  of  all  States  and  sections 
under  the  inspiration  of  common  ideas  and  patriotic  aspirations  which  is  the  only 
assurance  of  permanent  republican  nationality. 

The  great  personal  organizing  faculty  of  Superintendent  Eaton,  with  a  wonder¬ 
ful  exhibition  of  executive  common  sense  and  tact,  was  recognized  by  President 
Lincoln  a  few  months  before  his  death,  in  the  following  general  order: 

Colonel  Eaton: 

You  will  continue  your  supervision  of  freedmen  over  the  same  territory  and  on 
the  same  principle  as  in  the  past,  making  such  improvements  as  experience  may 
suggest,  until  legislation  shall  require  measures  for  further  change. 

A.  Lincoln. 

February  10,  1865. 

The  subsequent  work  of  Colonel  Eaton,  as  associate  commissioner  with  General 
Howard  in  the  administration  of  the  Freedmen ’s  Bureau  in  1865,  his  editorship  of 
the  Memphis  Post,  a  journal  established  to  promote  national  sentiment  in  the 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


43$ 


Southwest  in  1867,  his  two  years  service  as  State  superintendent  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion  in  Tennessee  during  the  brief  period  of  reconstruction,  and  his  call  to  the  final 
and  greatest  work  of  his  life,  the  practical  development  of  the  national  Bureau  of 
Education,  lifting  it  from  a  bureau  with  three  clerks  and  $10,000  income  to  the- 
organization  it  has  since  become,  followed  by  his  presidency  of  Marietta  College* 
Ohio,  which  was  left  in  1890  for  a  position  of  retirement  from  public  and  pro¬ 
fessional  occupation  to  the  general  work  which  often  proves  the  most  fruitful  of  the 
long  years  of  a  great  man’s  life,  form  an  interesting  chapter  of  history.  For  more 
than  twenty  years,  from  1862  to  1882,  no  man  in  the  United  States  contributed  more 
to  the  final  establishment  and  increasing  importance  of  the  common-school  system 
in  the  South  than  he.  It  would  be  difficult  to  name  an  important  movement  affect¬ 
ing  that  section  of  the  country  in  which  he  was  not  deeply  interested,  and,  of  tener 
than  was  suspected,  he  was  the  most  effectual  personage  in  its  direction  and  success* 
He  was  the  trusted  and  confidential  friend  of  the  great  soldier  and  the  greater  Pres¬ 
ident,  on  whom  the  fate  of  the  country  more  than  on  any  special  human  agency 
depended  during  the  momentous  years  of  the  civil  war.  In  all  legislation  affecting 
the  South  he  was  afterwards  in  frequent  consultation  with  the  most  influential 
public  men.  With  no  eminent  literary  talent  and  far  too  little  ambition  to  pre¬ 
serve  his  own  vast  and  versatile  labors  in  historical  form  beyond  the  exigencies  of 
an  immediate  official  demand,  his  mind  is  to-day  a  most  richly  furnished  library 
of  representative  facts,  ideas,  and  personal  memoirs  which  open  avenues  of  light 
through  a  broad  realm  of  national  interest. 

Whatever  may  have  come  of  his  tremendous  labors  and  those  of  his  faithful 
assistants  during  these  early  years,  working  under  a  military  supervision,  it  can 
not  be  reasonably  doubted  that  any  competent  reader  of  the  educational  literature 
thrown  up  in  this  period,  with  the  commentary  of  subsequent  events,  will  be 
forced  to  acknowledge  that  then  and  there  was  laid  a  permanent  foundation  for 
the  new  departure  of  a  system  of  common  schools  in  the  South  which  should  take 
the  little  child  by  the  hand  and  lead  him  as  far  as  he  was  able  to  go  along  the 
broadening  path  to  the  summit  of  society.  In  doing  this  General  Eaton  not  only 
incurred  the  implacable  hostility  of  all  evil-disposed,  but  gained  the  respect  and 
enjoyed  the  appreciation  of  the  large  body  of  good  people  in  the  South  who 
favored  the  admission  of  the  colored  race  to  a  share  in  the  new  common-school 
system  at  a  later  date.  The  slave- holding  class,  with  its  professional  and  educated 
environment,  has  so  far  been  responsible  for  the  majority  of  the  good  things  done* 
by  the  Southern  people  for  the  negro  that  have  enabled  him  to  reach  his  present 
hopeful  state.  And  the  best  of  all  the  things  done  has  been  the  opportunity  of  edu¬ 
cation  which,  however  imperfect  and  too  often  abused  and  turned  to  a  pretense* 
is  responsible  for  more  of  the  genuine  progress  in  these  States  than  all  the  legisla¬ 
tion  and  even  the  new  industrial  development  of  which  such  account  is  now  being- 
made.  Numbers  of  the  best  men  and  women  who  have  honored  the  country  by 
their  great  labors  in  this  field  of  Southern  education  were  either  “effectually 
called  ”  or  reliably  aided  by  the  hearty  cooperation  and  genuine  interest  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Eaton. 

Only  the  limit  of  space  compels  the  absence  from  this  essay  of  the  entire  publi¬ 
cation  of  a  remarkable  letter  addressed  by  Superintendent  Eaton  to  Mr.  Levi 
Coffin,  a  distinguished  representative  of  the  religious  Society  of  Friends,  living  in 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  the  agent  of  the  Western  Freedman’s  Aid  Committee  of 
that  city,  dated  January  5, 1864.  In  this  almost  apostolic  epistle  the  good  general 
sets  forth  the  magnitude  of  the  work  intrusted  to  his  charge,  the  effort  to  avoid 
fatal  mistakes  and  the  lessons  of  experience  gained  by  its  administration.  It  was 
indirectly  a  letter  to  all  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  as  Mr.  Coffin  was  at  that 
time  abroad,  and  presents  with  striking  freshness  the  insincerity  of  the  too  preva¬ 
lent  distrust  and  disparagement  of  the  purposes  and  aspirations  of  the  Union 
cause. 


ed  1901 - 28 


434 


1900-1901. 


EDUCATION  REPORT, 

At  this  point  [he  writes]  this  superintendence”,  embracing  the  territory  between 
the  lines  of  our  army  from  Cairo,  Ill.,  down  the  Mississippi  to  Red  River,  La., 
together  with  the  State  of  Arkansas,  numbered  in  its  care  during  the  past  year, 
1863,  113,650  freedmen.  These  are  now  disposed  as  follows:  In  military  service, 
as  soldiers,  laundresses,  cooks,  officers ’  servants  and  laborers  in  the  various  staff 
departments,  41,150;  in  cities,  on  plantations,  and  in  freedmen's  villages  and  cared 
for,  72,500.  Of  these,  62,500  are  entirely  self-supporting — the  same  as  any  indus¬ 
trial  class  anywhere— as  planters,  mechanics,  teachers,  preachers,  draymen,  etc., 
working  on  their  own  responsibility  or  as  hired  laborers.  The  remaining  10,000 
receive  subsistence  from  the  Government.  Three  thousand  of  them  are  members  of 
families,  whose  heads  are  carrying  on  plantations  and  have  under  cultivation  4,000 
acres  of  cotton  and  are  to  pay  the  Government  for  their  subsistence  from  the  first 
income  of  the  crop.  The  other  7,200  include  the  paupers  (those  over  and  under  the 
self-supporting  age,  the  cripples,  and  sick  in  hospitals)  of  the  113,650  and  those 
engaged  in  their  care,  and  instead  of  being  improvident  have  now  under  cultivation 
500  acres  of  corn,  790  acres  of  vegetables,  and  1,500  acres  of  cotton — besides  the  work 
done  by  wood  choppers,  etc.  There  is  reported  the  aggregate  sum  of  over  10,000 
acres  of  cotton  under  cultivation.  Of  these,  about  7,000  acres  are  loaned  and  cul¬ 
tivated  by  blacks.  Borne  of  these  are  managers  of  as  high  as  300  or  400  acres.  It 
is  impossible  to  give,  at  the  present  date,  any  definite  statement  of  many  of  the 
forms  of  industry.  Fifty-nine  thousand  cords  of  wood  are  reported  as  cut  within 
the  line  of  110  miles  on  the  river  banks  above  and  below  Vicksburg.  The  amount 
cut  by  these  people  is  enormous.  The  price  of  cutting  is  from  50  cents  to  $2.50 
per  cord.  Thirteen  thousand  three  hundred  and  twenty  of  the  whole  number 
have  been  under  instruction  in  letters,  about  4,000  have  learned  to  read  quite  fairly, 
and  about  2,000  to  write.  *  *  *  “  Each  move  makes  history.”  To  enter  upon 
this  duty  was  to  forsake  friends  and  pass  under  a  cloud;  to  have  the  sympathies 
taxed  with  the  most  trying  forms  of  suffering  and  the  mind  racked  by  the  severest 
social  problems.  The  j)ath  was  dark;  there  was  no  highway.  *  *  * 

In  the  management  of  the  governmental  efforts  the  aim  has  been  to  yield  to  no 
prejudice  or  fancy,  to  hold  fast  to  common  sense  and  Christian  principles,  to  keep 
the  eye  on  the  lessons  of  history,  and  to  search  for  their  just  teaching  in  regard  to 
present  times  and  exigencies;  in  a  word,  to  make  all  governmental  action  to  be 
simply  the  administration  of  justice  between  them  as  a  freed  people.  The  gifts  of 
funds  and  supplies  by  the  nation  report  a  sum  of  $300,000.  *  *  *  In  striking 
the  balance  of  expense  and  income  to  the  Government  of  this  emancipation  policy 
we  have  to  calculate  what  their  industry  would  have  produced  in  army  supplies 
to  the  rebels  from  their  presence  in  all  the  large  cities,  as  the  15,000  in  Memphis 
contribute  a  loyal  element  of  security  and  strength;  the  value  of  the  colored  sol¬ 
dier,  as  well  officered  and  disciplined,  rapidly  increasing  in  efficiency  and  com¬ 
manding  the  respect  of  friend  and  foe.  We  overlook  the  fact  that  no  one  of  these 
soldiers  has  cost  the  Government  a  bounty  of  $300  or  $400.  Of  the  five  or  tens  of 
thousands  sometimes  fed,  only  10,000  now  receive  supplies.  *  *  *  The  wages 
of  labor  run  as  high  as  $45  per  month.  *  *  *  Evidences  of  the  success  of  free 
compensated  labor  are  becoming  abundant.  Shrewd  Southern  business  men  are 
confessing  the  greater  profitableness  of  free  labor.  It  is  safe  to  count  on  motives 
of  profit  and  the  advancement  of  Southern  sentiment  as  well  as  the  social,  mental, 
and  civil  weight  of  the  entire  black  population  and  the  result  of  the  larger  military 
operations  in  the  work  of  reconstructing  society  in  these  regions.  *  *  *  The 
plan  of  General  Grant  was  to  gather  the  freed  slaves  on  the  right  side  on  the  rich 
soil  along  the  rivers,  in  a  sufficient  number  for  defense  as  regular  troops  or  militia, 
and  put  all  others  to  industry,  educate  them,  regulate  the  communities  by  martial 
law,  under  a  head  reporting  to  the  Secretary  of  War  directly  under  the  Executive, 
and  thus  not  only  vindicating  the  policy  of  emancipation  bef  ore  mankind  by  offer¬ 
ing  an  asylum  for  the  comfort  and  training  of  the  liberal  rebels,  by  so  much  to 
weaken  and  demoralize  their  armies,  to  increase  the  number  of  troops  in  the  field, 
and  by  lining  the  river  banks  for  miles  in  breadth  with  a  loyal  population,  self- 
supporting,  and  contributing  to  the  revenue,  to  render  thus  secure  the  water 
courses,  and  then  to  cooperate  in  making  successful  our  military  operations. 
*  *  *  Assure  friends  and  all  coworkers  for  truth  in  England  that  while  those 
of  us  thrown  among  the  most  trying  scenes  of  the  war  ask  the  candid  judgment 
and  manly  sympathy  and  cooperation  that  it  deserves,  and  such  material  aid  for 
the  distressed  as  their  charity  can  bestow,  we  are  not  only  confident  of  success, 
but  that  America  will  not  make  this  great  sacrifice  of  her  precious  life  and  blood 
in  vain,  either  for  her  own  people  or  the  rest  of  mankind. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1816. 


435 


The  Inauguration  of  the  Common- School  System  among  the  Colored 
People  of  Louisiana,  by  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  1863-64. 

Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  who  had  cooperated  with  Admiral  Farragut  in  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans  in  1861,  and  performed  most  effective  duty  as  the  greatest 
chief  of  military  police  developed  in  the  Union  armies  during  the  civil  war,  was 
released  from  his  command  in  1862  by  the  appointment  of  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  also 
of  Massachusetts,  to  his  department.  In  the  autumn  of  1862  General  Banks  left 
the  harbor  of  New  York  with  an  army  of  20,000  volunteers,  under  orders  to  open 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  establish  himself  at  a  commanding 
position  in  the  Red  River  country,  for  the  protection  of  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and 
eastern  Texas.  A  series  of  military  operations,  with  varied  fortunes,  in  the  year 
1863  culminated  in  the  capture  of  Port  Hudson,  a  few  days  after  the  fall  of  Vicks¬ 
burg,  Miss.,  which  accomplished  the  opening  of  the  great  river  from  the  Gulf  to 
Cairo  and  the  virtual  establishment  in  the  entire  region  along  its  banks  of  the 
authority  of  the  Union. 

But  previous  to  this,  by  the  request  of  President  Lincoln,  encouraged  by  the 
condition  of  civil  affairs  in  the  department  of  General  Banks,  the  loyal  people  of 
Louisiana  had  inaugurated  a  movement  for  the  return  of  the  State  to  the  Union. 
In  December,  1862,  two  Union  Representatives  to  Congress  were  elected  by  a  vote, 
perhaps  representing  one- tenth  of  the  white  population  of  the  State,  under  the 
protection  of  General  Shepley,  military  governor  of  Louisiana,  and  in  February, 
1863,  the  Commonwealth  was  once  more  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States.  After  the  important  series  of  victories  for  the  Union  armies  in  1863, 
President  Lincoln  proposed  a  definite  plan  of  reconstruction  to  Congress.  The 
substance  of  the  plan  was  that,  after  eliminating  certain  classes  in  the  seceding 
States  from  the  suffrage,  one-tenth  of  the  voting  population  of  1860,  of  loyal 
tendencies,  might  be  intrusted  with  the  formation  of  a  State  government. 

In  January,  1864,  a  free  State  convention  was  held  in  New  Orleans,  followed  by 
a  proclamation  from  General  Banks  containing  suggestions  for  reconstruction. 
In  February,  1864,  a  governor  was  chosen,  and  inaugurated  on  March  4.  A  new 
State  constitution  was  formed,  which  contained  a  prohibition  of  negro  slavery  and 
a  provision  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  free  schools.  While  the  political 
side  of  the  movement  somewhat  miscarried,  owing  to  a  conflict  of  opinion  between 
Congress  and  the  President,  calling  his  action  to  account  in  the  method  of  recon¬ 
struction,  the  destruction  of  slavery  and  the  establishment  of  the  most  deadly 
enemy  of  all  slaveries,  the  people’s  common  school,  remained  intact. 

Immediately  after  this  reorganization  of  the  State,  on  March  22,  1864,  General 
Banks  issued  an  order  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  common  schools  for  the 
freedmen.  A  board  of  education  was  created  by  the  Department  of  the  Gulf, 
with  power  to  establish  common  schools,  employ  teachers,  build  schoolhouses, 
arrange  courses  of  study,  and  exercise  the  general  authority  usual  in  the  school 
systems  of  the  Northern  States.  The  purpose  of  the  order  was  stated  “for  the 
rudimental  instruction  of  the  freedmen  of  the  department,  placing  within  their 
reach  the  elements  of  knowledge  which  give  intelligence  and  value  to  labor.” 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  French  creole  families,  under  the  old  order 
the  teaching  of  the  negro  had  been  strictly  prohibited  by  law,  but  at  once  there 
sprung  into  existence  as  by  magic  a  complete  system  of  public  instruction. 

At  least  150  schools  for  colored  children,  with  265  teachers  and  14,000  pupils, 
were  established.  In  the  city  of  New  Orleans  19  large  schools,  with  104  teachers 
and  5,750  pupils,  were  in  session.  More  than  50,000  children  of  colored  people  were 
taught  to  read  in  the  city  and  immediate  vicinity.  The  inspector  of  the  Freedmen’s 
Bureau,  Mr.  J.  W.  Alvord,  in  1866,  reported  the  schools  “in  a  remarkably  encour¬ 
aging  condition.  No  Southern  State  has  so  large  an  organization.  No  State  has 
excelled  Louisiana  in  the  detailed  perfection  of  its  school  system.”  A  number  of 


436 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Southern  white  teachers  had  been  employed  and  were  favorably  regarded  as  hav¬ 
ing  a  superior  knowledge  of  the  negro.  Colored  teachers  were  employed  when 
found  capable  of  doing  the  work.  General  Banks,  more  than  twenty  years  before, 
as  a  rising  young  public  man,  had  been  appointed  as  the  first  general  agent  of  the 
State  board  of  education  in  Massachusetts,  then  under  the  administration  of  Dr. 
Barnas  Sears  as  secretary  of  the  board  and  virtual  State  superintendent  of  pub. 
lie  instruction,  and  was  henceforth  known  as  a  fast  friend  of  universal  education. 
He  inaugurated  the  New  England  idea  of  combining  the  academical  and  industrial 
elements  in  the  schooling  of  the  colored  people  in  Louisiana.  All  land  owners 
who  employed  the  negroes  in  the  fields  were  taxed  to  contribute  to  their  schooling. 
A  superintendent  of  instruction,  Maj.  Rush  Pumley,  from  Philadelphia,  was 
appointed,  and  the  inspector  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  grows  enthusiastic  in  his 
report  over  the  great  success  of  the  experiment. 

Here,  for  the  first  time,  was  established  in  the  South  a  complete  system  of  the 
American  common  school,  supported  by  local  taxation.  In  South  Carolina,  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  Tennessee,  where  schools  for  the  freedmen  were  established  under  the 
protection  of  the  military  power,  the  native  white  people  were  not  directly  taxed 
for  their  support.  By  the  early  political  movement  in  Louisiana  during  the  war,  a 
provision  for  public  education  had  been  placed  in  the  revised  constitution  of  the 
State,  and  the  schools  were  virtually  placed  under  State  control.  There  had  been 
several  attempts  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  common-school  education 
for  white  youth  in  Louisiana  previous  to  1860,  with  more  or  less  success,  but  the 
most  satisfactory  result  had  been  reached  in  New  Orleans.  About  the  year  1838, 
Dr.  Shaw,  of  Massachusetts,  had  been  called  to  New  Orleans  in  response  to  the 
request  of  the  city  authorities  to  Horace  Mann,  then  in  the  second  or  third  year  of 
his  administration,  and  the  public-school  system  established  under  his  superin¬ 
tendency  had  already  become  a  permanent  feature  of  municipal  policy  at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war. 

But  the  provision  in  the  revised  constitution  for  the  complete  establishment  of 
the  system  was  premature  work.  For  not  only  the  schools,  but  the  constitution 
under  which  they  were  established,  was  held  up  by  the  military  army  of  occupa¬ 
tion.  The  overwhelming  public  opinion  of  the  white  people  of  Louisiana  was 
opposed  to  the  public  schooling  of  the  negroes,  although  it  is  probable  that  the 
common  school  public  that  for  so  many  years  had  been  baffled  in  its  attempt  to  setup 
a  common-school  system  for  the  ^whites  was  getting  ready  to  undertake  this  work, 
but  then  unable  to  support  it  financially.  In  1866  the  collection  of  the  tax  on 
landowners  for  colored  schools  was  suspended  by  military  order.  Great  numbers 
of  the  colored  parents  petitioned  the  authorities  to  permit  them  to  assume  the 
money  tax  as  their  own,  although  already  paying  their  own  portion  for  the  gen¬ 
eral  system.  It  was  this  condition  of  suspended  action  of  the  schools  that  we  find 
in  the  report  of  the  inspector  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  in  1866.  Industrial  schools 
for  the  colored  people  had  meanwhile  been  opened  in  New  Orleans. 

The  war  period,  from  1861  to  1867-1869,  can  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  rehearsal  for 
the  grand  experiment  of  offering  to  the  5,000,000  or  6,000,000  emancipated  freed¬ 
men  in  the  South  the  complete  system  of  elementary  education  as  then  developed 
in  the  United  States,  to  the  extent  to  which  the  people  of  these  States  were  com¬ 
petent  to  accept  and  anybody  was  able  and  willing  to  support  it.  Indeed,  the 
great  experiment  from  Washington  to  New  Orleans  practically  included  every 
variety  of  schooling  then  in  vogue  in  the  country.  First  came  the  movement  by 
private  charity.  Following  this  came  the  churches  and  philanthropic  associa¬ 
tions  for  the  schooling  of  the  contrabands  in  camps  and  barracks;  even  on  the 
field  of  battle  during  an  engagement  the  colored  soldiers  clutched  the  spelling 
book  in  one  hand  while  they  grasped  the  musket  in  the  other.  On  this  was  laid 
the  basis  of  the  extended  system  of  church  denominational  and  private  schools, 
not  only  for  the  elementary  but  the  secondary  and  higher  normal  and  industrial 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1876. 


437 


education,  that  has  become  so  prominent  a  factor  in  all  the  Southern  States,  and 
■without  which  the  common  schools,  the  churches,  and  society  of  the  colored  race 
in  general  would  have  been  deprived  for  an  entire  generation  of  its  most  valuable 
leadership  in  all  departments  of  its  new  life.  With  this  has  come  up  a  great  and 
beneficent  movement  for  the  reformation  of  the  church,  school,  and  society  among 
the  negroes,  in  the  general  improvement  of  their  condition,  and  the  development 
of  the  professional  class  of  teachers,  clergymen,  physicians,  and  leaders  in  their 
new  industrial  life. 

But  far  more  important  and  vital  than  this,  indeed,  the  movement  to  which  all 
that  has  been  done  by  the  North  and  the  nation  has  been  tributary,  was  the 
founding,  first  in  an  indirect,  and  finally  in  a  direct  way,  of  a  complete  system  of 
schools  under  the  protection  and  by  the  support  of  the  military  arm  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  United  States.  Through  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton,  in  the  Department 
of  the  South,  Gen.  John  Eaton,  jr.,  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  by  Gen. 
N.  P.  Banks,  in  Louisiana,  this  original  effort  was  developed  into  a  veritable  pub¬ 
lic  school  system  of  the  national  type,  before  the  establishment  of  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau.  That  amid  the  tumults  of  war,  and  its  terrible  excitements,  and  an 
almost  incredible  experimenting  with  the  emancipated  class,  and  with  so  little 
money  available  for  the  support  of  the  movement,  so  much  could  have  been  accom¬ 
plished  is  one  of  the  many  wonders  of  our  American  history.  Nevertheless,  it 
was  done,  and  so  well  done,  that  within  ten  years  from  the  beginning  of  the  free 
elementary  schooling  the  experiment  had  evolved  into  the  establishment  of  the 
complete  American  common  school  system,  including  the  children  of  the  schools 
of  twenty  years  before. 

Our  next  step  will  be  to  put  on  record  the  attempt  of  the  United  States  Govern¬ 
ment  during  five  years  by  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  to  extend  and  develop  the 
original  experiment  through  the  stormy  period  of  Southern  State  reconstruction, 
followed  by  the  final  consent  of  the  Southern  white  people,  restored  to  the  full 
political  control  of  their  own  States,  to  accept  the  entire  system  of  American 
universal  education  in  connection  with  the  Peabody  education  fund,  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  the  national  Bureau  of  Education,  and  the  large  appropriation  of 
public  lands  and  moneys  by  Congress  for  the  establishment  and  support  of  colleges 
of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union. 

The  Freedmen’s  Bureau. 

The  operations  of  the  Army  and  the  various  private  and  church  organizations 
for  the  schooling  of  the  freedmen  already  described  received  a  new  direction  by 
the  passage[of  the  following  act  of  Congress,  approved  by  President  Lincoln  March 
3,  1865,  almost  the  last  official  act  of  the  great  President: 

AN  ACT  to  establish  a  bureau  for  the  relief  of  freedmen  and  refugees. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled ,  That  there  is  hereby  established  in  the  War 
Department,  to  continue  during  the  present  w~ar  of  rebellion  and  for  one  year 
thereafter,  a  Bureau  of  Refugees,  Freedmen,  and  Abandoned  Lands,  to  which 
shall  be  committed,  as  hereinafter  provided,  the  supervision  and  management  of 
all  abandoned  lands  and  the  control  of  all  subjects  relating  to  refugees  and  freed¬ 
men  from  rebel  States  or  from  any  district  of  country  within  the  territory 
embraced  in  the  operations  of  the  Army,  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may 
be  prescribed  by  the  head  of  the  Bureau  and  approved  by  the  President.  The  said 
Bureau  shall  be  under  the  management  and  control  of  a  commissioner,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senat1, 
whose_  compensation  shall  be  $3,000  per  annum,  and  such  number  of  clerks  as  may 
be  assigned  to  him  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  not  exceeding  1  chief  clerk,  2  of  the 
fourth  class,  2  of  the  third  class,  and  5  of  the  first  class.  And  the  commissioner 
and  all  persons  appointed  under  this  act  shall,  before  entering  upon  their  duties, 
take  the  oath  of  office  prescribed  in  an  act  entitled  “An  act  to  prescribe  an  oath  of 
office,  and  for  other  purposes,”  approved  July  2,  1862.  And  the  commissioner  and 
chief  clerk  shall,  before  entering  upon  their  duties,  give  bonds  to  the  Treasurer  of 


438 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

the  United  States  in  the  snm  of  $50,000  and  the  latter  in  the  sum  of  $10,000,  con¬ 
ditioned  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duties,  respectively,  with  securities  to 
he  approved  as  sufficient  by  the  Attorney- General,  which  bonds  shall  be  filed  in 
the  office  of  the  First  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  to  be  by  him  put  in  suit  for  the 
benefit  of  any  injured  party  upon  any  breach  of  the  conditions  thereof. 

Sec.  2*.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  the  Secretary  of  War  may  direct  such 
issues  of  provisions,  clothing,  and  fuel  as  he  may  deem  needful  for  the  immediate 
and  temporary  shelter  and  supply  of  destitute  and  suffering  refugees  and  freed- 
men  and  their  wives  and  children,  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  he  may 
direct. 

Sec.  3.  And  be  it  further  enacted ,  That  the  President  may,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoint  an  assistant  commissioner  for  each  of 
the  States  declared  to  be  in  insurrection,  not  exceeding  ten  in  number,  who  shall, 
under  the  direction  of  the  commissioner,  aid  in  the  execution  of  the  provisions  of 
this  act;  and  he  shall  give  a  bond  to  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States  in  the 
sum  of  $20,000,  in  the  form  and  manner  prescribed  in  the  first  section  of  this  act. 
Each  of  the  said  commissioners  shall  receive  an  annual  salary  of  $2,500,  in  full 
compensation  for  all  his  services.  And  any  military  officer  may  be  detailed  and 
assigned  to  duty  under  this  act,  without  increase  of  pay  or  allowances.  The  com¬ 
missioner  shall,  before  the  commencement  of  each  regular  session  of  Congress, 
make  full  report  of  his  proceedings,  with  exhibits  of  the  state  of  his  accounts,  to 
the  President,  who  shall  communicate  the  same  to  Congress,  and  shall  also  make 
special  reports  whenever  required  to  do  so  by  the  President  or  either  House  of 
Congress,  and  the  assistant  commissioners  shall  make  quarterly  reports  of  their 
proceedings  to  the  commissioner,  and  also  such  other  special  reports  as  from  time 
to  time  may  be  required. 

Seo.  4.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  the  commissioner,  under  the  direction  of 
the  President,  shall  have  authority  to  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  loyal  refugees 
and  freedmen,  such  tracts  of  land  within  the  insurrectionary  States  as  shall  have 
been  abandoned,  or  to  which  the  United  States  shall  har  e  acquired  title  by  confis¬ 
cation  or  sale,  or  otherwise;  and  to  every  male  citizen,  whether  refugee  or  f reed- 
man,  as  aforesaid,  there  shall  be  assigned  not  more  than  40  acres  of  such  land,  and 
the  person  to  whom  it  was  so  assigned  shall  be  protected  in  the  use  and  enjoyment 
of  the  land  for  the  term  of  three  years,  at  an  annual  rent  not  exceeding  6  per- 
centum  upon  the  value  of  such  land,  as  it  was  appraised  by  the  State  authorities 
in  the  year  1860,  for  the  purpose  of  taxation,  and  in  case  no  such  appraisal  can  be 
found,  then  the  rental  shall  be  based  upon  the  estimated  value  of  the  land  in  said 
year,  to  be  ascertained  in  such  manner  as  the  commissioner  may  by  regulation 
prescribe.  At  the  .end  of  such  time,  or  at  any  time  during  said  term,  the  occu¬ 
pants  of  any  parcels  so  assigned  may  purchase  the  land  and  receive  such  title 
thereto  as  the  United  States  can  convey,  to  pay  therefrom  the  value  of  the  land 
as  ascertained  and  fixed  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  annual  rent  aforesaid. 

Sec.  5.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  all  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act  are  hereby  repealed. 

Approved  March  3,  1865. 

Abraham  Lincoln. 

This  law  was  one  of  the  last  approved  by  President  Lincoln.  The  Freedmen’s 
Bureau  was  born  amid  a  military  and  political  cyclone.  On  the  2d  day  of  April, 
1865,  Richmond  fell,  and  on  the  9th  of  the  same  month  General  Lee  surrendered 
at  Appomattox  Court-house,  Ya.  On  the  following  14th  of  April  President  Abraham 
Lincoln  was  assassinated,  and  immediately  Vice-President  Andrew  Johnson  was 
elevated  to  his  place.  It  was  not  until  May  15-16  that  Gen.  O.  O.  Howard,  of  the 
United  States  Army,  appointed  commissioner  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  by  Sec¬ 
retary  of  War  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  assumed  the  office  and  issued  his  first  circular 
as  “Commissioner  of  Bureau  of  Refugees,  Freedmen,  and  Abandoned  Lands  ”  and 
established  his  official  headquarters  at  the  corner  of  I  and  Nineteenth  streets, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

In  his  first  circular  Commissioner  Howard  announced  the  policy  of  the  bureau, 
as  follows:  ‘ 4  The  negro  should  understand  that  he  is  really  free,  but  on  no  account, 
if  able  to  work,  should  he  harbor  the  thought  that  the  Government  will  support 
him  in  idleness.”  On  May  19  he  defines  the  duties  of  the  assistant  commissioners 
to  be  appointed  for  all  the  late  insurrectionary  States.  They  wTere  to  be  “super¬ 
visors  of  abandoned  lands,  and  have  control  of  all  subjects  relating  to  refugees 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1876. 


439 


and  frepdmen  in  their  respective  districts.  All  agents  of  the  bureau  were  to  report 
to  them  in  all  applications  for  relief  to  be  made  to  them  or  their  agents.”  In  a 
rapid  series  of  circulars  the  commissioner  further  informed  the  public  and  his 
subordinates  that  the  bureau  was  not  established  to  supersede  the  action  of  other 
associations  in  the  field.  Cooperation  was  invited  and  urged  with  all  these. 
“The  utmost  facility  will  be  offered  fco  benevolent  and  religious  organizations  and 
State  authorities  in  the  maintenance  of  good  schools  for  refugees  and  freedmen 
until  a  system  of  free  schools  can  be  established  by  the  reorganized  local  govern¬ 
ments.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  bureau  to  antagonize  existing  organizations, 
but  to  stimulate  and  facilitate  them.  ” 

The  difficulties  attending  the  management  of  abandoned  lands  appeared  at  the 
beginning  of  the  administration.  On  May  22  it  was  announced  that  numbers  of 
the  late  owners  of  these  estates  were  claiming  possession.  All  such  were  informed 
that  there  would  be  no  consideration  of  the  claims  of  the  disloyal  owners  and  that 
the  freedmen  engaged  in  raising  crops  must  be  paid  for  theiT  labor  till  the  harvest 
ended.  On  May  29  Col.  John  Eaton,  jr.,  was  promoted  from  his  great  work  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  to  be  assistant  commissioner  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  at 
Washington,  and  it  is  probable  that  much  of  the  success  of  the  bureau  during  the 
five  years  of  its  troubled  existence  was  due  to  the  large  experience  gained  in  his 
administration  in  the  Southwestern  department.  By  June  1,  1865,  nine  States 
had  been  included  in  the  appointment  of  assistant  commissioners  and  agents,  who 
were  stationed  in  the  most  important  centers  of  their  respective  Commonwealths. 
The  relief  stations  established  during  the  war  were  discontinued  as  fast  as  pos¬ 
sible,  as  it  was  the  policy  of  the  bureau  to  make  all  the  people  self-supporting. 
Loyal  refugees  were  to  be  protected  to  the  uttermost  of  the  ability  of  the  local 
officials  and  the  freedmen  assured  of  their  rights  as  complete  as  the  free  white 
people.  The  teachers  already  at  work  among  the  negroes  were  urged  to  cooper¬ 
ate,  and  accurate  reports  were  demanded.  Colonel  Brown  in  Virginia;  General 
Whittelsy  in  North  Carolina;  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida;  Colonel  Osborne  in  Alabama;  Chaplain  T.  W.  Conway  in  Louisiana;  Col. 
Samuel  Thomas  in  Mississippi;  Gen.  Clinton  B.  Fisk  in  Tennessee,  and  General 
and  ex-Governor  Sprague,  son-in-law  of  Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  in  Missouri 
and  Arkansas  were  appointed  assistant  commissioners.  All  of  these  men  were 
fully  competent,  and  several  of  them  afterwards  rose  to  distinction  during  the 
coming  fifteen  years  of  reconstruction.  The  teachers  indorsed  by  the  board  were 
to  receive  rations,  transportation,  and  the  use  of  school  buildings,  although  this 
dispensation  of  aid  was  to  be  strictly  guarded. 

By  July  12  the  policy  of  the  bureau  was  announced  through  the  authorization 
of  the  appointment  of  superintendents  of  education  by  the  assistant  commission¬ 
ers,  who  should  be  authorized  to  cooperate  with  State  authorities  when  such 
existed,  and  otherwise  visit  schools,  and  as  far  as  possible  aid  and  encourage  the 
teachers  acting  under  the  different  benevolent  organizations  from  the  North,  and 
on  certain  conditions  to  assist  in  building  or  furnishing  schoolhouses.  Attempts 
were  made  to  protect  the  freedmen  from  the  injustice  threatened  by  the  new 
vagrant  and  labor  laws  enacted  by  several  of  the  late  insurrectionary  States  now 
being  called  into  a  responsible  civil  and  political  condition  by  the  edict  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Johnson.  The  commissioner  states  that  mischievous  reports  that  the  freedmen 
were  to  be  given  possession  of  the  lands  of  their  former  masters  were  industriously 
spread  abroad  in  order  to  unsettle  labor.  Already  the  chronic  friction  of  a  double 
authority  was  experienced  in  the  complaints  of  some  of  the  military  commanders 
of  the  Southern  districts  that  the  assistant  commissioners  were  exceeding  their 
authority.  The  commissioner  warns  against  this,  and  reminds  his  subordinates 
that  all  matters  of  military  concern  are  to  be  referred  to  the  army  authorities. 

In  the  22  published  circulars  issued  by  Commissioner  Howard  during  the  year 
1865  the  policy  of  the  administration  of  the  freedmen’s  bureau  was  completely  indi- 


440 


EDUCATION  KEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


cated,  and  the  great  difficulties  that  beset  its  path  were  revealed.  It  was  soon 
apparent  that  Congress  in  the  framing  of  this  comprehensive  law  had  embarked 
on  an  enterprise  involved  in  almost  insurmountable  difficulties.  The  radical  mis¬ 
take  would  seem  to  have  been  the  involving  of  the  educational  movement  with 
the  prodigious  work  of  administering  on  abandoned  lands,  protecting  the  refugees, 
redressing  the  wrongs  of  several  millions  of  emancipated  slaves,  and  generally 
acting  as  an  ex-tempore  civil  and  religious  Providence  through  a  realm  as  exten¬ 
sive  as  the  whole  of  central  Europe. 

The  whole  matter  was  immensely  complicated  by  the  political  policy  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Johnson,  who  at  once,  on  his  accession  to  the  Presidency,  by  the  advice  of 
Secretary  of  State  William  H.  Seward,  assumed  the  responsibility  of  reorganizing 
the  States  lately  in  rebellion  by  sending  to  them  provisional  governors  authorized 
to  invite  the  white  people,  with  the  exception  of  certain  classes  of  high  military 
and  civic  ex-Confederate  officials,  to  summon  constitutional  conventions,  adapt 
their  State  constitutions  to  the  present  order  of  free  society,  assemble  their  legis¬ 
latures,  and  elect  members  of  Congress.  This  policy  at  once  was  carried  out  in  all 
the  seceding  States,  and  the  Thirty-ninth  Congress  of  the  United  States,  assembling 
on  December  1, 1865,  found  itself  confronted  with  a  “  solid  South,”  in  the  political 
possession  of  the  same  people  who,  four  years  before,  had  formally  seceded  from  the 
Union,  waged  a  terrible  war  even  to  the  verge  of  absolute  exhaustion,  and  now 
demanded  the  recognition  of  their  complete  Statehood  and  the  admission  of  their 
members  to  Congress,  with  all  the  rights  of  legal  citizenship  for  their  constituents. 
Their  legislatures  at  once,  in  several  States,  passed  laws  affecting  the  freedmen 
that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Northern  people,  practically  remanded  the  negro  to  a 
state  of  slavery.  His  rights  as  a  free  laborer  were  greatly  restricted  and  the  right 
to  bear  arms  denied.  He  was  liable  to  be  deprived  of  his  liberty  on  charges  of 
vagrancy;  the  colored  youth  to  be  bound  out  to  an  apprenticeship  that  certainly 
offered  the  opportunity  for  great  abuse,  and  his  further  education  was  environed 
with  hard  conditions  that  amounted  to  a  practical  denial  of  the  right  to  schooling. 
It  is  easy  to  understand  into  what  a  veritable  pandemonium  of  hostile  passions, 
insupportable  difficulties,  and  impossible  conditions  this  unfortunate  bureau  was 
plunged  before  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  its  existence.  It  was  not  so  much  that 
its  local  administration  was  intrusted  to  incompetent  or  unworthy  men,  but  that 
the  ablest  and  best  men  could  do  so  little  to  advantage  in  such  a  state  of  affairs. 
The  negroes,  of  course,  returned  to  their  former  homes  at  the  close  of  the  war. 
Either  they  must  be  reinstated  in  their  possessions  and  organized  to  go  to  work, 
or  the  entire  laboring  population  of  eleven  great  States  would  be  reduced  to  beg¬ 
gary.  The  emancipated  freedmen  could  not  understand  that  the  provision  for 
leasing  and  buying  abandoned  lands  did  not  mean  the  spoliation  of  their  masters’ 
estates  in  their  behalf,  and  often  either  refused  to  work  or  were  involved  in  end¬ 
less  misunderstanding  and  quarrels  over  their  wages  and  conditions  of  support. 
The  effort  to  educate  and  train  them  for  their  future  duties  by  the  agents  of  the 
bureau  was  met  by  the  fact  that  they  were  already  recognized  as  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  were  practically  under  the  code  of  laws  enacted  for  their  regu¬ 
lation  by  their  former  masters,  enforced  by  local  officials  and  a  State  militia.  It 
was  not  remarkable  that  the  white  people  should  fall  into  a  panic  concerning  the 
supposed  dangers  attending  the  setting  free  of  5,000,000  slaves,  and  honestly 
believed  that  these  severe  laws  were  necessary  to  preserve  the  peace  and  protect 
the  lives  of  their  families.  A  State,  like  a  man,  can  lose  its  head,  and  a  million 
men  really  become  a  mob  under  the  influence  of  such  a  reaction  as  the  wTaking  up 
to  the  possible  results  of  their  situation  by  the  people  of  the  eleven  ex-Confederate 
States  in  1865. 

Meanwhile  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  recognized  the  situation  brought 
in  by  President  Johnson  as  a  peril  only  less  than  that  of  open  war.  And  then 
began  the  series  of  enactments  that  involved  the  Administration  in  a  bitter  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876 


441 


exasperating  conflict,  only  ending  in  the  attempt  to  impeach  the  President.  At 
once  the  members  of  Congress  elected  from  the  seceding  States  on  appearing  were 
refused  their  seats.  A  comprehensive  law  was  passed  to  protect  the  freedmen 
against  the  severe  provisions  of  the  vagrant  and  labor  laws  of  those  States. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  essay  to  discuss  or  even  to  give  a  connected  history 
of  the  political  events  of  the  five  years  following  the  close  of  the  civil  war,  1865- 
1870.  Enough  to  say  that  the  year  1869  found  the  late  insurrectionary  State  gov¬ 
ernments  established  under  the  action  of  President  Johnson  abolished.  The  entire 
area  of  these  eleven  States  was  divided  into  five  military  districts,  presided  over 
by  commanders  of  the  national  armies  and  their  people  living  under  martial  law. 
New  governments  were  originated  by  the  return  of  ail  loyal  people,  including  the 
negroes,  and  finally  all  the  States  were  readmitted  to  the  Union  on  condition  of 
accepting  the  three  amendments  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  that 
made  slavery  and  secession  forever  impossible  save  by  an  act  of  revolution,  con¬ 
firmed  full  American  citizenship  upon  the  negro,  and  forbade  all  discrimination 
in  civil  rights,  including  suffrage,  on  the  ground  of  race,  color,  or  previous  con¬ 
dition.  The  disqualification  of  great  multitudes  of  white  voters  in  these  eleven 
States,  by  reason  of  inability  to  take  the  oath  of  loyalty,  placed  the  governments 
of  several  in  the  hands  of  a  population  largely  composed  of  the  freedmen,  in  many 
cases  acting  under  irresponsible  leaders  from  their  own  and  the  Northern  States. 
Their  legislatures  were  filled  with  extemporized  statesmen,  graduated  from  the 
plantations.  The  vacant  seat  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  of  Mr.  Jefferson 
Davis,  ex-president  of  the  Confederacy,  was  occupied  by  a  colored  man,  once  a 
slave.  In  brief,  after  a  frightful  civil  war  of  arms,  in  which  3,000,000  American 
men  were  enlisted  and  which  not  only  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Southern  forces, 
but  practically  left  the  old  order  of  society  in  the  sixteen  slave  States  in  ruins,  came 
another  war  of  politics,  lasting  for  ten  years,  even  more  exasperating,  which  was 
only  arrested  by  the  returning  good  sense  and  patriotism  of  the  Northern  people; 
a  conflict  which  if  prolonged  would  have  made  republican  society  itself  an  impos¬ 
sibility  through  half  the  area  of  the  Union. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  was  buffeted  like  a  frail 
ship  amid  the  tumult  of  a  tropical  hurricane.  Its  attempted  management  of 
abandoned  and  confiscated  lands  practically  came  to  nothing  save  a  temporary 
occupation,  and,  to  some  extent,  collection  of  taxes  imposed  on  the  seceding  States 
by  Congress.  The  confiscated  lands  could  only  be  held  by  the  Government  dur¬ 
ing  the  lives  of  their  disloyal  owners,  and  by  the  end  of  the  existence  of  the  Freed¬ 
men’s  Bureau  the  policy  of  the  Government  was  clearly  indicated  to  abandon  all 
attempts  at  wrestling  with  a  problem  so  impossible  as  the  virtual  confiscation  of 
real  estate  through  half  the  Union.  The  system  of  relief  for  the  impoverished 
and  sick  was  already  on  the  edge  of  collapse  from  the  mighty  development  of  pro¬ 
ductive  industry  in  the  white  and  colored  discharged  soldiery  of  both  armies. 
The  protection  of  the  rights  of  the  emancipated  and  loyal  white  people  could  only 
be  assured  by  the  Army,  and  the  bureau  had  no  other  means  of  affording  it. 

It  was  inevitable  that  the  permanent  operations  of  an  organization  so  frail,  so 
loosely  put  together,  and  practically  with  no  effectual  power  of  enforcing  disci¬ 
pline,  would  fall  into  confusion.  Indeed,  its  first  years  demand  for  $11,000,000 
was  so  preposterous  and  so  disparaged  the  entire  arrangement  that  an  attempt  to 
reenact  the  law,  with  larger  powers,  was  defeated,  and  with  difficulty  it  was  put 
in  execution  by  general  acts  of  renewal  for  short  periods.  In  1868  all  its  functions, 
except  the  educational,  were  abolished.  A  strong  opposition  was  encountered  from 
the  Army,  which  regarded  it  as  a  rival  on  its  own  field  of  occupation.  The  story 
of  the  bureau  and  the  final  examination  of  General  Howard  and  his  leading  subordi¬ 
nate  is  familiar  to  all  interested  in  the  swift  progress  of  events  in  that  tumultuous 
period.  The  failure  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bank,  which  resulted  in  the  Uss  of  large 
sums  of  money  invested  by  the  negroes,  was  a  great  calamity,  from  the  effects  of 


442 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901,  - 


which  this  people  have  never  recovered.  The  reconstruction  policy,  which  called 
the  freedmen  to  a  great  festival  of  political  power,  made  them  forget  the  compara¬ 
tively  little  aid  that  could  be  received  from  the  bureau,  and  arrested  its  attempt 
to  control  the  opinions  and  conduct  of  a  multitude  elated  by  their  new  citizenship, 
and  too  often  acting  under  the  influence  of  incompetent  and  mischievous  leaders. 

It  was  not  from  the  lack  of  an  earnest  purpose,  a  sincere  devotion  to  the  welfare 
of  the  country,  and  a  reasonable  and  energetic  administration  of  the  missionary 
work  among  this  new  “nation  within  a  nation”  that  the  Freedmen ‘s  Bureau  was 
in  many  ways  a  failure.  It  now  seems  a  marvel  that  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  should  have  attempted  an  undertaking  so  impossible  as  the  practical 
“bringing  up”  of  5,000,000  of  emancipated  people,  living  in  contact  with  and  com¬ 
pletely  in  the  power  of  the  10,000,000  who  during  four  years  had  fought  to  hold 
them  in  perpetual  bondage,  and  who  needed  more  than  one  generation  of  sorrow¬ 
ful  experience  and  experiment  to  find  themselves  in  permanent  satisfactory  rela¬ 
tions  with  them.  The  failure  of  this  enterprise  was  far  more  valuable  as  a  lesson 
of  what  can  not  be  done  in  an  American  State  than  its  success  would  have  been; 
especially  if  it  had  demonstrated  the  possibility  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  holding  eleven  commonwealths  in  the  condition  of  conquered  provinces. 
The  fact  of  the  final  emergence  of  all  these  States  during  the  past  twenty-five 
years  from  the  terrible  confusion  in  which  they  were  left  at  the  close  of  the  civil 
war  and  their  hopeful  state  of  affairs  to-day  is  a  new  proof  of  the  wondrous  politi¬ 
cal  common  sense  of  the  American  people  that  will  forever  refute  the  predictions 
of  the  pessimist  and  fortifies  the  faith  of  the  patriot  in  the  opening  years  of  the 
second  century  of  the  nation’s  life. 

But  with  all  this  ineffectiveness,  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  during  the  five  years 
of  its  operation  was  one  of  the  most  praiseworthy  agencies  of  the  Government. 
While  it  was  unable  to  achieve  impossibilities,  it  wrought  great  positive  good 
and  prevented  untold  evil3.  No  human  organization,  though  administered  by 
angels,  could  have  entirely  carried  out  what  was  proposed  by  the  original  statute. 
As  well  might  Congress  have  legislated  against  a  northwestern  cyclone  or  a 
Mississippi  River  overflow  as  to  expect  that  a  country  as  large  as  central  Europe, 
left  in  the  condition  of  the  eleven  ex-Confederate  States  at  the  close  of  our  civil 
war,  could  be  kept  in  order  by  less  than  1,000  officials,  the  majority  drawn  from 
civil  life,  and  absolutely  dependent  on  military  support  for  the  execution  of  a 
bewildering  variety  of  duties.  In  these  eleven  States  was  concentrated  five- 
sixths  of  the  entire  negro  population  of  the  country,  in  1880 — 5,360,298,  with 
7,622,852  of  the  white  race.  In  nine  of  these  States,  in  1880,  there  were  4,563,763 
colored  and  only  5,286,784  white  people.  In  three  States — Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
and  South  Carolina — the  negro  population  was  in  considerable  excess  of  the  white. 
The  freedmen  were  practically  all  illiterate.  As  late  as  1884,  68  per  cent  of  the 
colored  voters  and  77.6  per  cent  of  the  colored  women  could  neither  read  nor  write, 
while  at  the  same  date  14.3  per  cent  of  the  white  voters  and  19.4  per  cent  of  the 
white  women  in  these  States  were  illiterate.  And  when  we  consider  the  condition 
of  a  vast  population  suddenly  arrested  in  the  midst  of  a  most  exasperating  civil 
war,  we  may  well  conceive  the  burden  cast  by  a  legislative  enactment  upon  this 
little  group  of  poorly  paid  officials,  many  of  them  living  in  daily  peril  of  their 
lives,  working  amid  a  cloud  of  dust  raised  by  the  whirlwind  of  contention  that 
raged  through  the  entire  population  of  the  North,  not  one  in  a  thousand  of  whom 
outside  the  army  of  occupation  had  any  personal  knowledge  of  Southern  affairs,  or 
any  intelligent  notion  of  the  right  thing  to  be  done  or  the  possible  way  of  doing 
it  in  the  administration  of  local  affairs  through  the  Southern  half  of  the  Union. 

The  whole  situation  could  not  be  better  described  than  in  the  final  report  of 
Commissioner-General  O.  O.  Howard — a  document  that  should  be  read  by  every 
person  wlm  proposes  to  form  a  correct  judgment  on  the  state  of  Southern  public 
affairs  at  the  time  when  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  went  into  operation.  Less  than 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


443 


a  month  after  the  passage  of  the  act  the  President  of  the  United  States  was  assas¬ 
sinated,  and  the  war  suddenly  came  to  an  end  with  a  crash  that  resounded  through 
the  civilized  world.  Says  General  Howard:  “In  every  State  many  thousands  of 
the  freedmen  were  found  without  employment,  without  homes,  without  means  of 
support,  wandering  into  towns  and  about  military  posts  where  they  could  find 
protection  and  be  kept  alive.  The  sudden  collapse  of  the  rebellion,  making 
emancipation  an  actual  fact,  was  like  an  earthquake.  It  shook  and  shattered 
the  whole  social  system.  It  broke  up  the  old  industries  and  threatened  a  reign  of 
anarchy.  Even  the  well-disposed  and  humane  landowners  were  at  a  loss  what 
to  do  or  where  to  begin  the  work  of  reorganizing  society  and  of  rebuilding  their 
ruined  fortunes.  Very  few  had  any  knowledge  of  free  labor,  or  any  hope  that 
their  former  slaves  would  serve  them  faithfully  for  wages.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  freed  people  were  in  a  state  of  great  excitement  and  uncertainty.  They 
could  hardly  believe  that  the  liberty  proclaimed  was  real  and  permanent.  Many 
were  afraid  to  remain  on  the  same  soil  they  had  tilled  as  slaves,  lest  by  some  trick 
they  might  find  themselves  again  in  bondage.  Others  supposed  that  the  Govern¬ 
ment  would  either  take  the  entire  supervision  of  their  labor  and  support  or  divide 
among  them  the  lands  of  the  conquered  rebels  and  furnish  them  with  all  that 
might  be  necessary  to  begin  life  as  independent  farmers.” 

The  work  of  attending  to  the  physical  wants  of  the  poor,  sick,  and  vagrant 
among  this  vast  multitude  was  in  itself  appalling.  Still,  by  cooperation  with 
the  medical  department  of  the  Army,  aided  by  a  flowing  tide  of  charity  from  the 
loyal  people  of  the  entire  Union,  a  great  work  was  done.  During  the  first  year 
of  the  operations  of  the  bureau,  1865-66,  the  death  rate  among  the  freedmen  was 
reduced  from  30  to  less  than  4  percent.  By  August,  1866,  166,000  patients  had 
been  treated  in  56  free  hospitals  and  5  orphan  asylums.  During  four  years  more 
than  half  a  million  sick  and  infirm  persons,  absolutely  dependent  on  charity,  were 
thrown  upon  the  charge  of  the  bureau.  In  1865,  148,000  people  of  both  races  were 
being  fed  and  clothed  and  sheltered  by  the  military  authorities,  and  by  the  great¬ 
est  effort  at  finding  occupation  the  number  was  gradually  reduced  at  a  large  sav¬ 
ing  of  cost  to  the  Government.  During  this  period  much  suffering  was  brought 
upon  all  the  Southern  people  from  the  failure  of  the  crops,  and  the  bureau  dis¬ 
tributed  an  appropriation  of  $500,000  made  by  Congress  for  relief;  the  average 
number  of  persons  daily  assisted  in  1867  being  31,105.  More  than  $250,000  worth 
of  clothing  was  at  different  times  distributed,  the  poorer  white  people  sharing 
equally  with  the  colored,  without  respect  to  their  former  loyalty.  The  Southern 
people  were  left  in  such  a  condition  of  general  destitution  that  little  help  could 
be  expected  from  their  own  State  governments.  Indeed,  the  entire  legislation  of 
the  year  when  President  Johnson  was  trying  the  experiment  of  reconstruction 
by  executive  edict,  reads  to-day  like  the  action  of  a  people  bereft  of  their  ordinary 
sense  under  the  influence  of  a  panic,  which  made  a  wise  and  humane  conduct  of 
public  affairs  impossible.  The  fact  that  amid  such  an  indescribable  confusion  the 
vast  majority  of  the  able-bodied  negroes  became  at  once  self-supporting  is  itself  a 
tribute  to  the  immense  practical  value  of  the  bureau  in  the  advice  and  direction  of 
these  bewildered  and  distracted  x)eople,  to  the  general  industry  of  the  majority  of 
the  colored  folk,  and  the  constant  personal  private  charity  of  the  white  population 
among  which  their  lot  was  cast. 

President  Johnson,  within  a  month  after  his  accession  to  the  Presidency,  offered 
a  wholesale  pardon  to  all  save  14  excepted  classes  of  the  Southern  people,  and  held 
out  such  an  encouragement  to  these  excepted  classes  that  24  stout  volumes  of  Gov¬ 
ernment  records  of  special  pardons  are  now  found  in  the  Department  of  State. 
He  then,  by  executive  edict,  invited  the  original  voting  population  of  all  the  "x- 
Confederate  States  to  assemble  in  conventions,  revise  their  State  constitU'  ;  ,  by 
the  recognition  of  the  freedom  of  the  slaves,  and  at  once  proceed  to  set  ap  ;  fir 
original  forms  of  State  government  and  elect  Representatives  to  Congress.  Ov 


444 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


course,  the  800,000  acres  of  abandoned  lands  thrown  upon  the  charge  of  the  Freed- 
men's  Bureau,  much  of  which  had  been  leased  to  and  cultivated  and  occupied  by  the 
negroes  and  yielding  an  annual  income  of  $400,000  were  returned  to  their  former 
owners.  By  1889  there  was  practically  no  valuable  real  estate  in  possession  of  the 
bureau.  This  policy  at  once  threw  the  5,000,000  emancipated  slaves  upon  the  charge 
of  the  Southern  people,  generally  upon  the  old  proprietors  of  the  plantations,  never 
more  than  2.000,000  of  the  7,000,000  white  people,  for  occupation  and  support.  The 
severe  labor  and  vagrant  laws  immediately  passed  by  the  new  legislatures  placed 
this  entire  colored  population  almost  completely  in  the  power  of  their  old  masters, 
and  although  Congress,  in  1885-66,  passed  several  laws  suspending  the  operations  of 
these  local  statutes,  and  a  year  later  abolished  all  the  new  State  governments,  yet 
the  relations  of  the  President  and  the  political  party  that  supported  him  at  the 
North  with  the  dominant  party  in  Congress  during  the  earlier  administration  of 
the  bureau  put  a  premium  upon  disorder.  Under  these  discouraging  circum¬ 
stances  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  performed  a  much  needed  work  of  reconciliation 
between  the  white  and  colored  classes  in  the  South,  and  so  completely  succeeded 
in  a  practical  reorganization  of  labor  that  in  these  States  the  negroes  raised  a  large 
proportion  of  the  food  that  supported  the  white  people,  besides  a  large  amount  of 
rice,  sugar,  and  tobacco  for  export  and  200,000  bales  of  cotton  each  year,  on  which 
was  paid  into  the  United  States  Treasury  in  1886-67  a  tax  of  more  than  $40,000,000. 
At  the  least  it  may  be  claimed  that  by  the  services  of  the  bureau  in  this  respect 
the  United  States  Government  was  saved  an  amount  equal  to  the  $13,000,000,  which 
was  the  entire  sum  expended  by  the  organization  during  the  five  years  of  its 
existence. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  also  that  a  good  work  was  accomplished  by  the  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  in  the  administration  of  justice.  Until  the  passage  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  and  fifteenth  amendments  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  the 
negro,  under  the  edict  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  was  not  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  had  no  reliable  standing  in  the  courts  of  the  South 
and,  while  in  many  districts  exposed  to  constant  bodily  peril  and  impositions, 
in  all  his  dealings  he  had  little  chance  of  gaining  redress  by  appeal  to  legal  proc¬ 
ess.  The  soldiers  and  sailors  who  with  their  families  numbered  a  full  half  mil¬ 
lion  of  these  people  were  in  constant  “peril  among  false  brethren”  from  the 
infamous  crew  of  land  sharks  that  stood  between  the  National  Government  and 
the  claims  of  this  class  for  service.  While  continually  looking  for  the  return  to 
peaceful  methods  of  redress  for  injuries  through  the  ordinary  agencies  of  justice, 
the  excited  condition  of  the  people  left  whole  States  bordering  upon  anarchy. 
While  the  plantation  class,  who  were  the  greatest  sufferers,  were  by  disposition 
and  interest  inclined  to  deal  with  their  laborers  with  commendable  fairness,  the 
Southern  country  was  thronged  by  gangs  of  ruffians  who  defied  law  and  order  and 
especially  vented  their  rage  on  the  unoffending  freedmen.  The  Army  could  not 
well  operate  beyond  the  narrow  limits  of  its  local  points  of  occupation,  and  much 
that  was  accomplished  was  the  work  of  the  agents  of  the  bureau. 

But,  in  the  language  of  Commissioner  Howard,  “the  most  urgent  want  of  the 
freedmen  was  education,  and,  from  the  first,  I  have  directed  more  attention  to  this 
than  to  any  other  branch  of  my  work.  ”  During  the  last  two  years  of  its  active  oper- 
tion  the  work  of  the  bureau  was  by  law  limited  to  the  care  of  the  schools.  And 
it  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  value  of  what  was  accomplished  in  this  direction 
during  its  entire  administration.  Previous  to  1885  a  great  deal,  as  already  shown, 
was  accomplished  by  the  various  organizations  from  the  North  and  the  efforts  of 
the  Government  through  the  military  authorities.  For  a  brief  time  in  Louisiana, 
under  the  administration  of  General  Banks,  a  system  of  schools  for  the  freedmen 
vm  j  maintained  by  the  taxing  of  the  employers  of  their  labor.  The  Freedmen *s 
Bureau  utilized  the  services  of  all  the  most  experienced  workers,  General  Saxton, 
Gmeral  Eaton,  General  Armstrong,  General  Fisk,  Superintendent  Alvord,  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


445 


others— and  by  its  appointment  of  a  superintendent  of  education  in  each  State, 
and  subordinate  agents  in  all  districts  of  the  country  did  much  to  bring  order  and 
a  good  method  into  the  school  work  and  restrain  wasteful  and  misdirected  activity. 
While  compelled  to  work  with  sparse  appropriations  for  education  from  Congress, 
the  Government  did,  indirectly,  in  many  ways  contribute  largely  to  this  funda¬ 
mental  work  of  laying  the  foundations  of  a  true  American  civilization  on  the 
ruins  of  the  old-time  local  and  aristocratic  order. 

During  the  first  seventy-five  years  of  the  national  life,  including  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  period,  the  South  had  been  a  great  contributor  to  the  upbuilding  of  the 
Union.  First,  through  the  contribution  of  a  group  of  remarkable  statesmen  and 
the  mighty  leadership  of  Washington,  it  identified  itself  forever  with  the  begin¬ 
nings  of  republican  government.  Second,  by  its  statesmanlike  and  patriotic  policy 
of  placing  the  entire  domain  of  the  original  Northwest  in  charge  of  the  National 
Government  and  cooperating  in  the  dedication  of  one  thirty-sixth  of  it  to  the 
schooling  of  the  children  and  youth  of  the  new  States,  even  to  the  neglect  of 
the  six  original  Southern  Atlantic  States  in  a  munificent  distribution  of  educa¬ 
tional  lands.  Third,  it  was  under  the  far-sighted  administration  of  a  Southern 
President,  Thomas  Jefferson,  that  the  purchase  of  the  immense  Louisiana  Terri¬ 
tory  from  France,  which  extended  the  area  of  the  Republic  to  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains  in  the  Northwest,  was  accomplished.  Fourth,  the  series  of  operations, 
including  the  annexation  of  the  Republic  of  Texas  to  the  Union,  the  Mexican 
war,  and  the  acquisition  of  the  magnificent  Pacific  coast  empire  were  largely  the 
result  of  Southern  statesmanship,  in  the  face  of  constant  protests,  especially  from 
the  N ortheast.  The  previous  acquirement  of  Florida  gave  to  the  Union  a  significant 
outstretched  finger  pointing  to  the  West  Indies.  And  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  the  two  most  powerful  States  of  the  southwestern  border,  besides  Maryland, 
Delaware,  and  the  new  State  of  West  Virginia,  never  revolted  from  the  Union,  and 
furnished  to  its  armies  a  larger  body  of  effective  fighting  men  than  had  ever  been 
marshaled  on  the  Western  Continent,  including  a  group  of  the  most  distinguished 
commanders  in  the  National  Army  and  Navy. 

The  future  historian  will  add  to  this  distinguished  record  the  prodigious  service 
rendered  popular  education  by  the  hearty  cooperation  of  the  great  Southern  states¬ 
men  of  the  Revolutionary  period  in  the  dedication  of  the  first  national  land  grant 
for  universal  education,  a  proposition  originating  from  the  Virginia  group  of  the 
fathers  and  more  and  more  coming  to  be  regarded  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
the  contributions  of  this  body  of  great  men  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  American 
people.  The  indirect  influence  of  the  educational  scheme  of  Thomas  Jefferson  has 
never  been  fully  understood,  even  in  the  South.  First,  it  originated  the  movement 
of  the  common  school  in  the  Southern  States,  which,  during  the  eighty  years  from 
Yorktown  to  Appomattox,  made  persistent  headway  in  the  development  of  an 
influential  educational  public,  including  large  numbers  of  the  foremost  men  of  all 
these  States,  which  demonstrated  its  power  in  repeated  efforts  to  establish  the 
common  school  for  the  white  population.  In  1860  three  of  these  States  had  on  the 
ground  a  proper  common  school,  and  a  dozen  of  the  leading  cities  of  the  section 
were  in  accord  with  similar  communities  in  the  North  in  the  support  of  the  system. 
During  this  period,  following  the  lead  of  Virginia,  anticipated  by  North  Carolina 
and  Maryland,  the  majority  of  these  States  had  established  the  State  university, 
which  is  the  crown  of  the  common-school  system.  The  University  of  Virginia 
was  largely  influential  through  its  unsectarian  and  broad  scheme  of  organization 
in  giving  the  initiative  to  the  State  universities  of  the  Western  and  Pacific  States. 
Meanwhile,  a  most  valuable  educational  literature,  really  the  best  Southern  con¬ 
tribution  to  the  national  literature,  had  been  developed  during  these  years,  which 
the  younger  school  men  of  the  South  are  now  engaged  in  editing  and  introducing 
to  its  proper  place  in  the  national  libraries  at  Washington. 

The  historian  will  not  fail  to  do  ample  justice  to  the  great  service  rendered  by 


446 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

the  North  and  the  nation  to  the  complete  realization  of  the  American  idea  of  uni¬ 
versal  education  by  the  opening  of  the  great  front  door  of  the  common  school- 
house  to  the  admission  of  one- tenth  the  entire  number  of  American  children  and 
youth,  the  descendants  of  the  5,000,000  negro  slaves  emancipated  by  the  civil 
war.  This  work,  not  only  under  the  direction  of  the  National  Government  but 
still  continued  through  the  agency  of  the  Northern  churches  and  private  contribu¬ 
tions,  forms  one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of  American  edu¬ 
cation.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  was  not  the  North  nor  the  nation 
but  the  South,  acting  through  the  ordinary  channels  of  State,  municipal,  and  rural 
legislation  and  administration,  that  completed  the  great  circle  of  the  American 
system  by  everywhere  admitting  the  children  of  the  freedmen  to  equal  oppor¬ 
tunities  in  the  common  school  as  early  as  1875.  The  story  of  the  treatment  of  the 
negro  child  and  youth,  even  later  than  this  date,  in  several  of  the  States,  as  far  as 
relates  to  educational  opportunity  and  encouragement,  is  not  one  on  which  even 
the  most  enthusiastic  educator  of  this  section  is  anxious  to  dilate.  And  whatever 
may  have  been  the  influence  of  Northern  educational  effort  in  these  States  since 
the  war,  it  can  not  be  compared  with  the  prodigious  significance  of  the  action  of 
all  these  States  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  in  building  up  that  side  of  the 
American  common  school  which  is  the  final  demonstration  to  the  world  of  the 
possibility  of  the  education  for  responsible  citizenship  of  every  order  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  human  race. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here,  at  the  close  of  the  record  of  the  proper  national 
work  in  the  preliminary  stages  of  the  elementary  schooling  of  the  negro  during 
the  fifteen  years  from  1860  to  1875,  to  place  before  the  reader  a  late  official  state¬ 
ment  of  the  present  condition  of  common  schools  for  the  colored  race  in  the 
majority  of  the  Southern  States,  by  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  general  agent  of  the  Pea¬ 
body  and  Slater  educational  funds,  in  his  report  of  the  latter  for  1898.  Referring 
to  what  has  been  accomplished  by  the  South  in  this  respect,  after  ample  justice 
done  to  the  previous  efforts  of  the  North  and  the  nation,  the  Doctor  says: 

At  immense  cost,  considering  their  diminished  resources,  have  these  States 
undertaken  and  partially  accomplished  this  Herculean  task.  To  illustrate  the 
burden  and  patriotism  of  the  school  system,  examples  may  by  cited.  North  Caro¬ 
lina  paid  last  year  for  education  of  white  children  in  public  schools  $473,466  and 
for  the  negro  children  $246,946.  Of  taxes  on  real  and  personal  property  for  schools, 
the  whites  paid  $402,839  and  the  negroes  $14,748.  Of  the  taxable  values  in  the 
State,  the  negroes  own  $880,074,  which  is  about  one  twenty-ninth  of  the  whole. 
In  the  State,  the  negroes  of  school  age  are  211,519;  attending  school,  131,404.  The 
school  law  requires  the  terms  of  all  public  schools  to  be  as  nearly  as  possible  of 
the  same  length  without  regard  to  race,  and  the  average  school  term  of  the  whole 
State  is  10.86  weeks.  This  does  not  apply  to  schools  sustained  in  part  by  local 
taxation.  The  number  of  negro  teachers  is  1,652,  with  an  average  salary  per 
month  of  $23.68.  In  Florida  the  negroes  of  school  age  (6  to  21)  are  66,402,  of 
whom  39,502  were  enrolled,  with  an  average  attendance  of  25,854.  The  expendi¬ 
ture  for  negro  schools  in  1896  was  $153,292,  State  funds  being  apportioned  to  the 
counties  on  the  basis  of  average  attendance  without  regard  .to  race.  Average 
length  of  session  in  1897  was  98  days.  Negro  teachers,  642,  with  an  average  sal¬ 
ary  per  month  of  $29.50.  Total  value  of  negro  school  property,  $117,845.  The 
State  Normal  School,  well  equipped,  with  over  200  colored  pupils,  is  provided  for 
by  the  State,  independently  of  public-school  funds.  In  South  Carolina  there  is 
no  school  census  of  children  (6  to  21),  but  the  United  States  census  shows  (5  to 
20)  313,249,  of  whom  139,156  were  enrolled.  The  teachers  numbered  2,025,  with 
an  average  salary  of  $18.90  per  month.  The  schoolhouses  numbered  1,766,  of 
which  972  were  owned  by  the  State,  with  a  value  of  $116,156.  The  average  length 
of  session  was  3.84  months.  The  expenditure  for  negro  schools,  $175,374.  The 
State  has  an  agricultural  and  industrial  college  at  Orangeburg  with  500  students. 
The  colored  school  population  in  Virginia  (5  to  20),  268,703;  enrolled,  123,231; 
average  attendance,  68,203;  months  taught,  6.1;  teachers,  2,127:  schoolhouses, 
1,885.  The  State  has  also  a  normal  and  industrial  school  for  colored  people. 

In  Tennessee  the  negroes  of  school  age  number  182,214;  attendance,  61,744; 
teachers,  1 ,679.  The  length  of  sessions  and  pay  of  teachers  vary  in  different  locali¬ 
ties.  In  Arkansas,  negroes  of  school  age,  127,736;  in  attendance,  82,192;  average 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


447 


length  of  session,  70  days;  teachers,  1,564;  pay,  according  to  grade,  from  §15.20  to 
$23.35;  value  of  negro  schoolhouses,  $120,000.  School  funds  are  distributed 
according  to  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  without  distinction  as  to  race. 
The  negroes  of  scholastic  age  in  Texas  number  187,316;  the  average  attendance  at 
school,  139,698;  school  term,  4.45  months;  negro  teachers,  2,747;  average  compen¬ 
sation  for  school  term  is  $202.07;  value  of  negro  schoolhouses,  $607,441.50.  School 
funds  are  distributed  pro  rata  as  per  the  scholastic  census,  impartial  provision 
being  made  for  both  races,  the  schools  being  maintained  the  same  length  of  time 
each  year  for  the  two  races.  In  Alabama  the  negroes  of  school  age  (7  to  21)  are 
277,173;  in  attendance,  132,213;  general  average  of  session,  87  days;  teachers, 
2,466;  average  salary  per  month,  $20.93;  school  property  estimated  at  about  $460,000. 
There  are  two  normal  and  industrial  schools,  with  1,330  pupils.  Georgia  has 
289,9-31  negroes  of  school  age,  156,650  attending  five  months’  sessions;  3,799  teach¬ 
ers  with  average  salary  per  month  of  $21.10;  negro  schoolhouses  owned  by  county 
boards  outside  of  cities,  $9,811.  School  funds  are  distributed  per  capita.  In 
West  Virginia  the  number  of  negroes  of  school  age  is  12,528,  of  whom  7,481 
attend  school;  teachers.  233;  average  salary  per  year,  $212.49.  There  is  no  race 
distinction  in  the  distribution  of  the  State's  school  funds.  In  Mississippi,  out  of 
a  total  enrollment  of  367,579,  196,768  are  colored.  The  State  appropriates  $923,500 
for  the  maintenance  of  schools,  and  the  distribution  is  pro  rata  according  to 
enrollment.  There  are  two  normal  and  agricultural  schools,  with  State  control 
and  support.  Louisiana  reports  960  schools;  an  enrollment  of  71,609;  average 
attendance  of  49,670;  1,019  teachers;  average  school  term,  4.62  months;  average 
salary  per  month,  $23.  School  funds  are  prorated  according  to  the  number  of 
educable  youth.  There  are  76  private  schools,  with  1,757  pupils.  The  State  super¬ 
intendent  says  it  is  impossible  not  to  see  everywhere  in  Louisiana  the  great 
improvement  in  the  mental  and  moral  condition  of  the  colored  people  during  the 
last  seven  or  eight  years.  In  every  one  of  these  States,  except  Tennessee,  there 
are  normal  and  industrial  schools  sustained  from  the  public  revenues. 

It  is  only  by  a  knowledge  of  these  facts  in  the  civic  and  educational  history  of 
the  South  that  the  educational  public  at  home  and  abroad  can  comprehend  the 
great  movement  in  behalf  of  universal  education  through  all  these  16  States  dur¬ 
ing  the  past  twenty-five  years.  In  the  light  of  these  facts,  it  is  seen  that  in  edu¬ 
cation,  as  in  politics,  American  society  in  these  States  has  repeated  itself.  It  was 
through  the  colonial  experience  of  a  century  that  the  group  of  conservative 
Englishmen  who  were  thrown  especially  upon  the  colony  of  Virginia  by  the  col¬ 
lapse  of  the  Stuart  dynasty  in  England  came  forth  in  Washington  and  the  major¬ 
ity  of  his  great  compatriots  in  1776,  fully  abreast  of  the  corresponding  body  from 
radical  New  England  and  the  middle  colonies,  to  fight  their  way  out  from  Euro¬ 
pean  control  and  inaugurate  the  new  departure  of  the  ages  in  the  Government  of 
the  United  States.  In  like  manner  a  similar  class  in  every  Southern  State,  reared 
under  the  influence  and  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  actual  contact  with  the 
educational  system  of  Great  Britain  of  half  a  century  ago,  appeared  at  the  close 
of  the  civil  war  not  only  prepared  to  establish  the  common  school  for  its  own  race, 
but  also  for  the  race  that  up  to  that  date  had  nowhere  heartily  been  accepted  as 
“having  any  rights”  in  the  American  schoolroom  “that  the  white  man  was  bound 
to  respect.”  It  was  one  thing  that  in  the  majority  of  the  States  of  the  North 
even  the  small  contingent  of  colored  children  and  youth  were  not  admitted  with¬ 
out  protest  as  early  as  1860  to  equal  educational  privileges  with  the  dominant  race. 
It  was  quite  another  venture  when  the  16  former  slave  commonwealths  rose  up 
from  the  awful  calamities  of  the  greatest  civil  war  of  modern  times,  and  in  their 
poverty  assumed  for  a  full  generation  almost  the  entire  support  of  the  school¬ 
ing  of  the  freedmen,  with  probably  no  more  opposition  at  home  than  was 
encountered  in  several  of  the  most  powerful  and  wealthy  of  our  Northern  States 
in  the  final  establishment  of  the  free  common  school  not  later  than  seventy  years 
ago.  It  would  have  been  regarded  as  philanthropic  prophecy  run  mad  in  1860  had 
it  been  declared  that  within  twenty  years  the  Southern  people  would  have  estab¬ 
lished  the  entire  American  system  of  universal  education,  with  its  colored 
‘ 1  annex,”  by  placing  on  the  ground  a  system  of  free  common  schools  for  all  classes 
and  both  races  and  supporting  them  at  an  expense  of  nearly  $500,000,000,  inolud- 


448 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ing  nearly  $100,000,000  for  the  children  of  the  freedmen.  But  in  the  preliminary 
stages  of  this  great  work,  as  far  as  relates  to  the  negro,  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau 
must  be  credited  with  a  good  share  of  the  important  work  during  the  period 
immediately  following  the  close*  of  the  civil  war — the  time  of  special  peril  for  the 
cause  of  the  new  education  in  the  South.  By  its  cooperation  with  the  church  and 
private  agencies  and  the  rising  educational  public  of  the  South  as  a  Government 
bureau  it  did  a  good  work  in  helping  to  secure  the  placing  in  the  constitutions  of 
every  reconstructed  Southern  State  a  provision  for  the  common  school  as  early 
as  1875. 

The  moneys  directly  expended  during  the  five  years  of  the  administration  of 
Commissioner  Howard  probably  did  not  exceed  $3,000,000,  including  the  cost  of 
transportation  and  other  forms  of  indirect  aid,  an  amount  no  greater  than  is  now 
paid  annually  by  several  of  our  Northern  cities.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  $3,000,000 
were  ever  put  out  at  interest  in  a  way  more  remunerative  to  the  investor  since 
this  world  was  made.  By  the  method  adopted,  in  working  in  connection  with  the 
organizations  and  agencies  already  on  the  ground,  the  bureau  “was  able  to  give 
material  aid  to  all  engaged  in  the  educational  work,  to  harmonize  the  numerous 
independent  agencies  in  the  field,  and  to  assist  all  impartially.  ”  And  in  doing  this, 
as  a  governmental  agency,  it  was  not  only  a  beneficent  influence,  assisting  in  the 
reconcilement  of  sectional  and  local  jealousies  among  the  great  variety  of  associa¬ 
tions  and  individuals  concerned  in  the  movement,  but  was  all  the  time  directing 
the  attention  of  the  freedmen  and  poorer  white  iDeople  of  the  South  to  the  only 
final  source  of  supply  for  the  great  need  of  this  section — a  system  of  public  schools 
for  all  orders  and  conditions  of  its  population,  supported  and  supervised  by  the 
whole  people. 

With  all  the  zeal  and  unsurpassed  generosity  of  giving  developed  by  the  loyal 
people,  backed  by  the  consecrated  service  of  the  best  men  and  women  of  the  coun¬ 
try  as  teachers,  the  Freedmen  s  Bureau  was  never  able  to  reach  directly  more  than 
one-tenth  of  the  children  of  the  freedmen.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  during  the 
earliest  period  of  schooling  the  children  and  youth  of  the  race  their  parents  seemed 
to  have  been  more  ready  to  contribute  money  than  to-day,  when  their  circum¬ 
stances  are  so  much  improved.  In  the  year  1869  it  is  estimated  that  out  of  their 
little  store  the  freedmen  paid  $200,000  for  school  buildings  and  the  support  of 
teachers.  Many  of  the  schools  in  the  rural  districts  were  entirely  supported  in 
this  way.  The  wide  dispersion  of  the  service  of  the  bureau  practically  covered 
the  beginnings  of  education  for  the  colored  people  through  the  entire  area  of  the 
South,  as  the  border  States  that  remained  in  the  Union — Maryland,  Delaware, 
"West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri — were  included  in  its  field  of  operation. 
It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  indirect  effect  of  such  a  movement  on  the  entire 
body  of  more  than  5,000,000  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  this  race  introduced 
to  the  education  that  comes  from  the  contact  with  letters  and  schools. 

It  was  greatly  owing  to  the  influence  of  these  teachers  and  the  contact  with  the 
more  intelligent  soldiers  during  the  war  that  the  negroes  seem  at  once  to  have 
taken  up  the  idea  that  school  education  was  the  great  lever  by  which  their  people 
were  to  be  lifted  to  prosperity,  power,  and  competent  citizenship.  There  was  lit¬ 
tle  just  then  to  awaken  or  encourage  this  notion  among  the  people  of  the  South. 
The  old  prejudice  against  schooling  any  laboring  class  was  still  very  powerf  ul  and 
for  several  years  greatly  interfered  with  the  efforts  that  were  made.  But  during 
the  five  years  that  preceded  the  final  reconstruction  of  these  States  and  their 
permanent  reincorporation  into  the  Union  so  much  was  done  that  the  colored 
people  in  every  State  for  several  years,  in  some  of  them  the  more  numerous  voting 
class,  insisted  on  a  public  provision  for  general  education.  This,  of  course, 
brought  with  it  the  same  demand  from  the  masses  of  the  white  people,  a  consider¬ 
able  portion  of  whom  were  virtually  in  a  state  of  illiteracy.  And  with  all  the 
events  of  this  period  of  reckless  experimenting  with  their  new-found  citizenship, 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1876. 


449^ 


there  is  little  doubt  that  in  this  helping  to  “force  the  fight”  for  the  common* 
school  and  place  on  the  ground  a  State  system  of  public  instruction,  the  negro- 
conferred  a  benefit  on  the  South  that  far  exceeded  the  losses  of  the  vexed  period* 
of  reconstruction,  of  which  so  much  is  yet  said  with  a  great  deal  of  exaggeration, 

And  it  is  morally  certain  that  without  the  cooperation  and  material  aid  of  the* 
Freedmen's  Bureau  it  would  have  been  impossible  that  the  generous  provision  for 
the  secondary,  higher,  and  professional  training  of  superior  colored  youth,  w^ich 
contributes  such  an  important  element  to  the  education  of  the  colored  race,  could' 
have  been  made,  at  least  without  postponement  for  many  years.  It  was  the  aid5 
extended  by  this  friendly  agency  that  first  placed  the  Hampton  Normal  and  In¬ 
dustrial  Institute  on  its  foundations  and  called  Gen.  S.  C.  Armstrong  to  its- 
presidency.  The  Howard  University  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  was  another  of  its- 
early  beneficiaries.  Nearly  all  of  the  twenty  or  more  of  the  “colleges”  and- 
“  universities  ”  for  colored  students  now  in  operation  and  still  largely  supported 
by  Northern  beneficence,  date  from  the  period  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  and  but5' 
for  its  timely  aid  would  probably  never  have  been  considered  possible.  The  riser 
of  these  schools  and  the  demonstration  made  in  them  by  a  generation  of  training 
in  the  secondary,  higher,  and  professional  departments  of  instruction,  especially 
in  the  preparation  for  teaching,  has  largely  influenced  all  the  States  of  the  South; 
in  extending  their  system  of  common  schooling  for  colored  youth  beyond  the  ele¬ 
mentary  grade,  even  doing  what  the  British  Parliament  still  refuses  to  do  for  the- 
children  of  British  subjects,  including  the  free  high,  the  State  normal,  and  the- 
industrial  departments  with  the  beginnings  of  the  higher  education  in  its  superior- 
schools. 

During  the  existence  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  the  Peabody  education  fundi 
was  organized  by  the  gift  of  $3,000,000  from  George  Peabody  and  the  appointment, 
of  Dr.  Barnas  Sears,  the  successor  of  Horace  Mann  in  the  superintendency  of  pub¬ 
lic  instruction  in  Massachusetts,  and  for  many  years  a  distinguished  educator  in? 
the  collegiate  and  theological  seminaries  of  New  England,  as  its  general  agents 
Dr.  Sears  took  up  his  residence  in  Staunton,  Va, ,  and  gave  the  last  twelve  years  • 
of  his  life  to  this  work,  which  more  than  the  efforts  of  any  one  man  or  group  of 
men  or  institutions  supported  from  the  North  made  the  present  condition  of  popu¬ 
lar  education  in  these  States  a  possibility.  Dr.  Sears  at  once  put  himself  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  and  freely  utilized  the  organization  in  doing* 
the  preliminary  work  of  his  great  mission.  Indeed,  the  public  schools  that  were 
supported  or  substantially  aided  by  the  Peabody  fund  were,  for  a  time,  nearly  all 
that  were  in  operation  in  the  Southern  States. 

The  entire  system  of  school  education,  private,  denominational,  and  public,  exist¬ 
ing  in  the  eleven  ex-Confederate  States  before  the  war  went  down  in  the  general 
wreck  of  the  Confederacy.  With  the  exception  of  the  schools  of  a  few  cities  and  some 
institutions  of  a  superior  grade,  there  was  little  that  deserved  the  name  of  a  general 
system  of  schooling  in  the  South  during  the  ten  years  between  1860  and  1870.  The 
Peabody  educational  fund,  under  the  wise  and  inspiring  administration  of  Dr.  Sears,, 
touched  to  a  new  life  many  of  the  feeble  beginnings  of  the  common  schools  and5 
supplemented  the  work  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  for  the  colored  folk.  Its  super¬ 
vision  of  education  for  this  race  in  all  these  States  aided  materially  by  advice  and 
active  cooperation  in  dispensing  the  limited  means  of  the  Peabody  fund  in  the- 
hands  of  Dr.  Sears.  And  it  was  a  great  point  gained  that  while  the  bureau 
representing  the  National  Government  was  operating  so  largely  on  the  line  of 
establishing  the  common  school  for  the  negroes,  the  Peabody  fund  concentrated 
its  work  entirely  upon  the  upbuilding  of  public  education  for  all  children,  and 
later  especially  directed  attention  to  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  common? 
schools  of  both  races. 

When  the  complete  history  of  this  period  of  fifteen  years,  from  the  opening  of 
the  civil  war  to  the  final  return  to  political  power  of  the  Southern  people  in  1876* 
EH  1901 - 29 


450 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


is  written  it  will  be  seen  that  in  no  manner  has  the  good  Providence  in  the  soul 
of  calamity  been  so  manifested  to  the  South  as  by  the  early  participation  in  the 
education,  especially  of  the  emancipated  slaves,  of  the  G  overnment  of  the  United 
States  and  the  loyal  people  of  the  North.  We  already  have  shown,  without  fear 
of  contradiction,  that  it  was  this  great  movement  that  at  once  decided  the  attitude 
of  the  Southern  people  of  both  races  and  ail  classes  in  regard  to  the  common 
school,  and  even  amid  the  tumults  of  war  brought  the  schoolmaster  and  school¬ 
mistress  to  the  front  as  the  final  reconciler  of  all  classes  and  sects  and  both  races, 
in  the  hostile  section  of  the  Union.  By  the  expenditure  during  these  years 
of  probably  $50,000,000  and  the  immediate  direction  of  a  cooperation  with 
the  teachers  in  their  work  to  combine  instruction  in  letters  with  the  training  in 
good  morals,  free  labor,  and  competent  citizenship,  it  called  the  attention  of  the 
ruling  Southern  classes,  especially  the  planters  and  superior  people,  to  the  plain 
facts  of  the  situation.  Under  this  influence  and  the  improved  method  in  the 
educational  training  of  children,  the  public  school  party,  that  had  been  growing 
stronger  during  the  entire  previous  generation  in  the  South,  was  able  to  take 
advantage  of  the  situation  and  compel  the  adoption  of  this  as  the  only  practical 
expedient  for  the  general  enlightenment.  Of  this  movement  for  the  uplifting  of 
the  younger  classes  during  the  civil  war  of  which  we  have  now  written,  the 
Freedmen’s  Bureau  could  say  with  truth:  “  All  of  which  I  saw  and  part  of  which 
I  was.”  The  influence  of  public  schooling  is  perhaps  even  more  powerful  and 
far-reaching  in  awakening  the  desire  for  improvement  and  progress  among  the 
masses  of  an  illiterate  people  than  in  the  immediate  effect  of  the  knowledge  and 
mental  and  moral  discipline  imparted  to  any  one  generation  of  children  and 
youth. 

The  pessimistic  cultivated  critic  may  look  with  indifference  or  open  contempt 
upon  the  apparently  slight  result  of  the  schooling  of  the  colored  and  humbler  white 
people  of  the  South  during  these  fifteen  years  of  the  war  and  reconstruction,  but 
when  he  declares  that  the  result  of  this  was,  and  continues  to  be,  the  educating  of 
several  millions  of  people  “above  their  sphere  in  life,”  he  gives  away  his  entire 
argument.  For  it  is  just  this,  the  filling  of  the  souls  of  every  new  generation  of 
American  youth  with  a  deep  discontent  of  the  condition  into  which  they  were 
born  and  a  restless  aspiration  for  a  better  and  grander  life  than  has  yet  been  real¬ 
ized  by  the  fathers,  that  popular  institutions  are  maintained  and  American 
society  is  replenished,  reenforced,  and  strengthened  to  bear  the  increasing  bur¬ 
dens  that  must  be  shouldered  by  every  new  generation  as  the  years  go  on.  During 
the  past  one  hundred  years  of  the  national  life  the  negro  population  increased 
from  700,000  in  1790  to  7,000,000  in  1890.  With  no  desire  to  undervalue  the 
remarkable  development  of  the  colored  race  during  its  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
of  American  slavery  it  can  truly  be  said  that  the  thirty  years  of  schooling,  with 
all  that  goes  therewith,  since  1865  have  done  more  for  the  general  awakening  and 
informing  of  this  people  than  any  or  all  other  human  influences. 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  social  and  political  opportunities  offered  to 
these  people  have  yet  been  realized  to  the  complete  satisfaction  of  those  who  gave 
the  earnings  of  a  generation  and  the  lives  of  half  a  million  that  liberty  might  be 
“  proclaimed  throughout  the  land  to  all  the  inhabitants  thereof.”  But  one  of  the 
most  competent  observers  and  broad-minded  educators  and  religious  thinkers  of 
this  entire  Southern  region,  the  late  Bishop  Atticus  Haygood,  writes  concerning 
the  great  experiment  of  educating  the  negro  as  early  as  1884.  After  such  words 
as  the  following  from  such  an  eminent  source,  we  may  believe  that  here  has  been 
realized  a  success  that  is  the  prophecy  of  things  prepared  in  the  providence  of 
God  for  this  race  of  people  through  all  the  centuries  to  come. 

Says  Dr.  Haygood,  in  one  of  the  early  reports  of  his  secretaryship  of  the  Slater 
education  fund,  in  1884:  “The  colored  schools  are  in  every  respect  better  than  was 
reasonably  expected,  when  the  experiment  began,  to  be  seen  in  twice  twenty  years. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1816. 


451 


*  *  *  The  colored  race  in  schools  is  capable  of  furnishing  its  own  teachers. 

*  *  *  No  amount  of  money,  no  perfection  of  method,  no  expenditure  of 
energy  can  at  once  or  within  a  generation  or  two  or  three  generations  surmount 
the  difficulties  that  inhere  in  the  heredities  and  the  social  conditions  that  make 
the  case  of  the  negro  in  the  Southern  States  what  it  is.  *  *  *  The  right  prin¬ 
ciple  of  action,  when  a  great  and  necessary  work  is  to  be  done,  and  it  is  not  only 
difficult  but  of  such  a  nature  that  it  must  take  a  long  time  to  accomplish  it,  and 
it  is  so  connected  with  the  very  roots  of  social  order  and  progress  that  failure 
means  disaster,  is  that  the  sooner  the  work  is  begun  and  the  more  earnestly  it  is 
pressed  the  better  for  all  concerned.”  He  freely  speaks  of  the  educational  ques¬ 
tion  connected  with  the  negro  as  “a  problem  without  a  mystery,”  and  continues, 
“in  no  possible  sense  has  the  great  effort  at  educating  the  negro  been  a  failure. 
It  has,  judged  by  any  vital  test,  been  a  marvelous  success.  There  is  no  mystery 
apparent  in  the  education  of  the  negro  race  if  the  work  is  ever  done  as  the  best 
of  teachers  of  both  races  agree  that  it  be  done.  The  time  must  come  when  the 
Southern  white  people  cordially  can  cooperate  in  the  work.  It  would  be  as  easy 
to  develop  a  colony  into  a  great  State  by  immigration  alone  in  a  country  without 
births  as  to  permanently  establish  and  successfully  conduct  a  great  educational 
work  by  supplies  from  abroad.  The  interest  of  the  white  people  in  making  the 
negro  a  good  citizen  is  only  less  than  the  interest  of  the  negro  in  his  own  elevation.” 

But  the  educational  work  now  briefly  described  among  the  freedmen,  for  the 
ten  years  following  the  election  of  Abraham  Lincoln  to  the  Presidency  and  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  was  only  the  first  step  in  the  great  experiment  of  the 
establishment  of  the  American  system  of  universal  education  in  all  the  States  of 
the  South,  which  is  the  theme  of  the  present  essay.  The  next  step  in  the  great 
civic  and  social  drama  enacted  during  the  momentous  thirty  past  years  was  the 
introduction  of  the  freedmen  to  complete  political  citizenship  by  the  final  scheme 
of  reconstruction,  from  1869  to  1876.  The  last  of  these  seceding  States  of  1861, 
with  every  Southern  State  that  had  hitherto  neglected  to  make  a  distinct  recogni¬ 
tion  of  and  provision  for  the  common  school,  joined  the  remaining  States  of  the 
Union  by  placing  a  decided  and  elaborate  article  in  its  fundamental  law  adopting 
the  entire  scheme  of  American  universal  education.  Beginning  with  the  new 
State  of  West  Virginia,  in  1863,  this  great  act  was  completed  only  by  the  final 
acceptance  of  all  the  late  ex-Confederate  States  of  the  terms  of  political  recon¬ 
struction  in  1870. 

The  Peabody  Education  Fund. 

But  all  this  placing  of  elaborate  provisions  for  the  establishment  of  the  common 
school  in  the  constitutions  of  the  reconstructed  States  of  the  South,  completed  by 
18.70,  and  the  immediate  passage  of  public-school  laws  and  the  action  of  the  State 
governments  during  the  following  troubled  six  years,  might  have  failed  to  realize 
their  intention  had  not  the  good  providence  that,  from  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
in  1861  up  to  the  present  day,  has  served  to  keep  watch  and  ward  over  the  3,000,000 
children  and  youth  of  these  16  States,  put  it  into  the  hearts  of  many  good  men  and 
women,  the  Government  of  the  United  States  and  the  churches  of  the  North,  to 
retain  a  deep  and  fruitful  interest  in  their  educational  welfare.  It  would  be  a 
great  injustice  to  these  influences  and  agencies  from  without  and  an  inexcusable 
lapse  in  the  correct  history  of  the  common  schools  in  the  South  during  this  critical 
period,  of  the  last  thirty  years  to  omit  at  least  a  sketch  of  this  remarkable  series  of 
cooperative  movements,  several  of  which  are  still  in  full  activity,  and  all  now  fully 
recognized  by  the  competent  educators  of  that  section  as  legitimate  and  praise¬ 
worthy  in  their  bestowal  and  honorable  in  their  reception. 

The  first  of  these,  which  even  anticipated  the  establishment  of  the  common-school 
systems  in  the  ex-Confederate  States  during  the  ten  years  of  the  final  period  of 
reconstruction,  was  the  Peabody  education  fund.  The  publication  of  the  admi¬ 
rable  volume  narrating  the  complete  history  of  the  inception  and  development  of 


452 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


this,  one  of  the  most  unique  and  successful  charities  recorded  in  modern  history, 
by  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  the  distinguished  general  agent  of  this  and  the  John  F. 
Slater  education  fund  for  the  colored  race,  with  an  elaborate  memorial  paper  on 
the  life  of  Hon.  Robert  Charles  Winthrop,  the  president  of  the  board  of  Peabody 
trustees  until  his  death,  published  in  the  Report  of  the  national  Bureau  of  Educa¬ 
tion  for  1893-94  by  the  author  of  this  essay,  relieves  this  historical  record  from  the 
necessity  of  a  detailed  account  of  its  great  achievement  through  the  thirty  years 
from  1867  to  1897.  Tet  so  intimately  connected  is  the  Peabody  education  fund 
with  all  that  was  done,  especially  through  the  critical  years  of  the  establishment 
of  the  common-school  system  in  these  11  States,  that  some  account  of  its  opera¬ 
tions  is  absolutely  necessary  to  a  correct  understanding  of  Southern  educational 
affairs. 

To  appreciate  the  necessity  for  the  appearance  of  some  new  agency,  sufficiently 
powerful  and  attractive  to  the  more  influential  class  of  the  Southern  people  through 
them  to  lift  and  hold  the  attention  of  the  entire  section  above  the  tumults  and  con¬ 
tentions  of  public  and  the  discouragements  and  exasperations  of  private  life,  until 
a  permanent  foundation  had  been  laid  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
South,  we  have  only  to  turn  to  the  impressive  words  of  the  author  of  this  volume. 
Says  Dr.  Curry:  “At  the  origin  of  the  fund  not  a  single  Southern  State  within  the 
field  of  its  operations  had  a  system  of  free  public  schools,  and  only  in  a  few  cities 
were  an y  such  schools  to  be  found.  No  State  organization  existed  through  which 
this  fund  could  reach  the  people.  The  illiteracy  of  the  inhabitants  was  appalling, 
and  by  no  means  was  confined  to  the  freedmen,  but  included  a  large  per  cent  of 
the  white  population.  *  *  *  The  legislatures  of  these  States,  during  the  period 
of  reconstruction,  largely  under  the  influence  of  members  from  Northern  States, 
where  the  common  schools  had  been  for  years  a  recognized  institution,  and  of  col¬ 
ored  representatives  who  were  filled  with  a  laudable  ambition  for  the  schooling  of 
the  children  of  their  own  people,  had  laid  out  a  work  entirely  and  sometimes 
absurdly  beyond  the  ability  of  their  people  to  sustain.  For  the  support  of  this 
scheme  was  to  fall  upon  the  native  white  people,  who  held  90  per  cent  of  the  remain¬ 
ing  property  of  these  Commonwealths.  During  the  war  and  the  five  years  follow¬ 
ing — 1860  to  1870 — the  property  values  of  these  States  had  diminished  to  the  extent 
of  nearly  $2,000,000,000.  There  were  in  the  ex-Confederate  States  2,000,000  chil¬ 
dren  and  youth  within  the  years  of  instruction.”  And  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  outbreak  of  the  war  had  practically  closed  the  schools  of  the  States  engaged 
in  it,  even  largely  affecting  those  of  the  five  border  States  which  remained  in  the 
Union.  Probably  an  entire  generation  of  Southern  children  had  come  up  during 
this  period  with  the  most  meager  opportunity  for  obtaining  even  the  elements  of 
schooling.  Children  of  the  superior  class,  left  at  home  during  the  four  years  of 
conflict  with  the  negroes  and  the  women,  in  the  condition  of  fearful  excitement 
and  apprehension  that  involved  every  Southern  home  during  these  terrible  years 
of  clouds  and  darkness,  must  have  often  been  neglected.  A  great  deal  that  is  now 
recognized  and  deplored  as  the  shadow  side  of  life  in  some  of  these  States  is  the* 
direct  result  of  the  enforced  absence  of  proper  home,  school,  and  church  influences 
upon  this  generation,  now  the  people  of  the  most  active  age  in  the  management 
of  private  and  public  Southern  affairs. 

Well  does  Dr.  Curry  say: 

In  the  effort  to  organize  and  put  in  successful  operation  a  new  and  untried  sys¬ 
tem  of  public  schools  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  entire  population,  the  Southern 
States  were  under  a  weight  of  debt  beyond  their  ability  in  their  impoverished  con¬ 
dition  to  pay.  To  add  the  expense  of  free  education  to  this  crushing  weight  was, 
in  their  financial  condition,  a  perplexing  and  almost  impossible  task.  Free 
schooling  was  a  new  question,  introduced  and  to  be  administered  by  novices  in 
this  work.  To  organize  the  freedmen — the  equality  of  citizenship  of  a  large  class, 
lately  the  slaves  of  the  white  people — was  not  easy,  because  in  conflict  with  the 
traditions,  prejudices,  social  customs,  and  legal  rights  of  a  few  years  preceding. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1871 


453 


To  impose  voluntary  heavy  burdens  on  the  scant  property  which  survived  the 
demoralization  of  the  war  so  as  to  educate  gratuitously  their  own  children  and 
the  children  of  the  late  African  slaves,  was  a  test  of  patriotism,  of  humanity,  of 
civic  duty  which  no  other  people  ever  encountered.  *  *  *  These  States  cour¬ 
ageously  undertook  the  work,  levied  taxes  on  property,  more  than  90  per  cent  of 
which  belonged  to  the  white  citizens,  for  the  establishment  of  a  dual  system  of 
schools,  giving  like  and  equal  advantages  to  both  races;  and  there  was,  of  con¬ 
sequence,  a  muttering  of  discontent,  a  complaint  of  overtaxation,  a  controversy 
upon  the  efficiency  of  inchoate  schemes,  and  efforts  to  overthrow  the  education 
which  was  unfamiliar  to  teachers  and  people. 

To  further  complicate  the  situation,  the  agencies  which  had  wrought  for  the 
promotion  of  order,  industry,  and  intelligence,  especially  among  the  emancipated 
negroes  during  the  progress  of  the  war,  had  been  withdrawn  or  were  acting 
against  an  almost  insurmountable  resistance  from  a  large  class  of  the  Southern 
people.  The  Army  was  still  present  in  its  most  exasperating  relation,  sufficient 
to  be  a  constant  source  of  popular  irritation,  but  not  strong  enough  in  numbers 
to  protect  anybody  outside  of  a  military  post.  The  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  through 
its  educational  operations,  was  regarded  rather  as  an  officious  agency  from  without 
than  an  ally  of  the  home  educational  public,  and  at  best  would  only  look  to  the 
reconstructed  State  governments  regarded  as  usurpations  for  the  aid  and  comfort- 
necessary  to  its  effective  action.  It  is  drubtful  if  any  demonstration,  however 
patriotic,  conciliatory,  and  powerful  for  good,  made  from  the  North  or  the  nation 
would  have  met  a  response  in  a  condition,  now  well  appreciated,  but  then  regarded 
by  the  loyal  people  of  the  country  as  an  unreasonable  and  almost  treasonable  pro¬ 
longation  of  a  state  of  practical  civil  war. 

It  was  then  that  George  Peabody,  “  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost/’  came  to  the  rescue 
“  of  the  suffering  South  for  the  good  of  the  whole  country.”  George  Peabody,  in 
his  large  and  generous  personality,  appeared  to  the  Southern  people  as  a  represent¬ 
ative  of  the  entire  civilized  and  Christian  world  rather  than  of  the  North  or  the 
nation.  By  the  Northern  people  he  was  recognized  as  a  genuine  son  of  New  Eng¬ 
land  and  a  decided  friend  of  the  Union,  who  had  never  withdrawn  from  his 
American  citizenship  or  even  placed  his  name  in  a  London  directory,  a  represent¬ 
ative  of  all  that  was  noblest  and  most  lovable  in  the  highest  realm  of  society  in 
the  free  States. 

George  Peabody  was  born  in  that  portion  of  the  old  town  of  Danvers  now  known 
as  Peabody,  Essex  County,  Mass.,  February  18,  1795,  of  poor  but  thoroughly 
respectable  parents.  His  only  education  in  letters  was  in  the  New  England  dis¬ 
trict  common  school  of  that  early  day.  At  the  age  of  11  he  was  apprenticed  in  an 
old-time  New  England  country  store.  At  14,  he“  moved  on”  to  Vermont  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  original  form  of  “going  West,”  for  a  New  England  boy  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  century.  He  soon  returned  to  the  village  of  Newburyport,  Mass., 
where  he  remained  till  “of  age.”  A  fire  that  “burned  him  out”  was  the  good 
providence  that  sent  him  to  an  uncle  in  Georgetown,  D.  C.  As  the  young  “  travel¬ 
ing  man  ”  of  a  firm  of  merchants  in  this  little  city  he  formed  a  close  acquaintance 
With  the  people  of  the  neighboring  States  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  that  gave  him 
a  permanent  attraction  to  his  new  home.  Promoted  to  the  active  partnership  of 
a  larger  establishment  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  he  accumulated  there  the  first  $5,000 
that  proved  the  corner  stone  of  his,  at  that  time,  great  fortune  of  $15,000,000.  As 
a  “home  guard”  he  shouldered  arms  in  defense  of  Washington,  D.  C. ,  in  the  war 
of  1812.  In  1827,  at  the  age  of  82,  he  first  saw  London  and  ten  years  later,  at  42, 
he  was  established  there  as  a  banker  and  general  operator  in  exchange. 

In  his  early  manhood,  as  he  tells  us,  he  formed  a  resolution  to  devote  the  major 
part  of  his  fortune  to  some  act  of  charity  and  education.  He  lived  unmarried, 
always  with  a  becoming  simplicity,  but  with  a  cordial  hospitality  to  his  visiting 
countrymen  in  London  that  gave  him  troops  of  friends  on  both  sides  of  the  water. 
By  his  one  financial  operation  in  behalf  of  his  adopted  State,  Maryland,  and  an 


454  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

active  cooperation  in  the  representation  of  the  United  States  in  the  first  great 
industrial  exposition  in  London,  he  became  widely  known. 

At  the  age  of  52  he  entered  upon  a  public  career  of  charity  that  at  his  death,  in 
1869,  left  him  one  of  the  most  honored  and  beloved  of  any  men  in  Christendom. 
A  plain  American  countryman,  he  w^as  borne  to  his  burial  with  more  than  kingly 
honors,  the  three  great  powers  of  Europe — England,  France,  and  Germany — uniting 
in  the  naval  escort  of  his  body  across  the  Atlantic;  as  it  were,  Christendom  rising 
up  to  hail  an  example  of  practical  Christianity  so  complete.  Well  might  Victor 
Hugo  declare  him  that  ‘'great  citizen  of  the  world  and  brother  of  mankind.’*  His 
larger  bequests  began  in  1852  by  his  gift  of  $2,500,000  for  the  development  of  self¬ 
helping  manhood  and  womanhood  among  the  poor  in  London.  His  system  of 
tenement  houses,  rented  to  the  most  deserving  in  straitened  circumstances,  has 
already  so  enlarged  its  own  sphere  of  operation  that  it  may,  as  he  predicted,  ult 
mately  become  the  solution  of  the  awful  problem  of  poverty  that  for  a  century  has 
baffled  the  vast  charities  and  challenged  the  executive  genius  of  church  and  state 
in  Great  Britain. 

The  record  of  the  numerous  timely  and  well-considered  gifts  which  extended 
over  the  remaining  twenty-six  years  of  his  life  consumed  $10,000,000  of  Mr.  Pea¬ 
body’s  fortune  of  $15,000,000,  without  injustice  to  even  the  distant  relatives  of  his 
own  family.  One  of  these  gifts  was  a  memorial  church,  built  in  commemoration 
of  his  mother,  in  his  native  town. 

After  long  and  confidential  correspondence  and  consultation  with  the  most  reli¬ 
able  American  advisers,  George  Peabody,  on  an  October  day  in  1866,  at  the  charm¬ 
ing  suburban  home  of  Hon.  Robert  C.  Winthrop,  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  seated  under 
the  portrait  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  opened  his  “leathern  wallet,”  a  veritable 
budget  of  blessings,  which  contained  the  securities  and  documents  connected  with 
what  was  then  the  greatest  and  most  fruitful  gift  to  popular  education  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  It  consisted  of  $1,000,000  in  reliable  securities  and  $1,500,000  in  such 
as  were  esteemed  by  himself  as  certain  of  future  recognition,  the  whole  sum  to  con¬ 
stitute  a  permanent  fund  to  be  administered  by  a  board  of  sixteen  trustees,  nomi¬ 
nated  by  himself,  with  provision  for  permanent  corporate  existence,  for  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  all  classes  and  conditions  of  the  children  of  the  Southern  States  most  in 
need  of  aid.  While  confined  for  the  present,  for  good  reasons,  to  the  ex-Confederate 
States,  it  was  the  desire  of  the  giver  that  at  the  final  distribution  of  the  fund,  in 
thirty  years,  it  should  be  so  handled  as  to  include  every  State  of  the  South  in  its 
benefactions.  The  board  of  trustees  was  chosen  with  great  wisdom.  Indeed  it 
would  have  been  difficult  to  name  a  list  of  sixteen  men  then  living  in  the  United 
States  who  represented  more  of  the  general  ability,  wisdom,  and  worth  of  the 
country.  It  was  notable,  however,  that  it  did  not  include  the  name  of  any  dis¬ 
tinguished  x>rofessional  teacher,  but  was  selected  from  the  men  who  in  public  and 
professional  life  best  represented  the  entire  American  people.  This  original  board 
of  trustees  contained  the  following  names: 

THE  BOARD  AS  ORIGINALLY  APPOINTED  BY  MR.  PEABODY. 


Hon.  Robert  C.  Winthrop _ 

Hon.  Hamilton  Fish  . . . 

Right  Rev.  Charles  P.  Mcllvaine 

Gen.  U.  S.  Grant _ _ 

Admiral  D.  G.  Farragut . . 

Hon.  William  C.  Rives . .. . 

Hon.  John  H.  Clifford _ 

Hon.  W  illiam  Aiken . . . 

Hon.  William  M.  Evarts  - . 

Hon.  William  A.  Graham . 


Massachusetts. 

New  York. 

Ohio. 

United  States  Army. 
United  States  Navy. 
Virginia. 
Massachusetts. 
South  Carolina. 
.New  York. 

North  Carolina. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


455 


Charles  Macalester,  esq . _ . _  _ .  Pennsylvania. 

George  W.  Riggs,  esq - - - - -  Washington. 

Samuel  Wetmore,  esq - - - New  York. 

Edward  A.  Bradford,  esq.  (resigned) - -  Louisiana. 

George  N.  Eaton,  esq_. . ... _ _ _ _ Maryland. 

George  Peabody  Russell,  esq.  (resigned) _ _ Massachusetts. 


The  vacancies  created  by  death  or  resignation  have  been  filled  by  the  election  of — 


Hon.  Samuel  W atson _ _ - _ _ _ _ Tennessee. 

Hon.  A.  H.  H.  Stuart  (resigned) . , . . Virginia. 

Gen.  Richard  Taylor .  . ,  Louisiana. 

Surg.  Gen.  Joseph  K.  Barnes,  U.  S.  A. . .... . .  Washington. 

Chief  Justice  Morrison  R,  Waite  _  . . . . Washington. 

Right  Rev.  Henry  B.  Whipple . . t .  . . Minnesota. 

Hon.  Henry  R.  Jackson  (resigned) . . . Georgia. 

Col.  Theodore  Lyman  (resigned). . . . Massachusetts. 

Ex-President  Rutherford  B.  Hayes . . . .  Ohio. 

Hon.  Thomas  C.  Manning  . . . . . .  Louisiana. 

Anthony  J.  Drexel,  esq _  ... _ _ _ _ _  Pennsylvania. 

Hon.  Samuel  A.  Green . . . . . . Massachusetts. 

Hon.  James  D.  Porter . . . . . . .  Tennessee. 

•  J.Pierpont  Morgan,  esq . . . . New  York. 

Ex-President  Grover  Cleveland . . . . .  New  Jersey. 

Hon.  William  A.  Courtenay . . . . .  South  Carolina. 

Hon.  Charles  Devens . . . . . . . Massachusetts. 

Hon.  Randall  L.  Gibson  . . . . . . .  . . .  Louisiana. 

Chief  Justice  Melville  W.  Fuller . . . . . .  _  W ashington. 

Hon.  William  W irt  Henry . . . . . . . Virginia. 

Hon.  Henderson  M.  Sommerville . . . Alabama. 

Hon.  William  C.  Endicott  (resigned) ... _ _ _ _  Massachusetts. 

Plon.  Joseph  H.  Choate . . . . . . . . New  York. 

George  W.  Childs,  esq. .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  Pennsylvania. 

Hon.  Charles  E.  Fenner . . .  Louisiana. 

Daniel  C.  Gilman,  LL  ,  D _ _ _ _ Maryland. 

Hon.  George  Peabody  Wetmore _ _ _ _  Rhode  Island. 

Hon.  John  Lowell  . _ _ _ _ _  Massachusetts. 

Hon.  George  F.  Hoar _ _ _ _ _ ....  Massachusetts. 

Hon. Richard  Olney . . . .  ...  Massachusetts. 


Hon  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  honorary  member  and  general  agent. 


Since  the  publication  of  the  above  list,  in  1898,  Hon.  William  M.  Evarts,  the 
only  remaining  member  of  the  original  board  of  trustees,  and  its  president,  is 
deceased. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  board  of  trustees  was  held  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in 
Willard's  Hotel,  on  February  8,  1867.  The  venerable  Bishop  Mcllvaine,  of  Ohio, 
invoked  the  divine  blessing,  General  Grant  devoutly  kneeling  by  his  side.  The 
selection  of  this  board  of  trustees  was  a  master  stroke  of  the  executive  wisdom 
that  at  once  includes  and  rises  above  policy.  Probably  there  has  never  been  in  any 
country  a  working  board  intrusted  with  great  educational  funds  that  represented 
so  varied  and  in  almost  every  person  so  eminent  an  array  of  high  character,  abil¬ 
ity,  and  large  experience  in  affairs,  combined  with  distinguished  public  station. 
During  the  past  thirty  years  it  has  included  three  Presidents  of  the  United  States, 
two  Chief  Justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  and  several  distin¬ 
guished  members  of  the  State  judiciaries,  famous  military  and  naval  commanders 
of  the  Union  and  Confederate  armies,  including  General  Grant  and  Admiral  Far- 
ragut;  lawvers  like  Lowell.  Evarts,  Choate,  and  Clifford;  financiers  like  Drexel, 


456 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Childs,  and  Morgan;  the  ideal  Southern  gentlemen  of  the  old  time  in  Governor 
Aiken,  of  South  Carolina;  statesmen  of  the  same  period  in  Gibson  and  Rives;  dis¬ 
tinguished  gentlemen  of  cultivated  leisure  in  Eaton,  Bradford,  Russell,  and  Mac- 
alester;  public  men  like  Lyman,  Endicott,  and  Olney,  Mayor  Courtenay,  of  Charles¬ 
ton,  S.  C.,  and  Manning,  Somerville,  Watson,  Porter,  and  Jackson  from  the  South; 
two  bishops  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church — Mcllvaine  and  Whipple;  the 
learned  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  Dr.  Greene,  Hon- 
William  Wirt  Henry,  of  Virginia,  and  among  the  later  members  President  Gil. 
man,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  and  Senator  George  F.  Hoar,  of  Massachusetts. 
During  the  thirty  years  of  its  operation  47  gentlemen  have  served  on  this  greatest 
of  common-school  boards,  and  of  the  18  regular  members  no  meeting  has  failed 
for  lack  of  a  quorum,  on  one  occasion  President  Grover  Cleveland  having  held 
himself  in  reserve  amid  important  duties  in  Washington  to  go  to  New  York  to  fill 
a  possibly  vacant  chair. 

At  once  the  necessity  was  realized  of  appointing  a  competent  agent,  to  whom 
should  be  intrusted  the  practical  administration  of  the  gift.  Here  the  wide 
acquaintance  with  distinguished  men  possessed  by  Mr.  Robert  C,  Winthrop,  who, 
during  the  remaining  twenty-seven  years  of  his  crowded  and  beneficent  life, 
remained  the  president  of  the  board,  stood  the  new  enterprise  well  in  hand.  As 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  education  in  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in 
1837  Mr.  Winthrop  had  been  largely  influential  in  the  educational  new  departure 
that  called  Horace  Mann  to  the  leadership  of  the  great  revival  in  the  common 
school  system  of  the  State  and  the  Union,  and  he  also  brought  in  the  bill  to  the 
legislature  for  the  establishment  of  the  first  State  normal  school  in  the  United 
States,  at  Lexington,  Mass.  He  turned  at  once  to  President  Barnas  Sears,  of 
Brown  University,  Rhode  Island,  who,  in  1848,  had  been  appointed  the  successor 
of  Horace  Mann  in  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  board  of  education  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  practically  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  for  consultation  and 
suggestion.  The  reply  of  President  Sears,  in  a  remarkable  document  outlining  a 
policy  for  the  board  of  trustees,  confirmed  the  belief  of  all  that  he  was  the  man 
whom  Mr.  Winthrop  well  named  “a  perfect  pilot  of  a  perfect  scheme.”  After 
careful  consideration  Dr.  Sears  resigned  the  presidency  of  Brown  University,  a 
position  in  which  he  declares  ‘ ;  my  duties  are  a  perfect  luxury  and  my  associates 
all  I  could  desire,”  for  a  -work  that  might  well  have  appalled  the  courage  and  tact 
of  any  living  educator.  In  March,  1867,  he  accepted  the  call,  removed  to  Staunton, 
Va.,  and  for  the  remaining  twelve  years  wrought  a  work  whose  originality,  diffi¬ 
culty,  and  success  will  establish  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  great  educational 
statesmen  of  modern  times. 

At  once  the  question  came  up  of  the  fit  method  of  distributing  this  munificent 
gift.  Mr.  Peabody  had  already  fixed  a  long  term  as  the  limit  of  its  activity  in  the 
provision  that  after  thirty  years  the  board  of  trustees,  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  could 
decide  to  administer  the  fund  for  the  best  interests  of  education  in  every  Southern 
State.  He  had  also  expressed  the  wish  that  the  money  should  be  used  in  a  way  to 
benefit  as  many  students  of  limited  means  and  all  classes  as  was  possible  under 
existing  circumstances.  Dr.  Sears,  by  long  service  in  many  varieties  of  educa¬ 
tional  institutions,  from  the  country  district  school  of  New  England,  through  col¬ 
legiate  and  professional  seminaries,  and  as  a  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  was  a  most  competent  adviser.  After  a  careful  study  of  the  situation 
at  “short  range  ”  for  three  months,  by  consultation  with  the  best  informed  friends 
of  education  in  the  Southern  States,  he  presented  to  the  board,  in  session  at  Rich¬ 
mond,  Va.,  in  1868,  a  programme  which  so  commended  itself  that  after  a  thorough 
discussion  and  comparison  of  views  it  was  adopted  and  became  the  policy  of  an 
administration  which  has  probably  achieved  a  greater  educational  success  than 
was  ever  realized  before  from  an  invested  capital  of  $2,000,000. 

This  plan,  as  outlined  by  Dr.  Sears  to  the  board,  was,  in  brief,  the  most  thorough 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


457 


preparation  for  the  immediate  establishment  of  the  American  common  school  in 
every  Southern  State.  It  proposed  to  assist  in  the  establishment  of  common,  free 
public,  in  distinction  from  private  denominational  or  corporate,  schools,  as  the 
chief  educational  centers  of  the  section.  Each  school  should  be  located  where  its 
influence  would  be  most  extensively  felt,  where  the  community  could  be  induced 
to  aid  in  its  foundation  and  permanent  support,  the  best  teachers  could  be 
obtained,  and  the  most  approved  methods  of  school  organization,  government, 
and  instruction  could  be  illustrated.  As  far  as  possible,  at  once,  the  fund  should 
be  used  in  connection  with  the  State  governments.  Where  no  system  of  public 
schools  existed,  the  efforts  of  the  agent  should  be  in  the  direction  of  establishing 
this  great  desideratum.  It  required  no  little  courage,  executive  energy,  and  tact 
to  reject  the  numberless  influential  appeals  for  educational  aid  to  existing  institu¬ 
tions,  on  the  lines  of  the  old-time  system  of  denominational  and  private  academies 
and  colleges  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  superior  class.  Here  came  in  the  ‘ 4  saving 
common  sense  ”  and  broad  statesmanship  of  the  board,  composed  of  men  of  exten¬ 
sive  experience  in  public  affairs  and  well  aware  of  the  state  of  public  opinion 
among  the  most  thoughtful  people  of  the  country.  After  deliberate  consultation 
this  scheme,  with  the  urgent  advocacy  of  General  Grant,  was  adopted  as  the 
policy  of  administration,  and  hereafter  the  name  of  George  Peabody  will  be  asso¬ 
ciated  with  the  foremost  educators  of  the  complete  system  of  American  universal 
education  for  every  class  in  every  State  of  the  Union. 

At  the  third  meeting  of  the  board  of  trustees,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  May  28, 
1867,  the  act  of  incorporation  granted  by  the  legislature  of  that  State  was  pre„ 
sented,  an  organization  under  the  charter  was  perfected,  and  a  common  seal  for 
the  corporation  authorized. 

The  wisdom  displayed  in  the  choice  of  Dr.  Sears  as  the  general  agent  of  the 
board  at  once  became  apparent.  Few  men  summoned  to  the  “high  calling”  of 
reconciliation  between  the  people  of  the  two  sections  of  the  country,  so  long 
becoming  estranged  and  so  fiercely  contending  during  four  years  of  the  greatest 
civil  war  in  modern  times,  have  been  so  eminently  fitted  by  temperament,  education, 
experience,  and  a  rare  combination  of  intense  consecration  and  an  almost  micro¬ 
scopic  faculty  for  managing  details,  with  a  cosmopolitan  habit  of  far-reaching 
observation  and  the  ability  to  put  himself  in  the  place  of  every  man  or  community 
with  which  he  was  called  to  deal,  as  Dr.  Sears.  Well  does  his  successor,  Dr.  Curry, 
express  the  universal  judgment  of  the  country  on  this  matter  in  his  statement 
that  “the  history  of  education  in  the  South  would  have  been  very  different  but  for 
the  wonderful  skill  and  ability  with  which  Dr.  Sears,  transferring  his  home  and 
citizenship  to  Virginia,  surmounted  obstacles,  changed  adverse  opinions  and  con¬ 
victions  of  the  people,  made  the  Peabody  Education  Fund  a  most  popular  trust, 
and  became  himself  embedded  in  the  confidence  and  affection  of  the  South.” 

In  nothing  was  the  foresight  and  the  profound  insight  of  Dr.  Sears  into  the  then 
present  educational  needs  of  these  States  more  evident  than  in  the  decisive  man¬ 
ner  in  which  he  rose  above  all  the  former  associations  with  his  own  religious  body 
and  the  system  of  denominational  education  which  was  so  dear  to  the  sect  and 
such  a  title  to  its  honorable  standing  before  the  country.  He  saw  at  a  glance  that 
the  old-time  habit  of  private  and  denominational  control  of  institutions  of  learning 
was  so  firmly  rooted  in  the  Southern  mind  and  heart  that  the  church  there  could 
be  safely  left  to  deal  with  the  rehabilitation  of  every  valuable  school  of  this  char¬ 
acter  that  deserved  a  new  lease  of  life.  His  judgment  has  been  vindicated  by  the 
fact  that  in  one  generation  from  the  educational  wreck  of  the  war  the  entire  South 
is  to-day  in  a  far  better  condition  in  respect  to  this  side  of  the  secondary,  higher, 
and  professional  education  than  ever  before.  The  zealous  efforts  of  all  the  reli¬ 
gious  bodies  of  the  nation  to  plant  important  schools  for  the  superior  training  of  the 
negro  youth  of  both  sexes,  including  the  important  annex  of  industrial  education, 
has  already  given  to  this  race  a  better  proportional  outfit  of  excellent  seminaries 


458 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


than  the  -united  people  of  the  whole  country  enjoyed  until  far  along  in  the  second 
half  century  of  the  national  life.  Dr.  Sears  recognized  the  fact  that  here  was 
the  providential  reenforcement  of  the  growing  common  school  public  of  the 
South,  which  for  fifty  years  had  been  laboring  against  almost  insurmountable 
obstacles  to  give  even  free  elementary  schooling  to  the  white  children  and  youth 
of  the  humbler  classes.  Only  this  fact  that  in  the  South  was  found  a  large  and 
increasing  body  of  influential  people  who  regarded  universal  education  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  type  as  the  only  means  to  remove  the  radical  hindrances  of  every  descrip¬ 
tion  to  the  prosperity  of  this  section  explains  the  immediate  welcome  to  Dr.  Sears, 
appearing  as  the  representative  of  the  common  school  idea,  indorsed  by  such  a 
weight  of  influence  as  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Peabody  Education  Fund.  Mr. 
Peabody  had  already  expressed  his  own  convictions  that  his  great  gift  would  be 
best  employed  for  “the  free  education  of  the  children  of  the  South,  without  other 
distinction  than  their  needs  and  their  opportunities  of  usefulness.”  And  although 
there  were  earnest  and  distinguished  advocates  of  giving  immediate  appropriation 
of  funds  to  aid  the  impoverished  youth  of  the  old  families  and  rescue  schools  of 
long-established  reputation  from  the  peril  of  final  collapse,  yet  the  indorsement  of 
the-  broader  system  by  Dr.  Sears,  backed  by  a  large  majority  of  the  trustees,  not 
only  prevailed,  but  finally  won  the  dissenters  over  to  a  cheerful  agreement  with 
the  final  policy.  The  reason  that  the  fund  has  to  some  extent  been  used  to  subsi¬ 
dize  the  denominational  “ colleges ”  and  “universities ”  for  the  negro  is  that  only 
in  this  way  has  it  seemed  possible  to  supply  the  imperative  need  of  competent 
teachers  of  their  own  race  for  the  new  public  schools. 

The  great  success  of  the  movement  of  Dr.  Sears  in  persuading  the  people  of 
many  different  classes  and  rival  sects  to  heartily  cooperate  in  the  establishment 
of  what  was  called  “  the  graded  school,”  simply  the  common  school  of  the  North 
and  similar  communities,  including  its  secondary  department,  the  high  school,  was 
certainly  not  due  to  the  small  amount  of  money  he  was  authorized  to  distribute. 
The  board  at  once  decided  in  no  case  to  meet  the  entire  cost  of  maintaining  any 
local  school.  The  donation  was  rarely  more  than  one-fourth  the  expense  of  its 
establishment  and  maintenance,  and  was  given  only  on  the  pledge  that  the  remain¬ 
ing  three- fourths  should  be  assumed  by  some  responsible  party  or  the  municipal 
government  of  the  place.  Dr.  Sears  wrote  in  1869:  “Our  maximum  for  white 
schools  has  been  $300  for  100  pupils;  $450  for  150;  $600  for  200,  and  we  have  paid 
in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia  $4,000  in  each  State  for  a  little  more 
than  2,000  pupils.  I  am  inclined  to  adopt  that  rule,  namely,  $300  for  100  white 
pupils  and  $200  for  100  colored.  It  costs  less  to  maintain  schools  for  the  colored 
children  than  for  the  white.” 

At  a  later  date  experience  suggested  a  variation  from  this  policy,  and— 

Instead  of  a  proportionate  distribution  according  to  populations  or  poverty,  a 
limited  number  of  the  larger  towns,  such  as  would  exert  the  widest  influence  upon 
the  surrounding  country,  was  selected,  and  for  any  locality  the  maximum  appro¬ 
priation  was  $2,000  and  the  minimum  number  of  pupils  was  100,  being  the  small¬ 
est  number  that  would  admit  of  a  graded  school.  These  models  of  well-organized 
and  well-conducted  schools,  showing  the  people  what  a  good  graded  school  is,  did 
more  to  enlighten  the  communities,  disarm  opposition,  and  create  a  sound  public 
educational  sentiment  than  all  the  verbal  arguments  that  could  have  been  used. 
The  chief  benefit  did  not  arise  from  what  the  fund  gave,  but  from  what  it  induced 
others  to  give  and  to  do.  The  unvarying  rule  of  helping  those  who  help  them¬ 
selves,  of  requiring  a  larger  sum  than  was  furnished  to  be  raised  by  local  tax  or 
contribution,  has  marked  the  entire  administration  of  the  fund  and  has  had  a 
most  salutary  influence  in  increasing  fourfold  what  has  been  given  for  education, 
and  in  indoctrinating  taxpayers  with  a  sound  economic  principle  that  there  is  no 
more  legitimate  tax  on  property  than  that  which  is  levied  for  the  education  of 
the  masses.  In  many  instances  the  towns  soon  assumed  all  the  expense,  the  schools 
became  self-supporting,  and  thus  the  timely  and  judicious  aid  gave  permanence 
to  schools,  which  continued  to  flourish  after  the  fostering  external  help  was  with¬ 
drawn.  Attention  was  thus  excited,  and  soon  the  feebler  rural  districts  were 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1876. 


459 


reclaimed.  The  experiment  of  partial  succor,  conditioned  on  larger  self-help,  had 
a  widening  and  happy  influence  in  bringing  about  an  organized,  competent  State 
system,  which  included  both  urban  and  rural  schools.  . 

Twenty-four  cities  and  200  villages,  at  first  assisted  by  the  fund,  had  soon  been 
able  to  get  on  without  it,  and  were  supporting  the  graded  system  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion  free  to  all  classes  and  both  races.  During  the  first  twelve  years  of  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Dr.  Sears,  until  1880,  this  policy  was  followed  with  eminent  success,  and 
so  wisely  has  the  “  business  end  ”  of  this  great  charity  been  managed  that  during 
the  thirty  years  contemplated  for  its  existence  by  the  founder  a  sum  larger  than 
the  original  gift  has  been  disbursed,  while  by  the  grand  donation  of  Mr.  Peabody 
$2,000,000  are  still  “  in  the  bank,”  after  carrying  the  repudiation  of  nearly 
$2,000,000  of  the  bonds  of  Mississippi  and  Florida  to  the  wrong  side  of  the  ledger. 
For  several  years  these  two  States  wrere  left  out  in  the  distribution  of  educational 
aid,  but  finally,  at  the  suggestion  of  ex-President  R.  B.  Hayes,  it  was  concluded 
no  longer  to  punish  the  children  for  the  policy  of  the  fathers. 

The  thirty  “  years  of  grace  ”  have  come  and  gone.  But  the  board  has  wisely  con¬ 
cluded  to  indefinitely  postpone  the  final  distribution,  and  the  consequent  dissolution 
of  the  corporation.  An  almost  unanimous  protest  against  this  policy  came  up  from 
the  entire  educational  public  of  the  South.  The  very  existence  of  such  an  organiza¬ 
tion,  so  wisely  conducted,  will  in  itself  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  agencies  in  the 
coming  revival  of  common  school  education,  everywhere  demanded  and  confidently 
predicted  in  the  first  generation  of  the  new  century.  The  effect  of  this  gift  in  stimu¬ 
lating  other  and  larger  benefactions,  not  only  for  the  common  schools  but  for  the 
higher  education,  contemplated  by  Mr.  Peabody,  has  been  realized.  Between  1867 
and  1898,  not  less  than  $12,000,000  had  been  contributed  in  large  sums  to  the  cause 
of  education  in  these  States.  Of  this,  $8,000,000  have  been  given  by  their  own  citi¬ 
zens,  and  the  willingness  of  States  and  communities  to  appropriate  more  generously 
and  enact  more  favorable  laws  for  the  support  of  popular  education  has  steadily 
increased. 

But  it  was  only  by  a  slow  and  intermittent  movement  that  the  educational 
interest,  prostrated  by  the  ten  years  of  war  and  civic  agitation,  lifted  its  head.  In 
1870,  after  three  years  of  aid,  largely  including  the  educational  centers  already 
described,  Dr.  Sears  reports,  in  his  annual  address  to  the  board,  that  “the  con¬ 
dition  of  affairs  is  unfavorable  to  systematic,  vigorous,  or  liberal  action  on  the 
part  of  the  States.”  In  North  Carolina  there  was  only  the  income  of  a  State 
school  fund  of  $800,000  to  educate  750,000  children.  In  South  Carolina  no  schools 
were  in  operation  under  the  new  law,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Charleston,  no 
towns  supported  schools  by  public  taxation.  No  school  law  had  been  passed  in 
Georgia,  and  only  a  few  towns  were  moving.  Florida  had  a  good  law,  but  little 
income.  Alabama  reported  a  school  fund  of  $525,000,  4,000  schools  and  160,000 
children,  one-half  the  school  population  in  attendance.  On  his  first  visit  to  Texas, 
in  1870,  Dr.  Sears  found  both  laws  and  sentiment  discouraging,  and  not  till  1871 
was  a  school  system  launched,  only  to  go  down  amid  a  “fierce  party  strife.”  The 
good  doctor  went  about  his  work  with  the  broad  impartiality  of  the  Providence  that 
maketh  the  “  sun  to  rise  on  the  evil  and  the  good,  and  sendeth  rain  on  the  just 
and  the  unjust,”  but  always  grieved  at  heart  over  the  discouraging  sketch  of  “the 
impoverished  condition  of  the  people,  State,  municipal,  and  individual  bank¬ 
ruptcy,  the  debts  that  hung  with  crushing  weight  on  States,  and  the  cruelty  of 
increasing  taxation  for  even  the  best  purpose.” 

But  even  greater  was  the  personal  burden  of  going  to  every  place  as  a  peace¬ 
maker  among  the  people  themselves.  “To  deal  with  all  sorts  of  people,  from 
cranks  and  imbeciles  to  governors,  legislators,  and  Congressmen;  in  short,  to  con¬ 
vince  a  community  torn  by  political  dissensions  that  seemed  ever  on  the  eve  of 
bursting  forth  into  civil  war,  and  distracted  by  the  habit  of  suspicion  and  recrimi¬ 
nation  that  is  the  wrorst  result  of  defeat  in  a  supreme  effort  for  a  magnificent  sue- 


460 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


cess;  not  that  he  and  the  rest  of  the  country  were  unworthy  of  confidence,  but 
that  the  first  necessity  at  home  was  to  come  to  an  agreement  to  do  something  for 
the  common  ‘good  that  would  lay  a  new  and  abiding  foundation  for  the  future.” 
All  these  local  causes  of  distrust  were  now  reenforced  by  a  movement  in  Congress 
to  insert  in  a  “  civil  rights  bill  ”  for  the  protection  of  the  freedmen  a  clause  requir¬ 
ing  a  system  of  “mixed  schools,”  in  which  the  children  were  to  be  educated 
together  through  all  the  Southern  States.  It  was  only  by  the  determined  and 
persistent  efforts  of  Dr.  Sears,  General  Eaton,  and  others  of  the  best  informed 
and  most  trusted  leaders  of  the  colored  race,  that  this  mischievous  provision  was 
left  out  of  the  bill,  which  would  have  been  vetoed  by  President  Grant  had  it  passed 
through  Congress. 

But  death  and  change  are  the  lot  of  man,  and  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Peabody 
education  fund  during  the  past  thirty  years  has  been  no  exception  to  the  immuta¬ 
ble  decree  of  Providence.  The  original  board  of  trustees,  as  arranged  by  Mr. 
Peabody  and  Mr.  Winthrop,  president  of  the  board,  has  been  already  published 
in  this  essay.  The  Hon.  William  M.  Evarts,  disabled  by  age  and  infirmity,  for  a 
time  the  only  remaining  member  of  that  illustrious  company,  Mr.  Russell  having 
resigned,  died  in  1901 .  The  second  table  already  referred  to,  containing  the  names 
of  the  entire  number  of  gentlemen  who  at  different  times  have  succeeded  to  mem¬ 
bership  in  the  Peabody  board,  is  itself  an  impressive  commentary  on  the  rapid 
disappearing  of  the  generation  that  lived  and  wrought  in  the  “grand  and  awful 
time  ”  of  the  marvelous  effort  that  decided  the  permanency  of  the  Union. 

Dr.  Sears  and  Dr.  Eben  Stearns,  first  chancellor  of  the  revived  University  of 
Nashville,  whose  academical  department  became  the  basis  of  what  is  now  the  Pea¬ 
body  Normal  College,  have  also  departed,  and  their  places  have  been  admirably 
filled.  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  of  Alabama,  later  of  Richmond,  Va.,  and  at  present  of 
Washington,  D.  C.,  is  now  general  agent  of  both  the  George  Peabody  and  J.  F. 
Slater  educational  funds.  Dr.  William  H.  Payne,  of  the  University  of  Michigan, 
became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Nashville  and  president  of  the  Peabody 
Normal  College  on  the  death  of  Chancellor  Stearns  in  1887,  and  resigned  in  1900. 
The  place  is  now  occupied  by  Hon.  James  D.  Porter,  of  Tennessee. 

A  glance  at  this  list  of  46  men,  20  of  whom  by  death  or  resignation  no  longer 
remain  with  the  management  of  this  fund,  will  explain  the  immediate  respect  and 
great  expectations  awakened  through  the  entire  South  on  its  appearance  upon  the 
field  of  popular  education  in  1887-68,  and  the  confidence  reposed  in  it  to-day  as 
the  trusted  adviser  and  the  fast  friend  of  the  section,  and  the  best  existing  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  nation  and  the  North  thereto.  It  would  be  a  fitting  tribute  to  the 
great  work  already  done  that  the  proposition  of  Dr.  Curry,  that  the  Southern  States 
should  place  a  statue  of  George  Peabody  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  be  com¬ 
plied  with.  The  time  may  come  when  the  children  of  the  South  may  be  moved  to 
emulate  the  spirit  of  the  children  of  Massachusetts,  who  placed  the  statue  of 
Horace  Mann  opposite  that  of  Daniel  Webster  in  front  of  the  State  House  in  Bos¬ 
ton.  And  a  final  tribute  of  all  educators  and  friends  of  the  common  school  in  the 
Union  would  be  the  gift  of  an  additional  million  of  dollars  to  the  Peabody  fund  as 
a  memorial  to  Robert  C.  Winthrop,  to  whom  only  less  than  to  George  Peabody 
this  great  benefaction  owes  its  immediate  and  continued  success,  with  a  provision 
that  this  portion  of  the  entire  fund  at  least  shall  be  made  perpetual,  and  that  the 
vacancies  in  the  board  of  management,  as  fast  as  they  may  occur,  shall  be  filled 
in  equal  measure  from  the  group  of  eminent  women  educators  of  the  country. 

It  was  one  of  the  earliest  suggestions  of  Dr.  Sears  that  the  most  imperative  need 
of  the  new  Southern  schools  was  the  supply  of  a  sufficient  number  of  competent 
teachers,  at  least  for  the  work  in  what  is  known  as  the  graded  schools.  It  was  a 
great  advantage  to  the  South  that  when  all  these  States  took  up  the  final  work  of 
adopting  the  American  common  school  as  a  permanent  institution  in  1870,  it  was 
no  longer  the  old-time  country  or  even  the  city  isolated  district  school  so  fully 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  18*76. 


461 


delineated  in  the  gallery  of  educational  sketches  and  full-life  pictures  so  forcibly 
drawn  by  Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Barnard  in  the  North,  or  the  “old  field  ”  South¬ 
ern  arrangement  so  picturesquely  drawn  by  Dr.  Richard  Malcolm  Johnston  in  the 
South,  or  even  the  regulation  private  home  or  denominational  school  of  the  South 
before  1860.  Dr.  Sears  and  Dr.  Stearns,  who  became  the  first  president  of  the 
Peabody  Normal  School  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  were  among  the  most  reliable  and 
experienced  educators  of  their  time,  and  no  public  man  even  of  New  England  had 
a  more  intelligent  and  consecrated  zeal  for  popular  education  than  Robert  C. 
Winthrop,  who,  as  chairman  of  the  committee  on  education  in  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  of  1837,  was  in  at  the  beginning  of  the  great  revival  that  began  in  that 
State  and  the  establishment  of  the  first  State  normal  school,  located  on  July  4,  on 
Lexington  Green,  Massachusetts,  facing  the  monument  there  erected  to  the  mem¬ 
ory  of  the  first  martyrs  of  the  Revolution.  In  the  thirty  years  from  1837  to  1837, 
the  date  of  the  establishment  of  the  Peabody  fund,  the  old-time  city,  village,  and 
even  largely  the  country  district  school  of  New  England,  supervised  by  its  own  local 
trustees  under  such  teachers  as  the  wisdom  or  the  whim  of  the  “prudential  com¬ 
mittee  ”  or  the  intelligence  and  zeal  of  the  ‘ £  towTn  meeting  ”  for  the  financial  needs  of 
education  might  place  in  the  schoolroom ,  had  been  passing  through  an  evolution  into 
the  complete  system  of  the  common  school  of  to-day.  That  system,  known  in  the 
South  as  the  graded  school,  now  offers  the  opportunity  of  a  complete  education,  at 
public  expense,  to  every  child,  from  the  little  children’s  primary  to  the  State  univer¬ 
sity,  including  the  later  annexes  of  industrial  training  and  the  people’s  free  library. 
No  man,  however  wealthy,  in  Boston  or  New  York  in  1830  could  have  purchased 
such  opportunities  for  the  education  of  his  children  in  his  own  State  or  country  as 
are  now  freely  offered  to  the  child  of  every  creed,  nationality,  or  “previous  condi¬ 
tion  ”  probably  in  every  city  of  20,000  people  in  every  Northern  State.  And  although 
the  zealous  advocates  of  the  old-time  European  educational  methods  of  the  church 
and  of  the  limitation  of  the  public  schools  to  the  elementary  and  industrial  depart¬ 
ments  still  make  their  chronic  protests,  the  people  of  the  United  States  have  deter¬ 
mined,  with  a  unanimity  not  found  in  any  previous  action,  that  this  shall  be  the 
accepted  method  of  training  young  America  for  the  most  honorable  and,  in  the 
coming  century,  most  responsible  and  difficult  human  position,  intelligent,  moral, 
and  effective  American  citizenship,  and  that  whatever  else  “goes  by  the  board,” 
the  people’s  common  school  in  its  present  and  improved  organization  shall  abide. 

Such  expectations  as  were  now  awakened  in  the  executive  work  of  the  nation’s 
great  common- school  board,  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  education  fund,  could 
not  fail  to  appeal  both  to  the  pride  and  the  feeling  of  stern  necessity  of  the  leading 
educators  and  influential  people  to  place  the  new  system  on  a  solid  foundation, 
and  accept  nothing  but  the  best  for  the  schooling  of  their  children  and  youth. 
There  was  found  at  once  the  most  valuable  material  in  any  country  for  a  tempo¬ 
rary  supply  of  teachers  in  the  great  number  of  women  of  good  culture,  high 
character,  and  social  standing,  who,  by  the  fate  of  war  and  losses  of  property,  had 
been  left  to  the  prospect  of  earning  their  own  bread.  At  the  call  of  the  people 
many  of  these  excellent  women  at  once  appeared,  not  only  working  to  gain  an 
honorable  support  by  labor  in  an  untried  field,  but  moved  by  a  great  desire  to 
contribute  to  the  rehabilitation  of  their  States  and  communities  in  this,  the  most 
vital  way.  During  these  first  twelve  years— including  the  entire  term  of  the  serv¬ 
ice  of  Dr.  Sears  as  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund — not  only  the  reviving  seminaries  for 
girls,  but  in  large  degree  the  new  public  schools,  were  taught  by  women  of  the 
foremost  character,  culture,  and  social  standing,  whose  place  in  the  schoolroom 
shut  the  mouths  of  ca viler s,  and  assured  the  better  sort  of  people  that  here  was 
the  place  of  all  others  where  it  was  safe  to  educate  their  children.  During  the 
first  five  years  of  the  Southern  ministry  of  education  of  the  author  of  this  essay, 
he  met  hundreds  of  these  persons,  many  of  them  the  widows  and  daughters  of  the 
most  distinguished  military  and  civic  characters  in  the  Confederate  cause,  who 


462 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


gave  to  their  daily  task  in  the  schoolroom  the  same  burning  zeal,  tact,  and  self- 
sacrificing  affection  that  had  been  so  sadly  disappointed  in  the  attempt  to  establish 
a  new  nationality.  And  it  should  be  said  to  the  praise  of  these  good  women,  and 
only  less  completely  to  the  large  number  of  distinguished  men  who  came  to  the 
front  during  the  first  twenty  years  in  the  new  educational  movement  of  Southern 
schools,  that  they  went  to  their  work  in  no  spirit  that  separated  them  from  the 
most  confidential  personal  relations  with  the  superior  teaching  officials  of  the 
whole  country.  It  may  be  truly  said  that  there  was  one  set  of  people  in  the  United 
States  who,  in  1865,  were  in  no  special  need  of  ‘’reconstruction,”  the  superior 
educators  of  the  whole  country,  who  at  once  found  each  other  out  and  met  each 
other  as  friends  and  fellow-soldiers  on  the  nobler  battlefields  where  the  grand 
army  of  the  nation’s  youth  was  marshaled  responsive  to  the  old-time  prophecy, 
“A  little  child  shall  lead  them.” 

But  even  for  this  class  there  was  a  great  need,  by  nobody  more  keenly  real¬ 
ized  than  by  themselves,  for  the  special  training  that  would  equip  them  for  the 
best  service  in  the  new  graded  common  schools.  It  was  not  possible  or  wise  to 
bring  expert  teachers  from  the  North  or  from  abroad  in  any  considerable  num¬ 
bers,  although  many  of  these  were  found  working  in  beautiful  accord  with  their 
Southern  brethren  and  sisters  in  their  noble  calling.  But  there  was  at  once  a 
swarming  of  such  as  could  afford  the  pecuniary  expense  to  the  great  summer 
schools  of  the  nation,  and  the  new  collegiate  and  normal  schools  for  women  were 
never  so  largely  attended  from  the  South,  even  in  its  days  of  prosperity  before 
the  war.  There  was  the  most  imperative  necessity  that  in  some  way  at  once  there 
should  be  placed  on  the  ground  an  arrangement  by  which,  at  the  smallest  expense 
in  time  and  money,  at  least  a  portion  of  the  leading  teachers  in  every  1  ocality 
should  be  trained  in  the  best  methods  of  organizing  and  disciplining  the  new 
graded  schools,  that  they  might  become  the  models  for  their  subordinates  and  pre¬ 
vent  the  new  system  from  being  a  disappointment  to  the  people  who,  often  at 
great  personal  sacrifice,  were  supporting  it.  Of  course,  at  once  there  sprung  up 
the  usual  crop  of  feeble  imitators  and  educational  shams  of  the  old-time  “infant- 
school”  type,  in  charge  of  a  teacher  whose  chief  outfit  was  pecuniary  impecuni- 
osity  and  an  all-sufficient  self-confidence.  But  there  were  numbers  of  others, 
honest  and  progressive  young  people,  who  were  no  longer  satisfied  with  the  regula¬ 
tion  schooling  of  the  days  of  the  fathers  and  grandfathers,  but  demanded  the  same 
professional  training  that  their  class  was  then  receiving  in  every  civilized  land. 

It  was  perhaps  not  remarkable  that  this  want  was  first  supplied  to  the  colored 
pupils  by  the  establishment  and  generous  support  of  a  great  number  of  schools  of 
the  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  type  through  the  agency  of  all  the  religious 
denominations  in  the  Northern  States.  This  was  the  result,  to  a  large  extent,  left 
by  the  great  effort  of  the  nation  and  the  North,  as  already  described,  during  the 
war  and  up  to  1872,  through  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau.  The  result  was  not  only  the 
primary  schooling  of  many  thousands  of  youth  and  adults,  but  the  placing  in  the 
constitutions  of  all  the  reconstructed  States  a  provision  for  the  common  schooling 
of  all  children.  In  several  of  the  larger  Southern  cities  the  public  schools  for  the 
colored  children  were  instructed  by  white  teachers.  Indeed,  as  late  as  1882,  the 
writer  of  this  essay  visited  in  the  city  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  the  seat  of  the  opening 
of  the  civil  war,  a  great  public  school  of  1,500  pupils,  superintended  by  a  Southern 
brigadier-general  and  instructed  by  a  devoted  corps  of  women  teachers  from  good 
Charleston  families,  justly  the  “  show  school  ”  of  the  city.  The  same  was. true  at 
that  time  of  Richmond,  New  Orleans,  Baltimore,  and  other  cities. 

But  this,  of  course,  could  be  only  a  temporary  supply.  At  once,  beginning  a 
the  Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  at  Hampton,  Ya.,  and  following  in 
a  score  of  the  larger  schools  established  by  Northern  charity  in  spacious  buildings, 
were  placed  excellent  teachers  drawn  from  Northern  schools  and  colleges,  often 
of  great  experience,  large  culture,  and  denominational  importance,  furnished 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


483 


with  libraries  and  opportunities  superior  to  those  enjoyed  in  many  of  the  colleges 
for  the  whites. 

For  a  time  there  was  really  a  greater  absence  of  supply  of  professional  teachers 
among  the  white  than  among  the  colored  youth.  In  his  first  communications  to 
the  Peabody  board,  Dr.  Sears  had  enforced  the  immediate  necessity  of  this  matter. 
Dr.  Curry  says:  “In  the  whole  South  there  was  not  a  single  normal  school/’ 
Many  annexes  and  departments  with  the  name  were  hastily  originated,  but  these 
were  in  denominational  and  private  institutions,  and  rivalries  and  jealousies  soon 
compelled  a  resort  to  the  principle  of  confining  aid  on  the  plan  of  the  Peabody 
trustees  to  such  schools  as  were  under  State  control.  The  attempt  to  utilize  the 
existing  schools  for  this  purpose  in  Virginia  and  Louisiana,  as  in  several  States  in 
preceding  years,  soon  came  to  naught,  and  before  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  Dr. 
Sears's  administration  it  was  seen  that  schools  must  be  created  by  the  board  to 
meet  the  immediate  emergency. 

In  1876  it  was  determined  by  the  board,  by  advice  of  Dr.  Sears,  to  omit  the  gifts 
for  general  education  and  concentrate  on  the  pressing  need  of  the  schools  for  the 
training  of  teachers  who  should  become  leaders  in  the  campaign  of  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  new  graded  and  county  district  schools  for  the  whole  people.  The 
policy  of  establishing  the  new  special  institutes  was  recommended,  but  this 
encountered  the  double  difficulty  from  the  extreme  summer  heats  of  the  Gulf 
States  and  the  expense  of  attending  by  teachers  so  poorly  paid. 

But  already,  in  1875,  an  opening  appeared  by  which  a  solid  foundation  could  be 
laid  for  this  great  work  through  the  establishment  of  a  model  normal  school  that 
should  at  once  send  forth  a  limited  number  of  trained  teachers  and  enable  every 
State  and  city  to  obtain  one  or  more  of  the  graduates.  In  a  previous  Report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  a  deeply  interesting  account  will  be 
found  of  the  labors  of  Dr.  Lindslay,  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  from  1824  to  1850,  in 
behalf  of  a  great  university  in  the  Southwest.  The  good  doctor,  like  the  prophets 
and  kings  of  old,  had  “desired  it  long,  but  died  without  the  sight”  of  his  ideal 
institution.  But  his  memory  was  cherished,  and  his  many  able  and  numerous 
publications  set  up  in  Nashville  a  light-house  flashing  radiance  over  the  troubled 
educational  waters  of  the  State  and  the  Southwest,  and  he  had  left  the  founda¬ 
tions  for  a  superstructure  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1876  Dr.  Sears  found 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  a  “campus”  of  16  acres,  containing  a  number  of  substantial 
school  buildings  and  a  small  library  and  museum,  a  medical  and  law  school  annex, 
and  a  limited  amount  of  funds,  all  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  trustees,  composed 
of  the  foremost  men  of  the  city,  including  Governor  Porter  and  the  son  of  the  old 
president,  who  had  laid  down  his  life  for  the  cause  so  near  his  heart.  An  address 
to  the  legislature  of  Tennessee  by  Dr.  Sears  secured  no  encouraging  response;  but 
the  trustees  of  the  University  of  Nashville,  by  which  name  all  this  was  called, 
offered  $6,000  and  the  use  of  all  the  buildings  of  the  corporation  and  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  normal  school  in  place  of  the  academical  department  of  the  institution. 
Dr.  Eben  S.  Stearns,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  school  men  of  New  England, 
who,  under  the  secretaryship  of  Dr.  Sears,  in  Massachusetts,  was  appointed  to  the 
principalship  of  the  first  normal  school  in  the  country,  then  located  at  West  New¬ 
ton,  Mass.,  where  a  group  of  young  women  had  been  educated  who  went  forth  to 
acquire  a  national  reputation,  afterwards  principal  of  the  Albany  (N.  Y.)  Female 
Academy,  whose  teachers  were  chiefly  drawn  from  his  own  normal  school  in 
Massachusetts,  and  later  the  principal  of  a  superior  school  for  girls  in  Exeter, 
N.  H.,  was  called  to  the  chancellorship  of  the  university,  including  the  principal- 
ship  of  the  new  Peabody  Normal  Seminary. 

Dr.  Stearns  entered  upon  this,  the  greatest  of  his  life-works,  on  December  1, 1875, 
witii  a  class  of  fifteen  female  pupils  amid  a  great  deal  of  private  disparagement, 
indifference,  and  hostility,  while  the  State  of  Tennessee  withheld  the  aid  necessary 
for  its  rapid  development.  But  Dr.  Stearns  was  not  the  man  to  fail.  He  demanded 


464 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


the  use  of  the  representatives’  hall  in  the  State  capitol  for  his  inauguration  exercises, 
and  planted  a  memorial  tree  at  the  close  of  his  first  year’s  labor.  In  1876  the  Pea¬ 
body  Education  Board  came  to  the  rescue  by  the  appropriation  of  $200  a  year  for 
giving  student  aid  in  the  form  of  two  years'  free  tuition  to  each  of  a  number  of 
students  from  the  ex-Confederate  States,  the  candidates  to  be  appointed  after  a 
competent  examination  and  limited  to  the  number  of  the  State  delegation  in  Con¬ 
gress.  This  student  aid  was  later  reduced  from  $200  to  $100  a  year.  By  this 
arrangement  204  students  were  soon  gathered,  and  the  Peabody  Normal  School 
at  Nashville  at  once  took  rank  among  the  better  class  of  seminaries  of  its  kind 
in  the  Union.  The  students  were  pledged  to  teach  for  a  limited  time  after  gradu¬ 
ation,  and  these  States  have  received  great  assistance  in  the  organization  of  their 
common-school  systems  from  some  of  them.  At  a  later  period  the  material 
facilities  were  improved  by  the  building  of  a  president's  house,  a  gymnasium  and 
library,  and  a  modern  schoolhouse.  In  the  twenty-two  years  from  its  establish¬ 
ment  to  1898  $138,584.10  had  been  given  by  the  Peabody  fund  in  this  way  to 
twelve  States. 

In  1879  the  continued  lack  of  interest  in  the  college  by  the  people  and  legisla¬ 
ture  of  Tennessee  precipitated  a  crisis  in  its  affairs.  The  trustees  authorized  Dr. 
Sears  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  State  of  Georgia  for  its  removal.  Only 
the  provision  of  the  constitution  of  that  State,  which  placed  every  institution  of 
learning  in  the  Commonwealth  receiving  State  aid,  under  the  general  title  of  the 
“University  of  Georgia,”  with  the  probability  of  a  divided  administration,  pre¬ 
vented  the  acceptance  of  a  very  flattering  offer  for  its  establishment  in  that  State. 
The  citizens  of  Nashville  came  to  the  rescue  and  relieved  the  school  of  several 
items  of  expense,  until  the  legislature  could  be  brought  to  more  favorable  terms, 
beside  a  generous  appropriation  for  the  repair  of  the  buildings.  Encouraged  by 
this  liberality,  the  able  and  devoted  Chancellor  Stearns  wrought  with  redoubled 
energy.  In  June,  1881-82,  the  State  agreed  to  contribute  $10,000  annually,  and 
the  sum  was  afterwards  raised  to  $15,000,  on  condition  of  a  perpetual  number  of 
scholarships  for  students  from  the  State. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  labors  and  anxieties  attending  the  final  disposal  of 
this  matter  shortened  the  life  of  Dr.  Sears.  He  died  at  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  before  the 
completion  of  the  final  organization  on  July  6,  1880.  Not  even  among  its  own 
most  illustrious  educators  has  the  South  ever  known  a  better  friend  than  this 
great  and  good  man;  great  and  good  in  breadth  of  mind,  ability  in  administra¬ 
tion,  and  indomitable  patience;  above  all,  with  the  “charity  that  never  faileth,” 
so  rarely  united  in  the  benefactors  of  States  and  nations.  His  service  of  twelve 
years  in  an  office  that  would  have  taxed  the  energies  of  the  most  competent  and 
original  educational  statesman  and  administrator  can  never  be  fully  estimated. 
It  has  already  become  a  part  of  the  lifeblood  of  many  Southern  communities  and, 
like  all  work  of  this  nature,  will  be  most  valuable  as  the  seed  corn  of  a  future 
harvest  more  abundant  as  the  years  go  on. 

Seven  years  later  the  Peabody  Normal  School  was  visited  with  an  even  more 
distressing  affliction  in  the  death  of  Chancellor  Stearns,  which  occurred  at  Nash¬ 
ville  on  April  11,  1887.  Dr.  Curry  fittingly  says  of  him:  “  For  eleven  years  and 
more  Dr.  Stearns  gave  untiringly  his  energies  and  ability  to  this  enterprise,  and 
what  it  became  was  largely  due  to  his  zeal,  his  paternal  watchfulness,  his  brave 
helpfulness,  and  his  administrative  and  scholarly  capacity.” 

The  place  of  Chancellor  Stearns  was  filled  by  the  appointment  of  Dr.  William  H. 
Payne,  on  October  5, 1887.  Dr.  Payne  was  called  from  the  University  of  Michigan, 
where  for  several  years  he  occupied  the  chair  of  pedagogics,  afterwards  filled  so 
ably  by  Dr.  Hinsdale.  Under  his  administration  the  Peabody  Normal  College,  as 
it  is  now  named,  made  rapid  strides  in  numbers  and  equipment  until  it  ranks 
with  the  best  of  the  superior  training  schools  for  teachers  in  the  country.  In  1897 
it  reported  544  students  and  25  instructors,  with  the  advantage  of  situation  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


465 


the  general  aid  and  appurtenances  of  a  college  of  established  reputation  as  a  basi® 
for  the  training  of  teachers  capable  of  assuming  the  leadership  of  all  superior 
grades  of  schools  in  the  South.  Chancellor  Payne  resigned  in  1901. 

The  period  of  the  administration  of  Dr.  Sears,  ending  in  1880,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  formative  and  most  critical  in  the  establishment  of  the  complete  common- 
school  system  in  the  South.  For  already,  as  early  as  1863,  in  West  Virginia  and 
during  the  war,  in  1864,  by  the  partial  establishment  of  a  loyal  State  government 
in  Louisiana,  and  in  all  the  Southern  States  by  the  insertion  of  a  provision  for  a 
system  for  the  public  instruction  of  all  their  people  in  the  new  revised  State  con¬ 
stitutions,  the  basis  had  been  laid  for  the  future  building  for  the  children.  Yet 
the  progress  was  very  slow  and  the  best-informed  friends  of  education  were  not 
among  the  most  hopeful  concerning  the  final  success  of  the  great  experiment. 
The  cold  figures  of  educational  statistical  tables  are  of  little  value  in  a  correct 
estimate  of  the  labor,  sacrifice,  and  “wear  and  tear  ”  of  soul  and  body  and  public 
and  private  endurance  involved  in  such  an  undertaking.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  up 
to  1880  the  new  graded  schools,  even  in  the  larger  cities  and  villages  and  county 
towns  of  all  these  States,  were  beating  uxthill,  laboring  against  a  variety  of  hin¬ 
drances  and  overshadowed  by  the  mighty  industrial,  social,  and  political  change® 
that  within  the  thirty  years  had  given  the  nation  not  only  a  new  South,  but  also  a 
new  East,  and  especially  a  greater  new  West  that  now  aspires  to  “  set  the  pitch’* 
if  the  later  American  civilization. 

And  in  the  vast  open  country,  where  nine- tenths  of  the  Southern  children  live,  the- 
progress  of  the  new  education  was  painfully  slow.  One  of  the  earliest  results  of  the 
war  was  the  drifting  of  a  great  body  of  the  most  progressive  and  able  young  men  of 
the  ex- Confederate  States  away  from  the  old  rural  life  upon  the  plantations  and  the- 
farms  not  only  to  the  more  prosperous  towns  but  largely  to  other  States.  It  has  been 
said  that  1,000,000  young  men  have  in  this  way  left  the  Southwest  for  the  Northwest 
and  the  States  beyond,  beside  another  great  crowd  who  have  gone  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  States  to  the  leading  cities  of  the  Northeast.  The  young  women  left  behind 
have  often  shown  a  remarkable  energy,  lofty  spirit,  and  honorable  ambition  to  do 
the  best  under  the  most  discouraging  circumstances  for  the  intellectual,  moral,, 
and  religious  uplift  of  the  old  home.  When  the  critical  educator  is  tempted  to 
regard  with  indifference  or  contempt  the  imperfect  results  of  the  new  educational 
life  in  such  localities,  he  may  be  reminded  to  call  up  the  story  of  patient  labor, 
weary  waiting,  and  poorly  paid  toil  that  is  a  daily  sacrifice  “hallowed  by  prayer 
without  ceasing,”  the  most  heroic  courage  and  the  tenderest  sympathy  in  behalf 
of  the  little  ones,  of  the  faithful,  often  overworked  mothers,  devoted  young  wive® 
and  sisters,  splendid  daughters,  and  “  glorious  maiden  aunts”  in  the  churches  and 
the  schools.  There  are  hundreds  of  faithful  men  and  women  toiling  in  these  little 
schoolhouses,  quietly  laying  the  foundations  of  the  better  time  coming.  And  in 
all  these  humble  temples  of  the  new  civilization  the  names  of  George  Peabody, 
Robert  C.  Winthrop,  Barnas  Sears,  Eben  S.  Stearns,  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  and  William? 
H.  Payne  will  be  held  in  deeper  reverence  as  the  years  go  on. 

The  position  of  general  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund  and  honorary  member  of  the- 
board  of  trustees,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Sears  in  1880,  was  filled  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  by  the  appointment  of  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry.  Dr.  Curry  was  a  native* 
of  Georgia,  although  he  was  brought  to  the  beautiful  mountain  region  of  Alabama, 
at  Talladega,  in  early  youth.  A  graduate  of  the  University  of  Georgia,  he  com¬ 
pleted  his  professional  education  at  the  law  school  of  Harvard  University.  As  a 
young  member  of  the  Alabama  legislature,  he  was  placed  on  the  committe  of  edu¬ 
cation,  and  was  influential  in  the  early  movement  for  a  system  of  common  schools- 
in  that  State  before  the  civil  war,  in  1854.  In  1857  he  was  elected  a  Representa¬ 
tive  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  from  his  own  district,  and  at  once- 
attracted  attention  by  a  peculiar  blending  of  classic  elegance  and  impassioned 
eloquence  in  the  debates  of  that  body.  He  followed  his  adopted  State  into  the* 
ED  1901 - 30 


466 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Confederacy,  and  after  a  brief  term  of  military  service  was  elected  to  the  Con¬ 
federate  congress,  of  which  he  remained  a  member  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
Removing  then  to  Richmond,  Va.,  he  became  a  professor  in  Richmond  College, 
an  institution  of  the  Baptist  denomination.  His  attention  was  soon  earnestly 
directed  to  the  final  movement  for  the  establishment  of  a  complete  system  of 
public  instruction  in  Virginia.  His  early  acquaintance  with  Dr.  Sears  soon 
ripened  into  a  devoted  personal  friendship,  emphasized  by  the  increasing  interest 
his  new  friend  had  so  much  at  heart.  It  is  understood,  that  Dr.  Sears  had  his 
friend  in  mind  as  the  one  man  in  the  country  best  qualified  to  succeed  himself  on 
his  retirement  ox  death.  For  obvious  reasons  in  1880  it  was  desirable  that  the 
second  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund  should  be  a  native  of  and  resident  in  the  South. 
Dr.  Curry  was  unanimously  elected  to  the  post  of  general  agent  and  afterwards 
to  an  honorary  membership  of  the  board  of  Peabody  trustees,  in  1881,  the  detailed 
business  of  the  office  during  the  interim  being  transacted,  under  the  supervision  of 
President  Winthrop  and  the  Hon.  A.  H.  H.  Stuwart,  of  Virginia,  by  Mrs.  Fulz, 
the  daughter  of  Dr.  Sears. 

The  opening  administration  of  Dr.  Curry,  as  agent  of  the  board  of  trustees,  was 
signalized  by  a  new  departure  in  the  x>olicy  of  distributing  the  funds  of  the  asso¬ 
ciation.  The  progress  of  the  common-school  movement  in  ail  the  Southern  States 
brought  to  the  board  more  forcibly  than  ever  the  necessity  of  better  provision  for 
meeting  increased  demand  for  competent  teachers.  It  was  now  fifteen  years  since 
the  close  of  the  war,  and  many  of  the  devoted  men  and  women  who  had  bravely 
come  forth  as  volunteers  in  the  teaching  force  in  the  schoolroom  had  passed  away 
or  were  forced  into  retirement  by  age  and  declining  health.  Already  a  new  army 
of  graduates  from  the  graded  schools  and  reviving  seminaries  and  colleges  were 
seeking  the  especial  preparation  essential  to  success  in  the  still  novel  profession 
of  graded-school  instructor.  The  Peabody  Normal  School  at  Nashville  was  not 
yet  in  a  position  to  accommodate  more  than  250  students.  The  great  necessity 
seemed  to  be  the  establishment  of  normal  schools  in  every  State,  following  the 
habit  of  all  the  Northern  Commonwealths.  Besides  this,  it  was  held  that  the 
superintendents  of  the  city  and  village  schools  should  be  required  to  form  a  teach¬ 
ers'  department  from  their  higher  class,  which  might  often  assume  the  work  of  a 
fitting  school  for  college,  with  an  opportunity  for  observation  and  practice  in  the 
management  of  schools  in  all  the  grades  below.  The  teachers’  institute  and  con¬ 
ventions,  State  and  local,  were  to  be  utilized  for  the  same  purpose  as  in  the  North, 
especially  for  the  benefit  of  the  teachers  in  the  rural  schools  who  had  been  unable 
to  profit  by  the  other  agencies.  An  increasing  number  of  the  more  ambitious 
teachers,  often  at  great  sacrifice  of  energy  and  with  very  moderate  means,  were 
spending  their  vacations  at  the  great  summer  schools  of  instruction  in  the  East 
and  West  or  in  a  tour  abroad,  and  the  country  already  was  feeling  its  way  toward 
the  annual  Chautauqua  Assembly,  its  founder,  the  present  Bishop  Vincent,  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  being  a  native  of  Alabama. 

In  this  state  of  affairs  it  was  decided  that  the  income  of  the  Peabody  fund,  now 
somewhat  diminished  by  the  declining  rates  of  interest,  should  be  largely  concen¬ 
trated  upon  the  work  of  increasing  and  improving  the  entire  teaching  force  in  all 
the  Southern  States.  The  allowance  of  $200  per  annum  for  two  years  to  the  stu- 
dents.of  the  Peabody  Normal  College  was  reduced  to  $100.  Dr.  Curry  went  South 
to  address  the  different  legislatures  in  behalf  of  the  immediate  establishment  of 
State  normal  schools,  with  a  promise  of  aid  from  the  Peabody  fund  for  several 
years.  Dr.  Sears  had  already  advocated  this  work  in  his  conferences  with  Dr. 
Henry  Ruffner  and  Dr.  Curry  in  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  public  instruction 
in  Virginia,  1870.  Dr.  Curry  at  once  came  to  the  front  as  the  man  of  men  to  deal 
with  the  legislatures  of  these  States.  His  long  political  experience,  glowing  elo¬ 
quence,  educational  wisdom,  and  admirable  blending  of  “  fiery  zeal  ”  and  conserva¬ 
tive  policy  lifted  him  at  once  to  a  position  above  governors  and  legislators  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1876. 


467 


made  him  the  “  guide,  philosopher,  and  friend  ”  both  of  educators  and  statesmen. 
It  will  not  he  known  until  the  death  of  this  foremost  of  Southern  educational 
reformers  how  great  has  been  his  influence  during  the  years  since  the  acceptance 
of  his  present  office.  To  this  work  has  been  added  the  agency  of  the  Slater  fund, 
of  $1,000,000,  for  the  education  of  the  colored  race,  established  by  Mr.  John  F. 
Slater,  of  Norwich,  Conn.  It  is  said  that  Br.  Curry  has  addressed  a  larger  num¬ 
ber  of  legislative  bodies  as  a  private  citizen  than  any  man  now  living  in  the  Union. 
These  addresses  would  form  one  of  the  most  valuable  additions  to  the  educational 
literature  of  the  country.  His  personal  address  and  progressive  and  masterful 
handling  of  all  matters  connected  with  education,  with  his  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  conditions  of  public  opinion  in  all  the  Southern  States  and  their  prominent 
localities,  have  borne  abundant  fruit  and  were  never  so  valuable  as  now.  Each 
of  the  Southern  States,  in  response  to  the  powerful  appeals  of  Dr.  Curry  and  other 
friends  of  education,  established  State  normal  schools  of  the  American  type.  In 
several  States  more  than  one  of  these  schools  are  now  supported,  sometimes  by 
the  policy  of  subsidizing  academical  seminaries  for  this  purpose,  although  it  seems 
that  the  normal  element  is  more  evident  in  these  schools  than  in  some  of  the  North¬ 
ern  seminaries  of  this  description.  The  summer  school  of  instruction,  the  Chau¬ 
tauqua  assembly,  the  teachers’  associations,  local,  city,  and  State,  have  all  risen  to 
importance  since  1880,  and  the  teachers  of  the  Southern  schools,  besides  a  general 
association  of  their  own,  find  a  valuable  element  of  improvement  in  the  annual 
meetings  of  the  National  Educational  Association. 

The  labors  of  Dr.  Curry,  as  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund,  were  interrupted  in 
1885  by  his  retirement  from  the  office,  caused  by  his  appointment  as  minister  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  the  court  of  Spain  by  President  Grover 
Cleveland.  During  his  three  years’  absence  from  the  country  the  affairs  of  the 
fund  were  well  directed  by  Dr.  Samuel  Green,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  as  secretary  of 
the  board  of  trustees,  in  constant  cooperation  with  Mr.  Winthrop,  both  residents 
of  that  city.  Dr.  Green  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  men  of  good  work  and  good 
will  in  a  city  so  rich  in  men  and  women  of  that  munificent  type.  The  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  Peabody  fund  suffered  no  decline  under  the  vigilant  supervision  of 
two  such  devoted  friends  as  himself  and  the  venerable  president.  Dr.  Green  vis¬ 
ited  the  Southern  schools  aided  by  the  fund,  and  commended  himself  to  all  with 
whom  he  was  brought  in  contact.  On  the  return  of  Dr.  Curry,  induced  by  the 
increasing  danger  to  the  health  of  himself  and  family  in  Madrid,  he  was  summoned 
again  to  what,  since  1888,  has  been  his  complete  work.  In  the  agency  of  the  John 
F.  Slater  fund,  made  vacant  by  the  appointment  as  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Church  South  of  that  early  apostle  of  the  education  of  the  colored  race  and 
among  the  foremost  leaders  in  the  work  of  collegiate  and  popular  education,  Dr. 
Atticus  G.  Haygood,  this  position  was  offered  to  Dr.  Curry,  and  for  the  past  thir¬ 
teen  years  both  these  great  benefactions  have  been  administered  in  the  only  way  by 
which  such  a  trust  can  be  effectively  used  by  a  man  of  such  commanding  ability 
and  executive  capacity  for  the  work  behind  it  that  every  dollar  expended  goes  to 
its  place,  charged  with  a  vitality  that  reenforces  the  mental,  civic,  and  religious 
life  of  a  community. 

In  1895  the  last  of  all  its  great  afflictions  came  to  the  hoard  of  Peabody  trustees 
in  the  death  of  its  great  president,  Hon.  Robert  C.  Winthrop.  He  died  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  November  14,  1895,  in  his  eighty- fifth  year.  His  monument  bears  the 
inscription— of  which  his  son  and  biographer  well  says,  “  I  doubt  if  he  could  be 
better  described  in  fifteen  words  ” — “Eminent  as  a  scholar,  an  orator,  a  statesman, 
and  a  philanthropist— above  all,  a  Christian.” 

The  recent  biography  of  Mr.  Winthrop,  edited  by  his  son  who  bears  his  honored 
name,  with  the  testimonials  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  the  national 
Bureau  of  Education,  the  Teachers’  Association  of  the  State  of  Texas,  the  dedi¬ 
cation  of  the  State  Normal  College  for  white  girls  in  South  Carolina  to  his 


468 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


memory  by  the  adoption  of  his  name  and  the  establishment  of  an  annual  memorial 
service,  the  press  everywhere,  and  the  affectionate  tribute  of  Dr.  Curry,  his  asso¬ 
ciate  and  devoted  friend,  relieve  this  essay  from  the  necessity  of  enlarging  on  the 
life  and  services  of  this  foremost  citizen  of  his  native  metropolis,  the  most  widely 
known  of  American  public  men  abroad,  and,  beyond  all  American  statesmen,  cele¬ 
brated  by  the  consecration  of  the  last  twenty- seven  years  of  his  life  to  the  great 
work  of  educational  reform,  as  president  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Peabody 
education  fund  for  the  Southern  States. 

Robert  Charles  Winthrop  was  born  in  Boston  in  1809,  a  direct  descendant,  in 
the  fifth  generation,  from  the  first  governor  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony, 
John  Winthrop,  whose  biography  he  wrote.  Graduated  from  Harvard  Univer¬ 
sity  at  the  age  of  19,  he  studied  law  in  the  office  of  Daniel  Webster,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  22.  In  1834,  at  25,  he  was  in  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts,  where  he  remained  for  six  years,  serving  as  speaker  of  the  house 
of  representatives  until  1840.  At  the  age  of  31  he  was  sent  to  Washington  as  a 
representative  of  Boston  to  the  House  of  Representatives  in  the  National  Con¬ 
gress,  serving  five  terms,  ten  years,  until  1850.  While  in  the  Massachusetts  legis¬ 
lature,  as  chairman  of  the  joint  committee  on  education,  in  1837,  he  reported  the 
series  of  enactments  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Massachusetts 
board  of  education  and  the  appointment  of  Horace  Mann  as  its  secretary.  Later 
Mr.  Winthrop  also  assisted  in  the  same  way  in  the  founding  of  the  first  State 
normal  school  in  the  United  States  at  Lexington,  Mass.  His  addresses  on  educa¬ 
tion  were  notable,  even  among  his  associates  in  public  life,  of  whom  Horace  Mann 
said  there  was  no  man  of  great  public  eminence  in  New  England  during  that 
generation  who  had  not  served  as  a  teacher  or  effectual  friend  of  the  public  schools. 
Entering  Congress  in  1840,  he  at  once  became  the  foremost  representative  of  the 
Whig  party  in  that  body,  and  in  1847  was  elected  to  the  Speakership  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  In  1849  he  failed  of  reelection  to  the  same  office  by  three 
votes.  On  July  30,  1850,  he  was  appointed  to  membership  of  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States,  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of  Daniel  Webster,  who  had  recently 
become  Secretary  of  State  under  the  Administration  of  Millard  Fillmore. 

On  the  24th  of  April,  1851,  Mr.  Winthrop  permanently  retired  from  political  life 
by  failure  of  election  as  Senator  of  the  United  States.  The  crisis  in  the  growing 
contention  between  the  free  and  slave  States  of  the  Union  had  now  reached  an 
imminent  stage,  prophetic  of  the  final  attempt  at  separation  in  1860-61.  His  politi¬ 
cal  opponent,  the  representative  of  the  two  political  organizations  which,  in  1856, 
appeared  as  the  Republican  party  of  the  nation,  Mr.  Charles  Sumner,  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  from  Massachusetts  by  a  coalition  vote,  then  entered 
public  life,  in  which  he  continued  until  his  death.  Mr.  Winthrop ’s  defeat  as  can¬ 
didate  for  governor  of  Massachusetts,  to  which  office  he  would  have  been  elected 
had  the  present  method  of  choice  by  a  plurality  instead  of  a  majority  vote  above 
all  opposing  candidates  been  in  operation,  caused  his  final  retirement  as  a  candi¬ 
date  for  any  public  position  from  public  life  at  the  age  of  42,  although  he  occa¬ 
sionally  appeared  on  the  political  platform,  and  was  doubtless  offered  more  than 
once  opportunities  for  official  preferment.  While  his  patriotism  and  devotion 
to  the  Union  and  freedom  were  always  understood,  he  was  by  temperament, 
training,  and  public  experience  a  liberal  conservative,  and,  like  all  men  of  that 
type,  was  in  retirement  during  the  turbulent  years  from  1850  to  1870. 

But  this  defeat  in  what  promised  to  be  one  of  the  most  successful  careers  of 
political  statesmanship  in  a  generation  was  a  providential  event  for  the  cause  that 
lies  below  all  public  affairs,  the  education  and  training  of  the  children  and  youth 
for  sovereign  American  citizenship.  At  once,  as  if  relieved  of  a  temporary  burden 
in  the  form  of  high  political  station,  Mr.  Winthrop  rose  to  the  full  stature  of  per¬ 
haps  the  loftiest  distinction  known  to  our  American  order  of  society,  the  supreme 
statesmanship  of  a  great  man  in  private  station.  Above  the  names  of  all,  save  a 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


469 


few  leaders  of  political  history,  will  shine  forth  the  names  of  George  Peabody  and 
Robert  C.  Winthrop  through  all  time  in  the  sixteen  great  Southern  Common¬ 
wealths  of  this  Republic. 

During  the  sixteen  years  immediately  following  his  retirement  from  public  life 
Mr.  Winthrop  was  one  of  the  most  active  men  in  America,  at  home,  engaged  in 
almost  every  important  question  of  social  and  educational  importance  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  highest  public  spirit  and  character.  His  numerous  addresses, 
now  published  in  several  stout  volumes,  are  not  only  models  of  the  noblest  elo¬ 
quence,  but  also  a  diary  of  the  nation’s  progress  in  education,  prosperity,  and 
practical  religion.  It  is  highly  probable  that  during  George  Peabody’s  life  he  was 
the  adviser  and  chief  American  repository  of  his  plans  for  the  expenditure  of 
nearly  $10,000,000,  especially  for  the  noblest  benefaction  of  all,  the  $3,000,000 
located  in  the  Peabody  education  fund.  From  the  memorable  day  in  1866, 
when  he  was  visited  by  George  Peabody  at  his  home,  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  and 
listened  to  the  plan  of  this  “  great  citizen  of  the  world  and  brother  of  mankind” 
concerning  the  use  of  this  fund  for  the  children  and  youth  of  the  South,  and  the 
first  meeting,  February  8,  1867,  when,  as  president  of  the  board  of  trustees,  he 
presided  in  an  “upper  chamber”  at  Willard’s  Hotel,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
during  the  entire  twenty-seven  years,  until  his  death,  November  14,  1897,  Mr. 
Winthrop  lived  for  the  one  care,  the  presidency,  whose  administration  he 
declared  “the  greatest  honor  of  his  life.”  That  life  fully  justifies  the  final  words 
of  his  epitaph,  “Above  all,  a  Christian.” 

It  will  probably  never  be  known  to  what  an  extent  he  directed  the  mind  of 
George  Peabody  in  the  choice  of  the  board  of  trustees  or  the  general  policy  of 
their  administration.  It  is,  however,  well  understood  that  both  the  two  agents 
and  the  two  presidents  of  the  Peabody  Normal  College  were  in  constant  commu¬ 
nication  with  Mr.  Winthrop,  and  in  no  known  instance  in  any  vital  movement 
differed  from  his  opinion.  In  the  several  important  departures  of  the  board,  like 
the  original  dedication  of  the  fund  to  the  upbuilding  of  the  common  school  for 
both  races  and  all  classes,  in  the  choice  of  central  strategic  educational  points  as 
the  bases  of  operation  in  all  the  States,  in  striking  first  the  cities  and  larger  vil¬ 
lages,  in  the  subsequent  determination  to  confine  the  distribution  largely  to  the 
training  of  teachers,  including  the  founding  of  the  Peabody  Normal  College  at 
Nashville,  and  the  subsidizing  of  State  normal  schools  for  both  races,  and  aiding 
the  States  in  the  support  of  teachers’  institutes,  in  the  hearty  support  of  the  move¬ 
ment  in  Congress  for  national  aid  to  education;  in  all  these  and  in  other  only  less 
important  matters  Mr.  Winthrop’s  judgment,  experience  in  public  affairs,  large 
acquaintance  with  distinguished  men  at  home  and  abroad,  and  especially  his  devo¬ 
tion  to  the  work  which  he  regarded  his  highest  opportunity  to  serve  his  country, 
the  work  on  which  his  exalted  reputation  will  finally  rest,  his  vigilant  and  judi¬ 
cial  spirit  was  always  evident.  His  complete  biography,  not  yet  written,  will 
reveal  to  the  public  men  of  the  country  an  ideal  of  patriotic  service  so  exalted 
that  the  gift  of  George  Peabody  would  have  been  fully  justified  had  it  only  left 
to  the  people  the  memory  of  such  a  common-school  board  as  the  trustees  of  the 
fund  and  the  twenty-seven  years  consecration  to  the  duties  of  its  presidency  by  a 
man  who,  in  any  other  than  a  revolutionary  period,  would  only  have  stopped  short 
of  the  Presidency  in  a  political  career  of  the  highest  order  and  most  illustrious 
fashion. 

As  companion  pieces  in  American  educational  history  to  the  Peabody  education 
fund,  we  may  here  fitly  make  mention  of  two  subsequent  donations,  especially  for 
the  schooling  of  the  colored  race,  the  John  F.  Slater  donation  of  $1,000,000  in  1883, 
and  the  later  gift  of  $1,000,000  by  Daniel  Hand  to  the  American  Missionary  Asso¬ 
ciation  for  a  similar  purpose.  In  1883  Mr.  John  F.  Slater,  of  Norwich,  Conn.,  a 
private  citizen  largely  engaged  in  manufactures,  “  in  view  of  the  apprehensions 
felt  by  all  thoughtful  persons  ”  for  the  education  of  the  colored  citizens,  placed  in 


470 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  hands  of  a  board  of  trustees  $1,000,000  “for  the  uplifting  of  the  lately  emanci¬ 
pated  population  of  the  Southern  States  and  their  posterity,  by  conferring  on  them 
the  blessings  of  a  Christian  civilization.”  He  sought  to  provide  “not  only  for 
their  own  sakes,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  our  common  country,  means  of  such 
education  as  shall  tend  to  make  them  good  men  and  good  citizens,  by  training  in 
just  notions  of  duty  toward  God  and  man  in  the  light  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.” 
He  advised  “  on  lines  of  operation  adapted  to  the  condition  of  things,  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  such  methods  as  are  most  effectively  useful  in  promoting  the  training  of 
teachers.”  The  trust  was  to  be  administered  in  no  partisan,  sectional,  or  sectarian 
fashion,  but  in  the  interest  of  a  generous  patriotism  and  enlightened  Christian 
spirit.  By  “Christian  education,”  Mr.  Slater  takes  especial  care  to  explain, 

4  4  truly  leavened  with  a  predominant  salutary  Christian  influence,  such  as  is  found 
in  the  common-school  teaching  of  Massachusetts  or  Connecticut,  with  no  need  of 
limiting  the  gifts  of  the  fund  to  denominational  institutions.”  Neither  principal 
nor  interest  of  the  fund  was  to  be  expended  for  land  or  buildings.  Ex-President 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  was  appointed  president  of  a  board  of  trustees, 
chosen  on  the  same  principle  as  the  Peabody  board.  Indeed  it  is  highly  probable 
that  this  and  other  large  gifts  for  education  in  the  South  were  suggested  and  often 
determined  by  the  great  success  in  the  administration  of  the  benefaction  of  Mr. 
Peabody. 

With  great  wisdom  Dr.  Atticus  G.  Haygood,  of  Georgia,  was  appointed  as  the 
first  agent  of  the  Slater  fund'.  Dr.  Haygood  was  a  native  and  resident  of  the  State 
of  Georgia.  He  came  of  a  family  well  known  for  its  interest  in  education  and 
religion  in  the  Methodist  Church  South.  His  brother  served  as  a  trustee  of  the 
public  schools  of  Atlanta,  Ga.  His  sister,  Miss  Laura  Haygood,  for  several  years 
was  beyond  question  the  most  distinguished  woman  connected  with  the  public- 
school  system  of  the  South,  as  principal  of  the  Girls’  High  School  of  Atlanta, 
founded  by  Superintendent  Mallon.  Miss  Haygood  for  more  than  the  ten  years 
before  her  death  was  engaged  in  an  important  missionary  work  connected  with 
the  higher  education  of  Chinese  girls. 

Dr.  Haygood,  at  the  time  of  his  appointment,  was  president  of  Emory  College, 
Georgia,  the  principal  institution  of  the  higher  education  for  young  men  in  the 
Methodist  denomination  in  that  State.  He  had  already  distinguished  himself  as 
a  young  man  of  great  vigor  of  mind,  breadth  of  view,  and  administrative  capacity 
in  his  college  presidency.  His  attention  was  early  directed  to  the  study  of  the 
educational  status  of  the  colored  people,  and  in  his  admirable  book,  Our  Brother 
in  Black,  he  outlined  the  most  effective  method  of  dealing  with  the  educational 
as  well  as  the  social  and  political  situation.  He  took  the  field  as  a  lecturer  in 
defense  of  the  educational  training  of  the  negro,  and  at  great  hazard  of  opposition 
in  high  social,  civil,  and  ecclesiastical  quarters,  persisted,  becoming  widely  known 
in  all  the  educational  centers  of  the  North.  He  resigned  the  presidency  of  the 
large  denominational  college  to  accept  the  agency  of  the  John  F.  Slater  fund  in 
1884.  His  reports  as  agent  are  among  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  lit¬ 
erature  of  this  very  difficult  subject,  combining  a  broad,  Christrian  catholicity 
and  enthusiastic  patriotism  and  an  all-abounding  charity  in  his  discussion  of  a 
question  beset  with  temptations  to  every  form  of  ignorance,  prejudice,  and  sec¬ 
tional  contention.  His  advocacy  proved  such  an  eminent  success  that  it  finally 
brought  around  the  entire  common-school  public  of  the  South  to  his  ideas  and 
secured  his  election  to  a  bishopric  in  the  Methodist  Church  South  at  an  earlier  age 
than  any  of  his  predecessors.  His  labors  and  trials  in  these  efforts  seemed  to  have 
exhausted  even  his  matchless  physical  vitality  and  he  died  a  short  time  after  his 
appointment  at  the  end  of  a  short  term  of  service  in  California,  One  of  his 
future  plans  was  the  establishment  of  a  great  college  for  white  girls  in  the  South, 
on  the  plan  of  Wellesley,  Smith,  and  Vassar,  and  others  well  known  in  the  North, 
so  complete  that  it  might  meet  the  demands  of  the  most  ambitious  student,  and  so 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


471 


well  endowed  for  student  aid  that  no  worthy  girl  should  be  turned  away.  This, 
with  its  broad  plan  and  great  expectations,  was  dissipated  by  his  early  death. 
But  his  name  in  his  State  has  connected  the  years  of  his  life  with  works  of  perma¬ 
nent  value:  and  one  of  its  most  valuable  lessons  is  a  proof  that  the  leading  class 
of  the  Southern  people  has  an  open  mind  to  genuine  criticism  and  is  not  behind 
the  corresponding  class  anywhere  in  its  full  appreciation  of  an  educational  career 
in  which  the  most  advanced  ideas  are  blended  with  a  single-minded  consecration, 
a  dauntless  courage,  and  a  faith  in  that  “sober  second  thought”  of  the  people 
which  in  great  national  emergencies  is  perhaps  the  best  earthly  representative 
of  the  voice  of  Gk>d. 

On  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Haygood  and  upon  the  return  of  Dr.  Curry  from  his 
ministry  to  Spain  and  his  resumption  of  the  office  of  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund, 
the  corresponding  presidency  of  the  J.  F.  Slater  fund  was  offered  to  and  accepted 
by  him.  This  fund  seems  destined  to  combine  the  work  of  industrial  training 
with  the  education  of  the  mind  and  character  as  the  central  purpose  of  the  com¬ 
mon  school.  For  the  last  few  years  the  Slater  fund  has  thus  been  administered, 
giving  by  annual  appropriations  an  opportunity  for  the  establishment  both  of  a 
department  of  industrial  training  and  the  better  education  of  teachers  for  the  pub¬ 
lic  schools.  In  this  way  many  of  the  large  colleges  and  universities,  supported  by 
the  different  religious  bodies  of  the  North,  which  formerly  had  not  seen  their  way 
to  take  up  the  expensive  department  of  manual  training  and  household  work  for 
girls,  have  been  enabled  by  the  aid  of  a  stated  annual  contribution  from  this 
fund  to  embark  on  this  much-needed  new  departure  in  the  secondary  and  higher 
education  of  colored  students  of  both  sexes.  From  1884,  the  first  distribution,  to 
1894, 8439,981.78 — a  sum  nearly  half  the  original  donation  of  Mr.  Slater — had  been 
applied  under  the  wise  direction  of  Dr.  Haygood  and  Dr.  Gurry;  in  1891  the  sum 
being  §50,650.  The  combination  of  this  system  of  subsidizing  two  classes  of 
schools  under  the  oversight  of  a  common  superintendent,  and  such  a  superin¬ 
tendent  as  Dr.  Curry,  now  by  common  consent  the  foremost  educational  states¬ 
man  of  the  South,  provides  a  more  effective  administration  with  a  considerable 
saving  of  money. 

The  Slater  fund  has  made  an  important  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  new 
education  by  a  series  of  able  papers,  published  in  addition  to  its  annual  reports. 
The  general  scope  of  these  publications,  as  of  all  the  reports  and  the  publications 
of  this  charity,  is  well  stated  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Curry:  “The  trustees  of  the 
Slater  fund  believe  that  the  experimental  period  in  the  education  of  the  blacks  is 
drawing  to  a  close.  Certain  principles  that  were  disputed  thirty  years  age  appear 
to  be  generally  recognized  as  sound.  In  the  next  thirty  years  better  systems  will 
undeniably  prevail  and  the  aid  of  separate  States  is  likely  to  be  more  and  more 
freely  bestowed.  There  will  also  be  abundant  reasons  for  continued  generosity 
on  the  part  of  individuals  and  communities.  It  is  to  encourage  and  assist  the 
workers  and  the  thinkers  that  these  papers  will  be  published.” 

The  Mission  Schools  for  the  Colored  Race  Established  by  the  Churches 
and  People  of  the  Northern  States. 

The  value  of  the  great  work  in  behalf  of  the  education  of  the  freedmen  during 
the  civil  war  under  the  protection  of  the  American  armies  and  the  Freedmen ’s 
Bureau,  continued  by  the  Peabody  and  Slater  education  funds,  and  through  the 
past  thirty  years  by  private  individuals,  churches,  and  benevolent  associations, 
can  by  no  means  be  rightly  judged  if  confined  to  its  primary  and  direct  results  on 
the  10,000,000  or  more  of  these  people.  Its  indirect  results,  never  so  eminent  as 
to-day,  were  in  many  ways  more  important.  Two  of  these  were,  first,  the  waking 
of  the  entire  mass  of  the  5,000,000  colored  people  in  the  South  pn  their  emancipa¬ 
tion  to  the  necessity  of  independent  labor  and  preparation  for  their  new  American 
citizenship;  and,  second,  the  inserting  of  a  provision  for  popular  education  in  the 


472 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


revised  constitution  of  every  reconstructed  State  by  the  years  1870-1873,  only  eight 
years  after  the  collapse  of  the  war.  It  now  remains  to  follow  out  the  enlargement 
of  this  stream  of  tendency  during  the  thirty-five  years  since  the  advent  of  peace 
by  a  brief  account  of  a  large  number  of  institutions  of  learning  of  a  type  never 
hitherto  established  for  the  uplift  of  a  class  in  any  respect  similar  to  the  emanci¬ 
pated  slaves  of  the  United  States  in  1865-1900.  There  is  no  more  valuable  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  American  innate  genius  and  ready  tact  at  seizing  a  grand 
opportunity  and  adjusting  old  agencies  and  methods  to  novel  occasions  than  the 
very  interesting  type  of  seminaries  which,  under  various  and  sometimes  exagger¬ 
ated  and  inappropriate  names,  have  been  built  up  during  the  past  thirty-five  years 
in  our  16  Southern  States  for  the  mental,  moral,  and  industrial  training  of  the 
children  of  the  colored  people. 

Tho  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1896  contains 
the  names  of  178  of  these  institutions,  which  include  all  grades  of  schooling,  with 
40,127  students,  of  whom  25,092  are  in  the  elementary,  13,563  in  the  secondary,  and 
1,455  in  the  collegiate,  4,672  in  the  manual  training,  1,319  in  the  professional,  and 
12,341  in  tho  industrial  departments  and  grades.  These  schools  are  taught  by  1 ,626 
teachers,  and  contain  209,801  volumes  in  libraries,  valued  at  $166,574.  Their  school 
properties  amount  to  $7,524,948,  and  their  annual  income  is  $1,117,569,  of  which 
$289,845  is  from  State  and  municipal  aid,  $124,481  from  tuition  fees,  $92,297  from 
permanent  funds,  and  $610,946  from  “  unclassified  sources.”  A  large  majority  of 
these  schools  are  of  the  character  above  described,  graded  seminaries  with  depart¬ 
ments  for  the  secondary,  higher,  industrial,  and  sometimes  normal  and  professional 
training.  Three-fourths  the  income  is  probably  received  from  contributions  of 
N orthern  people;  special  benefactions  and  bequests  amounting  to  $323,718.  These, 
with  the  exception  of  a  limited  number  of  public  high  and  State  normal  and  indus¬ 
trial  schools,  are  supported  from  the  North,  under  the  direction  of  the  missionary 
associations  of  the  different  Christian  churches,  or  occasionally  dependent  on  pri¬ 
vate  contributions.  A  few  of  the  higher  are  subsidized  by  the  Southern  State  gov¬ 
ernments.  Their  teachers  are  largely  white,  drawn  from  all  portions  of  the 
Union,  and  sometimes  from  Canada,  and  the  body  contains  a  fair  proportion  of 
instructors  who  would  be  regarded  anywhere  as  experts.  Besides  these,  there  is 
even  a  greater  number  of  smaller  local  schools,  largely  built  up  and  supported  by 
the  zeal  and  contributions  of  private  individuals,  single  churches,  and  associations 
from  the  North.  The  reports  of  this  class  of  educational  institutions  are  often  diffi¬ 
cult  of  attainment  and  not  always  correct,  as  was  the  case  with  all  schools  in  the 
South  before  the  civil  war.  A  large  expenditure  of  money  and  labor  besides  that 
now  reported  in  the  annual  statements  of  educational  statistics  by  the  national 
Bureau  of  Education  is  always  going  on,  of  which  no  permanent  public  record  is 
made. 

The  most  effective  feature  of  these  schools  thus  far  has  been  the  training  of  a 
large  number  of  colored  youth  of  both  sexes  for  the  work  of  teaching  in  the  com¬ 
mon  schools  of  the  colored  race.  There  were,  in  1896,  1,429,713  colored  children 
and  youth  in  attendance  on  the  common  schools  of  the  South,  and,  outside  of  a 
few  cities,  their  teachers  are  of  their  own  race.  When  we  remember  that  in  1885 
the  illiteracy  of  the  colored  population  of  the  South  was  almost  universal,  the 
fact  that  native  teachers  of  any  grade  in  sufficient  number  to  preside  over  this 
multitude  can  be  provided  is  surely  encouraging.  And  although  the  schools  in 
which  these  teachers  were  educated,  or,  at  least,  three-fourths  of  the  whole  num¬ 
ber,  are  not  public  and  in  no  way  dependent  on  State  or  municipal  aid  for  their 
support,  yet  their  intimate  relation  to  the  common  schools  in  the  training  of 
these  teachers,  and  to  the  general  community  in  their  professional  and  industrial 
departments,  justifies  such  brief  notice  as  the  limits  of  this  essay  permit  of  their 
organization,  support,  success,  and  possible  future  in  all  these  States. 

The  first  movement  in  the  direction  of  the  peculiar  training  of  the  children  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH— 1861  TO  1816. 


473 


youth  of  the  freedmen,  including  many  adults,  in  the  elementary  schools  for  let¬ 
ters,  discipline,  and,  finally,  industrial  and  domestic  life,  was  such  as  could  be 
improvised  by  the  imperious  conditions  of  the  situation.  The  work  was  done 
during  the  war  in  the  wake  of  advancing  armies,  under  the  military  protection 
and  the  outward  supervision  necessary  to  success.  Before  the  close  of  the  war 
the  organization  of  the  school  life  of  these  people  was  left  to  associations  or  indi¬ 
viduals.  Under  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  a  general  superintendent  of  these  schools 
was  appointed  for  each  State,  with  subordinate  agents  for  the  different  localities. 
This  supervision  was  often  of  the  most  informal  sort,  principally  for  the  purpose  of 
protection  where  military  aid  could  be  afforded.  But  after  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau  was  abolished  the  schools  that  stood  on  no  firm  foundations  generally 
closed  by  default,  leaving  such  as  remained  in  charge  of  special  associations  and 
individuals  to  whom  they  could  look  for  support. 

In  process  of  time  two  types  of  school  appeared,  more  and  more  decisively  dis¬ 
tinct  as  the  years  have  gone  by.  The  majority  have  been  taken  under  church 
and  sectarian  protection,  organized  and  conducted  virtually  in  imitation  of  the 
denominational  academy  and  college  of  both  sections  of  the  period  at  which 
the  war  broke  out.  Many  have  been  named  academies  and  institutes,  and 
several  dozen,  perhaps  more,  colleges  and  universities.  The  teachers  of  this 
latter  class  have  taken  the  name  of  professors  and  presidents,  their  courses  of 
college  study  have  been  copied  almost  verbatim  from  the  corresponding  class 
of  seminaries  of  the  higher  education  in  the  Northern  and  Southern  States,  and  in 
some  cases  college  degrees  have  been  conferred.  And  although  by  the  necessities 
of  the  case  an  overwhelming  majority  of  their  pupils  could  only  be  instructed  in 
elementary  studies  of  a  low  grade,  yet  these  institutions,  generally  designated  as 
the  graded  schools,  colleges,  and  universities  of  half  a  century  ago,  have  been 
gradually  found  insufficient  for  the  present  need  and  actual  conditions  of  these 
people.  A  large  portion  of  the  reliable  work  done  in  them  has  been  of  a  pro¬ 
nounced  religious,  moral,  and  social  character.  In  all  the  larger  institutions  the 
pupils  and  their  white  teachers  have  been  housed  together,  living,  indeed,  in  a 
relation  in  which  the  school,  church,  and  family  have  been  blended  in  the  way 
the  manners,  customs,  and  habits  of  this  peculiar  order  of  household  demanded. 

Up4o  1880,  with  a  few  exceptions,  there  was  no  serious  attempt  to  combine 
industrial  training  of  any  sort  with  the  schooling  of  the  boys,  and  the  girls  were 
rather  employed  than  instructed  in  such  household  duties  as  would  reduce  the 
expense  of  their  living  and  improve  their  present  crude  habits  of  home  life.  The 
religious  exercises  and  moral  training  of  both  sexes  have  been  of  a  decidedly  pro¬ 
nounced  character,  such  as  is  not  often  found  in  Christian  families.  A  supervision 
of  the  moral  deportment  of  students  has  been  maintained  that  would  neither  be 
desirable  nor  necessary  in  “Christian  schools”  of  a  similar  grade  among  the 
white  race.  Indeed,  the  declared  function  of  these  seminaries  has  been  of  the 
missionary  type.  They  have  been  supported  largely  by  the  churches  as  “  Christian 
schools.”  Their  teachers  in  most  cases  have  not  only  been  required  to  present  the 
ordinary  testimonial  of  good  moral  character,  but  also  that  of  a  personal  profes¬ 
sional  church  membership  of  the  Protestant  “  Evangelical  ”  type,  and' their  boards 
of  management  have  almost  invariably  included  at  least  a  commanding  majority 
of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  some  distinct  religious  body  of  this  Christian  communion. 

On  the  other  hand,  beginning  with  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  Insti¬ 
tute,  at  Hampton,  Ya.,  a  different  type  of  school  has  grown  up,  and  with  some 
changes  ultimated  itself  in  the  new  State  normal  and  industrial  colleges  now 
maintained  by  nearly  every  Southern  Commonwealth.  The  Hampton  school  was 
organized  and  became  essentially  what  it  is  through  the  presidency  of  Gen.  S.  C. 
Armstrong.  This  remarkable  man  came  to  the  work  from  a  long  experience 
among  a  people  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  closely  resembling  the  negro.  During 
the  war  and  for  several  years  after  the  advent  of  peace  he  commanded  the  colored 


474 


EDUCATION"  REPORT,  19001901, 


troops  and  was  trained  in  the  general  service  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau.  He  may 
truly  be  said  to  have  been  the  chief  author  of  an  original  type  of  schooling  for  this 
people.  The  basis  of  the  organization  at  Hampton  was  industrial,  elementary 
educational,  practically  Christian,  with  military  discipline.  While  directly  reli¬ 
gious  and  severely  moral  in  the  general  sense  implied  in  “the  common  Chris¬ 
tianity,”  it  was  in  small  degree  denominational,  but  slightly  sectarian,  and  dealt 
sparingly  with  the  methods  of  the  regulation  church  and  special  agencies  for  the 
character  training  of  the  pupils.  The  discipline  was  maintained  under  strict  mili¬ 
tary  jurisdiction,  and  the  problem  of  school  government  in  that  way  was  effectu¬ 
ally  solved,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the  teaching  force.  The  studies  of  the 
ordinary  college  course  were  not  admitted,  and  the  institution  was  confined  to  the 
acquiring  of  a  sound  English  education  of  the  superior  elementary  and  public 
high-school  type.  A  skilled  expert  in  normal  instruction  was  employed  from  the 
first,  and  great  stress  was  laid  on  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  schooling  which 
was  needed  both  in  the  graded  and  ungraded  schools  of  the  South.  The  basal  idea 
of  Hampton  was  a  school  that  should  be  a  model  of  the  life  of  a  good  American 
man  or  woman  destined  for  American  citizenship.  The  whole  organization  of  the 
Hampton  Institute  was  pitched  on  the  life  of  the  common  people.  The  school  was 
a  crowd  of  young  colored  folk  learning  to  be  farmers,  mechanics  of  all  grades, 
wives  of  laboring  men,  and  husbands  of  working  women,  who  in  going  out  into 
their  new  world  would  not  only  be  self-supporting,  but  leaders  in  the  great  Ameri¬ 
can  art  of  self-help  and  good  citizenship  in  the  communities  where  their  lot  might 
be  cast. 

This  type  of  instruction  and  discipline  has  become  more  and  more  pronounced 
as  the  years  have  gone  on.  The  Tuskegee  Normal  Institute,  in  Alabama,  under 
the  presidency  of  Mr.  Booker  T.  Washington,  has  made  a  new  departure  in  the 
fact  that  all  the  teachers  are  colored,  and  no  white  man  or  woman  occupies  any 
important  position  save  the  treasurer  and  on  the  board  of  general  management, 
the  institution  being  one  of  three  public  normal  and  industrial  seminaries  sup¬ 
ported  in  part  or  largely  by  the  State  of  Alabama  for  colored  youth. 

The  State  institutions  for  colored  youth  have  also  followed  in  this  direction. 
They  rarely  attempt  to  deal  with  the  classical  department  of  the  college,  and  are 
practically  large  graded  schools,  from  the  primary  department  to  the  secondary 
and  normal  grades,  to  the  extent  of  a  superior  free  high-school  course.  They  are 
all  industrial,  hand  work  and  physical  labor  being  compulsory.  Their  teachers 
are  almost  universally  of  the  colored  race.  They  have  no  corporate  relation  with 
any  religious  denomination  and  are  responsible  in  all  respects  to  State  control. 
Indeed  they  are  the  proper  head  of  the  common-school  system  for  the  colored  race 
in  whose  establishment  the  South  has  been  engaged  for  the  past  thirty-five  years, 
at  an  expense  of  nearly  $100,000,000,  employing  27,000  colored  teachers  at  an  annual 
cost  of  $5,000,000  to  $6,000,000,  75  per  cent  of  which  is  furnished  by  the  taxation 
of  the  white  people. 

The  large  number  of  schools  supported  by  private  beneficence,  personal  effort, 
and  the  charity  of  single  churches  are  generally  of  the  same  class  as  everywhere 
under  similar  management — indifferent,  good,  or  better,  as  they  may  be. 

The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute. 

For  the  details  of  the  great  educational  work  among  the  youth  of  the  freedmen 
by  the  different  classes  of  seminaries,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  elaborate  reports 
and  the  mass  of  contemporary  literature  in  the  records  of  the  numerous  conven¬ 
tions,  transactions,  and  deeply  interesting  narratives  which,  with  the  constant 
reports  in  the  press  and  magazine  articles,  form  an  important  department  in  any 
well- selected  educational  library.  But  the  original  work  at  the  Hampton  Normal 
and  Agricultural  Institute,  in  Hampton,  Va.,  is  in  itself  so  suggestive,  and  its  first 
principal,  Gen.  S.  C.  Armstrong,  was  in  many  ways  a  man  so  original  and  char- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876.  475 

acteristic  of  the  entire  work  with  the  freedmen  that  it  requires  a  special  notice  in 
this  essay. 

Samuel  C.  Armstrong  was  born  in  Hawaii  in  1839.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
Richard  Armstrong,  D.  D.,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  who  with  his  wife,  from 
Massachusetts,  from  1837  to  1847  labored  as  a  missionary  in  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
In  1847  Dr.  Armstrong  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction,  in  which 
capacity  he  served  until  his  death  in  1861,  having  been  largely  instrumental  in 
building  up  the  system  of  Hawaiian  free  schools,  500  in  number,  with  other  insti¬ 
tutions  of  superior  grade. 

Gen.  J.  F.  B.  Marshall,  for  fourteen  years  acting  treasurer  and  trustee  of  the 
Hampton  Institute,  speaks  of  this  young  Samuel  as  “a  restless  member  of  my 
Sunday  school  class  of  8-year-old  boys  in  the  only  English  church  in  Honolulu.” 
General  Marshall  was  at  this  time  chairman  of  the  committee  on  education  in  the 
Hawaiian  Parliament.  Returning  to  Massachusetts,  he  served  during  the  civil 
war  on  the  military  staff  of  Governor  John  A.  Andrew.  In  1870  he  was  brought 
into  connection  with  his  old  pupil,  then  the  principal  of  the  new  enterprise  at 
Hampton,  Ya.,  which  has  grown  into  such  remarkable  prominence  during  the 
past  thirty-five  years. 

The  youth  of  young  Armstrong  till  the  age  of  21  was  spent  in  the  best  school  of 
general  training  for  his  future  work.  In  company  with  his  father  he  visited  the 
schools  in  all  the  inhabited  islands  of  the  group  and  was  a  close  and  thoughtful 
observer  of  the  results  of  the  ordinary  methods  of  missionary  work  among  the 
natives,  whom  he  describes  as  “in  many  respects  like  the  negro  race.”  The 
strongest  impression  left  upon  his  mind  seems  to  have  been  of  a  fatal  lack  in  the 
development  of  moral  stamina  in  this  picturesque  and  in  many  ways  attractive 
people.  Quick  to  learn  from  books,  devoted  church  members  in  the  matters  of  a 
general  support  of  and  constant  attendance  on  public  worship,  given  to  family 
devotions,  charming  in  their  hospitality,  “they  lived  pretty  much  in  their  old 
ways;  all  in  one  room,  without  the  conditions  which  make  a  high  standard  of 
morality  possible.  The  ‘  old  man  ’  in  them  had  very  much  his  own  way.  They 
were  like  the  people  to  whom  the  epistles  of  the  New  Testament  were  written — ■ 
grown-up  children.  Despite  the  faithful  preaching  of  the  Christian  moralities 
from  the  pulpit  and  the  constant  visits  of  devoted  women  to  their  homes,  with  the 
addition  of  a  severe  church  discipline  and  with  the  positive  advance  of  having 
been  lifted  above  many  of  the  crude  barbarities  of  heathenism,  they  remained  in  a 
condition  well  described  by  a  returned  missionary:  £Our  saints  are  about  up  to 
your  respectable  Boston  sinners.’  ”  There  were  schools  of  the  higher  grade  in  the 
islands  and  one  important  normal  labor  institute  for  boys.  The  latter,  Armstrong 
relates,  “had  produced  the  more  solid  men.” 

By  this  exiierience  at  home  young  Armstrong  was  grounded  in  two  convictions: 
First,  that  the  old-time  missionary  methods  had  a  fatal  defect  in  dealing  with  the 
more  emotional  and  superficial  elements  of  a  religious  life,  and  leaving  out  that 
change  in  the  conditions  of  living  which,  more  than  all  other  things,  determines 
the  character  of  the  manhood  and  womanhood;  second,  that  although  the  ordi¬ 
nary  collegiate  and  academical  system  of  education  of  the  day  formed  accomplished 
scholars  and  brilliant  graduates,  the  result  was  often  disappointing,  while  the 
training  in  a  solid  English  education,  with  manual  labor,  gave  to  the  people  their 
best  teachers  and  workers.  On  these  two  foundation  stones  the  great  institution 
at  Hampton  was  afterwards  built. 

This  most  valuable  experience,  in  which  no  other  conspicuous  worker  for  the 
negro  except  General  Marshall,  his  associate,  seems  to  have  shared,  was  supple¬ 
mented  by  a  course  in  Williams  College,  Massachusetts,  under  the  presidency  of 
Dr.  Mark  Hopkins,  who,  with  Dr.  Eliphalet  Nott,  of  Union  College,  New  York, 
made  a  stronger  impression  upon  a  generation  of  students  than  any  of  their  con¬ 
temporaries.  To  have  given  to  the  country  such  men  as  Garfield,  Dickinson, 


476 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Bryant,  Armstrong,  and  scores  of  others  only  less  conspicuous  was  a  life  work 
exceeded  in  value  by  that  of  few  statesmen.  Such  men  are  the  makers  of  the 
statesmen  who  are  called  to  the  supreme  post  of  administration  in  the  crisis  of 
their  country’s  destiny. 

Before  his  graduation  from  Williams  College  Armstrong  enlisted  in  the  Union 
Army,  and  for  one  year  was  captain  and  major  in  the  One  hundred  and  twenty- 
fifth  New  York  Volunteers.  But  it  was  soon  discovered  that  here  was  the  man  of 
all  others  to  lead  the  newly  enlisted  colored  troops  on  the  Atlantic  coast  depart¬ 
ment  of  Gen.  Rufus  Saxton.  For  the  two  and  a  half  subsequent  years  he  was  the 
lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  of  the  Ninth  and  Eighth  regiments  of  the  United 
States  Colored  Troops.  He  was  greatly  impressed  with  the  general  good  qualities 
of  his  soldiers,  especially  with  their  4 ‘tidiness,  devotion  to  their  duty  and  their 
leaders,  their  dash  and  daring  in  battle,  and  their  ambition  to  improve,  often 
studying  their  spelling  books  under  fire,  *  *  *  and  that  they  deserved  as  good 
a  chance  as  any  people.”  One  additional  foundation  stone,  in  his  mind,  was  laid 
by  this  military  experience  with  the  negroes,  “that  slavery  was  a  failure,  though 
doubtless  for  the  time  an  educational  condition.”  It  is  observed  that  in  the  admi¬ 
rable  brief  account  of  himself  found  in  the  memorial  volume,  Twenty-two  Years 
with  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute,  he  returns  to  this  fact, 
the  opportunity  and  influence  of  negro  slavery  as  an  educational  institution. 

Here,  in  connection  with  the  conclusions  gained  in  his  experience  in  Honolulu, 
is  found  the  secret  of  his  success.  Instead  of  descending  upon  a  people  like  the 
pagan  and  African  races  from  above  by  ignoring  or  looking  upon  their  former  life 
as  the  entire  cause  of  their  present  defects,  he  realized  what  a  stride  had  been  taken 
by  the  American  negro  from  the  pagan  savage  of  1620  to  the  soldier  of  the  Union 
and  the  freedman  in  1865.  And  instead  of  attempting  to  lift  up  this  people  by 
educating  them  according  to  the  scholastic  systems  of  half  a  century  ago,  he 
showed  his  wisdom  in  his  way  of  taking  them  where  they  were  found,  and,  in  the 
establishment  of  Hampton,  was  chiefly  concerned  to  assist  in  the  development  of 
moral  discipline,  self-control,  and  reliable  manhood  and  womanhood.  He  said 
to  the  author  of  this  essay:  “  I  have  little  fear  of  the  abuse  of  coeducation  at  Hamp¬ 
ton.  My  boys  are  rung  up  at  5  o’clock  in  the  morning,  called  to  military  parade 
before  breakfast,  kept  busy  all  day  till  8  p.  m.,  always  under  military  discipline, 
and  after  that  hour  I  will  risk  all  the  harm  they  will  do  to  anybody.”  In  his  mili¬ 
tary  service  he  was  in  camp  at  the  siege  of  Richmond  and  accompanied  the  Twenty- 
fifth  Army  (negro)  Corps  to  Texas  for  a  watch  of  Maximilian  over  the  border. 

In  1866  he  was  placed  by  Gen.  O.  O.  Howard,  commissioner  of  the  Freedmen’s 
Bureau,  in  charge  of  10  counties  of  eastern  Virginia,  with  headquarters  at  Hamp¬ 
ton,  then  a  great  contraband  camp,  with  almost  despotic  power  “to  manage  negro 
affairs  and,  if  possible,  to  adjust  the  relation  of  the  races.”  For  two  years  he 
wrought  at  this  almost  impossible  task  of  lifting  the  freedmen,  demoralized  by 
the  charity  of  two  years,  to  entire  self-respect  and  self-support  and  to  bring  the 
returned  white  owners  of  lands  in  kindly  relations,  often  with  their  former  slaves. 
Here  he  was  impressed  at  once  with  the  conclusion  “that  both  classes  were  ready 
to  do  the  fair  thing.”  He  sent  1,000  of  his  colored  wards  to  Massachusetts,  who 
were  placed  in  families  as  servants  through  an  agency  of  Boston  ladies.  In  the 
fact  that  “the  better  class  of  the  whites  were  well  disposed,  but  inactive  in  sup¬ 
pressing  any  misconduct  of  the  lower  class,”  he  exposed  the  root  of  much  of  the 
race  trouble  that  still  exists.  The  general  friendliness  between  the  races,  only 
broken  by  political  excitement,  he  attributed  to  the  fact  that  in  slavery  days  the 
children  of  both  sorts  were  brought  up  together,  whereas  the  children  of  the  for¬ 
eign  missionaries  were  kept  separate  from  even  their  youthful  converts  by  every 
means  in  the  parents'  power.  There  were  no  courts  then  in  operation,  and  justice 
was  administered  by  martial  law.  Scattered  negro  families  were  reunited.  His 
testimony  to  the  work  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  is  important.  He  writes:  “Gen- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  18*76. 


477 


eral  Howard  and  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  did  for  the  ex-slaves  from  1865  to  1870  a 
marvelous  work,  for  which  due  credit  has  not  been  given.  AmofLg  other  things, 
he  gave  to  their  education  an  impulse  and  a  foundation  by  granting  $8,500,000  for 
schoolhouses,  salaries,  etc.,  promoting  the  education  of  about  a  million  of  colored 
children.  The  principal  negro  educational  institutions  of  to-day,  then  starting, 
were  liberally  aided.  At  a  time  of  vital  need  Hampton  received  over  $50,000  from 
General  Howard  for  improvement.” 

He  found  at  Hampton  on  his  appearance  as  agent  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  “an 
active,  excellent  educational  work  going  on  under  the  American  Missionary  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  New  York,  which  in  1862  had  opened  in  the  vicinity  the  first  school  for 
freedmen  in  the  South,  in  charge  of  Mrs.  Mary  Peake.”  Here  1,500  children  were 
in  daily  attendance  in  the  old  hospital  barracks,  for  several  years  the  one  hospital 
of  the  Army  of  the  James.  Six  thousand  soldiers  had  here  been  buried  in  the 
national  cemetery.  Close  at  hand  was  the  region  connected  with  the  most  event¬ 
ful  first  years  of  the  history  of  Virginia — the  residence  of  Pocahontas,  the  landing 
of  the  first  slaves  in  the  colonies,  later  the  battle  between  the  Monitor  and  the 
Merrimac,  which  revolutionized  the  naval  warfare  of  the  world,  and  the  scene  of 
the  celebrated  order  of  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  that  declared  the  negro  slave  “  contra¬ 
band  of  war.”  His  practiced  eye,  now  trained  by  thirty  years’  looking  into  the 
heart  of  the  matter,  took  in  the  situation,  and  at  his  suggestion  the  American 
Missionary  Association  purchased  a  considerable  estate  of  125  (afterwards  raised 
to  190)  acres  on  the  beautiful  shore  looking  out  on  Hampton  Hoads,  one  of  the 
most  charming  sites  for  a  great  educational  establishment  in  America.  To  his 
own  surprise  he  was  called  to  the  principalship  of  the  new  school,  and  said  “  Yes,” 
as  a  matter  of  course. 

He  had  no  doubt  concerning  what  was  to  be  done.  It  was  “to  train  selected 
negro  youth  who  should  go  out  to  teach  and  lead  their  people,  first,  by  example, 
by  cultivating  land  and  making  homes;  to  give  them  not  a  dollar  that  they  could 
not  earn  themselves;  to  teach  respect  for  labor;  to  replace  stupid  drudgery  with 
skilled  work;  and  to  these  ends  to  build  up  an  industrial  system,  for  the  sake  not 
only  of  self-respect  and  efficient  labor,  but  also  for  the  schooling  of  character. 
And  it  seemed  equally  clear  that  the  people  of  the  country  would  support  such 
a  work  for  the  freedmen.”  He  had  noticed  at  home  that  “ignorance  alone  was 
not  half  the  trouble;  the  chief  difficulty  was,  with  them,  defective  character,  as 
it  is  with  the  negro.  He  is  what  his  past  has  made  him.  The  true  basis  of  work 
for  him  and  all  men  is  the  simple  one — the  union  of  intelligence  and  manhood;  all 
that  follows  is  of  course.”  His  proposition  found  few  friends;  the  old  missionary 
method  still  held  ‘ ‘  the  religious  public  ”  fast;  the  manual  labor  schools  of  the  North 
had  failed.  His  scheme  “  would  not  pay.”  He  replied:  “It  will  pay  in  a  moral 
way.  It  will  make  men  and  women,  as  nothing  else  will.  It  is  the  only  way  to 
make  them  good  Christians.” 

In  April,  1868,  with  2  teachers  and  16  pupils,  Armstrong,  now  wearing  the  title 
of  “general,”  began  work.  In  1870  he  made  his  first  report,  the  same  year  the 
institution  being  incorporated  under  a  special  act'  of  the  legislature  of  Virginia. 
“It  was  a  corporation  under  trustees  independent  of  any  association,  religious 
sect,  or  government.  It  did  work  for  the  State  of  Virginia  and  the  General  Gov¬ 
ernment,  for  which  it  received  compensation,  but  was  not  connected  with  or  sup¬ 
ported  by  them. ”  The  fundamental  principle  of  the  establishment  was,  ‘  ‘Nothing 
is  asked  for  the  student  that  he  can  obtain  by  his  own  labor.  He  seeks  nothing  but 
an  opportunity  to  work  his  own  way.” 

An  institution  established  on  such  immutable  foundations  of  experience,  com¬ 
mon  sense,  and  enlightened  Christian  philanthropy  grew  apace,  as  everything 
planted  in  its  own  soil  and  tended  with  care  grows  naturally  and  ‘  ‘  brings  forth 
fruit  after  its  kind.”  At  the  time  of  writing  the  admirable  essay  from  which  we 
quote  so  freely  (1893),  Armstrong  relates  that  there  were  650  boarding  students 


478 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


at  Hampton  Institute  in  24  shops  and  groups,  averaging  18  years  of  age,  136  of 
them  Indians,  80  officials,  teachers,  and  assistants,  of  whom  half  were  in  the  18 
industrial  departments  and  shops,  and  300  children  in  the  adjoining  county 
public — formerly  the  Butler,  afterwards  the  Whittier — school,  used  as  a  practice 
school  for  the  normal  department  of  the  institute.  The  foundation  for  the  good 
feeling  and  cooperation  of  the  white  people  had  been  laid  in  that  portion  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  by  the  three  years’  work  of  General  Armstrong  in  the  ten  counties  adjoining 
Hampton  as  an  agent  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  and  the  legislature  made  a  wise 
movement  in  turning  over  to  the  principal  of  the  Hampton  Institute  $10,000 
annually,  which  the  State  applied  for  the  use  of  the  colored  race  out  of  the  land 
grant  of  1862  by  Congress  for  the  support  of  agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges 
in  all  the  States.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  afterwards  offered  $20,000 
per  annum  to  Hampton  for  the  education  of  120  Indians. 

On  January  27,  1870,  the  first  meeting  in  behalf  of  the  new  Hampton  school 
was  held  in  Music  Hall,  Boston.  Among  its  most  valuable  results  was  its  capture 
of  General  Marshall,  for  a  permanent  residence  of  fourteen  years  at  Hampton,  as 
treasurer  of  the  institute.  What  with  the  decided  impression  made  by  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  General  Armstrong  and  the  valuable  and  excellent  social  acquaintance  of 
General  Marshall  in  Boston,  always  the  foremost  of  American  cities  to  raspond  to 
a  call  to  beneficent  action  that  comes  down  from  the  upper  story  of  life,  a  foun¬ 
tain  of  supply  was  then  and  there  opened  that  has  never  run  dry.  General  Arm¬ 
strong  always  declared  that  “for  continuous  and  reliable  giving  New  England 
was  distinguished  above  all  other  portions  of  the  country.”  An  accurate  record 
of  the  contributions,  often  of  large  sums,  from  Boston  alone,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
remainder  of  New  England,  would,  first  and  last,  include  the  names  of  a  large 
majority  of  the  men  and  women  eminent  in  Christian  character  and  philanthropy 
for  the  past  twenty-five  years.  Mrs.  Mary  Hemenway  at  once  became  a  devoted 
disciple  of  the  Armstrong  propaganda,  and  by  large  and  continuous  gifts  of  land 
and  money  was  a  never-failing  source  of  supply.  And  many  less  known,  though 
equally  interested,  were  always  reliable. 

The  situation  of  the  school  at  Hampton  was  ideal.  Fortress  Monroe  and  Hamp¬ 
ton  Town  for  many  years  had  been  favorite  places  of  pleasure  resort.  Their  near¬ 
ness  to  Washington  insured  a  constant  stream  of  distinguished  visitors.  The 
winter  population  thronging  the  great  hotels  and  neighboring  cities  was  attracted 
to  Hampton  first  by  the  novelty  of  the  work,  and  seldom  left  the  grounds  with¬ 
out  a  contribution,  often  with  a  good  impression  that  made  for  constant  aid. 
Happily,  among  the  early  friends  were  President  Mark  Hopkins,  of  Williams 
College,  the  old  schoolmaster  of  Armstrong,  and  Gen.  James  A.  Garfield,  also  a 
trustee,  a  pupil  of  the  same  great  educator.  They  insisted  that  the  plans  of  the 
young  30-year-old  principal  should  be  tried.  President  Hopkins  said:  “  He  will 
not  be  satisfied  till  he  has  tried  his  plans;  and  if  the  plans  fail,  he  will  be  the  first 
to  see  it  and  abandon  them.” 

In  1893  the  school  was  maintained  at  a  cost  of  $155,000.  The  large  sum  of 
$100,000  was  contributed  by  its  friends  at  the  suggestion  of  the  principal.  Sixty 
thousand  dollars  came  in  the  form  of  $10,000  subscriptions.  In  1893  the  people 
of  the  country  were  contributing  $1,000,000  annually  for  the  support  of  twenty 
or  more  normal  and  academical  institutions,  all  established  by  the  impetus  given 
by  the  rapid  success  of  Hampton  and  stimulated  by  the  education  of  16,000  stu¬ 
dents — 2,000  in  Virginia  alone— for  competent  teachers,  5,000  of  whom  being  at 
this  date  trained  in  this  superior  manner.  By  combining  the  academical  and 
industrial  plan  of  training,  the  graduates  at  Hampton  were  prepared  for  successful 
teachers  in  the  short-term  colored  public  schools,  and  during  the  remainder  of 
the  year  were  able  to  turn  their  hand  to  whatever  industry  they  were  adapted  to 
undertake.  Hampton  alone  in  1893  had  sent  out  750  full  graduates  and  half  that 
number  of  undergraduates,  1,000  in  all,  of  whom  General  Armstrong  says,  “  but 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


479 


10  per  cent  are  disappointments.”  A  glance  at  a  map  or  chart  accompanying  the 
interesting  work  before  spoken  of  shows  the  location  of  these  pupils  more  largely 
in  Virginia  than  elsewhere,  but  scattered  through  all  the  States  of  the  South.  A 
valuable  plan  of  correspondence  with  the  graduates,  by  which  the  institution  has 
always  been  kept  in  touch  with  all  its  children  and  by  which  the  career  of  several 
hundreds  of  them  may  be  referred  to,  has  been  carried  on  from  the  first. 

In  1878  the  plan  of  the  school  was  enlarged,  to  try  the  experiment  of  schooling 
the  Indians;  and  several  of  the  worst  specimens,  then  in  banishment  in  Florida, 
were  sent  to  Hampton.  Under  the  wise  and  firm  management  of  the  school,  the 
success  was  so  evident  that  Congress  voted  an  annual  gift  of  $20,000  for  the  edu¬ 
cation  and  maintenance  of  120  at  Hampton,  and  also  established  the  famous  school 
for  Indian  youth  alone  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  under  Captain  Pratt,  of  the  United  States 
Army.  Out  of  this  came,  as  a  logical  sequence,  the  development  of  the  national 
policy  of  educating  the  Indian  children  and  youth,  first  through  cooperation  with 
different  churches,  but  afterwards  by  the  establishment  of  the  common  school 
among  the  different  tribes  and  reservations.  In  1889  this  enterprise  received  an 
appropriation  of  $2,000,000  from  Congress.  In  future  the  National  Government 
will  withdraw  from  all  cooperation  with  any  church  or  private  association  and 
only  subsidize  the  common  schools  for  Indian  children  and  youth. 

Qne  of  the  most  valuable  features  in  the  plan  of  Hampton  was  its  faith  in  the 
educational  power  of  self-dependence  and  solid  work.  This  fundamental  idea  of 
the  way  to  teach  the  negro  so  commended  itself  to  the  Christian  common  sense  of 
the  people  that  it  has  drawn  to  its  support  one- tenth  of  the  popular  Northern  con¬ 
tributions  to  twenty  or  more  of  the  superior  schools  established  in  different  parts 
of  the  South. 

The  great  element  in  the  wonderful  success  of  this  novel  experiment  in  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  negro  and  Indian  in  1870  was,  of  course,  the  personality  of  the  principal  of 
Hampton.  Looking  along  the  lines  of  this  fundamental  work,  not  more  important 
in  the  long  run  to  the  South  than  to  the  nation,  it  is  evident  that  if  there  was  a 
providence  displayed  in  the  statesmanship  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  the  military 
genius  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  it  was  also  manifest  in  the  training  of  Samuel  C.  Arm¬ 
strong  for  the  experiment  of  educating  “  the  nation  within  a  nation,”  the  10,000,000 
of  the  colored  race  for  American  citizenship.  First,  in  his  youth,  spent  in  the 
far-off  islands  of  the  Pacific,  among  a  people  who  had  been  partially  reclaimed 
from  barbarism,  needing  only  the  central  element  of  character  and  industrial  train¬ 
ing  for  true  citizenship  ;  then  ,  under  the  influence  of  Mark  Hopkins,  greatest  of  con¬ 
temporary  American  schoolmasters;  next,  as  colonel,  engagedin  the  formation  of  a 
military  colored  contingent  for  the  defense  of  the  freedmen  in  their  first  experi¬ 
ment  of  free  labor  and  the  reenforcement  of  the  Union  Army;  again,  in  Virginia,  as 
agent  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  getting  acquainted  with  the  neighbors  of  his  last 
twenty  years  of  life  at  Hampton  Institute,  Armstrong  was  fully  trained  and 
informed  for  what  came  to  him  as  the  great  right  man  of  genius  brought  to  the 
right  place. 

The  entire  stamina  of  his  manhood  was  of  the  military  type.  He  only  said  what 
was  in  his  heart  when  he  directed  his  family  and  friends  to  give  him  ‘  ‘  a  soldier’s 
funeral.”  He  was  not  literary  save  in  a  “  short,  sharp,  and  decisive”  style  of 
speech  and  writing,  becoming  the  grave  and  perilous  work  on  hand.  After  1870 
General  Armstrong  was  never  off  duty,  always  accessible  to  anybody  worth  talk¬ 
ing  to  in  behalf  of  his  great  experiment.  His  public  speeches  read  like  mili¬ 
tary  reports.  Every  sentence  in  his  brief  autobiographical  sketch  in  the  volume 
Twenty- five  Years’  Work  in  Hampton  is  weighted  with  the  significance  of  a  vol¬ 
ume.  His  personal  bearing  was  intensely  vital  and  inspiring.  It  always  impressed 
the  thoughtful  observer  as  if,  while  listening  or  speaking,  with  courteous  atten¬ 
tion,  his  eye  was  elevated  toward  a  point  beyond  his  present  horizon.  He  used  to 
say,  The  true  way  to  get  things  done  in  obtaining  money  for  new  buildings  is 


480 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  first  get  enough  together  to  lay  the  foundations;  then  bring  everybody  to  look 
at  it,  explain  it,  and  ask  if  such  a  work  ought  to  be  left  half  done.”  He  refused 
for  a  long  time  to  have  the  old  plantation  house  in  which  he  lived  painted,  until 
every  visitor  declared  it  “  a  big  shame  that  such  a  man  should  live  in  a  house  so 
shabby.”  He  always  appeared  like  a  soldier  on  the  eve  of  a  forlorn  hope.  “  For¬ 
getting  those  things  which  were  behind  and  reaching  forth  unto  those  things  which 
were  before,  he  pressed  toward  the  mark.”  It  was  this  decisive  and  soldier-like 
air  of  command,  as  of  a  man  that  was  not  to  be  avoided  or  halted  or  detained  on 
the  march  to  a  great  field  day,  that  saved  him  from  the  fate  of  the  sentimental, 
pathetic,  supplicating  type  of  philanthropist,  and  forced  every  man  or  woman  he 
deliberately  approached  to  decide  at  once  what  could  be  done  about  it. 

He  grasped  as  by  instinct — what  really  came  to  him  as  the  result  of  an  experi¬ 
ence  of  twenty  years — the  correct  point  of  view  in  the  training  of  an  emancipated 
race,  only  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  out  of  the  bonds  of  African  barbarism, 
tempted  as  never  before  was  a  race  of  freedmen  by  the  throwing  open  before  it 
the  highway  to  the  loftiest  earthly  opportunity  and  the  noblest  earthly  position — 
full  American  citizenship.  Instead  of  beginning  work  from  above,  lifting  the 
subject  by  main  strength  and  holding  him  at  a  perilous  eminence  above  his  own 
natural  standing  place,  he  met  him  where  he  found  him  and  along  with  him  began 
to  climb  the  “steep  and  rugged  way”  of  his  new  career.  He  almost  alone  among 
the  leading  educators  of  the  day  understood  what  every  superior  man  and  woman 
of  the  slaveholding  class  of  the  South  knew  as  a  commonplace,  that  the  Ameri¬ 
can  negro  of  1865  was  not  the  negro  of  Africa,  or  of  any  previous  decade  of  his 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  bondage.  When  he  said,  “The  negro  in  a  tight 
place  is  a  genius,”  he  only  put  in  familiar  language  the  fact  that  of  all  races  of 
men  he  has  the  most  native  aptitude  for  recognizing  and  assuming  the  outward 
elements  of  a  higher  civilization.  He  is  “a  genius”  in  manners,  in  the  rapid 
acquirement  of  language,  in  what  the  Southern  people  call  “  the  faculty  of  imita¬ 
tion,”  which  is  simply  a  native  capability  for  acquiring  a  superior  civilization 
which  amounts  to  a  race  characteristic.  So  instead  of  stimulating  this  faculty, 
always  sufficiently  active  and  often  the  most  dangerous  of  his  new  temptations, 
Armstrong  put  his  colored  boys  and  girls  at  once  down  on  “hardpan.”  He  com¬ 
pelled  every  one  of  them  to  take  a  firm  stand  on  the  common  level  of  an  American 
working  man  and  woman,  and  through  a  life  of  wholesome  hardship  get  fairly 
planted  on  his  own  feet  as  a  self-respecting,  self-supporting,  self-determined  citizen 
of  a  country  where  no  man  honorably  and  permanently  succeeds  by  being  held 
up  by  anybody  else. 

He  was  greatly  favored  by  the  early  response  of  the  people  to  his  appeals  for 
financial  aid,  being  thereby  saved  from  the  misery  of  having  his  institution  smoth¬ 
ered  by  an  avalanche  of  raw  student  material  only  suitable  for  a  children's  primary 
school.  He  waited  and  waited,  with  a  patience  as  conspicuous  as  his  fiery  zeal, 
until  he  obtained  the  class  of  pupils  most  favorable  to  the  success  of  his  great 
experiment.  He  also  fully  understood  and  displayed  the  ability  of  every  great 
commander  in  the  choice  of  his  subordinates.  He  stood  up  like  a  granite  wall 
against  the  assault  of  the  crowd  of  incompetent  men  and  sentimental  women, 
often  of  wealth  and  high  social  position,  that  rushed  to  the  work  of  teaching  the 
negro  as  a  new  sensation,  hypnotized  by  his  powerful  manhood,  and  accepted  only 
the  graduates  of  higher  institutions,  people  of  eminent  capacity,  and  kept  only 
those  who  were  able  to  find  out  for  themselves  the  way  they  should  go.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  large  school  in  the  country  for  a  generation  has  retained  a  corps 
of  teachers  more  justly  celebrated  for  general  ability,  good  culture,  and  the  per¬ 
sonal  qualities  that  go  so  far  with  the  negro  pupil  than  Hampton. 

And  long  before  any  of  the  rival  institutions  that  were  established  on  the  foun¬ 
dations  of  the  ordinary  denominational  academy  and  college  seem  to  have  sus¬ 
pected  that  their  graduates  needed  anything  beside  instruction  in  a  course  of  study 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


481 


and  the  general  discipline  of  a  good  school  as  the  special  qualification  for  a  teacher, 
General  Armstrong,  at  Hampton,  had  organized  one  of  the  most  effective  normal- 
school  departments  in  the  country,  placed  at  its  head  an  expert  woman,  second  to 
no  person  in  like  position,  and,  in  addition  to  his  own  able  work,  after  the  style  of 
President  Hopkins  with  his  senior  class  in  the  Butler,  afterwards  the  Whittier 
graded  county  school,  had  organized  a  complete  practice  department  for  the  use 
of  his  pupil  teachers.  All  his  graduates  were  first  carried  through  an  English 
academic  course,  modeled  after  the  best  existing  arrangements  for  common-school 
instruction.  The  industrial  department  was  handled  as  an  auxiliary  to,  not  a 
substitute  for,  a  good  elementary  and,  if  possible,  a  secondary  English  education. 
With  the  increasing  duties  of  the  principal,  the  necessity  arose  for  a  more  strin¬ 
gent  correlation  of  work  and  supervision  of  the  large  body  of  instructors.  At  a 
later  period,  Miss  Hyde,  the  accomplished  principal  of  the  normal  school  depart¬ 
ment,  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  general  supervisor  of  the  academic  work, 
thereby  providing  against  the  danger  of  the  undue  prominence  of  any  special 
teacher  or  group  of  instructors,  sure  to  bring  in  a  lopsided  condition  of  affairs  in 
which  a  few  people  of  superior  executive  power  gradually  usurp  the  entire  control 
of  the  institution. 

But  it  was  in  the  influence  upon  the  character  and  life  of  every  pupil  of  suffi¬ 
cient  ability  to  be  impressed  by  it  that  the  growing  excellence  of  the  Hampton 
Institute  was  more  and  more  indicated.  Its  chief  characteristic  was  a  community, 
always  under  a  firm  and  conservative  head,  with  no  lack  of  the  “zeal  according  to 
knowledge  ”  which  shines  out  through  the  whole  field  of  religious  living.  There 
was  no  breaking  forth  like  a  spring  freshet  in  a  flood  that  bears  along  its  destruc¬ 
tive  course  the  refuse  of  fields  and  villages  and  leaves  the  barren  waste  of  a 
drenched  and  smoking  wilderness  behind.  But  the  institution  itself  was  a  proper 
“fitting  school”  in  the  true  Christian  education  that  culminates  in  the  life  of  love 
to  God  and  love  to  man.  Those  who  came  out,  after  a  fair  trial,  seemed  to  have 
gained  a  positive  conception  of  the  new  liberty  of  the  race,  not  yet  half  under¬ 
stood.  Their  education  at  Hampton  inclosed  them  as  with  a  high  wall  of  protec¬ 
tion.  Notwithstanding  the  inexorable  military  discipline  of  the  institution,  which 
in  itself  developed  a  fine  soldier-like  pride  in  law  and  order,  there  was  always 
within  its  limit  ample  room  for  the  development  of  a  self-respecting  and  self-poised 
manhood  and  womanhood.  The  variety  of  exercises  relieved  the  monotony  of  repe¬ 
tition  and  made  life  at  the  institute  a  constant  source  of  entertainment.  The 
kindly  and  home-like  spirit  that  sought  every  proper  opportunity  for  healthful 
amusement,  the  charms  of  an  ever  varying  landscape,  the  opportunity  for  games, 
and  the  daily  spectacle  of  the  military  dress  parade,  made  life  a  new  thing  to  the 
lawless  and  vagrant.  Indeed,  from  the  first  Hampton  school  was  a  university  of 
the  new  American  life,  where  its  pupils  at  once  seemed  to  realize  the  almost 
miraculous  change  that  had  come  to  their  people. 

The  industrial  department  of  the  institution  was  managed  with  a  skill  and  car¬ 
ried  on  by  a  method  that  gave  a  new  significance  to  that  still  so  greatly  misunder¬ 
stood  side  of  modern  school  life.  The  old-time  manual-labor  school  did  not 
pretend  to  teach  even  the  rudiments  of  the  different  industries  carried  on  within 
its  walls.  The  school  claimed  a  certain  number  of  hours  each  day  of  the  sort  of 
work  that  the  student  was  supposed  best  able  or  willing  to  perform,  with  the  sole 
purpose  of  lessening  the  expense  of  his  education.  Under  its  monotonous  disci¬ 
pline  labor  remained  the  “  old  man  of  the  sea,”  perched  upon  the  shoulders  of  every 
wearied  student,  and  as  the  American  negro  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  had 
tested  the  value  and  the  mortal  weariness  of  this  type  of  “industrial  education” 
to  the  bitter  end,  it  was  not  strange  that  the  pupils  of  Hampton  and  all  these 
great  seminaries  came  with  a  prejudice  against  hard  work  that  amounted  to  a 
longing  for  a  paradise  of  literary  laziness.  It  was  incessantly  proclaimed  by 
many  of  the  foolish  preachers  and  politicians  who  had  been  drifted  to  the  front  by 


ED  1901—31 


482 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  upheaval  of  that  time  that  industrial  education  in  schools  was  only  a  new 
device  of  the  “  despotic  white  man  ”  to  reduce  the  colored  people  to  the  rank  of  a 
perpetual  peasantry.  The  regular  old  time  college  curriculum  was  welcomed  as 
the  “bow  of  promise  ”  in  the  storm  cloud  that  overhung  the  race,  as  the  high¬ 
way  by  which  the  emancipated  5,000,000  should  march  upward  to  permanent 
prosperity  and  power. 

Many  of  the  leading  presidents  and  professors  of  the  new  “colleges’’  and  “uni¬ 
versities  ”  that  sprung  into  life,  organized  according  to  the  average  idea  of  the 
religious  public  of  every  sect,  were  young  soldiers,  like  Armstrong,  going  from  the 
field  to  the  college,  with  none  of  his  previous  experience  of  educational  life,  or  young 
scholars  preparing  for  the  Christian  ministry,  carrying  “  down  South  ”  their  entire 
stock  of  lofty  enthusiasms  and  exaggerated  expectations.  Of  course  there  was 
among  them  an  inevitable,  sometimes  an  “invincible  ignorance”  concerning  the 
nature,  capacity,  and  present  mental  and  moral  condition  of  their  students.  Thus 
it  came  to  pass  that  as  late  as  1880,  on  the  first  visit  of  the  author  of  this  essay 
to  the  most  important  of  these  schools,  he  found  a  decided  reluctance  in  many  of 
them  to  take  any  hearty  interest  in  the  feature  of  industrial  training,  or,  if  such 
an  attempt  had  been  made,  it  was  often  with  the  old-time  idea  of  providing  work 
by  which  student  aid  could  be  secured  for  pupils  in  the  academic  and  college 
grade.  With  few  exceptions,  the  Hampton  Institute  was  the  only  great  school  at 
that  time,  fifteen  years  after  the  founding  of  many  of  the  most  important  of 
them,  where  there  was  any  very  great  and  intelligent  interest  in  the  training  of 
the  hands  save  from  the  labor  of  the  girls  at  ordinary  housekeeping  and  table 
service,  and  that  not  regarded  as  an  educational  exercise. 

But  despite  all  indifference  or  disparagement  General  Armstrong  went  steadily 
on  his  way,  every  year  scoring  some  new  success,  confident  that  his  idea  would 
finally  be  adopted  by  the  common  school  as  distinguished  from  the  “Christian 
school  ”  public  of  the  whole  country.  His  instinct  in  this  respect  was  prophetic. 
As  soon  as  the  States  of  the  South  had  been  encouraged  by  the  aid  of  the  Slater 
fund  and  the  demands  of  their  most  influential  colored  citizens  to  assume  the 
training  of  selected  teachers  for  the  country  district  and  village  and  city  graded 
schools,  Hampton  appeared  as  the  model  institution  from  Washington  to  Texas. 
Every  one  of  these  State  schools  now  in  operation  is  a  more  or  less  faithful  copy 
of  the  Hampton  Institute,  only  claiming  to  be  a  common  school  of  the  higher- 
graded  type,  with  amx>le  provisions  for  the  training  of  teachers  and  a  compulsory 
industrial  department. 

Even  beyond  this  influence  in  determining  the  best  type  of  State  education  for 
its  colored  youth,  these  commonwealths  have  patterned  after  Hampton  in  perhaps 
the  most  original  of  all  the  new  developments  in  Southern  education — the  organ¬ 
ization  of  the  normal  and  industrial  free  college  for  white  girls.  Beginning 
twenty  years  ago  in  Mississippi,  this  improved  type  of  the  Southern  “female  col¬ 
lege”  is  now  in  operation  in  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  the  two  Carolinas,  with  the 
prospect  that  it  will  finally  be  adopted  by  every  Southern  and  possibly  by  some 
of  our  Northern  States.  It  would  be  the  best  possible  type  of  the  common  school 
to  introduce  into  onr  colonial  possessions,  which  are  opening  np  a  new  world  for 
the  expansion  of  the  American  idea  of  universal  education. 

It  was  only  necessary  that  this  type  of  the  blending  of  the  academical,  normal, 
and  industrial  education  in  one  great  organization  should  be  carried  to  its  logical 
finish,  in  being  placed  entirely  under  the  instruction  and  discipline  of  a  colored 
principal  and  faculty,  to  vindicate  the  genius  of  General  Armstrong  in  giving  to 
the  South  and  the  country  the  most  effective  object  lesson  of  its  success.  It  was 
at  first  held  by  its  critics  that,  although  under  the  direction  of  an  exceptional 
head,  with  teachers  nearly  approaching  experts,  the  majority  graduates  from  the 
most  celebrated  schools  of  the  country,  such  a  peculiar  educational  arrangement 
might  succeed,  yet  it  would  fail  when  brought  to  the  test  of  a  great  gathering 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1801  TO  1876. 


483 


of  ordinary  colored  pupils  under  the  entire  control  of  teachers  of  their  own  race. 
But  the  same  good  Providence  that  directed  General  Armstrong  to  Hampton  put 
it  into  the  heart  and  mind  of  a  little  boy,  born  in  a  one-room  cabin  with  mother 
earth  for  a  floor,  trained  in  a  Virginia  coal  mine,  to  steer  his  frail  ship  toward  the 
great  lighthouse  of  Hampton  Roads.  It  was  in  the  Hampton  school,  as  a  student, 
a  worker,  and  finally  as  superintendent  of  the  Indian  department,  that  Booker  T. 
Washington  learned  the  art  of  building  a  new  model  Hampton,  down  in  the  black 
belt  of  Alabama,  with  a  student  constituency  representing  perhaps  the  least  hope¬ 
ful  side  of  the  colored  population,  not  only  the  teachers  of  the  academic,  but  of 
every  industrial  department  drawn  from  his  own  race,  like  Hampton  subsidized 
and  to  a  greater  extent  than  Hampton  controlled  by  the  State;  like  Hampton  grow¬ 
ing  constantly  in  favor  with  the  better  side  of  Southern  society,  while  so  attract¬ 
ive  to  the  people  of  the  North  that,  in  less  than  twenty  years  from  its  establish¬ 
ment,  there  is  probably  no  American  school  that  receives  so  large  an  annual 
contribution  from  all  classes  of  people. 

And  that  here  again  this  great  success  may  not  be  dismissed  as  the  exceptional 
work  of  a  man  of  uncommon  genius,  the  new  Hampton  at  Tuskegee  to-day  fur¬ 
nishes  the  model  on  which  every  Southern  State  is  now  building  the  most  valuable 
type  of  college  for  the  training  of  the  superior  class  of  its  10, 000, 000  colored  citi¬ 
zens.  It  has  not  been  chiefly  the  extraordinary  genius  of  Armstrong  and  the 
ablest  of  his  pupils  that  has  so  commended  this  type  of  school  to  the  national  con¬ 
fidence  that  the  most  exclusive  institutions  of  the  ecclesiastical  Northern  and 
Southern  type  are  more  and  more  compelled  to  take  on  the  characteristic  excel¬ 
lencies  of  the  Hampton  plan.  The  crowning  genius  of  these  remarkable  men  was 
in  seeing  at  once  not  only  the  possibilities  of  this  type  of  superior  seminary,  but 
demonstrating  its  necessity  to  the  colored  people  and  in  every  case  bringing  it 
into  line  with  the  State  system  of  public  instruction,  on  which  16  Southern  States 
have  expended  $500,000,000,  including  $100,000,000  for  the  colored  children,  during 
the  past  thirty  years. 

The  experiment  of  combining  the  education  of  the  negro  and  Indian  at  the 
Hampton  Institute  was  a  stroke  of  genius.  General  Armstrong  saw  at  once 
that  the  talkative,  social,  and  magnetic  negro  was  the  providential  companion  of 
the  shy,  silent,  proud-spirited  Indian.  The  result  of  this  twenty  years’ training  of 
the  native  red  man  of  the  West  on  the  Atlantic  shore,  where  he  was  first  encoun¬ 
tered  by  the  coming  master  of  the  continent,  has  belied  most  of  the  dismal 
prophecies  of  its  opponents  and  opened  the  way  to  another  triumph  of  Armstrong’s 
genius  in  the  final  establishment  of  the  xAmerican  common-school  system  for  the 
children  of  this  race  in  their  own  homes.  Ever  since  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  have  labored  at  the  almost  hopeless  work 
of  civilizing  and  making  good  citizens  of  the  different  populations  of  the  American 
continent  by  the  method  of  changing  the  mode  of  their  religion  and  combining 
with  this  effort  a  certain  amount  of  the  sort  of  academical  training  common  to  the 
denominational  religious  schools  of  the  past  four  centuries.  It  would  almost 
seem  that  the  chief  success  of  this  method  had  been  the  saving  of  a  select  few  to 
live  as  a  sort  of  curiosity  in  the  society  of  the  dominant  race,  while  the  mass  have 
either  been  long  ago  exterminated,  as  in  the  West  Indies,  or  held  in  military  sub¬ 
mission,  even  in  this  Republic.  It  was  given  more  completely  than  to  any  previous 
educator  to  Armstrong  to  understand  that  the  only  successful  way  of  converting 
the  native  American  savage  to  the  religion  of  a  civilized  country  was,  first,  to 
take  him  from  his  isolation  and  place  him  in  contact  with  the  common  life  of  the 
common  American  people;  teach  him  the  industries,  the  habits  of  life,  and  the 
general  way  of  doing  common  things  that  has  everywhere  lifted  the  white  man 
out  of  a  similar  barbarism;  give  him  a  common-school  education — in  short,  make 
his  daily  life  an  object  lesson  of  what  the  Christian  religion  can  do  for  a  people  as 
contrasted  with  the  squalor,  poverty,  and  slow  destruction  of  the  life  he  is  now 


484 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


living.  To  have  done  this,  as  it  has  been  inaugurated  at  Hampton  and  Carlisle 
and  put  in  operation  even  to  the  present  degree  among  the  Indians  of  the  West,  is 
glory  enough  for  one  man,  and  in  itself  assures  to  Armstrong  a  foremost  place 
among  the  educational  statesmen  of  his  country  and  time. 

It  will  be  a  great  help  to  the  whole  class  of  prophets  of  dismay  who  see  in  our 
new  national  assumption  of  a  great  colonial  life,  involving  the  control  of  new  mil¬ 
lions  of  the  lower  orders  of  mankind,  only  a  stupid  repetition  of  the  old  policy  of 
“imperialism,”  if  they  could  realize  the  prodigious  significance  of  this  great  experi¬ 
ment  at  Hampton  in  the  education  of  all  races  of  men  in  their  progress  from 
pagan  barbarism  to  a  self-relying  Christian  civilization.  It  is  not  so  much  fortu¬ 
nate  as  providential  that  the  country  has  not  been  called  to  face  this  mighty 
responsibility  of  dealing  with  these  new  millions  of  the  little  children  and  wards 
of  Christendom  until,  by  a  thirty  years’  experimenting  at  home,  it  had  not  only 
discovered  but  put  in  operation  in  every  Southern  State,  by  the  agreement  and 
cooperation  of  all  sections,  the  Hampton  methods  of  training  the  lower  majority 
of  this  world  on  the  lines  of  a  Christian  civilization. 

The  only  remaining  question  raised  by  the  splendid  success  of  General  Arm¬ 
strong  at  Hampton  was  whether  all  this,  like  so  many  of  the  great  things  of  this 
world,  was  not  after  all  an  annex  to  a  great  man  which  at  his  death,  like  the 
“cloud-capped  towers”  of  the  poet's  vision  in  the  heavens,  would  “dissolve  and 
like  the  baseless  fabric  of  a  vision  leave  not  a  rack  behind.” 

The  men  of  genius  in  executive  affairs  are  of  two  sorts.  First  is  the  man  whose 
genius  for  organization  and  administration  is  centered  on  himself  and  is,  at  all 
points,  involved  in  his  own  despotic  control  of  his  fellow-man.  His  work  depends 
chiefly  on  himself  as  its  “author  and  finisher” — a  work  whose  secrets  nobody  but 
himself  can  understand  and  which  nobody  else  can  touch  except  on  peril  of  pull¬ 
ing  it  down  upon  his  own  head.  Opposed  to  this  type  of  ruler  of  men  is  the  man 
who  goes  through  this  life  studying  and  by  his  own  genius  discovering  the  divine, 
natural,  scientific,  immutable  laws  by  which  human  society  must  be  organized 
and  every  human  institution  fashioned  into  the  self-perpetuating  factor  of  a  pro¬ 
gressive  civilization.  This  man,  as  he  does  not  “live  to  himself,”  so  he  does  not 
“die  to  himself.”  He  leads  his  fellow-men  by  living  with  them,  and  even  more 
by  his  own  way  of  living  and  action  than  by  the  subjugation  of  others  to  himself 
shows  the  better  way  by  which  families,  communities,  and  States  can  be  led  “in 
the  way  they  should  go  ”  and  taught  to  fashion  the  institutions  which  shall  become 
the  great  agencies  of  this  work. 

Of  the  latter  type  of  men,  of  the  organizing  and  executive  sort,  was  Armstrong. 
Like  the  majority  of  able  men  nowadays  called  to  the  presidency  of  our  rapidly 
developing  educational  foundations,  he  was  compelled  more  and  more  to  live 
away  from  home.  He  only  taught  his  senior  class  in  a  course  that,  under  the 
name  of  “  mental  and  moral  philosophy,”  included  a  practical  training  in  Ameri¬ 
can  manhood  and  womanhood.  For  many  years  he  was  severely  tried  by  the 
absence  of  the  efficient  supervision  of  his  large  company  of  teachers,  some  of  whom 
resented  the  idea  of  any  pretense  of  control  within  their  own  beat.  But  in  his 
later  years  he  was  able  to  secure  this  great  advantage.  In  1893  he  says  truly: 
“  The  present  efficient  force  of  officers  and  teachers  could  manage  successfully 
every  department  of  the  school  should  its  head  be  taken  away.  In  twenty-two 
years  it  has  attained  a  life  of  its  own;  it  would  be  poor  organization  and  develop¬ 
ment  that  would  not,  in  that  time,  have  realized  this  point.  It  might  once  have 
been,  but  is  not  now  moved  by  a  one-man  power.  The  change  will  come  and  the 
school  will  be  ready  for  it.” 

Even  before  the  faithful  principal  wrote  these  impressive  words  the  end  was 
approaching.  It  was  befitting  a  man  so  burdened  with  a  mighty  labor,  a  labor 
that  proposed  the  organization  of  a  new  type  of  school,  which  should  become  a 
national  institution,  destined  to  lift  not  only  the  negro  but  all  similar  races  to  a 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH — 1861  TO  1816. 


485 


new  civilization  which  should  be  the  basis  of  American  citizenship,  that  he  should 
lay  down  his  own  life  on  the  altar  raised  by  himself  for  the  worship  of  the  cause 
to  which  he  had  given  his  best  years.  No  one  could  talk  half  an  hour  with  Gen¬ 
eral  Armstrong,  even  in  that  peculiarly  unconventional  mood  when  he  could 
become  the  most  charming  of  men,  without  noting  his  mysterious  mental  absorp¬ 
tion  that  reminded  of  a  vast  “  beyond,”  seen  by  him  alone,  and  with  which  he  lived 
in  perpetual  communion.  As  the  years  went  on  it  was  evident  to  those  most  con¬ 
cerned  that  the  great  leader  was  more  and  more  living  in  his  own  vast  ideals  which 
nobody  but  himself  could  realize,  and  he  certainly  not  in  this  world.  By  the 
stringent  policy  necessarily  adopted  by  his  board  of  trustees,  he  was  only  half  per¬ 
suaded  to 'restrain  “  a  noble  rage  ”  for  expansion  that  alarmed  his  prudent  friends, 
lest  his  sudden  death  should  leave  the  school  under  a  crushing  load  of  obligation. 
He  was  induced  to  announce  that,  hereafter  “  not  an  expansive  but  an  intensive 
policy  ”  would  rule  in  the  administration.  But  no  body  of  directors  and  no  con¬ 
sideration  of  a  limited  policy  could  hold  in  leash  the  principal  of  Hampton,  who, 
with  the  ardor  of  a  young  captain  of  “  rough  riders,”  plunged  anew  into  the  dear 
old  work  of  pleading  before  the  people  for  his  children.  He  fell,  like  a  good  sol¬ 
dier  on  the  perilous  edge  of  a  charge  up  hill,  in  the  midst  of  an  address  in  a  vil¬ 
lage  church  in  Massachusetts,  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  only  lived  on  the  borders 
of  the  grave  long  enough  to  gain  the  steadiness  and  peace  to  step  up  into  the 
greater  command  that  awaited  him  in  the  grander  campaign  beyond. 

In  his  last  words  (left  as  “memoranda”)  to  the  school  and  the  world,  he  con¬ 
centrated  the  lesson  of  his  life,  a  life  that  had  already  become  a  vital  force  in  the 
Republic. 

For,  in  the  organization  of  the  Hampton  Institute,  General  Armstrong  accom¬ 
plished  a  work  that  may  be  compared  with  that  of  Horace  Mann.  While  the 
American  common  school,  by  the  great  revival  of  1830  to  1860,  had  to  a  large 
extent  adjusted  the  system  to  the  expanding  needs  of  the  Northern  States,  making 
it  cover  the  entire  space  between  the  old-time  district  school  of  the  rural  section 
and  the  new  graded  school  for  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  children  in  the  great  cen¬ 
ters  of  industry  up  to  the  State  university,  academical  and  industrial,  it  had  not 
really  been  able  to  solve  the  great  problem  of  the  South — to  lift  up  a  third  of  the 
population  of  a  vast  area,  in  sixteen  States,  in  range  of  the  dominant  class.  The 
prodigious  effort  made  by  all  the  religious  bodies  of  the  country  to  lift  up  these 
millions  of  illiterates,  only  half  a  generation  removed  from  chattel  slavery,  to  full 
American  citizenship  by  the  training  of  a  superior  class  for  leadership  in  a  type 
of  institution  modeled  on  the  denominational  religious  college  and  academy  of 
half  a  century  ago,  assuming  their  names  and  giving  their  teachers  the  highest 
titles  of  the  secondary  and  higher  degrees,  during  the  first  thirty  years  following 
the  civil  war,  did  accomplish  a  work  than  which  the  American  church  has  done 
nothing  better.  It  is  impossible  to  see  how,  without  this  agency,  in  which  per¬ 
haps  $50,000,000  of  Northern  and  national  money  have  been  invested,  the  public- 
school  system  for  the  colored  folk  could  eyer  have  been  built  up  even  to  its  present 
unsatisfactory  condition. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  in  doing  this  the  American  Church,  North  and 
South,  has  learned  a  great  lesson— that  it  can  not  permanently  maintain  for  its 
denominational  seminaries  an  assumption  of  moral  and  religious  superiority  by 
conferring  on  them  the  title  “Christian,”  and  on  the  people’s  common  school  the 
name  “secular.”  Indeed,  these  great  mission  schools  in  the  South  have  been  built 
up  to  their  present  efficiency  far  more  by  the  interest  of  the  people  of  their  own 
religious  connections  in  the  new  Southern  common  school  for  the  negroes  than  by 
any  permanent  concern  for  sectarian  propagandism.  Their  ablest  managers  and 
teachers  on  the  ground  from  the  first  have  seen  that  their  real  work  was  to  train 
the  greatest  number  of  youth  possible  as  teachers  in  the  common  schools  and 
leaders  in  the  new  industrial,  home,  and  social  life  of  their  great  constituency. 


486 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  schools  of  this  sort  that  are  now  most  thoroughly  committed  to  this  policy  of 
discouraging  the  multiplication  of  private  and  parochial  schools  and  urging  their 
graduates  to  lead  the  people  in  building  up  their  own  public-school  system,  and 
by  living  with  them  in  every  trade  and  profession  hasten  their  preparation  for 
good  citizenship,  are  not  only  the  most  useful  but  are  most  certain  of  future 
support. 

With  no  disposition  to  discourage  the  higher  education,  even  in  the  limited  cur¬ 
riculum  of  half  a  century  ago,  for  any  student  competent  to  receive  and  make  a 
high  use  of  it,  the  educational  public  of  the  whole  country  is  more  thoroughly 
convinced  every  year  that  the  central  obligation  and  opportunity  of  all  these 
institutions  to-day  is  to  increase  and  improve  their  facilities  for  training  good 
teachers  for  their  people's  common  schools,  and  make  their  own  foundation  at 
least  a  “college”  or  “university”  of  a  genuine  American  life  to  its  students. 
Sooner  or  later,  while  the  majority  of  these  local  seminaries  will  disappear,  a  few 
score  of  these  establishments  will  remain,  under  fit  management,  representatives 
of  a  superior  training  in  every  department — one  of  the  noblest  contributions  of 
Christian  missionary  zeal,  ability,  and  self-sacrifice  to  the  suffering  South,  for  the 
sake  of  the  Union,  in  the  history  of  our  own  or  any  Christian  nation. 

But  it  was  evident  to  Gfeneral  Armstrong  from  the  first,  while  in  hearty  sympa¬ 
thy  with  the  Christian  spirit  that  has  prompted  this  great  work,  and,  like  all  first- 
class  American  educators,  profoundly  convinced  that  the  training  of  a  character 
based  on  a  solid  religious  and  moral  foundation  is  the  fundamental  work  of  every 
good  school,  that  the  work  to  be  done  in  the  South  could  never  be  accomplished  by 
the  old-time  sectarian  missionary  methods,  of  which,  even  a  generation  ago,  he  had 
seen  the  last  outcome  in  his  own  island  country.  He  saw  also  that  the  Southern 
people  could  never  be  permanently  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  nation,  much 
less  by  the  efforts  of  the  rival  Christian  sects  of  the  North  to  build  up  great  cen¬ 
ters  of  denominational  propagandism  for  the  training  of  the  freedmen.  The  recon¬ 
structed  South  was  not  to  be  an  annex  to  the  North  in  any  way,  but  a  group  of 
American  States  relieved  from  the  great  burden  of  the  past  by  war,  each  recon¬ 
structing  itself  in  genuine  American  style.  The  majority  of  the  Northern  churches 
were  and  still  are,  unfortunately,  out  of  fellowship  and  practical  cooperation  with 
those  of  similar  name  in  the  South,  and  the  large  majority  of  the  negroes  are 
organized  in  churches  under  their  own  ministry.  He  felt  that  in  building  the 
final  type  of  school  for  the  freedmen  he  must  escape  all  the  pitfalls  of  denomina- 
tionalism,  while  keeping  his  institution  a  broad  and  devout  representative  of  the 
common  Christianity. 

He  saw,  again,  that  the  final  educational  arrangement  for  the  negro  must  be  in 
some  sort  of  corporate  relation  with  the  common-3chool  system  of  the  South;  so 
he  at  once  organized  under  the  laws  of  Virginia  and  made  Hampton  a  representa¬ 
tive  of  the  State  by  the  disbursing  of  a  portion  of  its  industrial  education  fund  to 
its  colored  citizens.  He  also  understood  that  the  negro,  for  a  century  to  come, 
would  be  in  no  condition  to  be  educated,  even  in  his  superior  class,  by  attendance 
on  the  different  types  of  schools  developed  at  the  North.  This  could  only  be  done 
by  working  an  extensive  system  of  student  aid  from  the  North,  which  would  at 
once  demoralize  a  generation  of  colored  youth  and  finally  exhaust  the  patience  of 
the  most  zealous  givers. 

What  was  needed  was  a  new  type  of  school,  an  educational  arrangement  that 
should  receive  such  as  were  able  to  live  under  it,  where  every  pupil  should  learn 
the  whole  art  of  living  by  his  own  effort;  be  compelled  to  conform  to  a  severe  dis¬ 
cipline,  truly  Christian  in  its  spirit,  but,  like  the  Christian  life,  “a  strait  gate  and 
a  narrow  way;”  be  thoroughly  drilled  in  some  method  of  honorable  self-support, 
with  as  much  good  schooling  of  the  common-school  type  in  the  elementary  and 
secondary  grades  as  could  be  carried  on  in  connection  with  everything  else;  the 
opportunity  of  learning  how  to  teach  a  good  common  school,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


487 


through  summer  annexes,  indirectly  be  qualified,  under  fit  conditions,  for  a  genu¬ 
ine  Christian  ministry.  To  combine  all  these  departments  and  agencies  in  one 
school  and  put  such  a  life  into  it  that  it  would  commend  itself  at  once  to  the  whole 
American  people,  North  and  South,  and  become  a  permanent  contribution  to 
American  education;  nothing  less  than  the  last  achievement  of  Christian  philan. 
thropy  to  lift  up  the  lower  races  of  the  world  into  line  with  modern  Christian  civ- 
ilzation;  this  was  indeed  a  work  of  educational  Christian  statesmanship  whose 
results  only  the  genius  of  its  master  builder  could  compass. 

Armstrong  lived  to  see  the  scheme  adopted,  largely  under  the  leadership  of 
teachers  like  Booker  Washington  and  other  good  men  and  women  trained  at 
Hampton,  by  every  Southern  State  and  already  carried  to  a  point,  both  in  the 
training  of  the  colored  and  white  children  of  the  South,  that  marks  it  one  of  the 
future  permanent  agencies  of  republican  civilization.  His  most  eminent  disciple, 
Mr.  Washington,  has  at  once  grasped  the  larger  meaning  of  its  application  to  the 
needs  of  the  colonial  policy  on  which  the  Republic  has  finally  entered  by  suggest¬ 
ing  the  training  of  young  men  and  women  from  the  West  and  East  Indies  at 
Tuskegee,  who  would  then  inaugurate  new  Hamptons  and  new  seminaries  of  the 
type  of  the  Southern  State  normal  and  industrial  school  for  colored  students  and 
white  girls  in  all  these  newly  acquired  lands. 

This  attempt  to  set  forth  the  real  work  of  General  Armstrong  may  be  fitly 
closed  by  the  republication  of  the  estimates  of  his  coworkers  and  friends,  as  set 
forth  at  a  memorial  service  held  at  the  Hampton  Institute  a  few  months  subse¬ 
quent  to  his  death,  and  his  last  words,  an  educational  ‘-will  and  testament” 
worthy  of  this  great  and  good  man  not  yet  half  understood  by  the  people  for 
whom  he  gave  his  life: 

REMARKS  OF  REV.  W.  E.  STRIERY,  D.  D. 

In  1881,  seven  months  after  the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter,  the  American  Missionary 
Association  started  a  school  for  freedmen  near  where  we  stand;  then  one  at  the 
Butler  School  on  these  grounds;  then  Camp  Hamilton,  with  1,500  pupils  from  the 
contrabands’  cabins  all  around.  Then,  in  1886,  General  Armstrong  came  as  an 
officer  of  the  Government  in  the  Freedmen ’s  Bureau,  to  take  charge  of  the  refu¬ 
gees  and  contrabands  and  abandoned  lands.  But  he  saw  that  for  the  1,500  pupils 
who  had  been  for  five  or  six  years  under  instruction  a  change  was  needed.  He 
communicated  his  ideas  to  us  and  cheerfully  and  promptly  we  acceded,  and  this 
Hampton  school  was  started.  In  1867  we  bought  120  acres  here  for  it.  The  next 
year  this  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  School  was  opened  and  General 
Armstrong  was  at  its  head.  In  1889  he  first  appealed  for  a  permanent  building. 
The  question  was  what  to  do.  There  was  the  old  Chesapeake  Female  Seminary, 
now  the  Soldiers’  Home,  which  could  be  bought  cheaply.  General  Armstrong  felt 
strongly  opposed  to  it,  and  induced  President  Mark  Hopkins  and  Gen.  James  A. 
Garfield  to  come  down  and  help  discuss  the  matter.  We  all  met  on  the  veranda 
of  the  general's  house,  with  also  the  superintendent  of  schools  of  Connecticut 
(Mr.  B.  G.  Northrop),  Mr.  Alexander  Hyde,  of  Massachusetts;  Mr.  E.  P.  Smith, 
afterwards  United  States  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  and  myself.  We  talked 
the  matter  over.  I  said,  “That  is  the  best  thing  to  do,  to  buy  the  seminary  build¬ 
ing.”  General  Armstrong  was  inflexibly  opposed  to  that.  At  last  President  Mark 
Hopkins  took  me  aside  and  said  we  had  better  let  General  Armstrong  do  what  he 
wants  to,  and  so  we  did.  If  General  Armstrong  had  been  a  common  man  I  would 
have  been  right;  but  I  was  wrong,  because  General  Armstrong  was  not  a  common 
man;  he  was  a  great  man.  He  was  great  in  his  magnetic  power  over  men.  When 
this  stripling  of  a,  young  man  would  talk  over  with  us  the  matter  of  the  site  of  the 
school  he  could  induce  a  Hopkins  and  a  Garfield  to  come  down  to  Hampton  and 
be  on  his  side.  And  ever  since  he  has  been  drawing  the  Hopkinses  and  Garfields 
to  him  and  to  his  board  of  trustees.  My  associates  will  not  hear  me  when  I  say  1 
have  never  known  a  body  or  more  power,  and  never  have  I  known  a  body  of  teach¬ 
ers  superior  to  those  he  has  gathered  here,  nor  a  body  of  students  so  magnetized — 
mesmerized— by  one  great  spirit  as  here.  General  Armstrong  was  a  great  man 
in  h  s  broad  plans  and  bold  measures. 

He  tells  us  that  the  vision  of  Hampton,  essentially  as  it  now  exists,  was  in  his 
mind  back  in  the  days  of  the  war.  So  when  he  took  up  the  work  it  was  all  in  his 
mind.  The  day  we  met  on  the  porch  of  his  house  there  were  only  two  brick  houses 


488 


EDUCATION  EEPORT,  1900-1901. 


and  a  few  barracks  and  shanties  on  the  place.  But  he  saw  it  all,  and  the  rapidity 
and  vigor  with  which  he  pushed  it  into  visible  shape  astonished  us.  We  used  to 
say,  “Every  year  we  come  we  see  two  or  three  new  buildings.”  We  would  say, 
“ General,  this  is  large  enough,  we  can’t  go  any  farther.”  “Oh,  yes,”  he  would 
say,  “no  more  buildings.”  But  the  next  time  we  would  come  there  would  be  one 
or  two  more  under  way.  Once  when  two  corner  stones  were  to  be  laid  on  an  anni¬ 
versary  day  (Winona  Lodge  and  Stone  Building)  I  was  to  speak  at  one  and  Dr. 
Potter,  of  New  York  (afterwards  Bishop  Potter),  at  the  other.  A  little  rain  fell, 
and  I  said,  “Dr.  Potter,  you  had  better  wait;  it  will  be  over  in  a  few  minutes.” 
“  Oh,  no,”  said  Dr.  Potter,  “if  1  wait  General  Armstrong  will  have  another  corner 
stone  started.  ”  But  the  General  was  not  only  great  in  making  plans.  Many  a  fool 
can  make  plans  and  get  in  debt  for  what  he  can’t  carry  out.  It  is  the  mark  of  a 
great  man  to  keep  his  plans  in  hand,  and  that  is  what  the  General  did.  A  teacher 
here  has  told  me  that  he  knew  the  condition  of  every  building  from  garret  to  cellar. 
So  he  knew  all  his  business.  He  was  great,  too,  in  knowing  how  to  select  his  sub¬ 
ordinates.  He  said  to  us,  “  I  am  not  indispensable  to  the  school.  I  am  dispensa¬ 
ble.  I  can  goto  California  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  because  I  know  those  I  leave 
will  do  what  is  needed  and  the  work  will  go  well.”  To  show  us  that  he  was  not 
led  away  by  visionary  schemes,  he  would  show  us  his  balance  sheet.  And  what¬ 
ever  perplexity  or  trouble  there  was  I  never  knew  him  to  whine.  He  never  said 
to  us,  “Oh,  what  trouble  we  are  in,  won’t  you  help  us  out?”  but  “I  am  going  to 
do  this,  and  that,  and  get  us  out.”  He  made  me  think  of  Napoleon,  who,  after  a 
battle  had  gone  against  him,  gathered  his  forces  under  a  tree,  and  instead  of  talk¬ 
ing  of  the  defeat,  began  to  say,  “I  am  going  to  do  this  and  that  to-morrow.”  One 
of  his  generals  exclaimed,  “Sire,  thou  art  worthy  to  command  us.”  So  we  felt 
that  we  had  in  General  Armstrong  a  worthy  commander  and  guide. 

REMARKS  OF  MR.  BOOKER  T.  WASHINGTON. 

A  few  nights  ago,  while  I  was  driving  through  the  woods  of  Alabama.  I  dis¬ 
cerned  in  the  distance  a  large,  bright  tire.  Driving  to  it,  I  soon  found  out  that  by 
the  glow  of  this  fire  several  busy  hands  were  building  a  nice  frame  cottage  to 
replace  a  log  cabin  that  had  been  their  abode  for  a  quarter  of  a  century. 

That  fire  was  lighted  by  General  Armstrong,  years  ago.  What  does  it  matter 
that  it  was  twenty-five  years  passing  through  Hampton  to  Tuskegee,  and  through 
Tuskegee  Conference  to  that  lonely  spot  in  the  lonely  woods?  It  has  done  its  work 
effectually  all  the  same,  and  will  continue  to  do  it  through  the  years  to  come.  It 
is  a  serious  embarrassment  to  me  to  speak  of  General  Armstrong.  It  would  be 
comparatively  easy  to  speak  of  him  as  our  teacher;  but  he  was  more  than  our 
teacher.  He  was  the  heart  of  our  race,  and  held  us  so  strongly  and  tenderly  in 
his  great  heart  that  it  broke  at  the  time  when  most  men  have  .just  begun  to  live. 
It  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  speak  of  him  as  our  friend,  but  he  was  more 
than  friend— that  word  is  cold  and  barren.  General  Armstrong  and  the  power 
of  his  personality  and  influence  over  his  students,  his  tenderness,  his  love,  his  con¬ 
fidence  in  them,  was  so  indescribable  that  I  hope  you  will  not  think  it  irreverent 
if  we  not  only  reverence,  but  almost  worship  him.  But  General  Armstrong  would 
be  the  last  to  wish  us  to  utter  mere  abstract  words  of  praise.  Every  spark  of  energy 
in  him  was  connected  with  some  purpose,  lifting  up  the  unfortunate  of  the  black 
and  red  and  white  races.  Here  in  Virginia  you  know  how  his  life  penetrated,  but 
what  of  his  influence  in  the  “Darker  South?  5  I  hope  I  shall  be  pardoned  if  I 
speak  from  experience  and  show  by  Tuskegee  how  his  work  is  marching  on.  The 
rose  I  placed  on  his  grave  is  his  work  at  Tuskegee.  To-day  it  is  a  light-house  for 
the  country  about.  Eleven  years  ago  it  began  with  30  students  and  1  teacher; 
to-day  it  has  600  students  and  34  teachers.  Then  it  had  scarcely  a  dollar  and  not  a 
foot  of  ground,  now  it  owns  1,400  acres  and  28  buildings— a  plant  representing 
8180,000.  Then  it  owned  one  blind  horse;  now  it  owns  260  head  of  live  stock. 
Then  the  present  school  ground  was  an  old  plantation  that  had  known  only  labor 
forced  by  the  lash.  To-day  it  has  14  different  industries  carried  on  by  600  as  happy- 
hearted  workmen  and  women  as  there  are  in  America.  Then  it  was  questioned  if 
the  negro  would  work.  Now  17  out  of  the  28  buildings  are  put  up  by  the  labor  of 
the  students.  But  our  great  chief  taught  us  that  all  material  advancement  is  as 
nothing  except  as  it  contributes  to  the  elevation  of  manhood,  of  character. 

REMARKS  FROM  SPEECH  OF  COL.  THOMAS  TABB. 

When  I  am  requested  to  speak  of  General  Armstrongs  relation  to  this  commu¬ 
nity  which  I  have  known  for  twenty-five  years,  I  could  not  fail  to  make  my  tribute 
to  his  memory  and  worth,  however  humbly.  More  than  twenty-five  years  of  this 


COMMON  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH - 1861  TO  1876. 


489 


nineteenth  century,  grandest  of  all  the  ages,  with  its  magnificent  development, 
its  splendid  progress,  its  grand  achievements,  and  its  grander  men,  have  swept 
into  the  past  since  General  Armstrong  first  came  into  this  community.  I  knew 
him  as  a  young  man  in  the  pride  of  his  early  manhood,  and  ever  since  till  we  laid 
him  to  rest  in  yonder  cemetery — and  who  does  not  know  how  fair  and  famous 
that  life  has  been?  It  was  my  privilege  to  meet  him  early  in  his  official  capacity 
as  an  officer  of  the  United  States  Government.  I  refer  to  the  past  because  I  can 
not  speak  fittingly  of  the  memory  of  General  Armstrong  without  relating  the  cir¬ 
cumstances  that  brought  him  here.  Go  with  me  to  the  dark  days  of  1866.  All 
was  not  beautiful  here  then  as  it  is  to-day;  all  was  ruin  and  desolation  in  the 
track  of  war.  You  can  not  realize  the  wondrous  transformation  these  years  have 
wrought.  My  own  people  were  returning  again,  ruined  in  fortune,  with  blighted 
hopes,  to  their  once  happy  homes.  Those  of  them  who  stood  on  the  verge  of  life 
could  only  think  of  those  happy  days  never  to  return.  Hither  was  returning  the 
ex-Confederate  to  his  home;  here  came  the  matron  a  widow  and  childless,  who  in 
1861  had  bidden  husband  and  son  go  forth  to  battle,  her  loved  ones  sleeping  on 
the  heights  of  Gettysburg  or  in  the  shades  of  the  Wilderness  or  Chancellorsville. 
Thousands  of  colored  men  and  women,  who  had  fled  here  as  to  a  city  of  refuge, 
were  occupying  our  lands  and  abiding  in  our  homes.  I  say  it  not  to  their  preju¬ 
dice;  such  is  not  my  purpose;  no  man  appreciates  their  fidelity  as  a  race  more 
than  I;  they  have'  my  best  wishes  for  their  welfare,  but  naturally  too  many  of 
them  thought  liberty  meant  license;  freedom,  exemption  from  labor.  General 
Armstrong  came  here  as  a  representative  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau.  Here  laws 
were  silent,  courts  closed;  the  bureau  administered  justice  between  man  and  man. 
Many  were  embittered.  But  he  impressed  this  community  as  no  man  of  his  pred¬ 
ecessors  had  done.  We  came  to  regard  him  as  a  true,  brave,  just,  impartial 
man  and  well  he  met  the  difficulties  of  the  hour,  impartial  to  white  and  colored, 
a  just  man,  and  discharging  his  duty  fearless  of  consequences  and  in  the  fear  of 
his  God.  Some  sweet  memories  come  back  to  me  of  his  goodness  to  my  own 
people.  The  bravest  are  ever  the  tenderest.  He  passed  from  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau  to  the  organization  of  this  great  school.  Methinks  there  was  something 
in  his  environments  here  which  spoke  to  him  as  the  voice  of  destiny.  It  may  not 
be  that  our  great  Creator  speaks  to  us  as  to  Moses  and  John,  yet  He  speaks  to  us, 
and  if  we  would  give  heed  there  would  be  more  and  grander  men  than  there  are. 
Yes,  he  heard  the  voice  which  would  speak  to  him  and,  like  John  on  the  barren 
island,  he  gave  heed  to  that  voice  and  God  pointed  out  to  him  his  destiny  and  so 
this  school  arose.  I  well  remember  its  beginning.  How  unpromising!  I  can  go 
back  twenty-five  years  and  recall  how  it  started  with  2  dilapidated  houses,  old 
hospital  frame  buildings,  2  teachers,  and  15  pupils.  What  has  he  accomplished 
here?  These  600  students  bear  witness.  These  magnificent  buildings  tell  the 
story  of  his  great  life.  Beyond  all  this,  the  hundreds  of  young  men  and  women 
going  all  though  this  land  to  elevate  their  people  to  a  higher  plane  of  manhood 
and  womanhood — these  speak  more  eloquently  than  I  can  speak  of  the  work  and 
the  worth  of  General  Armstrong.  Michael  Angelo  liberated  the  angel  from  the 
block  of  rough  and  shapeless  stone;  General  Armstrong  has  been  a  greater  Angelo 
for  two  races. 

SPEECH  OF  REV.  DR.  WAYLAND. 

I  don't  know  what  I  can  add  to  all  the  fine  and  impressive  things  that  have  been 
said  of  General  Armstrong.  Great  he  was — he  thought  of  what  seemed  impos¬ 
sible  as  something  that  must  be  done,  and  he  did  it.  A  soldier,  he  drew  his  sword 
only  in  behalf  of  justice,  law,  liberty,  and  love  of  God  and  men.  A  statesman, 
he  had  wisdom  to  see  that  when  the  war  was  over  it  was  only  half  done.  He  had 
seen  multitudes  lay  down  their  lives,  the  Potomac  and  the  James  run  red  to  the 
sea,  to  achieve  bodily  freedom.  But  he  saw  the  souls  were  still  to  be  set  free,  and 
to  that  end  he  devoted  his  life.  A  Christian,  he  saw  that  God  had  given  to  him 
the  mission  of  bearing,  living,  suffering  for  others,  and  that  the  divinest  thing  in 
humanity  is  a  life  devoted  to  man's  redemption.  We  call  him  dead,  but  his  pres¬ 
ence  was  never  more  truly  felt.  From  that  picture,  from  that  grave,  he  speaks 
to  us,  and  yet  more  from  the  class  room,  from  the  church,  from  workshops,  from 
cabin  and  cottage,  and  says,  “  I  have  borne  this  burden  for  men,  so  do  you;  and  as 
I  carried  this  load  of  labor,  care,  and  love  on  my  heart  till  it  ceased  to  beat,  so  do 
you  no  less.”  These  sixty  buildings  are  a  monument  to  him,  compared  with  which 
Trajan’s  column  is  an  inanimate  block;  these  shall  always  speak.  And  he  has 
other  monuments  in  the  hearts  of  men.  So  long  as  an  Indian  or  a  negro  mother 
shall  teach  her  child  the  name  of  Jesus  and  tell  him  of  the  great- souled  man  who 
here  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  worked,  watched,  and  died,  so  long  his  memory 
shall  not  fail  from  the  minds  of  men. 


490 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


G-eneral  Armstrong’s  “  Memoranda,’'  left  to  be  read  after  bi3  death,  have  already 
been  given  to  the  press,  as  was  but  right — a  legacy  of  inspiration  to  all  who  read. 
Certain  clerical  errors  and  omissions  are  corrected  in  the  copy  below,  which  is  a 
carefully  accurate  transcript  of  his  original  manuscript. 

MEMORANDA. 

Now,  when  all  is  bright,  the  family  together,  and  there  is  nothing  to  alarm  and 
very  much  to  be  thankful  for,  it  is  well  to  look  ahead,  and,  perhaps,  to  say  the 
things  that  I  should  wish  known  should  I  suddenly  die. 

I  wish  to  be  buried  in  the  school  graveyard,  among  the  students,  where  one  of 
them  would  have  been  put  had  he  died  next. 

I  wish  no  monument  or  fuss  whatever  over  my  grave,  only  a  simple  headstone; 
no  text  or  sentiment  inscribed,  only  my  name  and  the  date.  I  wish  the  simplest 
funeral  service,  without  sermon  or  attempt  at  oratory — a  soldier’s  funeral. 

I  hope  that  there  will  be  enough  friends  to  see  that  the  work  of  the  school  shall 
continue.  Unless  some  shall  make  sacrifices  for  it,  it  can  not  go  on. 

A  work  that  requires  no  sacrifice  does  not  count  for  much  in  fulfilling  God's 
plans.  But  what  is  commonly  called  sacrifice  is  the  best,  happiest  use  of  one's  self 
and  one's  resources— the  best  investment  of  time,  strength,  and  means.  He  who 
makes  no  such  sacrifice  is  most  to  be  pitied.  He  is  a  heathen,  because  he  knows 
nothing  of  God. 

Tn  the  school  the  great  thing  is  not  to  quarrel;  to  pull  all  together;  to  refrain 
from  hasty,  unwise  words  and  actions;  to  unselfishly  and  wisely  seek  the  best  good 
of  all,  and  to  get  rid  of  workers  whose  temperaments  are  unfortunate,  whose  heads 
are  not  level,  no  matter  how  much  knowledge  or  culture  they  may  have.  Cantan¬ 
kerousness  is  worse  than  heterodoxy. 

I  wish  no  effort  at  a  biography  of  myself  made.  Good  friends  might  get  up  a 
pretty  good  story,  but  it  would  not  be  the  whole  truth.  The  truth  of  a  life  usually 
lies  deep  down.  We  hardly  know  ourselves.  God,  only,  does.  I  trust  His  mercy. 
The  shorter  one's  creed  the  better.  ‘‘Simply  to  Thy  cross  I  cling,”  is  enough  for 
me.  I  am  most  thankful  for  my  parents,  my  Hawaiian  home,  for  war  experi¬ 
ences  and  college  days  at  Williams,  and  for  life  and  work  at  Hampton.  Hampton 
has  blessed  me  in  so  many  ways.  Along  with  it  have  come  the  choicest  people  in 
the  country  for  my  friends  and  helpers,  and  then  such  a  grand  chance  to  do  some¬ 
thing  directly  for  those  set  free  by  the  war,  and,  indirectly,  for  those  who  were 
conquered.  And  Indian  work  has  been  another  great  privilege. 

Few  men  have  had  the  chance  that  I  have  had.  I  never  gave  up  or  sacrificed 
anything  in  my  life;  have  been,  seemingly,  guided  in  everything. 

Prayer  is  the  greatest  power  in  the  world.  It  keeps  us  near  to  God.  My  own 
prayer  has  been  most  weak,  wavering,  inconstant,  yet  has  teen  the  best  thing  I 
have  ever  done.  I  think  this  a  universal  truth.  What  comfort  is  there  in  any¬ 
thing  but  the  broadest  truth?  I  am  most  anxious  to  get  a  glimpse  of  the  next 
world.  How  will  it  all  seem?  Perfectly  fair  and  perfectly  natural,  no  doubt. 
We  ought  not  to  fear  death — it  is  friendly.  The  only  pain  that  comes  at  the 
thought  of  it  is  for  my  true,  faithful  wife,  and  blessed,  dear  children.  But  they 
will  be  brave  about  it  all,  and,  in  the  end,  stronger.  They  are  my  greatest 
comfort. 

Hampton  must  not  go  down.  See  to  it,  you  who  are  true  to  the  black  and  red 
children  of  the  land  and  to  just  ideas  of  education. 

The  loyalty  of  my  old  soldiers  and  of  my  students  has  been  an  unspeakable 
comfort. 

It  pays  to  follows  one's  best  light,  to  put  God  and  country  first;  ourselves 
afterward. 

Taps  has  just  sounded. 


Hampton,  Va.,  New  Year's  Eve,  1890, 


S.  C.  Armstrong. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


LETTER  CONCERNING  THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  A  NORMAL 
SCHOOL  FOR  THE  WOMEN  OF  VIRGINIA. 

ADDRESSED  TO  THE  TRUSTEES  AND  FACULTY  OF  HOLLINS  INSTITUTE,  BOTETOURT 
SPRINGS,  YA. ,  AUGUST  20,  1864,  BY  EDWARD  S.  JOYNES,  PROFESSOR  IN  WIL¬ 
LIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE  AND  ACTING  PROFESSOR  IN  HOLLINS  INSTITUTE. 

George  P.  Taylor,  Esq. 

President  of  Board  of  Trustees  of  Hollins  Institute,  Virginia. 

Sir:  The  approaching  meeting  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  this  institute,  over 
which  you  preside,  when,  as  I  understand,  the  future  policy  of  the  institute,  both 
during  and  after  the  war,  will  be  discussed  and  determined,  furnishes  me  the 
occasion  for  addressing  to  you,  and  through  you  to  the  board  of  trustees,  some 
views  and  recommendations  which  I  trust  may  be  found  worthy  of  consideration. 
The  present  condition  of  our  country,  its  prospects  and  future  wants,  particularly 
in  the  interest  of  education,  as  a  chief  element  of  its  independence,  give  a  peculiar 
present  importance  to  the  subjects  which  I  shall  present.  The  position  of  this 
institute,  as  the  oldest  and  largest  female  seminary  in  Virginia,  renders  it,  more¬ 
over,  proper  that  the  trustees  and  faculty  should  more  profoundly  consider  their 
duties  and  their  opportunities  with  reference  not  only  to  the  institute  itself,  but 
to  the  wTants  of  the  country  under  the  highest  views  both  of  professional  and 
patriotic  obligation.  I  am  encouraged  to  believe  that  any  considerations  touching 
these  subjects  will  be  favorably  received  by  the  trustees  of  this  institute,  and  that 
whatever  views  may  be  adopted  the  responsibilities  which  they  represent  will  not 
be  disregarded.  My  sense  of  the  vast  and  enduring  importance  of  these  interests 
to  national  as  well  as  to  social  and  individual  welfare,  and  the  acknowledged  influ¬ 
ence  and  reputation  which  this  school  enjoys,  encourage  me  to  address  you 
especially  on  this  behalf;  and  I  feel  that  I  may  do  so  the  more  freely  because, 
while  deeply  interested  in  its  success,  I  am  yet  connected  with  the  institute  only 
by  a  temporary  tie,  and  have  my  permanent  position  and  interests  elsewhere  and 
in  a  different  sphere. 

Among  all  the  interests  and  influences  which  comprehend  the  character  and 
welfare  of  a  people  there  is  no  one  more  important  than  that  of  education.  This 
embraces  the  very  sources  of  the  national  life,  and,  conceived  in  its  moral  as  well 
as  its  intellectual  aspects,  it  may  almost  be  said  to  be  omnipotent  in  its  influence 
upon  national  character,  as  well  as  upon  social  and  individual  welfare  and  happi¬ 
ness.  The  school,  the  church,  and  the  family,  which  are  all  embraced  in  its  full 
signification,  are  the  great  laboratories  in  which  the  elements  of  a  nation’s  life  are 
pornbined  and  wrought  into  power,  and  in  these,  in  their  constitution  and  char¬ 
acter,  their  influences  and  traditions,  their  teachings  and  discipline,  will  be  found 
the  key  to  the  intellectual  and  moral  life  of  the  individual  and  the  people.  One 
of  these  receiving  the  child  at  its  birth  and  attending  the  man  in  one  relation  or 
another  throughout  life  surrounds  him  with  influences  and  sanctities  silent  and 
innumerable  that  can  not  be  analyzed  nor  described.  Another  comprehends  his 
relation  to  his  Maker  and  embraces  the  inscrutable  mysteries  of  the  heart,  which 
none  but  himself  and  God  can  penetrate.  For  these  reasons,  being  thus  of  the 

491 


492 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


nature  of  individual  and  sacred  concerns,  they  are  less  the  subject  of  discussion  or 
of  control;  but  the  school,  which,  though  hardly  less  individual  in  its  importance, 
is  yet  public  in  its  character  and  social  in  its  constitution,  is  therefore  the  more 
appropriately  matter  of  ^public  concern,  and  questions  of  education  have  at  all 
times  engaged  the  attention  and  discussion  of  thoughtful  minds. 

And  such  questions  are,  indeed,  not  only  of  vital  importance  to  each  individual 
and  family,  but  they  possess  a  universal  and  patriotic  interest  at  all  times.  The 
school  and  the  schoolmaster  occupy  the  very  fulcrum  of  intellectual  and  moral  influ¬ 
ence  upon  the  young.  They  contribute  the  materials  which  shall  form  by 
assimilation  the  substance  of  the  future  mind  and  character.  They  determine,  by 
early  discipline  and  example,  [the  quality  of]  reasoning  and  judgment,  and  in  no 
small  degree,  also,  of  feeling  and  of  conduct  in  afterlife;  and  beyond  the  sphere  of 
mere  instruction,  and  in  a  far  more  important  sense,  the  associations  and  the  habits, 
the  standards,  the  examples,  the  traditions  of  the  school,  woven  into  the  web  of  early 
growth  and  habit,  constitute  ofttimes  the  most  powerful  elements  in  the  formation 
of  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  in  after  life.  The  agencies,  therefore,  which 
convey  these  influences  can  not  be  of  slight  importance.  The  institutions  of  edu¬ 
cation  constitute,  indeed,  in  all  their  peculiarities,  a  most  important  and  charac¬ 
teristic  part  of  civilization  of  a  people.  In  their  several  departments  of  action  and 
of  influence,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  in  their  constitution  and  conduct,  their 
government  and  discipline,  their  methods  and  subjects  of  discussion,  they  are 
indeed  of  vital  interest.  In  all  nations,  just  in  proportion  to  their  advancement 
in  intelligence  and  civilization,  they  have  received  the  attention  of  thoughtful 
minds  and  a  well- constituted  system  of  education  and  educational  institutions  is 
regarded  as  among  the  highest  glories  of  a  nation. 

But  if  this  is  true,  if  these  things  are  important  at  all  times  and  for  all  peoples, 
then  are  they  especially  so  for  the  South  and  at  this  time.  We  stand,  indeed,  on 
the  threshold  of  a  new  civilization.  For  this  people  “  old  things  have  passed  away 
and  all  things  have  become  new.”  A  little  while  hence,  and,  God  helping,  they 
will  stand  erect,  a  bruised  and  shattered  remnant,  it  is  true,  but  yet  a  people  and 
a  nation,  clothed  with  a  blood-bought  independence  and  endowed  with  the  rights 
and  responsibilities  of  liberty  and  self-government.  Through  the  sacrifices  and 
the  victories,  the  agonies  and  the  glories,  the  trials  and  the  triumphs  of  this  great 
war,  they  will  have  won  for  themselves  a  place  and  a  name  among  the  nations  of 
the  earth  and  laid  the  foundations  of  their  own  national  character;  and  beneath 
the  inspirations  of  this  great  struggle— under  the  influence  of  its  discipline  and 
sufferings — by  the  light  of  its  profound  teachings,  they  will  begin  to  make  their 
own  career  and  to  work  out  their  own  civilization  and  destiny  in  the  history  of 
the  world.  That  this  civilization  will  be  a  new  one,  in  comparison  at  least  with 
their  past  history,  that  a  profound  change  will  have  come  over  the  condition  and 
character  of  the  people,  affecting  at  once  all  the  circumstances  of  individual  and 
social  life  and  all  the  concerns  of  public  interest,  needs  not  to  be  said,  certainly 
not  to  be  argued.  It  is  already  manifest.  The  -war  itself,  in  a  word,  will  be  the 
basis  upon  which  the  distinctive  civilization  of  this  people  will  be  founded  here¬ 
after,  and  its  effect  upon  their  political  and  physical  condition,  great  as  it  may  be, 
will  be  scarcely  greater  than  upon  their  intellectual  and  moral  character.  Its 
experiences,  recollections,  and  traditions;  the  impulses,  the  energies,  the  passions, 
and  aspiration  it  has  called  into  being,  will  be  impressed  with  controlling  force 
upon  every  mind,  and  will  inspire  the  thoughts  and  sentiments,  the  literature  and 
the  ambition,  of  the  present  and  future  generations  with  ever-increasing  influence. 
An  immense  impulse  will  have  been  given  to  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the  phys¬ 
ical  energies  of  the  people.  All  the  energies  of  thought  and  of  passion,  as  well  as 
of  action,  will  have  been  aroused  to  their  utmost  intensity,  and  with  the  same 
intensity  they  will  seek  for  continued  exercise.  And  as  the  groundswell  after  a 
storm  is  more  dangerous  than  the  storm  itself,  which  controls  while  it  arouses  the 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  JOYCES. 


493 


deep,  so  the  periods  that  immediately  succeed  great  wars  are  often  more  fraught 
with  peril  to  a  people  than  war  itself.  At  such  times,  so  critical  and  so  difficult 
for  the  statesman  and  the  ruler,  there  is  more  than  ever  need  that  all  the  con¬ 
servative  moral  forces  which  influence  the  character  of  a  people  and  give  stability 
to  social  and  political  institutions  shall  be  held  unimpaired  and  in  full  activity. 
All  the  influences  of  education,  of  religion,  and  of  morals  become  then  supremely 
important.  As  the  passions  and  the  energies  of  men  have  become  intensified  and 
the  demoralizing  effects  of  war  been  spread  abroad  through  the  land,  all  the  con¬ 
straining  and  conservative  agencies  of  society  must  be  strengthened  in  proportion. 
And  as  the  former  are  but  too  surely  transmitted  in  increased  intensity  to  the 
3Toung,  so  is  it  in  the  minds  of  the  young,  ever  most  susceptible  to  good  or  to  evil, 
that  they  must  be  met  and  controlled.  For  of  the  mixed  good  and  evil  which 
result  from  every  war,  however  the  former  may  ultimately  preponderate,  it  is 
unfortunately  the  evil  that  is  most  immediately  felt  and  most  speedily  propagated. 
And  if,  under  such  circumstances,  we  will  not  educate  our  children  to  liberty, 
that  they  may  be  the  guardians  of  free  institutions,  our  institutions  themselves 
must  succumb  to  ignorance  and  license;  for  if  society  may  not  be  protected  and 
liberty  preserved  by  intelligent  obedience  and  enlightened  opinion,  under  mild 
laws,  liberty  must  give  place  to  anarchy,  and  then  to  despotism,  which  is  its  only 
cure.  Civil  liberty  can  not  long  consist  with  popular  ignorance  under  democratic 
institutions,  least  of  all  in  periods  of  intense  excitement  or  of  profound  reaction, 
such  as  follow  after  great  wars.  Of  this  truth  history  is  full  of  proofs.  In  free 
governments,  therefore,  such  as  ours,  and  especially  in  times  like  these,  apart 
from  every  obligation  of  duty,  the  necessity  of  self-preservation — stronger  in 
political  ethics  than  every  other  motive— requires  that  the  people  of  the  State, 
above  all  others,  shall  apprecia '  e  the  importance  of  education  and  cherish  all  its 
institutions  and  agencies. 

To  these  agencies  of  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  influence,  now  more  than 
ever  important,  we  must  chiefly  look,  both  to  resist  at  once  the  immediate  demor¬ 
alizing  effects  upon  the  young  and  to  meet  hereafter  the  multiplied  intellectual 
and  moral  wants  of  the  country  in  its  new  condition.  These  wants  must  be,  more¬ 
over,  now  anticipated  and  provided  for,  while  the  elements  of  demoralization  are 
already  so  rife,  or  it  maybe  too  late,  when — the  stress  of  war  removed — they  shall 
be  let  loose  unrestrained  upon  the  country.  Almost  an  entire  generation  of  our 
young  men  since  the  beginning  of  this  war  have  passed  from  childhood  to  man¬ 
hood,  and  entered  the  field  of  strife  in  great  measure  without  even  the  ordinary 
advantages  of  intermediate  education.  This  is  already  a  sad  condition  for  them¬ 
selves  and  for  their  country,  and  it  is,  therefore,  only  the  more  important  that 
this  want  shall  be  supplied  for  those  who  are  to  follow  after  them.  The  Confed¬ 
erate  congress,  in  their  enactments,  and  our  excellent  President,  in  many  public 
expressions,  have  shown  a  wise  appreciation  of  the  vital  importance  of  this  subject 
to  the  country.  Under  circumstances  of  public  peril,  calling  for  the  exercise  of 
all  the  defensive  power  of  the  country,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  conscription  almost 
universal,  those  who  are  legitimately  and  permanently  engaged  in  the  profession 
of  teaching  have  been  left  exempt  from  military  duty.  This  can  only  have  been 
done  from  a  conviction  of  the  vital  and  enduring  importance  to  the  country  of 
their  work,  and  that  they — unfortunately  only  too  limited  a  number — could  best 
subserve  the  public  defense  and  the  common  welfare  by  keeping  alive  the  institu¬ 
tions  and  the  influences  of  education,  and  by  training,  during  this  critical  period, 
those  who  are  soon  to  be  charged  with  the  destinies  of  the  country.  This  consid¬ 
eration  imposes  upon  teachers,  on  the  other  hand,  a  peculiar  obligation  that  they 
shall  take  high  and  patriotic  views  of  the  trust  thus  confided  to  them,  and  that  in 
their  sphere,  not  the  least  important  in  this  respect,  they  shall  realize  that  they, 
too,  are  called  to  labor,  for  the  establishment  of 'our  independence.  *  *  * 

Without  this,  without  an  independent  national  culture,  there  can  be  no  com- 


494 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


munity  of  sentiment  among  the  people,  no  independent  literature,  no  distinct 
national  character;  in  a  word,  no  true  independence  and  no  permanent  institu¬ 
tions,  for,  without  these,  political  independence  or  military  power  can  rest  upon 
no  distinct  and  enduring  basis.  Of  this  truth  this  war  has  given  us  already 
an  impressive  proof.  To  our  cost  have  we  realized  (when  it  was  almost,  yet, 
thank  God,  not  yet  quite  too  late)  to  what  extent,  under  the  name  of  equality 
and  liberty,  the  Delilah  of  this  false  Union  had  already  shorn  us  of  our  strength. 
Not  only  had  it  well-nigh  robbed  us  of  all  the  elements  of  political,  industrial, 
commercial  independence  until  it  deemed  us  powerless  in  its  grasp,  but  with  a 
still  more  subtle  invasion  our  artful  “brethren”  of  the  North  had  sapped  the 
foundations  of  our  education  and  our  literature  by  the  emissaries  of  their  schools 
and  the  publications  of  their  press,  and  had  these  influences  not  been  happily 
arrested  they  would  in  the  end  have  undermined  our  opinions,  our  politics,  our 
institutions  themselves,  rendering  their  dominion  complete  and  revolution  for 
us  impossible.  How  far  had  this  been  already  done  in  some  States  we  have 
abundant  and  melancholy  proofs,  and  since  at  this  rate  revolution  or  slavery 
must  have  come,  we  have  on  this  account  reason  to  be  thankful  that  revolution 
came  so  soon.  To  carry  forward  successfully  this  revolution  in  their  own  sphere 
and  to  establish  this  bulwark  of  independence  for  our  people  henceforth  is  now 
the  peculiar  duty  of  Southern  teachers,  and  how  this  shall  be  effected  is  the  great 
problem  of  Southern  education  at  the  present  day.  It  is  a  problem  that  compre¬ 
hends  the  profoundest  interests  and  the  most  momentous  and  far-reaching  results, 
affecting  the  welfare  and  character  of  our  people,  and  if  it  is  not  solved  practically 
now,  under  the  impulses  which  this  war  has  awakened  and  while  its  spirit  is  yet 
rife,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  it  will  never  be  done  at  all,  but  that  we  shall  drift 
back  after  peace  is  made  into  a  worse  than  our  former  dependence,  for  it  would 
then  be  a  dependence  upon  a  foreign  people  and  a  confession  alike  of  intellectual 
inability  to  complete  and  of  moral  unworthiness  to  enjoy  that  independence 
which  our  arms  had  won. 

With  your  indulgence,  I  desire  to  offer  some  practical  views  which  I  deem 
important  in  connection  with  this  general  subject  before  passing  to  the  specific 
object  of  this  communication,  upon  which,  however,  they  will  have  a  direct 
bearing. 

It  has  been  the  misfortune  of  the  South  that  thus  far  the  profession  of  teaching, 
as  such,  has  scarcely  been  known  among  us.  Except  in  a  few  college  professor¬ 
ships,  many  of  which  are  of  limited  influence,  but  few  educated  men  of  Southern 
birth  have  devoted  themselves  professionally  to  this  pursuit.  This  has  been  caused, 
in  part,  doubtless,  by  the  character  of  the  Southern  people,  -who  have  been  attracted 
rather  by  the  more  active  pursuits  of  agriculture,  or  of  professional  or  political  ambi- 
tion,  than  by  the  quiet  studies  of  the  school.  *  *  *  The  result  has  been — apart 
from  other  influences  most  unfriendly  to  our  institutions  and  pernicious  to  our 
youth — that  the  profession  of  teaching  itself  had  fallen  into  disrepute  among  us. 

*  *  *  Among  our  own  people  teaching  has  been  mostly  a  temporary  occupation, 
serving  only  as  a  stepping  stone  to  some  other  pursuit  that  offered  higher  rewards; 
and  too  often  it  has  been  the  last  resort  of  the  incompetent  and  worthless,  who  had 
failed  at  every  other  business.  Under  such  circumstances,  with  such  standards 
imthe  prof  ession  of  teaching  itself,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  our  standard  of 
education  was  low.  *  *  *  There  have  been,  of  course,  exceptions  in  many 
worthy  and  illustrious  Southern  teachers — I  speak  of  the  rule.  It  is  only  of  late 
years,  and  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  whose 
noblest  offspring  is  the  body  of  earnest  teachers  which  have  been  sent  abroad 
throughout  the  South,  that  our  people  have  begun  to  awaken  with  worthier 
standards  from  this  pernicious  error,  and  to  perceive  that  it  is  not  only  important 
what  is  taught,  but  how,  by  whom,  and  under  what  influence  and  associations. 

*  *  *  We  need  an  independent,  self-sustaining  system  of  education,  repre- 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  JOYCES. 


495 


sen  ted  by  our  own  teachers,  sustained  by  our  own  institutions;  *  *  *  an 
education  simple,  earnest,  truthful,  worthy  of  the  intellect  and  character  of  a  free 
and  uncorrupted  people.  How  shall  this  be  supplied? 

I  do  not  propose  to  discuss  any  of  the  details  of  this  question,  however  impor¬ 
tant,  but  only  to  indicate  some  leading  points  that  are  pertinent  to  my  present 
object. 

In  the  first  place,  and  as  the  groundwork  of  every  other  reform,  the  profession 
of  teaching  among  us  and  the  character  of  our  teachers  is  that  of  mind  upon  mind, 
character  upon  character,  in  direct  and  daily  contact,  aided,  on  the  other  hand,  by 
all  the  impressibility  of  youth.  It  is  conveyed  through  innumerable  channels 
beyond  the  mere  agencies  of  instruction,  and  for  good  and  evil — if  the  teacher  be 
not  wholly  imbecile  or  repulsive — it  will  affect  the  moral  as  well  as  the  intellectual 
being  of  the  pupil  throughout  life.  How  many  there  are  who  can  trace  their  most 
characteristic  habits  of  thought  and  of  life  to  the  influence  of  some  one  or  two 
favorite  teachers  in  early  years;  how  many  more  in  whom  such  influences,  still 
potent,  have  been  only  forgotten  by  themselves.  To  bear  worthily  this  high  office, 
and  to  train  our  children  not  only  in  right  knowledge  but  in  right  conduct  and 
in  those  refined  sentiments  and  high  principles  which  are  better  than  all  knowl¬ 
edge,  we  need  a  body  of  teachers  who  shall  possess  not  only  talents  and  learning, 
but  moral  qualities  and  accomplishments,  such  as  shall  make  them  worthy  models 
of  character  and  of  manners  under  the  highest  standards  of  life.  That  w7e  may 
have  these  the  dignity  of  the  profession  of  teaching  must  first  be  elevated,  its 
influence  and  importance  must  be  acknowledged,  and  there  must  be  attached  to  it 
such  rewards  of  honor  and  of  emolument  as  shall  offer  inducements  to  the  highest 
order  of  talents  and  attainments  in  the  choice  of  a  profession.  And  in  this  direc¬ 
tion  teachers  themselves  must  take  the  first  3tep  for  themselves  and  for  the  public. 
Their  profession,  like  every  other,  will  receive  no  higher  estimate  than  such  as 
they  put  upon  it.  Let  them,  then,  begin  by  adopting  for  themselves,  in  the  first 
place,  the  highest  standards  of  professional  attainment  and  conduct.  Let  them 
discard  and  frown  upon  whatever  is  false,  superficial,  or  unworthy  in  method  or 
presentation.  Let  them  cultivate  among  themselves  the  highest  sentiments  of 
professional  responsibility  and  professional  pride.  Let  them  at  the  same  time  set 
a  right  value,  and  a  right  price  also,  upon  the  work  of  education,  remembering 
themselves  and  teaching  the  public  to  understand  that  of  ali  cheap  things  that  are 
bad,  cheap  education  is  the  worst.  They  will  thus,  by  mutual  influence,  elevate 
the  standard  of  the  profession  among  themselves,  and  by  setting  a  right  value 
upon  their  own  work  they  will  elevate  both  it  and  themselves  in  the  eyes  of  the 
public  and  increase  the  dignity,  the  usefulness,  and  the  inducements  of  their  pro¬ 
fession.  Thus  only  an  enlightened  public  opinion  supporting  their  efforts,  it  may 
be  hoped  that  young  men  of  talents  and  ambition  may  be  attracted  to  this  pursuit 
and  induced  to  prepare  themselves  for  it,  with  elevated  standards  of  attainment, 
as  the  profession  of  their  lives. 

In  the  next  place — and  this  is  the  only  other  consideration  to  which  I  shall  advert 
at  present — that  such  a  reform  may  be  made  practicable  and  effective,  means  must 
be  provided  and  facilities  furnished  for  the  special  education  of  teachers.  Teach¬ 
ing  is  not  a  mere  occupation.  It  is  an  art  of  the  highest  difficulty  and  importance, 
that  requires  special  attainments,  as  well  as  the  highest  faculties,  for  its  exercise. 
It  is  one  thing  to  know;  quite  another  thing  to  teach.  The  teacher  must  possess 
quite  a  peculiar  education,  and  if  it  is  not  given  to  him  by  preparation  he  must 
give  it  to  himself  by  experience.  Non  repente  fit.  No  man  is  at  once  a  competent 
teacher,  and  no  man  will  become  such,  in  the  higher  sense,  who  does  not  devote 
to  it  continuously  his  whole  time,  and  strength,  and  study.  There  are  habits  of 
mind — modes  of  thinking,  of  knowing,  of  imparting — that  belong  to  the  teacher 
and  that  no  man  can  acquire  without  special  study  and  experience.  This  consti¬ 
tutes  the  great  importance  and  value  of  professional  teachers,  men  who  shall  make 


496 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


teaching  the  business  and  study  of  their  lives  and  find  in  it  their  sole  emolument 
and  ambition.  None  others  will  subject  themselves  to  those  severe  methods  of 
discipline  and  studjT  which  are  required  in  teaching,  none  others  will  submit 
cheerfully  or  constantly  to  its  constraints  and  sacrifices,  none  others  can  enjoy  that 
matured  and  ever-progressive  experience  which  is  essential  to  the  best  teachers; 
for  the  truly  good  teacher  is  himself  the  chief  learner,  and  every  year  will  add 
not  only  to  the  stores  of  his  knowledge,  but  to  his  mastery  of  his  art.  He  is  ever 
acquiring,  by  his  own  experience,  new  views,  more  striking  illustrations,  clearer 
power  of  expression,  simpler  and  more  progressive  methods  of  instruction,  and  a 
profounder  knowledge  not  only  of  all  the  relations  of  his  subject,  but  of  the  laws 
of  the  human  mind  and  of  the  means  by  which  it  is  to  be  reached  and  wrought 
upon.  Let  every  true  teacher  say  if  such  has  not  been  his  experience.  It  may  be 
safely  said,  with  few  exceptions,  that  none  other  than  professional  teachers  are 
efficient  teachers,  and  that  none  of  those  who  pursue  teaching  as  a  mere  pastime 
or  as  a  preparation  for  other  pursuits  will  ever  attain  the  highest  usefulness  as 
teachers  or  contribute  to  advance  the  standards  of  the  profession.  Apart  from 
this,  it  is  of  the  highest  moment  to  each  community  that  the  office  of  teacher  in 
their  midst  should  be  permanently  filled  by  persons  of  approved  experience  and 
ability,  and  that  they  shall  not  be  subject,  as  in  general  heretofore,  to  the  risk  and 
loss  of  a  perpetual  change  of  schools  and  school-teachers.  A  body  of  professional 
teachers  is  indeed  scarcely  less  important  than  a  professional  ministry,  and  a  peo¬ 
ple  who  fail  to  provide  for  the  one  or  the  other  imperil  the  highest  interests  of 
education  and  of  religion. 

And,  indeed,  it  is  only  through  the  influence  of  such*  a  body  of  educated  and 
professional  teachers  that  any  true  reform  in  our  system  of  education  can  be 
accomplished.  The  laws  of  physical  architecture  are  reversed  in  the  intellectual 
and  moral  world,  or,  rather,  the  law  is  the  same,  but  the  point  of  departure  is  dif¬ 
ferent.  Here  the  foundation  is  above,  and  from  above  all  building,  all  reform, 
must  begin.  It  is  only  through  the  influence  of  a  superior  intelligence  or  of  an 
outward  influence  higher  than  itself  that  the  human  mind  or  the  human  heart  can 
be  elevated  to  a  higher  nature.  It  is  so  in  religion,  it  is  so  in  morals,  it  is  so  in 
intellect,  and  this  is  consistent  with  the  doctrines*  of  Revelation,  which  teaches 
that  all  holiness  and  all  intelligence  come  from  God  and  that  man  alone  can  work 
out  no  good  for  himself.  All  civilization,  all  progress  in  the  world's  history,  have 
come  from  the  influence  superior  to  himself,  that  shall  control  and  exalt  him. 
Left  to  himself,  he  will  never  become  conscious  of  his  intellect,  and  his  moral 
nature,  if  indeed  it  could  have  any  existence,  will  follow  only  the  promptings  of 
original  sin,  or,  at  best;  of  his  merely  physical  appetites.  So  in  education.  If  you 
would  elevate  the  colleges,  you  must  begin  with  the  university,  from  which  they 
derive  their  teachers  and  standards.  If  you  would  elevate  the  academies,  you  must 
first  raise  the  colleges,  and  if  you  would  elevate  the  schools  you  must  first  provide 
the  teachers  who  shall  be  competent  to  teach  them  upon  elevated  standards.  Of 
what  use  are  free  schools  and  public  schools,  even  if  you  would  fill  them  with 
pupils,  without  a  supply  of  educated  and  competent  teachers,  and  how  else  can 
we  hope  to  secure  these  in  permanent  employment  without  providing  the  means 
for  their  education  in  our  own  institutions?  This  State  has  committed  the  error 
of  attempting  to  institute  schools  without  providing  teachers.  From  such  a  sys¬ 
tem  nothing  could  have  been  adopted  and  nothing  can  ever  flow  except  results  the 
most  depreciatory  and  discouraging  to  the  interests  of  education  among  the  peo¬ 
ple.  The  money  that  has  been  spent  in  vain  in  Virginia  in  the  institution  of  free 
schools,  if  employed  in  the  education  of  teachers,  would  in  a  few  years  revolution¬ 
ize  the  system  of  education  in  the  State,  rendering  free  schools  first  useful  and  then 
soon  unnecessary;  for  the  influence  of  a  truly  able  teacher  in  any  community  is  to 
make  education  first  appreciated  and  then  voluntarily  sought  by  all  around  him. 
Not  in  the  schools  alone  thus  directly  supplied  with  teachers  would  the  influence 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  JOYNES. 


49T 


of  such  teachers  be  felt  with  reforming  power,  but  in  all  the  institutions  above* 
them.  From  the  primary  schools  the  pupils  would  go  with  proper  preparation 
to  the  academies,  and  these  would  no  longer  need  to  do  the  offices  of  the  school,  nor 
the  college  those  of  the  academy,  nor  the  university  those  of  them  all,  as,  from* 
want  of  proper  preparation  below,  has  been  the  case  heretofore;  but  each  grade* 
of  institutions,  alike  supplied  with  teachers  suitable  for  its  own  wants,  could  do* 
its  own  work  in  its  own  sphere,  and  within  that  sphere  reach  the  highest  degree- 
of  efficiency.  Thus  mutually  related  and  ei-ch  depending  upon  the  other,  the- 
various  grades  of  institutions  would  grow  together  into  a  compact  system  of  edu¬ 
cation,  not,  as  now,  each  for  itself  endeavoring  to  do  the  work  of  all  and  all 
imperfectly. 

The  importance  of  this  subject  is  fully  understood  and  exemplified  in  those" 
countries  which  have  accomplished  the  highest  results  in  education  and  in  the* 
general  diffusion  of  knowledge.  The  whole  of  the  compact  and  wonderfully  per¬ 
fected  system  of  education  in  Prussia  is  founded  upon  its  normal  schools,  and 
similar  institutions  exist  in  other  countries  of  Europe,  being  regarded  everywhere- 
as  the  basis  of  the  whole  system  of  education.  These  schools,  which  are  under 
the  peculiar  care  of  the  Government,  are  designed  especially  for  the  education- 
of  teachers  upon  standards  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  various  grades  of  schoolsr 
and  from  them  are  appointed  the  teachers  for  all,  according  to  their  several  require¬ 
ments.  Thus  from  these  schools,  by  the  teachers  which  they  send  forth,  are- 
derived  the  standards,  the  methods,  the  text-books  of  instruction,  throughout  all 
the  schools  of  the  country,  which  are  thus  adapted  in  their  several  grades  and 
relations  to  a  uniform  and  compact  system,  embracing  the  whole  range  of  educa¬ 
tion  from  the  primary  school  to  the  university.  They  are  therefore  called  nor¬ 
mal  schools  because  they  are  normal  to  all  others,  determining  the  norms  or 
standards  by  which  all  are  conducted.  Upon  them  is  founded  the  whole  system* 
of  education.  The  utmost  care  of  the  Government  is  devoted  to  them.  What¬ 
ever  improvement  is  effected  in  them  is  extended  through  all  the  schools,  and? 
their  influence  in  advancing  the  interests  of  education  is  acknowledged  through¬ 
out  Europe  as  supreme.  In  a  Government  such  as  ours,  where  the  State  can  not 
exert  that  direct  control  over  the  system  and  parts  of  education  which  is  possible- 
in  monarchical  countries,  it  is,  as  it  seems  to  me,  only  the  more  important  that  it- 
shall  avail  itself  of  those  indirect  means  which,  while  not  inconsistent  with  the- 
voluntary  principles  of  free  government,  shall  tend  to  produce  these  desirable  and* 
systematic  results.  There  is  but  one  way  practicable  to  reach  these  ends,  and  that 
is  by  the  education  of  teachers  adapted  to  the  wants  of  our  schools.  This  reform 
is  fundamental  to  every  other  in  the  cause  of  education.  For  want  of  it  all  the 
endowments  of  the  State  and  all  the  endowments  of  benevolence  in  behalf  of  edu¬ 
cation,  however  extensive,  will  languish  and  fail;  for  it  is  at  last  only  through 
good  teachers  that  good  teaching  can  be  had,  and  without  good  teaching  no  sys¬ 
tem  of  education  can  be  effectual.  The  same  liberty  which  is  now  manifesting- 
itself  in  so  encouraging  a  manner  in  the  most  enlarged  enterprises  for  the  exten¬ 
sion  of  education  to  the  needy  and  bereaved  of  our  country  should  consider  thi& 
object,  without  which  all  such  efforts,  however  well  conceived,  must  be,  in  a 
great  measure,  ineffectual.  The  results  that  have  been  accomplished  in  a  few 
years  in  this  direction  by  the  University  of  Virginia,  both  directly  and  through 
its  influence  upon  other  institutions,  and  that,  too,  without  special  profession  of 
this  design,  but  only  by  its  methods  of  elevated  and  exact  instruction,  show  clearly 
what  might  be  accomplished  in  our  State  and  country  by  an  institution,  or  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  institutions,  especially  adapted  to  the  education  of  teachers  according  to* 
the  wants  of  our  schools.  And  with  this  example  before  us,  and  as  the  university- 
passes  on,  let  us  hope,  henceforth  to  its  own  special  and  wider  calling,  I  can  not 
but  express  the  hope  that  the  State  itself  will  supply  this  fundamental  want  in 

ED  1901 - 32 


498 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


our  system  of  education,  and  that  at  no  distant  day,  and  from  some  influential 
source,  the  attention  of  the  legislature  may  be  called  to  the  subject. 

These  considerations  have,  in  all  their  weight,  a  peculiar  application  to  female 
education,  with  which  we  are  at  present  most  immediately  concerned.  Whatever 
arguments  may  be  directed  to  the  improvement  of  education,  apply  with  all  the 
more  strength  to  the  education  of  woman.  This  much-flattered  and  much-abused 
sex  is  in  no  one  thing,  perhaps,  so  much  flattered  and  so  much  abused  as  in  her  edu¬ 
cation,  in  the  common  understanding  of  the  term.  If  it  be  possible  to  speak  com¬ 
paratively  of  things  so  immeasurable,  I  should  say  that  the  education  of  this  sex 
is  of  still  more  importance  than  that  of  the  other,  and  that  because,  in  the  first 
place,  they  are  so  much  more  susceptible  of  the  influence  of  education;  and 
because,  in  the  next,  their  individual  influence  is  so  much  greater  on  the  intellec¬ 
tual  and  moral  tone  of  society.  Certainly,  however,  reform  and  improvement  are 
here  much  more  needed,  because  so  little  of  worthy  effort  has  yet  been  made  in 
this  direction.  Female  education,  indeed,  as  too  often  conceived  and  practiced 
(especially  under  the  influence  of  Northern  models)  is  at  once  a  shallow  pretension 
and  a  gross  outrage,  and  for  all  those  who  value  the  character  and  influence  of 
woman  in  wife,  in  daughter,  or  in  any  of  the  relations  of  society,  it  is  a  consum¬ 
mation  devoutly  to  be  wished  that  profounder  ideas  and  worthier  standards 
should  be  adopted  on  this  subject.  I  am  happy  to  know,  however,  that  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  at  least,  we  have  some  schools  not  unworthy  even  of  Virginia  daughters. 
And  if  I  might,  without  being  drawn  into  the  subject,  say  one  word  in  passing 
upon  it,  I  should  say  that  the  characteristics  chiefly  to  be  desired  in  female  educa¬ 
tion  are  two — which  the  term  implies.  First,  that  it  shall  be  education;  and, 
secondly,  that  it  shall  be  feminine;  that  it  shall  be  thorough  for  the  training  of  her 
mind,  but  not  masculine,  for  the  perversion  of  her  character.  It  should  be  based 
upon  the  idea  that  woman  is  woman,  and  not  man  nor  a  butterfly — man’s  helpmeet 
and  companion,  but  neither  his  plaything  nor  his  rival— whose  highest  destiny  is 
to  be  wife  and  mother,  and  to  bear  throughout  life  wherever  she  moves,  in  the 
household  and  in  society,  the  enchantment  and  the  sanctities  of  woman's  influ¬ 
ence  as  mother,  sister,  wife,  and  friend.  Her  education  in  all  its  modes  and  cir¬ 
cumstances  should  be  founded  upon  this  conception  of  her  distinctive  nature  and 
calling  in  life,  and  adapted  to  this  destiny.  And,  therefore,  while  it  should  culti¬ 
vate  with  equal  care  the  intellect  and  the  manners  by  the  loftiest  standards,  it 
should  shun  alike  the  false  flattery  of  merely  superficial  accomplishments,  which 
will  degrade  her  in  intellect  and  usefulness,  and  that  other  extreme  of  intellectual 
pride  and  masculine  independence,  which  would  unsex  her,  aiming,  in  one  word, 
to  educate  neither  belles  nor  bluestockings,  but  women  for  woman's  sphere. 

But  this  branch  of  the  subject  has,  under  our  present  circumstances,  an  impor¬ 
tance  that  can  hardly  be  expressed.  During  the  period  of  this  war  the  higher 
education  of  young  men  has  been  almost  entirely  suspended,  and  the  boys  that  are 
coming  after  them  are  suffering  scarcely  less  of  intellectual  loss  and  of  the  demor¬ 
alization  which  the  war  has  brought  with  it.  There  will  then  pass  into  the  arena 
of  life  and  into  the  control  cf  our  future  destinies  almost  an  entire  generation  of 
men  without  even  the  ordinary  advantages  of  education.  To  what  source,  then, 
can  we  look  for  the  moral  and  intellectual  support  of  our  society  in  future  than  to 
the  influence  of  educated  women,  the  sisters,  the  wives,  and  the  mothers  of  the 
next  generation?  To  what  other  source  can  we  look  for  the  refining,  constraining, 
exalting  influence  of  true  culture  upon  the  men  than  to  them?  For  they  ever  set 
the  tone  of  the  household  and  of  society,  and  in  all  the  departments  of  life  their 
influence  is  omnipotent.  When  we  educate  our  daughters  to-day  we  educate  our 
sons  who  are  in  the  army  and  their  children;  we  educate  the  homes,  the  society, 
the  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  the  generation  that  is  now  passing  into 
manhood— we  shape  the  sentiments,  the  principles,  the  standards  of  manners  and 
of  honor  which  shall  govern  them;  and,  under  the  present  circumstances,  this 


LETTEE  OF  ED  W  AST)  S.  JOYCES. 


499 


agency  is  the  more  important  because  now  it  is  almost  the  only  means  by  which 
we  can  reach  these  objects.  The  responsibilities  of  the  women  of  the  South  will 
be  greater  than  heretofore  and  ever  perhaps  hereafter.  They  will  occupy  a  larger 
space,  not  only  in  relative  numbers,  but  in  relative  influence,  in  society,  and  their 
intellectual  and  moral  culture  will  exert  a  profounder  influence  upon  the  character 
and  destiny  of  the  country.  It  is  well  that  they  should  understand  this.  It  is 
well,  above  all,  that  those  who,  at  home  or  in  schools,  are  engaged  in  their  train¬ 
ing  should  realize  it.  And  while  our  male  institutions  of  education  are,  for  the 
most  part,  of  necessity  closed,  our  female  schools  should  be  cherished  with  the 
more  care  and  conducted  with  the  more  vigor. 

These  considerations,  the  weight  of  which  scarcely  anyone  will  deny,  give  now 
a  peculiar  importance  to  the  education  of  female  teachers  in  our  country.  All 
that  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  education  of  teachers  in  general  applies  with 
equal  force  at  all  times  to  this  branch  of  the  subject,  and  the  present  and  future 
condition  of  our  country  in  consequence  of  the  war  gives  to  it  now  an  unequaled 
importance.  Not  only  will  the  numerical  relation  between  the  sexes  have  been 
greatly  disturbed  by  the  war,  but,  in  consequence  of  the  impulse  which  it  will 
have  given  to  physical  enterprise  and  military  ambition,  many  of  the  ordinary 
functions  of  society  formerly  performed  by  men  must  hereafter,  for  a  time  at 
least,  be  filled  by  women,  and  this  enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  employment  for 
women  will  be  found  to  be  not  the  least  among  the  reflex  benefits  of  the  war. 
Among  these  functions  may  be  reckoned,  in  increased  degree,  that  of  teaching, 
whieh  will  offer  at  first  but  few  attractions  to  intellectual  young  men  in  compari¬ 
son  with  more  active  and  profitable  pursuits.  It  therefore  becomes  the  more 
important  that  the  means  for  the  competent  education  of  women  for  this  office 
should  be  provided,  and  on  such  basis  as,  while  offering  needful  facilities  for  all 
who  are  worthy,  shall  encourage  the  most  refined  and  gifted  young  ladies  to  enter 
this  profession.  For  it  must  ever  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  knowledge  and 
intellectual  competency  alone  that  are  requisite  in  the  teacher,  but  refinement  of 
manners  also,  and  elevated  moral  influence;  and  these  are  the  more  indispensable 
in  the  female  teacher,  because  so  essential  to  her  character  and  influence  as  a 
woman  and  because  the  culture  of  the  manners  and  of  the  moral  sentiments  holds 
relatively  a  so  much  more  important  place  in  female  education. 

But  there  is  besides,  in  the  nature  of  things,  the  more  need  that  the  number  of 
competent  female  teachers  shall  be  multiplied,  because  they  are  actually  in  so  much 
greater  numbers,  especially  for  the  education  of  children  of  their  own  sex.  What¬ 
ever  may  be  the  truth  of  the  matter,  whether  or  not  there  are  evils  inseparable 
from  boarding  schools  which  no  prudence  can  remove,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
there  exists  in  the  minds  of  many  of  the  people  of  Virginia  a  deep-seated  prejudice 
against  boarding  schools  for  girls;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  this  aversion  is 
not  without  foundation  as  regards  the  earlier  education.  It  is  certainly  in  the 
highest  degree  desirable  that  in  the  place  of  boarding  and  even  neighborhood  schools 
shall  be  substituted  for  young  girls,  and  even  for  small  boys,  domestic  education, 
beneath  the  influence  of  the  parental  eye  and  amid  the  sanctities  of  home;  and  the 
education  of  competent  female  teachers  for  our  own  homes  can  alone  supply  this 
want,  and  contribute,  without  surrendering  the  higher  education  of  our  daughters, 
to  render  boarding  schools  unnecessary. 

To  supply  this  want  for  our  Southern  homes  facilities  and  encouragements  for 
the  education  of  female  teachers  in  sufficient  numbers  must  be  furnished.  Up  to 
this  time,  for  want  of  such  provision,  our  people  have  been  compelled  for  the  most 
part  either  to  send  their  daughters  at  a  premature  age  to  boarding  or  other  public 
schools  or  to  import  female  teachers  from  abroad.  *  *  *  These  we  should 
endeavor  to  supplant,  and  to  supply  this  want  for  our  families  by  educating  our 
own  young  girls  to  this  office— daughters  of  the  South,  reared  in  the  midst  of  South¬ 
ern  society,  with  the  purity,  the  delicacy,  the  good  sense  of  Southern  women,  fit 


500 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  enter  our  homes  in  congenial  companionship,  and  thereto  educate  our  daughters 
at  once  in  the  discipline  of  sound  knowledge  and  by  the  example  of  a  refined  and 
elevated  womanhood.  What  measure  can  we  place  to  the  influence  of  such  a  class 
of  educated  Southern  women  teaching  in  our  homes?  What  a  blessing  it  would 
be  to  our  families,  to  our  society,  if  such  a  system  of  domestic  education  could  be 
rendered  widely  available  for  our  daughters  and  our  little  boys,  and  what  a  bene¬ 
ficial  and  patriotic  work  would  the  preparation  of  such  teachers  be  for  our  common 
country  on  the  part  of  those  who  might  be  called  to  this  high  office.  He  who  sends 
forth  into  life  a  single  refined  and  educated  woman  sets  a  star  in  the  firmament  of 
society;  but  he  who  sends  forth  a  refined  and  educated  teacher  sets  indeed  a  sun 
in  the  heavens,  whose  rays  of  intelligence  and  influence  shall  lighten  all  beneath 
her  sway.  And  great  as  is  the  influence  of  the  male  teacher,  through  both  intel¬ 
lect  and  character,  that  of  the  female  teacher  is  still  greater,  for  she  is  by  nature 
the  bearer  of  a  mightier  individual  influence,  of  attraction  or  of  repulsion,  and 
she  employs  this  influence  chiefly  over  those  earlier  years  of  life  that  are  most  sus¬ 
ceptible  and  upon  that  sex  which  is  at  once  the  most  sensitive  recipient  and  the 
most  powerful  reflector  of  every  ray. 

But  to  effect  this  object  in  anything  like  an  adequate  degree,  organized  effort 
on  an  enlarged  and  permanent  plan  is  necessary — difficult,  and  even  impossible 
under  present  circumstances,  as  such  an  undertaking  might  appear.  *  *  *  The 
times,  indeed,  look  dark  around  and  before  us;  but  believe  me,  never  before  has 
there  been  in  this  country  a  time  so  favorable  for  the  inception  of  great  undertak¬ 
ings  as  now.  This  is  an  age  of  mighty  activity — of  wondrous  thought — of  new  and 
teeming  ideas.  It  will  soon  be  an  age  of  mighty  progress.  Bold  conceptions,  that 
years  ago  would  have  languished  and  failed,  now  caught  in  the  stirring  whirl  of 
th9  popular  heart,  will  soon  be  borne  upon  the  mighty  returning  waves  of  our 
progress  to  realization  and  success.  And  though  material  difficulties  may  inter¬ 
vene  and  complete  success  for  a  time  be  impossible,  yet  seeds  sown  now  in  the  eager 
and  earnest  minds  of  our  people  will  take  deeper  root  and  bear  surer  fruit  than  if 
postponed  to  a  later  day,  when  once  more  purely  material  enterprises  shall  absorb 
their  attention.  And  this  is  particularly  true  with  regard  to  objects  like  that 
here  contemplated.  All  the  energies  of  the  people  are  now  concentrated  upon  the 
one  object  of  securing  their  independence,  and  whatever  will  contribute  in  any 
way  to  confirm  and  perpetuate  that  independence  will  awaken  an  interest  and  a 
support  on  the  part  of  the  people  which  they  would  never  hereafter  accord  to  any 
object  upon  its  own  merits  alone.  Now  is  the  time  for  every  movement  in  that 
direction,  while  the  heart  is  all  alive  with  this  absorbing  purpose.  And,  as  I  have 
before  remarked,  if  the  foundations  that  are  to  secure  our  intellectual  and  moral 
independence  of  the  North  be  not  laid  now,  under  the  impulses  of  this  revolution, 
they  will  probably  never  be  laid  at  all,  and  that  independence  never  won. 

But  for  the  inauguration  of  the  enterprise  now  under  consideration,  the  present 
time  is,  from  other  considerations,  in  a  peculiar  degree  opportune.  This  war  has 
impoverished  hundreds  of  families  in  the  South,  whose  daughters  will  remain 
dependent  after  the  war  upon  their  own  exertions  for  support.  It  has  made 
thousands  of  orphans,  whose  fathers  or  brothers,  fallen  upon  the  field  of  battle, 
have  bequeathed  them  to  their  country.  Among  these  will  be  found  many  of  the 
highest  intelligence,  worthy  of  the  most  liberal  education  and  capable  of  the 
highest  usefulness  as  teachers,  if  the  means  of  training  were  afforded  them.  There 
are  many  of  the  daughters  of  the  most  educated  families,  born  to  wealth  and 
reared  under  associations  of  the  most  refinement,  now  impoverished  and  depend¬ 
ent,  who  would  gladly  spend  their  last  remains  of  fortune  in  fitting  themselves 
for  the  honorable  office  of  teachers.  It  is  a  happy  omen  for  our  future  that  such 
young  ladies  are  already  preparing  themselves  for  this  work.  I  speak  from 
experience  when  I  say  that  there  have  been  such  at  this  institute,  who  will  com¬ 
pare  favorably  in  every  particular  with'  the  daughters  of  any  gentleman  in  the 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  JOYCES. 


501 


land;  and  were  the  opportunity  more  liberally  afforded,  their  numbers  would,  as 
wre  know  from  almost  daily  application,  be  largely  increased.  Not  only,  then, 
would  such  an  enterprise  at  this  time,  be  sure  at  once  of  an  ample  held  and  of  abun¬ 
dant  material,  but  the  very  position  and  influence  of  pupils  such  as  these  would 
give  to  it  at  once,  as  well  as  through  their  profession  hereafter,  a  dignity  and  an 
influence  in  the  public  estimation,  which  otherwise,  considering  our  former  cir¬ 
cumstances  and  habits  in  this  regard,  years  of  effort  might  not  attain.  The  time, 
the  need,  and  the  promise  of  success  and  usefulness  alike  invite  our  people  to  the 
consideration  of  such  an  effort  at  this  time. 

And  yet  no  small  difficulties,  even  under  the  favorable  circumstances,  would 
attend  the  undertaking.  An  institution  fulfilling  these  objects  should  be  con¬ 
ducted  upon  the  most  elevated,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  extended  basis, 
such  as  would  not  only  afford  the  most  thorough  and  ample  instruction  in  the 
higher  branches  of  education,  but  provide  equally  for  the  more  elementary  instruc¬ 
tion  in  branches  requisite  for  the  ordinary  teacher,  with  standards  of  attainment 
and  graduation  adapted  to  the  different  wants  of  different  families  and  grades  of 
schools.  Thus,  at  once  the  most  able  and  the  most  ample  faculty  would  be  neces¬ 
sary  and  an  equipment  in  other  respects  equal  to  all  the  purposes  of  extended  and 
thorough  instruction.  Such  a  school,  in  order  really  to  fulfill  its  mission,  should 
not  be  normal  merely  in  name,  but  it  should  be  conducted  throughout  upon  the 
standards  of  the  most  refined  and  elevated  society.  Its  instructions,  its  discipline, 
its  associations,  should  be  adapted  to  the  education  not  only  of  the  intellect,  but 
of  the  character  and  manners;  not  only  in  peculiar  degree  to  the  training  of  such 
habits  and  exercises,  as  are  especially  necessary  to  the  teacher  and  governess,  but 
to  the  culture  of  those  graces  of  mind  and  character  which  adorn  the  truly  edu¬ 
cated  woman,  remembering  that  it  is  through  these  at  last  that  her  influence 
as  a  teacher  will  be  chiefly  felt;  and  that  as,  on  the  one  hand,  only  an  educated 
mind  and  refined  taste  can  confer  true  accomplishment  of  manner,  so,  on  the 
other,  it  is  only  the  truly  refined  and  elevated  woman  that  can  make  an  attractive 
and  worthy  teacher.  While,  therefore,  on  the  one  hand,  these  requisites  would 
demand  a  large  outlay  of  money  and  an  ample  income,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
the  practical  objects  of  such  an  institution  might  not  be  defeated,  its  prices  should 
be  within  the  reach  of  persons  of  moderate  fortunes;  and  that  its  fullest  useful¬ 
ness  might  be  attained,  it  must  be,  to  some  extent  at  least,  beneficiary.  It  may  be 
safely  said,  therefore,  that  such  an  institution  can  never  be  successfully  based 
upon  private  enterprise,  nor  could  any  private  or  temporary  school,  however  suc¬ 
cessful,  fulfill  the  desired,  requisites.  It  must  be  public  and  permanent  in  its 
nature,  and  it  must  be  supported  by  ample  donations  from  the  public  as  an  insti¬ 
tution  and  free  from  the  objections  that  are  usually  applied  against  such  meas¬ 
ures.  It  can  not  be  hoped  under  the  present  circumstances  that,  in  view  of  the 
prejudices  that  have  governed  the  policy  of  our  legislature,  it  would  be  willing 
to  second  measures  already  instituted.  But  I  can  not  doubt  that  if  this  subject 
were  properly  presented  and  its  importance  duly  realized,  there  would  be  found 
numbers  of  patriotic  and  intelligent  men  willing  to  unite  in  its  support,  and  the 
public  interest  thus  excited  might  perhaps  induce  the  State  to  place  the  enter¬ 
prise  upon  an  enduring  public  foundation,  or,  better  still,  to  establish  institu¬ 
tions  of  its  own  for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  But  that  such  a  movement 
may  be  successfully  inaugurated  it  must  first  be  made  from  some  responsible 
source,  and  with  an  earnestness  and  an  ability  that  shall  give  to  the  public  a 
guaranty  of  both  fidelity  and  success. 

It  is  to  the  noble  office  of  taking  the  first  step  in  this  great  work,  so  needed  for 
our  country  and  so  appropriate  to  the  time,  that  I  would  urge  the  authorities  of 
Hollins  Institute. 

This  institution,  from  its  position  and  advantages,  is  peculiarly  qualified,  and  I 
believe,  if  these  considerations  are  just,  called  upon  to  inaugurate  this  movement. 


502 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Its  long  establishment,  its  success  and  reputation,  and  the  known  character  of  its 
trustees  and  faculty,  would  be  a  pledge  at  once  of  fidelity  and  of  ability  that  would 
secure  the  confidence  and  support  of  the  public;  and  while,  from  the  condition  of 
the  country,  it  is  debarred  from  its  full  operation  in  the  ordinary  channels,  it 
might,  with  the  more  facility,  undertake  such  internal  changes  as  would  be 
required,  and  happily  in  its  case  these  would  be  slight.  Having  been  originally 
adapted  to  this  very  object,  it  is  already  known  for  the  thoroughness  and  com' 
pieteness  of  its  instruction  and  for  the  high  attainments  of  its  graduates,  many  of 
whom  have  been  most  successful  teachers.  It  possesses  a  faculty  (this  I  may  say 
disinterestedly,  for  I  am  but  a  sojourner  here)  unsurpassed  in  ability  and  experi¬ 
ence  by  that  of  any  college,  male  or  female,  in  this  State,  and  more  ample  in  num¬ 
bers,  I  believe,  than  has  ever  been  possessed  by  any  female  school  in  the  South. 
Its  buildings,  its  improvements,  and  its  apparatus  of  instruction  have  already  been 
brought  to  a  high  degree  of  development,  and  its  methods  and  standards  of  instruc¬ 
tion  and  examination  are  already  established  upon  the  highest  basis.  It  is,  indeed, 
an  institution  which,  considering  all  the  circumstances,  is  an  honor  to  those  who 
have  founded  and  to  those  who  conducted  it,  and  which,  if  I  rightly  estimate  its 
capacity  and  its  destiny,  is  called  to  a  high  function  hereafter  in  the  education  of 
Southern  women.  I  propose  that  it  shall  now  advance  to  meet  this  destiny  by 
taking  the  first  step  toward  an  organized  effort  for  the  education  of  Southern 
female  teachers  upon  a  basis  of  public  beneficence. 

Let  it  be  understood,  however,  that  it  is  not  proposed,  in  making  this  sugges¬ 
tion,  to  introduce  any  changes  into  the  constitution  or  conduct  of  the  school  that 
would  impair  its- general  usefulness  or  change  its  relations  in  any  respect.  What¬ 
ever  might  be  desirable  to  complete  the  idea  of  a  normal  school,  adequate  to  the 
wants  of  our  people,  or  whatever  we  might  be  able  ultimately  to  effect,  in  this 
direction  by  the  force  of  a  successful  example,  it  is  not  proposed  in  this  instance 
to  aim  at  any  results  not  reasonably  practicable  within  the  scope  of  our  institu¬ 
tion,  such  as  it  now  is.  For,  indeed,  it  is  only  thus,  by  practical  success  in  how¬ 
ever  limited  degree,  that  we  can  hope,  by  influence  and  example,  to  effect  the  good 
at  which  we  aim.  It  is  not  proposed,  therefore,  to  change  the  character  of  the 
instruction  or  of  the  patronage  of  the  school  in  any  degree,  but  simply  to  com¬ 
bine  with  its  usual  operations  the  special  and  beneficiary  education  of  teachers,  in 
practicable  extent,  as  a  recognized  and  permanent  feature  in  its  constitution.  It 
is  believed  that  the  happiest  results  would  flow  from  this  combination  upon 
proper  principles,  and  that  so  far  from  suffering  injury,  the  reputation  and  suc¬ 
cess  of  the  school  would  be  increased  thereby  in  every  direction.  An  institution 
known  to  be  adapted  to  the  education  of  teachers,  according  to  the  highest  stand¬ 
ards  of  instruction,  would  he  sure  to  attract  a  large  measure  of,  the  most  select 
private  patronage  on  the  part  of  those  who,  without  designing  their  daughters  for 
teachers,  would  yet  desire  for  them  a  like  solid  and  thorough  education;  and  the 
teachers  themselves,  thus  sent  forth,  would  constantly  return  to  the  school.  I 
believe  that  such  an  enterprise,  with  all  its  rewards  of  honor  and  usefulness,  is 
now  practicable,  with  full  assurance  of  success. 

I  do  not  propose  to  discuss  the  details  of  any  plan  for  the  object.  This  will 
naturally  be  a  subject  for  the  deliberation  of  the  trustees  and  faculty,  should  the 
proposition  itself  meet  with  favor.  I  will  merely  sketch  the  general  principles  of 
such  a  system  as  seems  to  me  to  be  practicable. 

In  the  first  place,  I  will  remark  that  the  experiment  as  here  conceived,  even 
should  it  be  only  an  experiment,  can  cost  nothing  and  lose  nothing  to  the  school. 
The  very  idea  of  such  an  enterprise  implies  that  it  shall  be  based  upon  a  pecuniary 
foundation  ample  to  support  its  expenses.  Any  attempt  at  beneficiary  education 
upon  any  other  basis  would  result  practically  in  charging  the  other  patronage  of 
the  school  with  the  expenses  of  this  education.  And  it  is  believed,  further,  that 
the  example  of  public  benefits  conferred  without  corresponding  sacrifice  is  injuri- 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  JOYCES. 


503 


ous  both  to  the  recipient  and  to  the  public.  It  is  only  by  appealing  to  public  sup¬ 
port  that  the  public  interest  can  be  actively  enlisted,  and  only  by  attaching  value  to 
the  privilege  can  we  make  the  privilege  itself  appreciated.  The  school  itself,  there¬ 
fore,  can  not  and  ought  not  to  undertake  anything  in  this  direction  except 
upon  an  assured  foundation  of  public  pecuniary  support.  The  first  step,  there¬ 
fore,  will  be,  after  digesting  such  a  plan  as  may  seem  practicable,  to  secure  this 
foundation  in  advance.  It  is  proposed,  then,  to  go  at  once  before  the  people  by 
publication,  by  efficient  agency,  and  through  the  public  press,  setting  forth  the 
plan  proposed;  to  impress  upon  the  people  the  importance  of  the  movement;  to 
explain  its  workings  and  its  results;  and  to  endeavor  to  secure  contributions  upon 
which  the  enterprise  may  be  practically  founded.  Such  publication  should  also 
set  forth  the  actual  character  and  condition  of  the  school,  as  a  pledge  of  its  ability 
to  redeem  its  promises.  I  do  not  doubt  that  if  the  idea  in  all  its  bearings  were 
properly  represented  before  the  public,  and  if  the  people  were  made  to  appreciate 
the  profound  and  far-reaching  results  of  such  a  system,  successfully  realized,  the 
means  could  be  obtained,  and  that  many  who  would  not  contribute  to  the  ordinary 
objects  of  a  school  and  many  others  beyond  the  more  special  sphere  of  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  this  institute  would,  from  patriotic  considerations,  contribute  to  an  object 
such  as  this.  A  foundation  once  begun,  and  the  public  mind  interested  in  the 
idea,  the  movement  would  gather  progressively  strength  and  influence  in  still 
wider  circles.  It  is  the  first  step  only  that  costs,  and,  as  in  all  important  enter¬ 
prises,  the  first  step,  once  firmly  taken,  will  secure  the  footing.  The  very  example 
of  such  an  effort,  even  if  not  successful,  would  redound  to  the  reputation  and 
influence  of  the  school,  and  if  successful  it  would  inaugurate  a  new  era  in  south¬ 
ern  female  education  and  accomplish  results  of  usefulness  to  the  country  and  of 
honor  to  the  school  that  can  not  be  estimated. 

It  is  proposed,  therefore,  that  we  announce  to  the  public  our  purpose  to  make 
arrangements  in  this  school,  conditioned  upon  the  means  being  obtained  for  the 
permanent  education,  annually,  of  a  certain  number  of  young  ladies  of  Virginia, 
free  of  rent  and  tuition,  for  the  profession  of  teaching;  and  that  this  arrangement 
shall  go  into  effect  on  the  1st  of  January  next,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  means  can 
be  secured  to  justify  the  undertaking,  the  money  subscribed  to  be  due  only  when 
the  arrangement  is  actually  begun;  the  outlines  of  the  plan  to  be  somewhat  as 
follows:  The  funds  obtained  for  this  purpose  shall  constitute  a  permanent  endow¬ 
ment  for  the  general  purposes  of  the  school,  the  interest  upon  which  shall  be 
annually  devoted  to  the  payment  of  the  tuition  of  these  beneficiary  pupils.  The 
pupils  shall  be  selected,  from  the  number  of  applicants,  by  the  trustees  and  facultjq 
or  by  a  committee  appointed  for  the  purpose,  upon  such  plan  as  may  be  agreed, 
without  regard  to  denominational  or  other  peculiarities,  but  solely  according  to  cer¬ 
tificate  of  intelligence,  character  and  fitness  for  the  office  and  influence  of  teachers, 
a  reasonable  degree  of  previous  preparation,  and  a  reasonable  standard  of  age  being 
required  in  each  case.  Preference  shall  be  given  for  a  reasonable  period,  say,  for 
ten  years,  other  things  being  equal,  to  the  daughters  of  those  who  have  been  killed 
in  battle,  or  become  reduced  by  patriotic  sacrifices,  during  this  war  of  indepen¬ 
dence.  It  shall,  however,  he  distinctly  understood  that  this  provision  is  not  made 
for  the  education  of  the  indigent,  but  rather  of  those  who,  by  nature  and  qualifi¬ 
cations,  shall  be  deemed  most  capable  of  future  usefulness  as  teachers,  and  who 
by  their  own  influence,  both  as  pupils  of  the  school  and  as  teachers  afterwards, 
can  best  subserve  the  ends  of  the  benevolence  which  they  enjoy.  For  this  reason 
the  benefit  proposed  shall  embrace  only  the  tuition  and  privileges  of  the  school — 
and  that  on  conditions  to  be  mentioned— not  the  board,  text-books,  or  personal 
expenses  in  any  degree.  The  system  shall  be  beneficiary,  not  eleemosynary,  and 
shall  be  limited  to  those  who  are  either  able  to  bear  their  own  expenses,  and  will¬ 
ing  to  make  the  sacrifice,  or  who,  from  promise  of  usefulness,  shall  be  able  to 
secure  to  this  extent  the  interest  of  others  in  their  behalf.  It  is  only  thus  that  their 


504 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1801. 


proper  relations  and  associations  in  the  school  could  be  secured  without  offense  to 
others,  and  only  thus,  too,  by  selecting  persons  of  proper  standing  and  of  proper 
merit,  capable  of  enjoying  and  appreciating  the  highest  standards  of  instruction 
and  of  association,  that  the  benefits  of  the  system  itself  could  be  extended  through 
the  highest  and  the  widest  circle  of  influence.  And  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that 
while  the  applicants  for  this  benefit  would  embrace  only  persons  capable  of  appre¬ 
ciating  the  value  of  these  requisites,  they  would  exert  the  best  influence  in  the  school 
and  the  highest  usefulness  in  life.  Every  such  pupil  should  be  entitled  to  a  full 
course  of  three  years’  instruction,  but  not  more,  except  in  extraordinary  cases;  but 
the  more  fully  to  guard  against  the  results  of  mistaken  choice,  and  to  sustain  the 
highest  standards  of  improvement,  the  election  should,  in  each  case,  be  repeated 
every  year. 

On  receiving  their  election,  the  parties  should  be  required  to  enter  into  bond,  by 
their  legal  representative,  with  good  security,  to  spend  at  least  three  years 
*  *  *  in  teaching,  within  the  Confederate  States,  the  condition  being  that  in  the 
event  of  the  forfeiture  of  the  bond  the  party  should  pay  to  the  institute  the  full 
sum  of  the  tuition  received,  with  interest  from  the  time  it  was  due,  which  sum 
should  then  accrue  to  the  funds  devoted  to  this  general  object;  and  certificates  of 
the  fulfillment  of  this  bond  should  be  required  to  be  returned  to  the  superintend¬ 
ent  of  the  institute.  Dismissal  from  the  institute,  or  the  withdrawal  of  this  privi¬ 
lege  from  incompetency  or  any  other  cause,  should  likewise  render  the  party 
liable  for  the  tuition,  but  should  release  from  any  further  obligation.  As  part  of 
the  training  of  these  pupils  for  the  office  of  teaching,  they  should  be  required, 
during  the  last  year  of  their  studies,  to  take  part  as  assistant  teachers,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  faculty,  in  the  instructions  of  the  institute;  and  their  diploma 
should  set  forth  this  fact,  and  certify,  besides  their  attainments  in  knowledge, 
their  competency  in  teaching,  as  thus  ascertained.  This  requirement,  while  of 
important  advantage  to  themselves  as  future  teachers,  would  constitute  an  inci¬ 
dental  benefit  to  the  institution  of  no  small  value,  in  multiplying  its  means  of 
instruction  according  to  its  own  systems.  In  conferring  diplomas  of  graduation, 
or  other  certificates,  grades  should  be  adopted,  in  the  case  of  these  pupils,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  different  requirements  of  teachers  in  different  grades  of  schools,  of 
which  I  would  suggest  two:  The  classical  or  academical,  embracing  Latin  and 
French,  and  the  English,  embracing  only  the  studies  of  the  English  departments; 
the  degree  of  attainment  in  music  might  constitute  a  third.  These  grades  should 
represent  only  the  difference  in  the  subjects  or  extent  of  attainment,  thoroughness 
of  discipline  and  a  high  degree  of  sound  knowledge  being  required  alike  in  every 
case,  as  of  all  other  graduates,  in  any  department  of  the  school.  Beyond  this,  as 
to  the  methods  of  instruction  and  examination,  and  the  rules  of  conduct  and  disci¬ 
pline,  no  distinction  should  be  made  between  them  and  other  pupils.  Whatever 
improvements  might  be  required  for  their  benefit  should  be  common  to  all;  what¬ 
ever  advantages  might  be  enjoyed  by  others  should  belong  to  them  also.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  standards  here  conceived,  whatever  accomplishments  of  intellect  or  of 
manners  are  appropriate  to  the  most  refined  and  select  society  are  also  appro¬ 
priate  for  those  who  shall  be  the  teachers  of  the  daughters  of  our  State,  and  what¬ 
ever  thoroughness  of  instruction  and  of  discipline  is  required  for  these  is  surely 
desirable  for  all.  In  every  respect,  so  far  as  possible,  this  system  should  be  made 
a  part  of  the  general  operations  of  the  institute  and  these  pupils  identified  in 
education,  association,  and  sympathy  with  the  rest  of  the  school.  The  highest 
benefits  would  thus  result  to  all.  In  this  school,  with  its  existing  modes  of  disci¬ 
pline  and  conduct,  no  difficulty  would  attend  this  union;  and  its  known  standards 
of  instruction  already  guarantee  the  most  material  requisite  of  success  in  every 
other  respect. 

The  extent  to  which  this  undertaking  could  be  realized  would  depend,  of  course, 
upon  the  means  obtained.  It  might  indeed  be  begun  with  any  number,  however 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  JOYNES. 


505 


limited;  and  such  a  beginning  would  probably  do  more  than  anything  else  to 
insure  the  full  success  of  the  enterprise.  It  is  proposed,  however,  that  the 
announcement  be  made  for  20  pupils,  and  the  effort  continued  until  the  means  are 
obtained  for  the  education  of  such  a  number,  it  being  understood  that  the  num¬ 
ber  shall  be  limited  always  by  the  interest  of  the  funds  secured.  An  annual 
interest  of  $2,000  would  pay  for  the  tuition  of  this  number  of  pupils  at  $100  each, 
in  old  money,  and  while  the  school  need  only  be  charged  yearly  with  the  interest, 
in  the  form  of  such  instruction,  the  principal,  or  any  portion  thereof,  might  be 
legitimately  devoted  to  the  general  improvement  of  the  school,  which  would  be 
indeed  its  best  investment.  The  character  and  number  of  the  trustees  would  be 
an  ample  pledge  to  the  public  that  the  funds  would  be  faithfully  applied. .  Could 
we  attain  even  this  number,  while  we  might  even  go  beyond  it,  there  would  be 
left  an  ample  margin  for  private  patronage;  while  the  school  would  thus,  in  a  few 
years,  accomplish  an  amount  of  good  in  the  education  of  the  daughters  of  our 
people  that  is  incalculable. 

With  these  remarks,  I  venture  to  urge  this  subject  upon  the  consideration  of 
the  trustees  of  Hollins  Institute.  The  time  is  ripe,  the  need  is  great,  the  means  is 
ready,  as  I  believe,  for  the  undertaking.  I  regard  it  as  a  great  and  patriotic  enter¬ 
prise,  whereby,  if  they  should  succeed,  they  will  not  only  elevate  the  character 
and  reputation  of  the  institute  itself,  but  will  entitle  themselves,  also,  to  the  grati¬ 
tude  and  praise  of  the  country  for  inaugurating  an  enterprise  of  such  wide  and 
lasting  usef  ulness.  I  believe  that  they  will  meet  with  undoubted  success,  that  the 
idea  will  be  seized  and  their  example  followed  elsewhere  for  both  male  and  female 
schools,  and  that  they  will  find  it  to  be  no  small  honor  to  have  been  the  founders 
of  the  first  normal  school  in  the  Confederate  States.  I  sincerely  hope  that  this 
honor  and  this  usefulness  may  belong  to  them  and  to  the  Hollins  Institute  and 
Normal  School  of  Virginia. 

I  am,  sir,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

Edward  S.  Joynes, 

Professor  in  William  and  Mary  College  and 

Acting  Professor  in  Hollins  Institute. 

Hollins  Institute, 

Botetourt  Springs ,  Va. ,  August  20,  186/h 


ACTION  OF  THE  TRUSTEES. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  Hollins  Institute,  held  on  the  22d  of 
August,  1864  (the  preceding  letter  having  been  laid  before  the  board  by  the  presi¬ 
dent),  the  following  resolutions  were  adopted,  viz: 

Resolved,  That  the  trustees  of  Hollins  Institute  cordially  approve  the  views  and 
recommendations  embraced  in  the  letter  of  Prof.  Edward  S.  Joynes  to  the  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  faculty,  and  that  the  trustees  adopt  the  same  as  a  basis  of  action. 

Resolved,  That  a  committee  be  appointed,  to  act  in  connection  with  a  committee 
of  the  faculty,  to  mature  a  plan  in  furtherance  of  these  views  and  objects. 

Resolved,  That  this  plan  when  adopted  shall  be  communicated  to  the  public 
through  such  means  as  the  committee  may  devise,  embracing  also  the  publica¬ 
tion  of  the  Iretter  of  Professor  Joynes,  with  these  proceedings,  and  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  an  efficient  agency  or  agencies  to  advance  the  object. 

Resolved,  That  as  soon  as  a  basis  is  obtained  for  the  education  of  five  pupils 
on  the  principles  thus  adopted,  the  system  shall  be  put  into  operation,  announce¬ 
ment  being  made  at  least  two  months  in  advance. 

Resolved,  That  the  pupils  chosen  under  this  plan  shall  be  selected  from  the  State 
of  Virginia,  without  regard  to  denominational  or  other  peculiarities,  but  with  the 
sole  reference  to  their  capacities  for  usefulness  as  teachers. 


508 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ACTION  OF  JOINT  COMMITTEE. 

In  pursuance  of  the  above  resolutions  of  the  board  of  trustees,  the  president  of 
the  board  and  the  superintendent  of  the  institute  having  been  requested  to  act  as 
chairmen  of  the  respective  committees  of  the  trustees  and  the  faculty,  the  com¬ 
mittees  met  on  the  5th  of  September  and  agreed  upon  the  following  action: 

Resolved ,  That  deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  of  an  independent  and 
self  sustaining  system  of  education  as  essential  to  the  independence  of  our  country 
and  the  perpetuity  of  our  institutions,  and  believing  that  the  education  of  Southern 
female  teachers  for  the  schools  and  homes  of  the  South  constitutes  one  of  the  first 
and  most  important  steps  toward  the  attainment  of  this  end,  which  now  deserves 
peculiar  and  immediate  consideration:  we,  in  behalf  of  the  trustees  and  faculty  of 
Hollins  Institute,  agree  to  adopt  the  following  plan,  and  appeal  to  the  patriotism 
and  benevolence  of  our  fellow-citizens  in  its  support. 

I.  It  is  proposed  that  there  shall  be  founded  an  endowment  by  public  benefi¬ 
cence,  the  interest  of  which  shall  be  devoted  perpetually  to  the  education  of 
Southern  female  teachers  in  this  institute. 

II.  These  teachers  shall  be  educated  free  of  charge  for  tuition  or  rent,  but  pay¬ 
ing  their  own  board;  and  shall  be  entitled  otherwise  as  pupils  of  the  institute  to 
all  the  advantages  and  privileges  of  the  school,  on  the  same  footing  with  other 
pupils. 

III.  The  said  pupils  shall  be  appointed  annually  from  the  State  of  Virginia  by 
the  faculty  and  trustees  of  the  institute  or  by  committees  appointed  for  the  pur¬ 
pose;  but  the  same  person  may  be  appointed  in  successive  years  until  her  course 
of  studies  shall  be  completed,  yet  not  exceeding  three  years,  unless  by  a  unanimous 
vote. 

IV.  These  pupils  shall  be  chosen  at  stated  times  after  public  notice  in  advance 
of  at  least  one  month  in  not  less  than  three  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  Virginia. 
The  applications  shall  be  considered  without  any  peculiarities  in  regard  to  religious 
belief  or  personal  or  political  connection,  but  solely  with  reference  to  intelligence, 
character,  and  fituess  for  usefulness  and  influence  in  teaching.  These  qualifica¬ 
tions  shall  be  required  to  be  satisfactorily  attested,  and  a  due  degree  of  previous* 
preparation,  as  well  as  a  suitable  age  (not  less  than  14  years),  shall  also  be  held  to 
be  requisite  for  appointment. 

V.  These  requisites  being  fulfilled  and  other  things  being  equal,  the  preference 
shall  begivenin  making  these  appointments  to  the  daughters  or  orphans  of  soldiers 
of  the  Confederate  army  or  to  others  who  may  have  become  impoverished  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  patriotic  sacrifices  during  the  present  war  of  independence.  But  as 
this  benefit  is  designed  to  be  in  its  results  a  public  and  not  a  personal  one,  indi¬ 
gence  alone  will  not  be  considered  a  recommendation  for  appointment. 

VI.  Every  such  pupil  on  receiving  her  appointment  shall,  by  her  legal  representa¬ 
tive,  enter  into  bond,  with  acceptable  security,  to  spend  at  least  three  years  of  the 
next  five  after  leaving  the  institute  in  teaching  in  some  one  of  the  Confederate 
States,  and  binding  herself,  in  case  of  the  forfeiture  of  the  bond,  to  pay  to  the  insti¬ 
tute  the  full  sum  of  the  tuition  received,  with  interest  from  the  time  it  was  due, 
which  sum  shall  then  accrue  to  the  funds  devoted  to  this  object,  and  be  invested 
on  the  same  principles.  But  if,  by  act  of  the  faculty,  the  pupil  shall  be  removed 
from  the  institute,  or  her  appointment  withdrawn,  or  in  case  of  her  death  or  any 
involuntary  disability,  the  bond  shall  be  considered  discharged.  Certificates  of  the 
fulfillment  of  this  bond  shall  be  returned  to  the  superintendent  of  the  institute  and 
shall  be  filed  by  him. 

VI t.  The  said  pupils  shall  be  permitted  and  required  to  teach,  as  a  part  of  the 
institute  during  the  last  year  of  their  studies,  jyovided  that  this  requirement  shall 
be  held  subsidiary  to  their  own  improvement,  and  shall  not  exceed  one  hour  per 
day  without  the  consent  of  the  pupil. 

VIII.  This  foundation  shall  be  known  as  the  Normal  Department  of  Hollins  Insti¬ 
tute.  It  shall  embrace  two  courses  of  study,  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  different 
grades  of  schools,  namely,  the  English,  embracing  a  full  course  of  studies  in  the 
English  department,  including  mathematics,  and  the  classical,  which  shall 
embrace,  besides,  the  Latin  and  French  languages;  but  the  pupils  in  this  depart¬ 
ment  shall  also  have  the  privilege,  with  the  consent  of  the  faculty,  of  studying 
other  subjects  in  the  literary  departments  when  not  inconsistent  with  the  specific 
objects  of  this  endowment.  On  completing  either  of  these  courses,  on  such  stand¬ 
ards  as  may  be  fixed  by  the  faculty,  these  students  shall  receive  appropriate 
diplomas  declaring  them  to  be  graduates  in  this  department,  and  qualified  as  teach¬ 
ers  accordingly.  And  those  who  may  fail  to  complete  the  whole  of  the  said  course 
or  courses  may,  upon  application  and  examination,  receive  from  the  faculty  certifi¬ 
cates  of  their  qualifications  as  teachers  in  particular  subjects.  Other  pupils,  also, 


LETTER  OF  EDWARD  S.  J0YNES.  507 

■who  propose  to  become  teachers,  may  enter  themselves  as  members  of  this  depart- 1 
ment  and  secure  the  like  diplomas  or  certificates  upon  the  same  terms. 

IX.  This  department  shall  be  in  all  respects  an  integral  part  of  the  institute.  Its 
pupils  sha'l  receive  the  same  instructions  and  the  same  examinations  as  other 
pupils  in  the  same  classes,  and  upon  the  same  standards  of  elevated  and  thorough 
scholarship  which  are  adopted  throughout  the  institute.  And  in  conduct,  disci¬ 
pline,  and  association,  as  v/ell  as  in  all  the  other  obligations  and  privileges  of  the 
school,  these  pupils  shall  be  on  the  same  footing  precisely  as  all  others. 

X.  That  the  benefits  of  this  endowment  may  be  made  perpetual,  the  number  of 
such  pupils  must  be  limited  by  the  amount  of  the  annual  interest  upon  the  funds 
subscribed.  As  an  additional  pledge,  however,  of  our  desire  to  extend  this  benefit 
to  the  widest  possible  degree  consistent  with  the  maintenance  of  the  institute,  it 
is  provided  that  the  tuition  of  said  pupils  shall  always  be  reckoned  at  25  per  cent 
less  per  annum  than  the  regular  charges  for  other  pupils;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
number  of  such  pupils  received  shall  be  25  per  cent,  being  donated  annually  by 
the  institute  to  this  object.  And  the  entire  amount  of  the  interest  accruing  at  6 
per  cent  shall  be  regularly  thus  employed. 

XI.  In  order,  however,  still  further  to  limit,  on  a  permanent  principle,  the 

charge  for  tuition  in  the  case  of  these  pupils,  it  is  provided  that  the  paid  charge 
shall  never  at  any  time  exceed  one-half  the  price  of  board  as  then  fixed  by  the 
trustees  of  the  institute.  The  present  value  of  each  of  these  scholarships,  which 
shall  be  known  as  the  normal  scholarships  in  Hollins  Institute,  is  for  the  present 
fixed,  however,  at  $4,000  in  the  present  currency  of  the  Confederate  States.  Any 
one  or  two  persons  subscribing  this  amount  shall  have  during  life  the  right  to 
nominate  one  such  pupil  in  such  manner  consistent  with  these  regulations  as  may 
be  hereafter  prescribed,  and  the  scholarship  in  question  shall  be  known  per¬ 
petually  by  the  name  of  the  founder  or  founders.  4 

XII.  Thi3  system  shall  be  put  into  operation  as  soon  as  an  amount  shall  have 
been  subscribed  sufficient  to  establish  one  such  scholarship.  The  funds  shall  not 
be  due  until  notice  has  been  given  to  that  effect,  and  all  moneys  previously  col¬ 
lected  shall  be  returned  if  at  the  end  of  twelve  months  the  enterprise  shall  not 
have  been  to  this  extent  successful. 

XIII.  The  superintendent  is  authorized  and  required  to  employ,  with  the  con¬ 
currence  of  the  faculty,  efficient  agencies  to  bring  this  subject  before  the  public, 
and  to  solicit  subscriptions  on  this  behalf.  The  president  of  the  board  of  trustees 
shall  be  the  treasurer  of  the  fund  so  collected,  and  the  investment  and  expendi¬ 
ture  thereof  shall  be  under  the  control  of  the  trustees,  whose  names,  number,  and 
character  are  offered  as  a  guaranty  of  the  good  faith  of  its  employment. 

XIV.  This  enterprise  is  undertaken  as  a  public  benefit,  under  a  profound  sense 
of  the  importance  to  our  country  of  affording  enlarged  opportunities  for  the  edu¬ 
cation.  of  female  teachers  in  the  South,  and  in  the  hope  that  the  example,  if  suc¬ 
cessful,  may  be  followed  by  other  institutions. 

XV.  The  position  of  this  institute,  for  nearly  twenty  years  successfully  con¬ 
ducted  with  the  amplest  patronage  and  upon  the  most  elevated  basis,  constitutes, 
it  is  hoped,  both  a  vindication  of  the  motives  of  the  enterprise  and  a  sufficient 
pledge  that  this  trust,  if  confided  to  it,  will  be  executed  with  both  fidelity  and 
ability  in  the  selection  and  education  of  pupils  under  the  highest  standards  of 
scholarship  and  discipline  for  all  the  requirements  of  teachers  in  the  schools  and 
families  of  the  South.  The  instructions  of  the  institute  being  already  adapted  to 
this  object  as  an  original  feature  in  its  constitution,  we  may  the  more  confidently 
appeal  to  the  support  of  the  public  in  behalf  of  the  present  plan. 

Geo.  P.  Taylor,  President , 

J.  P.  Corran, 

Rufus  Pitzer, 

Committee  on  the  Part  of  the  Trustees. 
Ch.  L.  Cocke,  Superintendent , 

L.  W.  Seeley, 

W.  H.  Pleasants, 

Committee  on  the  Part  of  the  Faculty. 

Hollins  Institute, 

Botetourt  Springs,  Va. ,  September  5,  I864. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

ADDRESSES  DELIVERED  AT  THE  TENTH  ANNUAL  MEETING  OF  THE  SOUTHERN 
EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION,  HELD  AT  RICHMOND,  VA.,  DECEMBER  27-29,  1900. 

Contents.-— Industrial  education  and  the  New  South,  by  George  T.  Winston.— Education  and 
production,  by  Charles  W.  Dabney. — Negro  education  in  the  South,  by  Paul  B.  Barringer. — 
Reply,  by  Julius  Dreher.— Discussion,  by  H.  B.  Frissell.— Reply,  by  Paul  B.  Barringer. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  THE  NEW  SOUTH. 

By  George  T.  Winston, 

President  of  the  North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

The  two  great  forces  of  modern  life  are  education  and  machinery.  The  one  ele¬ 
vates  man,  the  other  subdues  nature.  Together  they  develop  civilization  and  deter¬ 
mine  the  destiny  of  nations  and  races.  How  far  removed  is  the  American  Indian 
in  bark  canoe  from  the  modern  engineer  in  iron  steamship!  Stretch  canoe  and 
Indian  in  endless  chain  around  the  globe,  each  within  call  of  the  next,  multiply 
them  by  100,000,  and  the  sum  of  their  power  will  not  equal  that  of  a  single  trans- 
Atlantic  steamer.  *  *  *  The  little  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  with  its 
machinery  for  education  and  its  education  for  machinery,  is  more  potent  in  the 
life  of  the  world  than  the  whole  continent  of  South  America.  The  cotton  crop 
produced  this  year  by  the  Southern  States  could  not  have  been  grown,  housed, 
picked,  spun,  and  woven  a  century  ago  by  the  entire  population  of  the  globe. 

The  greatest  industrial  changes  ever  wrought  within  a  lifetime  have  been  wit¬ 
nessed  by  the  generation  now  living  in  the  South.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years 
we  maintained  an  industrial  system  in  opposition  to  the  industrial  forces  of  the 
world.  The  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  North  and  South,  although  waged 
apparently  in  courts  of  justice  and  halls  of  Congress,  in  pulpits  and  drawing¬ 
rooms,  on  deck  of  ship  and  field  of  battle,  was  not  political,  nor  legal,  nor  social, 
nor  military,  but  educational  and  industrial.  It  was  a  struggle  between  the  edu¬ 
cated  Yankee  mechanic,  astride  the  steam  engine,  and  the  educated  Southern 
planter,  carrying  on  his  shoulders  the  negro  slave.  The  heroism  of  that  struggle, 
the  courage,  the  fortitude,  the  skill,  the  energy,  and  the  power  with  which  the 
South  maintained  it  in  peace  and  in  war,  are  emphasized,  beautified,  and  almost 
glorified  into  martyrdom  by  the  absolute  certainty,  the  preordained  necessity  of 
its  total  failure.  There  was  no  need  of  Gettysburg  or  Appomattox.  The  contest 
had  already  been  settled  by  the  mills  and  factories,  the  railways  and  steamships, 
the  power  looms  and  spinning  jennies,  the  reapers,  binders,  threshers,  and  other 
machinery  of  a  people  leading  the  world  in  mechanical  invention,  in  use  of 
machinery,  in  industrial  progress,  and  in  public  education.  Had  the  South  pos¬ 
sessed  resources  of  skilled  and  educated  labor,  of  shops  and  factories,  of  mills  and 
furnaces,  of  ships  and  locomotives,  of  accumulated  wealth  such  as  the  North  pos¬ 
sessed,  had  the  victory  been  possible  by  endurance  and  fortitude,  by  courage  and 
heroism  alone,  the  boys  in  gray,  under  Lee  and  Jackson,  would  have  been  invin¬ 
cible,  not  only  by  the  North  but  by  the  world. 


509 


510 


EDUCATION"  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  building  up  of  the  South  since  her  overthrow  in  war,  the  revival  of  old 
industries  and  the  establishment  of  new,  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  and  the 
multiplication  of  schools,  colleges,  and  universities  are  the  admiration  and  the 
wonder  of  the  world.  But  there  is  nothing  wonderful  about  it.  The  people  who 
were  great  with  slavery  and  unskilled  labor  have  become  greater  with  freedom  and 
education.  The  apparent  emancipation  of  the  negro  slave  was  the  real  emancipa¬ 
tion  of  the  Southern  white.  By  Lincoln’s  proclamation  the  South  was  freed  from 
slavery,  and  the  road  was  cleared  to  educated  labor  and  industrial  development. 
We  realize  at  last  that  slavery  was  not  our  riches,  but  our  greatest  poverty.  We 
dare  not  picture  the  condition  of  the  South  to-day,  with  slavery  dominant,  con¬ 
trolling  her  industries,  and  repressing  her  development. 

The  South  is  now  in  touch  with  the  world.  She  is  educating  her  own  children 
and  the  children  of  her  recent  slaves.  Through  the  aid  of  machinery  she  is  con¬ 
verting  into  wealth  her  large  and  varied  resources.  The  roll  call  of  her  slaves 
will  never  be  heard  from  Bunker  Hill  monument,  but  the  whirr  of  her  spindles 
and  the  click  of  her  looms  is  already  heard  in  Lowell  and  Manchester.  She  is 
shipping  iron  to  Birmingham,  coal  to  Newcastle,  calico  to  Calcutta,  and  tobacco 
to  Turkey.  Cotton  is  still  king,  but  his  throne  is  no  longer  in  the  field.  He  rules 
in  the  mill  and  hears  the  music  of  machinery  instead  of  the  song  of  slaves. 

But  the  development  of  the  South  is  only  begun.  We  are  traveling  in  the  right 
direction,  but  we  have  not  traveled  far.  We  must  quicken  our  pace  or  we  shall 
fall  behind  in  the  world’s  industrial  race.  As  yet  our  products  are  chiefly  raw 
material,  or  coarse  and  cheap  fabrics.  We  are  winning  our  way  by  cheap  prod¬ 
ucts,  cheap  labor,  and  long  hours  of  work;  but  the  day  may  come  when  cheaper 
labor  and  cheaper  products  and  longer  hours  elsewhere  will  drive  us  from  the 
field.  Cheap  labor  is  abundant  in  South  America,  and  in  Asia  is  practically  unlim¬ 
ited  in  supply.  The  safety  of  the  South  is  in  better  labor  and  better  products. 

The  labor  unit  of  the  South  is  still  the  negro,  emancipated,  but  ignorant,  unam¬ 
bitious,  and  less  trained  than  when  a  slave.  In  his  present  condition  he  renders 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  the  changes  requisite  to  intensive  and  diversified  agri¬ 
culture  and  retards  the  development  of  all  industries  in  which  he  is  employed.  As 
a  race  he  is  less  skilled  than  during  slavery.  The  industrial  development  of  the 
South  demands  that  the  negro  be  either  improved  or  gotten  rid  of. 

The  problem  i3  not  political,  but  purely  industrial.  With  the  South  it  is  one  of 
development;  with  the  negro,  of  existence.  It  must  be  solved,  and  solved  aright. 
The  mistakes  of  reconstruction  must  be  corrected.  The  North  and  the  South, 
government  and  philanthropy,  education  and  religion,  all  forces,  domestic,  social, 
and  industrial,  must  combine  to  make  the  negro  a  better  workman.  The  real  race 
struggle  is  for  existence,  and  the  negro  is  ill  prepared  to  win  it.  Dragged  from 
barbarism  to  civilization,  educated  through  slavery  into  freedom,  cut  off  suddenly 
by  emancipation  and  enfranchisement  from  the  influences  that  had  given  him  all 
the  power  he  possessed,  he  wandered  about  like  a  child  in  the  night  of  reconstruc¬ 
tion  after  the  false  lights  of  political  and  social  promise,  away  from  the  paths  that 
led  to  industrial  progress  and  economic  independence.  It  was  in  his  power  for 
twenty  years  after  emancipation  to  control  the  industries  of  the  South.  Had  the 
energies  of  the  race  and  the  ambition  of  its  leaders  been  directed  to  obtaining 
homes  and  acquiring  wealth  instead  of  political  and  civil  power  its  condition  to-day 
would  be  far  better,  not  only  from  industrial  and  physical  standpoints,  but  men¬ 
tally,  morally,  and  even  politically.  The  present  ideals  and  ambitions  of  the  race 
belong  to  the  distant  future.  For  this  generation  and  many  yet  to  come  there  is 
need  of  radical  change  in  negro  education.  His  colleges  of  law,  of  medicine,  of 
theology,  and  of  literature,  science,  and  art  should  be  turned  into  schools  for  indus¬ 
trial  training.  Hampton  Institute  and  Tuskegee  should  be  duplicated  in  every 
Southern  State— if  possible  in  each  Congressional  district.  The  visionary  ideals 
of  Wendell  Phillips  and  Frederick  Douglass  should  give  place  to  the  practical  work 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


511 


of  General  Armstrong’  and  Booker  Washington.  The  wasteful  expenditure  of 
money  for  negro  literary  education  in  the  public  schools  of  the  South  should  be 
changed  into  profitable  and  useful  training  in  industrial  schools,  shops,  and  farms, 
maintained  at  public  expense  and  under  public  direction,  for  negro  education  in 
each  county  or  township  of  the  South.  The  entire  system  of  public  education  for 
the  negro  race,  from  top  to  bottom,  should  be  industrial.  As  yet  all  the  indus¬ 
tries  of  the  South  are  open  to  his  employment.  The  door  of  his  opportunity  is  not 
yet  closed;  but  unless  he  speedily  enter,  armed  with  skill,  training,  and  industrial 
power,  it  will  close,  and  close  forever.  The  skill  and  training  which  the  race  pos¬ 
sessed  in  slavery  must  be  regained.  The  new  generation,  now  less  capable  than 
the  old,  must  be  taught  to  work.  After  handicraft  will  be  time  for  hea^craft. 
The  race  is  not  yet  out  of  tutelage.  Its  industrial  apprenticeship,  begun  in  slav¬ 
ery,  must  continue  in  freedom.  We  must  recognize  the  fact  that  the  negro  is 
still  unable  to  stand  alone.  But  the  help  he  needs  is  not  so  much  of  books  and 
“  schoolmarms  ”  as  of  tools  and  master  workmen.  He  needs  the  aid,  the  sympathy, 
the  daily  instruction  of  his  Southern  employer.  Every  Southern  household,  farm, 
shop,  factory,  and  mill  might  be  a  school  for  the  training  of  the  negro.  It  was  so 
in  slavery.  But  to-day  the  chasm  between  the  races  is  deep  and  wide,  forbidding 
interest  and  sympathy  and  authority  on  the  part  of  the  whites;  docility,  obedience, 
and  zeal  on  the  part  of  the  blacks.  Nothing  will  bring  the  races  together  again 
but  the  industrial  skill  and  power  of  the  negro.  His  education  should  look  to  this 
end.  The  race  is  entitled  to  live.  Justice  and  humanity  demand  that  it  be  given 
a  chance.  The  duty  and  the  problem  are  national.  The  burden  is  too  large  for 
the  South.  The  National  Government  should  aid  in  the  industrial  education  of 
the  negro  until  he  is  able  to  earn  a  decent  living.  Then  may  come  independence 
and  self-reliance,  to  be  followed  finally  by  culture,  learning,  and  refinement.  Give 
the  negro  a  chance,  a  natural  and  reasonable  chance,  for  progress,  and  either,  like 
other  races,  he  will  aid  the  development  and  share  the  prosperity  of  great  America, 
or,  if  slowly  dying  through  race  inferiority  and  incompetency,  he  linger  ages  longer, 
a  curse  and  a  hindrance  to  the  nation  that  made  him  slave,  let  it  be  said  that  the 
white  race  through  every  agency  of  training  and  education  patiently  and  bravely 
endeavored  to  save  the  negro  from  extinction  and  equip  him  for  free  existence. 

The  necessity  of  industrial  education  is  almost  as  great  'for  Southern  whites  as 
for  the  negro.  The  industrial  life  of  the  New  South  must  be  based  upon  educa¬ 
tion.  The  education  of  the  New  South  must  lead  to  industrial  life.  The  Southern 
schoolboy  dream  of  statesmanship  must  yield  to  desire  for  workmanship.  Our 
children  must  be  taught  to  express  their  thoughts  in  work  as  well  as  in  words. 

The  healthful  happiness,  the  lasting  utility,  and  the  real  nobility  of  genuine, 
downright  labor,  of  labor  wrought  into  things  of  beauty  and  value,  must  supplant 
the  nervous  excitement  of  mere  intellectual  gymnastics  and  the  tiresome  weariness 
of  the  mental  treadmill. 

Our  present  system  of  education  is  not  in  touch  with  life.  The  highest  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  world’s  power  to-day  is  not  literary  but  industrial.  The  world’s  work 
is  growing  daily  in  character,  value,  and  intensity,  and  is  demanding  for  its  per¬ 
formance  not  only  labor  but  genius— genius  of  the  highest  order  and  thoroughly 
trained.  Ours  is  an  age  of  action  and  performance.  The  world's  demand  is  not 
for  skilled  talkers  but  skilled  workers.  Mountains  must  be  tunneled,  rivers 
bridged,  oceans  led  captive  over  continents,  deserts  irrigated,  cities  built  into  air 
and  guarded  from  fire  and  filth,  enemies  to  life  detected  and  destroyed  in  plant 
and  animal,  goods  exchanged  between  the  ends  of  the  earth,  nature's  forces  har¬ 
nessed  to  human  service,  and  her  crude  material,  infinite  in  variety  and  extent, 
fashioned  into  forms  of  beauty  and  utility  to  gratify  the  ever  increasing  desires 
and  necessities  of  life. 

This  is  the  age  of  the  engineer,  the  chemist,  and  the  biologist. 

The  educational  system  of  the  South  needs  to  be  greatly  changed,  if  not  recon- 


512 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


structed.  For  one  hundred  years  onr  schools  have  manufactured  orators,  states¬ 
men,  and  universal  geniuses.  The  supply  now  exceeds  the  demand,  and  a  change 
of  industrial  machinery  is  necessary.  For  declamation  and  dialectics  we  must 
substitute  the  microscope  and  the  laboratory,  the  drawing  board  and  the  machine 
shop.  The  South  needs  workers,  trained  and  skilled  workers,  in  every  department 
of  industry.  Rude  labor  will  not  suffice,  even  in  agriculture.  Our  cotton  crop 
has  been  trebled  in  thirty  years.  Improvements  in  cultivation,  in  machinery,  in 
fertilizers,  and  in  utilization  of  waste  products  have  produced  this  wonderful 
result.  The  methods  of  slavery  would  mean  bankruptcy  to-day.  Thirty  years 
hence  the  crop  will  be  trebled  again  and  the  methods  of  to-day  will  mean  bank¬ 
ruptcy-then.  The  same  is  true  of  all  our  industries.  To  remain  stationary  is 
really  to  fall  behind.  As  ginning  has  supplanted  hand  picking,  carding  machines 
hand  cards,  and  power  looms  hand  looms,  so  the  plaids  and  sheetings  of  to-day 
must  yield  to  lawns  and  laces  and  muslins  to-morrow. 

The  weavers  of  Asia  are  still  using  hand  power.  When  they  rise  to  steam  and 
power  looms  the  South  must  move  up  further  or  else  be  ruined.  Industrial  edu¬ 
cation  is  our  only  hope.  Other  people  are  employing  it  and  revolutionizing  their 
industries.  Germany  is  dotted  with  industrial  schools;  of  agriculture  and  for¬ 
estry,  of  metal  and  woodworking,  of  weaving,  bleaching,  and  dyeing.  German 
goods  are  filling  the  markets  of  the  world  in  spite  of  tariffs  and  hostile  legislation. 
Great  Britain  is  no  less  active;  Japan,  after  her  sleep  of  centuries,  has  awoke  to 
life  through  industrial  education.  Even  Russia  is  preparing  for  the  struggle. 

In  the  United  States,  outside  of  the  South,  the  chief  industrial  centers  have 
organized  technical  colleges  and  schools  for  manual  training.  In  New  England 
the  public  schools  from  top  to  bottom  are  looking  to  industrial  training.  Draw¬ 
ing  and  designing,  wood  and  metal  working,  the  plastic  arts,  the  microscope  and 
the  laboratory,  unused  a  century  ago,  are  commoner  to-day  in  the  schools  of  the 
North  than  books  of  declamation  and  treatises  on  the  human  understanding. 
But  not  so  in  the  South.  We  are  stumbling  along  in  the  same  old  paths.  Our 
public  schools  are  not  arousing  public  enthusiasm  or  inspiring  public  confidence. 
As  a  rule  they  do  not  deserve  it.  They  are  not  following,  much  less  leading,  the 
industrial  revolution  of  .the  South.  Our  system  must  be  changed.  Necessity  will 
require  it.  We  have  reached  the  limit  of  skill  and  production  without  the  help  of 
industrial  education. 

Our  public  schools — kindergarten,  primary  school,  grammar  school,  and  high 
school — all  should  be  strengthened  with  manual  training.  Every  child  should  be 
taught  to  do  something,  to  make  something,  and  to  make  it  well.  Drawing,  plaiting, 
weaving,  coloring,  designing,  carving,  and  molding  would  be  more  useful  prepa¬ 
ration  for  life  than  learning  the  ancestry  of  Tiglathpilezer  or  the  boundaries  of 
the  world  as  imagined  by  Ptolemy.  Special  industrial  schools  adapted  to  the  pre¬ 
vailing  industry  of  each  district  should  be  established  in  all  industrial  centers. 
The  principles  underlying  each  industry — chemical,  mathematical,  mechanical,  or 
biological — should  be  thoroughly  comprehended.  Actual  manipulation  and  expe¬ 
rience  in  at  least  the  leading  lines  of  work  should  be  required.  Such  schools 
would  supply  skilled  workmen  for  every  industry — wood  workers,  metal  workers, 
leather  workers,  workers  in  field  and  forest,  in  mine  and  mill  and  factory,  skilled 
workers,  exchanging  in  the  markets  of  the  world  finished  goods  for  raw  material, 
skill  and  knowledge  for  rude  labor. 

The  system  should  be  crowned  in  each  State  with  well-equipped  colleges  of  tech 
nology,  offering  complete  instruction  in  the  applied  sciences  and  furnishing  the 
State  with  an  adequate  supply  of  highly  trained  professional  experts;  with  civil 
engineers  for  the  construction  of  railways  and  bridges;  with  hydraulic  engineers 
for  the  construction  of  dams  and  waterways  and  the  transmission  of  water  power; 
with  electrical  engineers  for  the  creation,  transmission,  and  application  of  elec- 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


513 


trie  power;  with  mechanical,  mining,  chemical,  sanitary,  and  textile  engineers; 
with  architects,  designers,  inventors,  indnstrial  promoters,  and  managers. 

The  South  must  follow  the  spirit  of  the  age.  She  will  do  so  from  necessity,  if 
not  from  preference.  Industrial  competition  will  force  her  to  it.  Her  resources 
are  practically  undeveloped  and  unlimited.  She  is  amply  endowed  with  all  three 
requisites  for  the  production  of  wealth;  with  natural  resources,  capital,  and  labor. 
Her  natural  wealth  is  the  greatest  on  the  continent.  In  variety  and  fertility  of 
soil,  in  diversity  and  healthfulness  of  climate,  in  abundance  and  variety  of  min¬ 
erals,  in  forests  and  fisheries,  in  water  power  and  fuel,  she  is  rich  beyond  power 
to  calculate.  She  is  accessible  to  world  markets,  both  for  raw  material  and  for 
finished  products.  Her  capital  is  abundant  and  easily  increased  by  foreign  impor¬ 
tation;  her  white  labor  is  native,  of  English,  Scotch,  and  German  stock,  reliable, 
intelligent,  abundant,  and  cheap.  All  conditions  are  favorable  to  the  production 
of  enormous  wealth,  and  with  it  the  promotion  to  a  high  degree  of  popular  happi¬ 
ness  and  prosperity.  The  one  thing  lacking  is  industrial  training  and  skill.  Sup¬ 
ply  these  and  the  South  will  be  the  paradise  of  the  world,  the  realization  of  per¬ 
fect  democracy,  where  labor  is  so  productive  and  wealth  so  abundant  that  there 
is  leisure  and  opportunity  for  universal  culture  and  universal  progress. 


EDUCATION  AND  PRODUCTION. 

By  Charles  W.  Dabney, 

President  of  the  University  of  Tennessee. 

Every  lover  of  his  country  must  rejoice  in  the  great  interest  in  technical  educa¬ 
tion  manifested  recently  in  the  South.  It  shows  that  we  have  at  last  come  to  rec¬ 
ognize  the  deficiencies  of  our  system  of  education  and  the  one-sidedness  of  our 
present  schools.  The  recent  agitation  for  technical  education  grows  directly  out 
of  the  desire  of  the  people  to  work  up  their  own  resources,  their  cotton,  wood, 
and  iron,  and  produce  more  wealth.  Are  we  not  in  danger  of  taking  too  narrow 
a  view  of  this  subject?  If  increased  production  is  our  aim,  we  must  begin  by  edu¬ 
cating  all  of  our  people  in  the  public  schools,  and  not  merely  a  few  of  them  in  tech¬ 
nical  schools.  As  patriotic  men  and  women  we  want  to  see  all  of  the  people  earn 
more,  so  that  they  may  live  better  and  happier.  The  difficulty  with  our  system 
of  education  in  the  South  thus  far  is  that  we  do  not  pay  enough  attention  to  the 
common  schools.  W e  have  given  most  of  our  thought  in  the  past  to  the  higher 
education  and  too  little  to  the  broader  education.  A  complete  educational  system 
is  like  a  pyramid;  its  base  must  be  broader  and  stronger  than  any  other  part  of  it. 
Our  present  educational  system,  as  far  as  we  have  any  at  all,  is  a  column  with  a 
beautifully  carved  capital  upon  its  top,  which  is  altogether  too  large  for  the  base 
and  the  shaft.  The  reason  our  institutions  of  higher  education  are  not  attended 
as  largely  as  those  of  other  States  is  because  they  have  too  few  public  schools  to 
support  them. 

Technical  education  is  important,  but  I  beg  my  fellow-countrymen  of  the  South 
not  to  forget  that  universal  public  education  is  more  important.  Let  us  begin  at 
least  by  putting  manual  training  and  scientific  branches  in  the  high  schools  where 
all  the  children  can  have  an  opportunity  for  the  broad  training.  If  greater  pro¬ 
ductivity  is  our  aim  we  must  first  have  better  common  schools.  If  we  content 
ourselves  with  a  few  technical  schools  here  and  there,  we  will  be  greatly  disap¬ 
pointed. 

My  first  proposition,  then,  is  that  if  we  desire  to  produce  more  wealth  in  the 
South  we  must  begin  by  building  better  public  schools. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  nineteeth  century  has  been  the  extension  of  the 


ed  1901 - 33 


514 


EDUCATION  REPOKT,  1900-1901. 


benefits  of  education  to  the  masses  of  the  people.  Its  chief  lesson  i3  that  education 
increases  the  wealth-producing  power  of  a  people  in  direct  proportion  to  its  distri¬ 
bution  and  thoroughness.  In  fact,  the  relations  between  education  and  j)roduc- 
tivity  are  so  well  understood  now  that  you  can  measure  the  wealth-producing 
power  of  a  people  by  the  school  privileges  which  they  have  enjoyed.  Statistics 
show,  for  example,  that  the  power  of  the  people  of  the  different  States  to  earn 
money  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  period  the  average  citizen  has 
attended  school.  To  illustrate 1 ,  the  average  school  period  in  1898-99  of  each  inhab¬ 
itant  of  the  United  States  was  4.4  years;  of  Massachusetts,  which  has  the  best 
schools.it  was  seven  years;  of  Tennessee  it  was  a  little  less  than  three  years.  The 
total  annual  production  of  the  United  States  in  the  year  1800  was  less  than  $30  a 
year,  or  10  cents  a  day,  counting  308  working  days  in  the  year,  for  each  man, 
woman,  and  child:  by  1850  the  production  had  increased  to  nearly  $92  a  year,  or 
30  cents  a  day,  and  in  1899  it  was  about  $170  a  year,  or  55  cents  a  day. 


The  production  of  Massachusetts  in  1899  was  $260  for  each  man,  woman,  and 
child,  or  85  cents  a  day.  The  most  favorable  figures  make  the  total  annual  pro¬ 
duction  of  the  people  of  Tennessee  in  1899  less  than  $116  a  year,  or  38  cents  a  day, 
for  each  inhabitant.  Another  way  to  express  it  is  to  say  that  the  average  family 
of  5  in  Tennessee  must  live  on  $580  a  year,  counting  everything  produced  on  the 
farm  and  in  the  home,  as  well  as  sales  and  money  wages,  while  the  same  family 
in  Massachusetts  has  $1,300  a  year  to  spend,  and  the  average  family  of  the  United 
States  has  $850.  Put  these  facts  together  and  we  at  once  see  their  tremendous 
significance.  The  proportion  between  the  school  period  in  Massachusetts,  the 
school  period  in  the  whole  United  States,  and  the  school  period  in  Tennessee  is 
expressed  by  the  figures  7,  4.4,  and  3;  or,  multiplying  each  by  2,  by  the  figures  14, 
8.8,  and  6.  The  proportion  between  the  productive  capacity  of  each  person  in 
Massachusetts,  in  the  whole  United  States,  and  in  Tennessee  is  expressed  by  the 
figures  260,  170,  and  116;  or,  dividing  by  20  to  bring  to  terms  similar  to  the  others, 
we  have  13,  8.5,  and  5.8.  Think  of  this! 

Education  is  as  14  in  Massachusetts  to  8.8  in  United  States  to  6  in  Tennessee. 

Production  is  as  13  in  Massachusetts  to  8.5  in  United  States  to  5.8  in  Tennessee. 

This  is  not  a  mere  coincidence  in  the  case  of  Massachusetts,  the  United  States, 
and  Tennessee.  It  is  the  law  the  world  over.  The  productivity  of  a  people  is 
everywhere  proportional  to  their  education;  that  is,  their  intellectual,  physical,  and 
moral  training.  It  is  not  the  natural  resources,  the  climate,  the  soils,  and  the  min¬ 
erals;  it  i3  not  even  the  race,  much  as  these  things  count  in  production,  but  it  is 
education  which  above  everything  else  determines  the  wealth-earning  power  of  a 
people. 

The  Southern  people  have  made  great  sacrifices  for  public  education,  and  espe¬ 
cially  for  the  education  of  the  negro,  but  they  must  prepare  to  do  even  more  if 

1  The  data  used  in  this  paper  were  derived  from  the  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  board  of  education  of  Massachusetts,  from  Butler’s  Edu¬ 
cation  in  the  United  States,  from  articles  by  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education 
of  the  United  States,  and  from  the  Tennessee  State  reports. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


515 


they  are  to  keep  up  with  the  other  States  in  production.  The  States  represented 
in  this  association  are  still  far  behind  the  Eastern  and  Western  States  in  the  man¬ 
ner  in  which  they  support  their  public  schools.  Let  me  take  for  comparison  the 
best  school  State  in  the  Union — Massachusetts — and  my  own  State  of  Tennessee, 
which  represents,  1  find,  the  average  conditions  in  the  South, 

The  population  of  Massachusetts  is  2,805,346;  of  Tennessee,  2,020,618.  They 
have  the  same  number  of  children  to  educate.  The  enrollment  and  the  average 
daily  attendance  at  their  public  schools  in  1898-99  were  as  follows: 


Enrollment. 

Average  daily 
attendance. 

Massachusetts _ 

471,977 

499,845 

360,317 

Tennessee  - _ _ - _ _  _  _  _ _  _ 

352,734 

Massachusetts  taught  school  188  days  in  the  year,  ,  and  her  enrolled  pupils 
attended  an  average  of  143.5  days.  Tennessee  taught  school  only  89  days,  and  her 
enrolled  pupils  attended  only  62.8  days.  The  average  Tennessee  child  is  absent 
26.2  days  in  the  89  days  of  the  school  session. 

Massachusetts  expended  for  all  purposes  of  her  public  schools  in  1898-99 
$13,889,838,  which  was  $38.55  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  and  $5.07  per 
capita  of  her  population.  Tennessee  expended  for  her  public  schools  in  the  same 
year  $1,628,313,  which  is  $4.62  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  and  only  83 
cents  per  capita  of  population.  The  average  expenditure  for  all  the  States  of  the 
Union  is  $19  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  and  $2.67  per  capita  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  entire  country. 

The  power  of  education  in  production  may  be  presented  again  in  this  concrete 
way:  From  the  statistics  above  it  is  seen  that  Massachusetts  spent  in  1898-99 
$12,261,525  more  upon  her  public  schools  than  Tennessee;  but  see  what  a  return 
she  gets.  Each  one  of  the  2,805,346  citizens  of  Massachusetts— men,  women,  and 
infants — has,  as  we  have  said,  a  productive  capacity  of  $260  a  year  against  $170  a 
year  for  the  average  inhabitant  of  the  whole  United  States  and  $116  a  year  for  the 
average  inhabitant  of  Tennessee.  The  inhabitant  of  Massachusetts  has  thus  an 
excess  of  $90  a  year  over  the  average  inhabitant  of  the  United  States  and  $144  a 
year  over  the  average  inhabitant  of  Tennessee.  This  means  that  the  people  of 
Massachusetts  earned  last  year  $252,487,140  more  than  the  same  number  of  aver¬ 
age  people  of  the  United  States  and  $403,969,824  more  than  the  same  number  of 
people  in  Tennessee.  Twelve  million  dollars  invested  in  superior  education  yield 
$400,000,000  a  year. 

If  the  people  of  the  South  would  compete  in  production  with  the  people  of  the 
other  States  and  of  the  world— and  they  must  do  so  whether  they  will  or  not — 
they  must  educate  all  their  children,  not  only  their  white  children,  but  their  black; 
and  they  must  educate  them  all  not  poorly  for  a  few  months  in  the  year  and  a  few 
years  in  their  lives,  but  thoroughly  through  a  long  series  of  years.  If  history 
teaches  us  anything  it  is  the  solidarity  of  all  mankind,  that  “no  man  liveth  unto 
himself,”  and  “no  man  dieth  unto  himself,”  but  that  we  are  each  our  “brother’s 
keeper.  ” 

Our  great  resources — climate,  soils,  and  minerals— are  useless  in  the  hands  of  an 
untrained  people.  Moreover,  if  we  do  not  educate  our  own  people  to  use  these 
resources  intelligently  the  trained  men  of  other  States  will  come  in  and  do  so  and 
make  our  native  people  ‘  ‘  the  hewers  of  wood  and  the  drawers  of  water  ”  in  their 
industries. 

Some  persons  seem  to  think  that  the  marvelous  energy  and  common  sense  of  our 
people  are  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  their  success  in  the  battle  of  life;  but  common 
sense  and  even  unmeasured  energy  do  not  win  in  these  days  without  education. 


516 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


We  must  give  our  people  knowledge  and  training  or  they  will  surely  fail  in  the 
hot  competition  of  the  twentieth  century.  Will  we  not  realize  that  our  best 
resources  are  our  own  children  and  that  our  highest  duty  is  to  educate  them  for 
the  greatest  usefulness  in  life? 

Having  made  provision  for  the  elementary  education  of  the  people  on  this  broad 
plan,  we  may  wisely  turn  our  attention  to  the  technical  education.  A  complete 
system  of  technical  schools  comprehends  the  following: 

1.  A  system  of  trade  schools  in  which  pupils  are  trained  for  the  leading  arts. 

2.  Polytechnic  schools  in  which  instruction  in  the  applied  sciences  and  techni¬ 
cal  or  professional  training  are  offered  more  advanced  students. 

3.  Institutes  of  technology  or  departments  of  science  in  universities  in  which 
the  highest  professional  instruction  in  the  applied  sciences  is  provided. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  our  early  indifference  in  the  South  to 
science  and  technology.  It  was  in  accordance  with  the  history  of  science  the 
world  over  and  with  the  laws  of  its  development  in  all  countries.  Up  to  fifty 
years  ago  we  had  all  the  science,  or  more  than  we  could  use.  We  were  engaged 
in  getting  out  raw  material,  in  “skinning ”  our  soils,  in  cutting  down  our  forests, 
and  in  working  a  few  surface  mines.  Germany  and  France  supplied  us  at  first 
with  our  science  and  England  or  New  England  with  our  technical  experts. 

A  young  people  always  view  their  raw  material  as  their  chief  source  of  wealth, 
and  they  are  often  too  ready  to  barter  it  for  a  mere  mess  of  pottage.  When  they 
become  older,  they  discover  that  it  is  not  upon  natural  wealth  alone,  but  upon  the 
culture  of  the  scientific  intellect  that  permanent  prosperity  depends.  England 
was  not  a  manufacturing  nation  until  the  Elizabethan  age.  Though  coal,  iron, 
and  wood  were  found  in  abundance  in  the  reign  of  the  Plantagenets,  they  pro¬ 
duced  little  prosperity.  Their  home-grown  wool  was  sent  to  Flanders  to  be  man¬ 
ufactured  and  turned  into  cloth.  Spain,  which  had  fallen  heir  to  Arabian  science, 
was  the  greatest  manufacturing  country  of  those  days.  When  the  Moors  were 
banished  and  the  political  crimes  of  Spain  led  to  its  destruction  as  a  nation, 
England  took  its  position  as  the  leading  industrial  nation  of  the  world.  The 
invasion  of  the  low  countries  by  Philip  II  drove  the  Flemish  manufacturers,  as 
the  French  persecution  drove  the  Huguenots,  to  England,  and  they  introduced  the 
industries  of  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  in  that  country.  In  none  of  these  countries 
was  science  a  subject  of  study  at  this  time.  The  acquisition  of  wealth  must  pre¬ 
cede  the  cultivation  of  science.  Technical  skill  is  needed  to  utilize  the  raw 
material  to  the  best  advantage.  The  time  comes,  however,  in  the  history  of  every 
nation  when  it  must  educate  its  people  in  science  and  train  them  in  manufactures 
and  industries  or  it  will  go  down.  This  higher  scientific  education  is  the  fore¬ 
runner  of  higher  prosperity,  and  the  nation  which  fails  to  develop  the  intellectual 
faculty  for  production  must  degenerate,  for  it  can  not  stand  still. 

In  society,  as  in  biology,  there  are  three  states.  In  the  first,  the  state  of  primal 
equilibrium,  things  grow  neither  better  nor  worse;  the  second  is  the  state  of  evo¬ 
lution  or  development,  during  which  animals  and  plants  adapt  themselves  to  their 
environments  and  take  on  new  characteristics;  the  third  is  that  of  degeneration, 
when  they  first  stand  still,  then  decay,  and  so  go  back  to  the  earth  from  which 
they  sprang.  The  same  is  true  of  nations.  A  nation  may  remain  in  equilibrium 
for  a  brief  time  in  the  early  stage  of  its  history,  but  it  is  impossible  to  hold  its 
forces  in  balance  when  its  environment  is  constantly  changing.  To  stand  still 
then,  is  to  die.  The  life  of  a  people  industrially  is  science.  We  must  feed  its 
fountains  and  keep  them  pure  or  growth  will  cease,  industry  will  fall,  and  the 
nation  will  die.  Our  southland  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  state.  We 
have  lived  as  long  as  we  can  upon  the  bounties  of  nature,  and  have  reached  that 
point  at  which  we  must  study  science,  learn  the  arts,  use  our  material  resources 
and  accumulate  wealth,  or  else  fall  behind  and  go  down. 

The  study  of  science  and  the  application  of  science  always  have  gone  and  always 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


517 


must  go  hand  in  hand.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  discoverers  and  appliers  of  science  are 
often  combined  in  the  same  person.  The  interests  of  pure  science  and  of  tech¬ 
nology  are  largely  identical;  and  science  can  not  take  a  step  forward  without 
opening  new  fields  for  industry.  New  truth  in  science  always  leads  to  new  devel¬ 
opments  in  industry.  Hence,  we  must  have  the  inventor  as  well  as  the  investiga¬ 
tor.  So,  on  the  other  hand,  every  advance  of  industry  facilitates  the  experimental 
investigation  upon  which  the  growth  of  pure  science  depends.  See  how  the  glass 
industry  has  promoted  the  progress  of  chemistry,  and  how  the  electrical  industry 
has  in  our  own  time  aided  physics  and  mechanical  engineering.  Pure  science  and 
technology  can  not  be  separated.  Civilization  began  with  man  as  a  tool-making 
animal;  it  has  grown  with  man  as  a  machine-making  being.  It  is  not  the  classics 
or  philosophy  that  alone  makes  a  people  strong;  else  India  might  have  been  the 
ruling  nation  of  the  world  and  England  its  province.  Historically,  technical 
progress  did  not  follow  the  growth  of  science,  but  preceded  it.  Mining  developed 
geology.  Fisheries  led  to  biology. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  General  Lee  was  a  great  believer  in  scientific 
and  technical  education.  Says  Professor  Joynes,  his  colleague:  “General  Lee’s 
plans  for  the  development  of  Washington  College  were  distinct  and  definite.  He 
aimed  to  make  this  college  represent  at  once  the  wants  and  the  genius  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  Under  his  influence  the  classical  and  literary  schools  of  the  college  were 
fully  sustained;  yet  he  recognized  the  fact  that  material  well-being  is,  for  a  peo¬ 
ple,  a  condition  of  all  high  civilization,  and,  therefore,  though  utterly  out  of  sym¬ 
pathy  with  the  modern  advocates  of  materialistic  education,  he  sought  to  provide 
all  the  means  for  the  development  of  science  and  for  its  practical  applications.” 
The  Southern  people  have  still  to  realize  the  ideals  of  Lee  in  education. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

By  Paul  B.  Barringer, 

University  of  Virginia. 

Those  of  us  of  the  South  who  have  elected  to  abide  by  the  South  must,  for  that 
reason  if  no  other,  take  a  proper  and  natural  interest  in  any  specific  class  of  its 
people  which  numbers  nearly  40  per  cent  of  its  population.  It  matters  not  how 
insignificant  this  people  may  be  when  measured  by  economic  standards,  nor  how 
humble  they  may  be  socially,  nor  how  impotent  politically;  so  long  as  they  consti¬ 
tute  40  per  cent  of  the  population  they  are  a  factor  which  must  be  taken  into  seri¬ 
ous  account  whenever  we  think  of  the  South  and  its  future.  If  this  40  per  cent— 
the  negro  race — improve,  the  South  to  that  extent  will  improve;  if  it  go  backward, 
it  will  either  carry  the  South  with  it,  or,  failing  in  this,  it  will  demand  as  the 
price  of  progress  an  expenditure  of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  whites  which  no 
people  can  endure. 

All  general  questions  of  humanitarian  interest  aside,  what  is  the  present  out¬ 
look  for  the  negro,  and  therefore  for  the  South?  I  say  general  questions  of 
humanitarian  interest  aside,  because  he  who  approaches  this  great  problem  in  the 
spirit  of  the  doctrinaire  has  no  place  in  the  councils  of  the  South,  be  he  for  the 
negro  or  for  the  white.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  sentiment,  but  of  interest— acute, 
present  interest.  The  question  is  one  land  for  two  peoples,  and  these  the  most 
divergent.  This  one  land — who  can  best  rule  and  administer  it  with  benefit  to 
the  greatest  number,  the  white  man  or  the  black?  This  is  the  Southern  problem, 
the  race  problem,  the  negro  problem;  but  the  education  of  the  negro  is  its  most 
important  factor.  We  of  the  South  are  to  educate  him.  Shall  we  prepare  him  to 
be  a  political  antagonist?  Shall  we  make  of  him  an  economic  antagonist;  or  can 
we  prevent  him  from  becoming  either,  and  yet  have  the  South,  as  a  whole, 
improve?  That  is  the  question. 


518 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


I  am  sorry  that  I  have  to  mention  political  antagonism,  but  the  case  can  not  be 
fairly  presented  without  it.  The  political  antagonism  between  the  Southern 
white  and  black  is  manifested  by  the  fact  that  since  his  enfranchisement  the  negro 
has,  as  a  race,  voted  solidly  against  the  measures,  local  or  general,  advocated  by 
the  white  people  of  the  South.  This  is  a  peculiar  fact,  because  nine  times  out  of 
ten  there  is  a  personal  friendship  between  every  black  and  the  whites  he  knows. 
This  antagonism,  therefore,  is  not  personal,  but  racial. 

This  was  not  always  so,  for  there  are  hundreds  here  who  remember  the  old  slave 
days,  the  manifest  affection  of  the  negro  for  and  his  pride  in  the  old  master,  the 
mistress,  the  young  master,  and  all.  *  *  *  After  the  war.  we  all  remember 
how  short  was  the  first  racial  flight  of  freedom;  how,  like  birds,  startled  but  not 
affrighted,  they  circled  but  to  return.  It  was  not  then.  No,  the  antagonism 
between  the  Southern  whites  and  blacks  has  come  since  the  war,  and  it  is  now 
reciprocal.  It  is  now  race  against  race..  What  has  caused  it?  This  question, 
daily  asked,  is  hard  to  answer,  because  no  one  cause  is  responsible.  There  are 
two  great  causes— the  one  political,  the  other  economic. 

As  to  the  political  cause.  For  over  a  century  preceding  the  war  between  the 
States  slaveholders  dominated  this  Union.  They  gave  it  its  flag  and  thirty-four 
out  of  forty-four  stars  on  its  field.  They  gave  this  Republic  every  general  that 
carried  this  South-made  flag  to  victory  against  America’s  foes — Washington,  Jack- 
son,  and  Scott.  They  gave  to  America  every  creed  and  policy  which  we  even  now 
invoke  as  fundamental.  Liberty  and  freedom — Jefferson;  the  Constitution  and  its 
father — Madison;  no  foreign  entanglements — Washington;  America  for  the  Ameri¬ 
cans— the  Monroe  doctrine — Monroe;  Southerners  all.  They  gave  her  everything 
of  which  she  can  well  be  proud  and  nothing  of  which  she  need  be  ashamed. 

But  the  war  brought  a  change.  With  army  gone,  people,  land,  and  credit 
exhausted,  the  South  stood  as  “on  her  sheepskin,”  expectant.  What  did  her  peo¬ 
ple  expect?  They  expected  to  see  a  new  symbol  added  to  the  flag  of  their  fathers; 
a  steel-blue  bar  across  stars,  field,  and  stripes,  and  riveted  at  every  joint.  This 
would  have  been  truly  fitting.  They  expected,  moreover,  to  see  a  new  amendment 
added  to  the  Constitution  which  would  declare  the  dogma  of  State  sovereignty  for¬ 
ever  dead.  They  saw  neither.  The  flag  still  waves  as  before,  the  unchanged 
blazon  of  their  fathers’  deeds;  and.  as  far  as  statute  is  concerned,  the  Union  is  still 
on  the  basis  of  the  tenth  amendment  or  the  “  secession  of  1787.”  What  they  did 
see  were  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  amendments  to  the  Constitution. 

The  purposes  of  these  were  quite  distinct.  The  first  (thirteenth)  gave  to  the 
negro  freedom,  while  the  last  two  (fourteenth  and  fifteenth)  gave  citizenship  and 
its  attributes.  The  first,  intended  by  the  donors  as  a  recompense  to  the  negro  for 
years  of  servitude,  has  become  a  threatening  source  of  racial  decay  through  an 
economic  revolution  now  just  becoming  evident.  The  second  *  *  *  has  failed. 
Its  immediate  result  was  the  production  of  race  hatred,  and  is  now  becoming  a 
source  of  peril  to  our  public  policy.  The  attempted  degradation  of  a  proud  peo¬ 
ple  was  simply  a  sectional  crime;  but  a  brake  on  the  wheel  of  national  expansion 
is,  if  possible,  a  greater  evil  still,  and  this  the  fifteenth  amendment  has  put.  Two 
more  Southern  stars— Arizona  and  New  Mexico — and  then  we  stop. 

We  dare  not  give  statehood  to  even  the  islands  already  under  the  flag,  with  their 
Spanish- American,  Chinese,  Malayan,  and  Polynesian  population.  A  government 
of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people  can  not  exist  with  the  franchise  for 
such  as  these.  W e  must,  as  a  nation,  now  confess  that  only  intelligence  can  rule, 
for  we  know  the  political  stability  of  the  Spanish- American  and  his  “republics,” 
we  know  China  and  the  Philippines,  and  Wilcox  is  with  us!  No;  the  bill  for  the 
reduction  of  Southern  representation  will  never  pass,  and  negro  disfranchisement 
is  to  stand.  America  now  sees  the  handwriting  on  the  wall,  for  she  faces  a  golden 
opportunity  with  hands  tied. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


519 


The  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  amendments  have  been  failures.  Let  us  look  at 
the  thirteenth,  which  opened  the  economic  problem. 

It  has  always  been  a  mystery  to  the  people  of  the  North  why  the  nonslaveholding 
class  at  the  South  fought  so  ardently  during  the  war.  No  explanation  seems  to 
solve  the  mystery  for  them.  Let  me  first  note,  by  way  of  explanation,  that  in  the 
mountains  of  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia  (now  West  Virginia), 
where  the  negro  was  unknown,  the  poor  whites  did  not  fight,  or  else  fought  on  the 
Federal  side.  Let  me  also  recall  that  the  enormous  emigration  that  took  place 
from  the  South  was  chiefly  a  labor  emigration,  and  even  the  wealthy,  when 
threatened  with  poverty,  fled  from  the  South.  These  things  were  because  every 
workingman  who  knew  the  negro  looked  with  a  holy  fear  upon  the  day  of  his 
emancipation.  With  the  well-fed  chattel,  the  expensive  slave,  he  could  compete; 
but  with  the  starving  negro  of  freedom  he  had  not  a  ghost  of  a  chance.  In  the 
fated  language  of  Professor  Eoss,  late  of  Stanford  University,  speaking  of  the 
Chinaman,  the  white  man  can  “outdo”  the  barbarian,  but  the  latter  can 
“under live”  him,  and  there's  the  rub. 

The  laboring  man,  who  alone  knows  what  it  means  to  have  to  under  live  his  fel¬ 
low,  will  always  hate  the  negro  on  contact.  There  are  to-day  thousands  of  negroes 
in  the  South  living  on  a  ration  that  costs  6.5  cents  a  day,  or  less  than  $2  per  month, 
while,  if  pressed,  they  can  live  on  the  half  of  it.  Imagine  the  fate  of  the  white 
man  who  has  to  compete  with  such  labor. 

Lured  by  higher  wages,  many  negroes  are  now  making  pilgrimages  to  the  North — 
to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago.  As  a  rule  they  are  the  best-trained 
workers  of  their  race  in  the  South,  and  hence  the  highest  livers,  but  they  under- 
live  all  competition  so  easily  and  cut  wages  with  such  profit  to  themselves  that 
the  hatred  of  the  negro,  always  felt  by  the  white  workers  of  the  South,  is  beginning 
to  be  felt  at  the  N orth ;  and  this  is  the  true  and  only  reason  of  the  late  race  riots  there. 
Wherever  the  negro  goes  disenchantment  follows.  The  old  slave  owner,  his 
natural  friend,  is  now,  as  we  have  seen,  against  him  as  a  political  foe,  and  the  poor 
whites  of  the  South  still  hate  him  as  an  economic  enemy,  while  the  laboring  men 
everywhere  now  recognise  that  the  “  deification  of  the  darkey”  was  for  them  a 
mistake. 

There  is  one  other  class  in  the  South,  fortunately  a  small  one.  I  refer  to  the 
men  of  wealth  or  education  whom  the  war  and  its  consequent  social  chaos 
brought  down  to  poverty  and  personal  manual  competition  with  negro  labor. 
Thirty  years  of  unrequited  toil  has  broken  and  soured  them,  till  any  “  ism,”  from 
populism  to  nihilism,  finds  fertile  soil.  They  have  not  risen;  they  have  done  well 
even  to  “mark  time”  in  the  ranks;  but  through  the  public  schools  their  children 
are  rising,  and  they  are  the  hope  of  the  South  and  nation.  A  distinct  generation 
is  coming  with  an  hereditary  intelligence  sharpened  by  adversity;  but  with  their 
very  mother’s  milk  they  have  drawn  in  a  hatred  of  the  negro  race  that  is  a  hate 
infernal. 

I  have  here  briefly  presented  the  facts  leading  np  to  present  conditions.  Some  of 
these  will  change  and  some  will  not,  and  the  last  to  go  will  be  the  bitter  economic 
antagonism  of  the  white  Southern  laborer.  When  you  leave  thi  s  out,  you  are  leav¬ 
ing  the  Southern  problem.  If  the  political  question  is  not  reopened,  the  antago¬ 
nism  of  the  dominant  class  will  be  at  once  withdrawn.  This  class  has  never  been 
and  will  never  be  influenced  by  negro  competition,  and  if  the  fifteenth  amendment 
is  nullified  as  at  present,  or,  better  still,  repealed,  they  will  have  nothing  more  to 
ask.  Their  antagonism  will  die  with  politics;  the  laboring  antagonism  dies  only 
with  the  man.  W e  might  as  well  be  frank.  These  conditions  exist  and  they  seri¬ 
ously  complicate  the  case  as  presented  by  the  negro  himself,  which  is  about  as 
follows: 

Having  received  from  the  South,  American  residence,  the  English  tongue,  the 
opportunities  of  the  Christian  religion,  a  sound  body,  and  thorough  training  in 


520 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


agriculture  and  all  the  domestic  arts,  he,  after  two  centuries,  received  from  the 
North,  freedom,  citizenship,  and  the  ballot.  In  the  next  generation  he  received 
from  the  two  sections  two  hundred  millions  in  education,  and  he  still  stands  a  beg¬ 
gar  at  the  door  of  the  South,  now  a  criminal  beggar.  What  are  we  to  do  with  him? 

As  he  has  grown  in  criminality  and  physical  depravity  since  receiving  what  he 
has  of  education,  that  kind  of  education  is  surely  a  failure.  Moreover,  he  has 
used  this  education,  given  in  compassion  as  an  arm  of  defense,  as  a  weapon  of 
political  offense  against  those  who  gave  it.  Under  the  circumstances  there  is  a 
natural  and  growing  sentiment  in  the  South  demanding  that  we  give  him  only  the 
pittance  that  he  himself  produces  as  a  taxpayer,  and  then  let  him  shift  for  him¬ 
self.  The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  protest  against  the  adoption  of  this  policy  as 
economically  unwise  and  as  unworthy  of  the  South.  We  should  as  soon  think 
of  withdrawing  our  subscription  to  the  church  because  its  Sunday  school  class 
had  missed  its  lesson.  It  would  be  better  to  double  your  subscription  and  get 
better  teachers.  No!  We  should  not  and  we  will  not  withdraw  from  the  negro 
the  one  and  only  hope  of  his  race — the  white  man's  support.  Noblesse  oblige. 

So  far  we  have  been  consistent.  Of  all  the  sections  the  South  now  alone  presents 
in  her  history  that  rare  virtue.  In  all  the  years  of  her  domination,  from  Roanoke 
Island  to  Appomattox,  she  claimed  just  what  she  claims  now,  namely,  that  Ameri¬ 
can  citizenship  was  a  privilege  of  the  highest  kind,  reserved  for  the  highest  type, 
and  that  degraded  and  barbarous  races,  specifically  marked  by  nature  as  inferior, 
were  unfit  for  its  functions.  She  set  the  white  man  up  as  the  guardian  and  the 
example  for  the  savage.  The  North  claimed  that  the  Union  was  an  asylum  for 
all,  and  that  citizenship  was  for  all,  regardless  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition. 
Her  sincerity  has  ever  been  open  to  doubt;  shall  we  let  ours  be  so  likewise?  It 
will  be  if,  claiming  that  the  Southern  slave  owner  was  the  only  sincere  friend  of 
the  negro,  we  let  him  revert  to  savagery  under  our  very  eyes.  We  can  not  lay 
down  the  white  man's  burden  yet. 

It  is  now  suggested  that  the  hope  of  the  negro  is  industrial  education.  It  is 
hailed  as  a  discovery,  and  it  is  shrewdly  claimed  that  this  education  will  check 
political  antagonism.  This  is  a  mistake.  Any  education  will  be  used  by  the 
negro  politically;  for  politics,  once  successful,  is  now  an  instinctive  form  of  war¬ 
fare.  The  question,  then,  plainly  put,  is  simply  this:  Shall  we,  having  by  great 
effort  gotten  rid  of  the  negro  as  a  political  menace,  deliberately  proceed  to  equip 
the  negro  of  the  future  as  an  economic  menace?  Shall  we,  knowing  his  primitive 
racial  needs,  arm  him  and  pit  him  against  the  poor  white  of  the  South?  Shall  the 
educated  class  of  the  South  to  whom  the  lower  classes,  both  white  and  black,  look 
for  guidance,  indorse  a  policy  which  will  certainly  promote  racial  warfare? 

It  is  all  very  well  to  ignore  racial  hatred  in  New  York  and  Chicago,  with  a  police¬ 
man  at  every  corner  and  politics  behind  every  policeman,  but  do  it  long  enough 
even  there  and  a  time  will  come  when  there  will  not  be  policemen  enough.  To¬ 
day  if  the  hand  of  official  “protection  ”  were  withdrawn,  the  negroes  of  these  cities 
would  have  short  shrift.  Labor  fears  and  hence  hates  the  man  who  can  underlive 
a  church  mouse,  be  he  Chinaman,  negro,  or  Malay.  Shall  we  see  a  negro  and 
Malay  exclusion  act?  In  the  South,  policemen  do  not  patrol  the  fields,  and  race 
hatred  must  be  kept  down  if  only  for  the  sake  of  the  black.  Read  any  account  of 
a  Southern  race  riot  and  see  who  usually  furnishes  the  funerals.  Almost  always 
the  black. 

There  was  never  before  on  the  face  of  the  earth  a  people  more  law  abiding, 
patient,  or  long  suffering  in  the  face  of  great  temptation  than  our  white  yeomanry 
of  the  South.  Living  beside  an  alien  race  which  they  know  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  their  poverty,  which  they  recognize  as  having  corrupted  their  manners, 
their  morals,  and  their  speech,  and  which,  above  any  other  race,  degrades  labor, 
they  spare  him.  If  you  have  race  riots  on  tap  at  the  North  from  a  beginning  labor 
competition,  what  would  happen  were  that  mongrel  city  brood  exposed  to  the 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


521 


temptations  daily  long  present  at  the  South?  Our  people  have  been  brought  down, 
but  they  still  have  the  Saxon  virtue  of  the  courage  that  dares  refrain.  Do  not 
press  them. 

To  see  how  best  to  educate  our  two  races  at  the  South,  let  us  look  into  the  recent 
progress  of  this  section  and  see  what  it  shows.  In  1895  there  were  about  two  and 
a  half  million  spindles  in  the  South,  at  the  close  of  1899  5,000,000  spindles,  to-day 
over  6,000,000.  What  part  has  the  negro  labor  played  in  this  extension  and  what 
part  the  white?  In  furnishing  the  raw  material,  the  cotton,  he  plays  the  old  slave- 
day  part,  but  in  the  function  of  the  new  South,  in  manufacture,  he  has  no  part. 
It  may  be  asked  has  he  had  the  chance?  Yes,  in  Charlotte,  N.  C.,  and  in  Charles¬ 
ton,  S.  C.,  he  has  been  tried  in  the  clothing  factory  and  in  the  cotton  mill,  and  he 
has  failed  in  each  case.  The  reason  of  his  failure  was  the  absolute  lack  of  moral 
responsibility.  While  perhaps  capable  enough,  an  excursion,  a  circus,  or  a  revival 
always  had  claims  upon  him  in  excess  of  his  obligations  as  an  employee.  You 
may  make  him  a  perfect  physical  imitation  of  the  workman,  but  morally  he  is  the 
negro  still. 

We  have  just  seen  the  first  great  labor  strike  in  the  South.  For  months  4,000 
white  mill  hands  stood  out  against  their  employers.  These  mills  could  have  been 
filled  at  any  time  with  cheaper  negro  labor,  but  it  was  not  done.  When  the  cold, 
practical  logic  of  economy  turns  down  an  opportunity  like  this  there  is  a  reason. 
The  reason  was  the  absolute  mercantile  distrust  of  the  moral  stamina  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  black. 

While  the  negro  came  out  of  slavery  illiterate,  he  was  not  ignorant  of  the  trades 
and  the  mechanic  arts.  He  was  the  smith,  the  carpenter,  the  shoemaker,  the  tan¬ 
ner  of  the  plantations  of  the  South.  Trained  to  labor  as  few  white  men  were, 
and  with  labor  ever  in  demand,  he  is  still  the  laborer  and  the  common  mechanic; 
rarely  the  skilled  artisan.  He  has  not  kept  pace  with  his  opportunities.  All  this 
is  suggestive,  and  leads  to  the  conviction  that  it  would  be  folly  for  any  State  to 
enter  upon  the  industrial  training  of  its  deficient  race  while  the  laboring  class  of 
its  higher  race  is  equal  to  any  training  and  any  effort.  We  can  not  equip  both, 
and  to  equip  the  negro  to  the  neglect  of  the  poor  white  would  be  a  grave  political 
error  and  an  economic  absurdity. 

The  average  negro  is  so  light-hearted,  so  gay,  and  so  free  from  care  that  he 
gives  a  pleasant  impression,  but  in  all  his  actions  he  shows  the  mimic.  He  pro¬ 
vokes  an  involuntary  smile,  and  we  ignore  the  lack  of  the  genuine  article.  These 
characteristics  are  generic,  and  in  varying  degrees  they  make  up  our  idea  of  the 
negro  to  the  extent  that  we  habitually  discount  his  faults,  vices,  and  defects.  In 
fact,  we  set  for  this  race  a  different  standard  from  our  own.  The  result  is  that 
any  old  suit  makes  the  negro  a  “  dude,”  reasonably  fluent  speech  makes  him  seem 
the  “  orator,”  while  a  fair  address  and  intelligence  so  dumfound  us  that  such  a 
negro  “  shines  as  a  one-eyed  man  amongst  the  totally  blind.”  He  is  never  what 
he  seems.  What  we  may  call  a  “  good  ”  manservant  may  be,  and  sometimes  is, 
an  absolute  liar,  something  of  a  thief,  and  quite  a  rascal.  A  “good”  nurse 
or  cook  may  be  anything,  provided  she  can  nurse  and  cook.  We  pay  no  more 
attention,  as  a  rule,  to  the  moral  atmosphere  of  the  kitchen  than  to  the  stars  of 
heaven,  and  the  kitchen  and  our  children  suffer.  We  pour  out  our  blood  and 
treasure  on  the  literary  heathen  of  China,  and  shut  our  eyes  to  the  greater  need  of 
missionaries  at  home.  What  the  negro  needs  as  a  race  is  moral  training,  some 
“thou  shalt  not,”  something  to  form  character.  When  we  have  given  him  a 
morality  which  will  save  him  from  degeneracy  and  the  hand  training  which  will 
make  him  an  even  respectable  servant  or  laborer,  then,  and  not  till  then,  may  we 
think  of  the  technique  of  the  higher  industries. 

The  public-school  training  of  this  people  should  be  primarily  a  Sunday-school 
training;  a  moral  training,  given  by  those  to  whom  morals  mean  more  than 
words.  This  training  the  whites  must  give  financially  and,  in  large  measure, 


522 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


personally;  for  there  are  not  enough  properly  qualified  teachers  of  the  negro  race 
to  do  this  work.  In  the  midst  of  peace  and  opportunity  we  now  see  daily  from 
this  race  spontaneous  evidences  of  reversion  to  savagery  which  make  us  utterly 
distrust  the  influence  and  the  capacity  of  those  thus  far  responsible  for  their 
training.  It  seems  as  if  every  paper  adds  something  new  to  the  catalogue  of 
negro  crime. 

Their  moral  training  should  be  supplemented  by  the  three  R's  and  such  simple 
training  in  agriculture  and  the  domestic  arts  as  all  will  need.  The  negro  race  is 
essentially  a  race  of  peasant  farmers  and  laborers,  and  their  education  should 
first  be  directed  to  improving  them  as  such. 

It  is  claimed  that  since  education  has  raised  up  for  this  people  its  own  leaders, 
the  problem  is  solved.  Far  from  it.  An  education  that  makes  leaders  at  the 
expense  of  the  led  is  a  failure.  Every  negro  doctor,  negro  lawyer,  negro  teacher, 
or  other  “  leader  ”  in  excess  of  the  immediate  needs  of  his  own  people  is  an  anti¬ 
social  product,  a  social  menace.  Neither  in  the  North,  the  South,  the  East,  nor 
the  West  can  such  a  professional  man  make  a  living  at  his  calling  through  white 
patronage;  and  to  give  him  the  ambition  and  the  capacity,  and  then  to  blast  his 
opportunity  through  caste  prejudice  and  racial  instinct,  is  to  commit  a  crime 
against  nature.  Nature  made  the  white  man  and  the  black;  it  made  the  natural 
and  unalterable  prejudice  between  the  two  races;  and  hence  the  crime  lies  at  the 
door  of  him  who  knowingly  attempts  the  impossible.  In  equal  measure  what  is 
true  of  the  professional  man  is  true  of  every  trade  and  calling  in  which  the 
negro’s  natural  qualifications  are  not  first  considered.  As  a  source  of  cheap  labor 
for  a  warm  climate  he  is  beyond  competition;  everywhere  else  he  is  a  foreordained 
failure;  and  as  he  knows  this,  he  despises  his  own  color.  When  a  race  is  in  such  a 
condition  that  every  paper  issued  by  its  educated  class  carries  advertisements  of 
nostrums  openly  claiming  to  produce  such  changes  in  hair  and  skin  as  will  make 
the  black  man  less  a  black,  what  are  we  to  think?  When  its  reading,  and  hence 
its  higher,  class  give  such  patronage  as  to  maintain  these  advertisements  in  their 
papers  year  after  year,  what  would  you  give  for  the  influence  on  them  of  any 
“  leader  ”  whose  skin  and  hair  bore,  in  however  slight  a  degree,  the  same  racial 
stain?  The  very  solution  of  the  negro  problem  is  a  part  of  the  white  man’s  burden. 

But  it  is  asked,  How  are  we  to  continue  to  educate  the  negro  at  all  and  avoid 
future  political  trouble?  In  answer  I  say:  Base  h:s  franchise  upon  a  property 
•qualification,  and  give  him  for  once  a  legitimate  stimulus  to  work.  He  has  never 
been  offered  an  attainable  ideal  before.  To-day  the  partly  educated  black,  jail¬ 
bird  or  preacher,  looks  with  contempt  upon  the  negro  whose  only  forte  is  honest 
work  and  accumulation.  Let  us  change  this  and  make  the  taxpayer  and  not  the 
politician  the  racial  ideal.  The  temptation  to  spend  is  inherent  in  the  human 
race;  to  learn  to  save  is  to  cultivate  man's  highest  power,  the  power  of  inhibition. 
When  a  man  can  hear  and  obey  any  “thou  slialt  not,”  monetary  or  moral,  he  is 
improved  as  a  citizen.  The  Jew  has  had  this  mandate  longer  than  any  other  race, 
and  he  is  the  greatest  of  all  accumulators  and  the  least  criminal  of  races.  The 
negro  is  the  most  criminal,  and  he  needs  the  mandate. 

One  truth  about  the  trouble  with  our  negro  ballot  in  the  past  is  instructive. 

The  poor  white,  in  competition  with  negro  labor,  has  had  to  work  his  children 
to  live.  The  negro,  easily  under  living  him,  was  able  to  use  this  same  white  man’s 
taxes  in  the  public  school,  and  hence  has  given  his  children  the  rudimentary 
knowledge  now  necessary  to  vote.  This  is  fast  making  a  reading,  voting,  pauper 
class  of  blacks  and  an  illiterate,  working,  taxpaying  class  of  whites.  Which  of 
these  classes  has  most  interest  in  the  State  and  most  right  to  be  heard?  This 
political  paradox  must  be  changed,  so  changed  that  it  will  still  allow  us  to  work 
for  the  salvation  of  the  negro.  With  an  educational  suffrage,  the  first  step  toward 
improvement— education — is  the  first  act  in  a  political  feud.  Let  us  be  done  with 
it  and  be  free  to  help  him  and  make  him  help  us. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


523 


As  for  ourselves,  let  us  go  back  to  the  old  rule  of  the  South  and  be  done  forever 
with  the  frauds  of  an  educational  suffrage.  Let  us  break  up  the  game  that  pro¬ 
duces  political  professionalism.  Let  us  return  to  the  political  status  we  had  when 
we  furnished  the  men  of  America.  In  national  politics  also  let  us  strive  for  truth 
and  consistency.  We  can  not  be  high  and  mighty  in  the  Philippines  and  high  and 
holy  in  Cuba  and  maintain  the  respect  of  the  world.  It  is  now  more  than  a  gen¬ 
eration  since  the  war.  and  our  fanatical  altruists  have  posed  long  enough.  Let 
us  see  that  the  hypocrisy  that  now  ties  our  hands  in  Cuba  is  the  last  act  of  the 
comedy.  We  of  the  South  are  by  heredity  the  expansionists  of  America;  and  as 
we  must  expand,  let  us  strive  to  be  honest  expansionists.  Let  us  boldly  say  dollars 
in  lieu  of  duty  and  land  in  lieu  of  liberty. 


NEGRO  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH— A  REPLY  TO  DR.  BARRINGER'S 

PAPER. 

By  Julius  D.  Dreker, 

President  of  Roanoke  College. 

The  education  of  the  negro  in  the  South,  taken  in  its  broadest  sense,  is  the  most 
difficult  problem  before  the  American  people  to-day.  It  is  not  a  simple,  but  a 
complex  problem.  If  it  were  simply  to  provide  good  schools  for  the  colored  peo¬ 
ple,  the  task  would  tax  the  wisdom  and  resources  of  the  South,  but  we  have  to 
deal  with  the  more  difficult  question  of  so  educating  the  negroes  that  their  rela¬ 
tions  to  the  white  people  may  be  finally  so  adjusted  that  both  races  may  live 
together  peaceably  on  a  just  economic  and  political  basis.  In  any  serious  discus¬ 
sion  of  this  problem  we  may  as  well  take  it  for  granted — 

(1)  That  the  negroes  will  remain  in  the  South; 

(2)  That  the  fifteenth  amendment  will  remain  a  part  of  the  Constitution;  and, 
consequently, 

(3)  That  the  negro  will  remain  a  voter. 

We  are  confronted,  therefore,  with  a  great  humanitarian  problem,  which  is  also 
economic  and  political,  and  which,  while  being  national,  is  also  in  a  peculiar 
sense  a  Southern  problem.  How  shall  we  so  educate  the  negro  as  best  to  develop 
his  manhood,  make  him  a  valuable  economic  factor,  and  fit  him  for  intelligent 
citizenship? 

After  more  than  thirty  years  of  effort  in  trying  to  solve  our  problem  we  all 
agree  that  it  was  a  grave  mistake  to  suppose  that  with  a  ballot  in  his  hand  and  a 
book  under  his  arm  the  negro  could  make  substantial  progress  simply  by  acquir¬ 
ing  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  in  ordinary  schools.  We  believe  that  it  was 
also  a  mistake  to  establish  at  first  so  many  institutions  of  higher  education,  a  large 
proportion  of  these  being  called  universities.  But  the  negro  has  had  thirty-five 
years  of  freedom,  during  which  he  has  made  considerable  progress  in  acquiring 
education  and  property,  so  that  it  would  be  a  greater  mistake  to  assert  to-day  that 
he  does  not  need  higher  education  at  all.  If  we  think  for  a  moment  how  many 
ignorant  teachers  and  preachers  are  trying  to  instruct  the  negroes,  we  shall  be 
quick  to  recognize  their  need  of  many  more  educated  men  and  women  than  are 
now  to  be  found  among  them.  In  order  to  advance  in  civilization  every  race 
needs  educated  leaders— concrete  examples  of  what  the  best  of  the  race  may  aspire 
to  be;  but  what  the  negro  certainly  does  not  need  is  a  class  of  educated  idlers  who 
wish  to  live  simply  by  their  wits. 

It  seems  to  me  that  for  many  years  to  come  the  education  of  the  negro  should  be 
of  a  very  practical  character,  such  as  is  given,  for  instance,  at  Hampton  and  Tus- 
kegee.  The  prevalence  and  increase  of  crime  throughout  our  country  may  well 


524 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


cause  us  to  suspect  that  our  system  of  education  for  the  white  people  might  also 
be  improved  by  introducing  more  of  the  practical  and  industrial  into  our  public 
schools.  As  almost  every  line  of  industry  and  business  is  open,  at  least  in  the 
South,  to  the  competent  of  both  races,  there  seems  to  be  no  need  for  a  radical  dif¬ 
ference  in  the  education  of  the  masses  of  the  two  races.  It  might  be  well  to  give 
more  attention  to  moral  and  religious  (not  sectarian)  instruction  in  all  our  schools. 
As  to  the  “Sunday-school  training”  advocated  by  Dr.  Barringer,  that  should  be 
left  mainly  to  the  negro  churches;  but  I  believe  it  would  be  a  distinct  advantage 
to  the  negroes  at  present  if  they  had  more  white  teachers  in  their  Sunday  schools 
and  also  in  their  other  schools. 

As  the  white  people  own  nearly  all  the  property,  and  as  the  negroes  are  mainly 
laborers  on  farms,  the  education  of  the  latter  should  be  to  as  large  an  extent  as 
possible  industrial  and  practical,  in  order  that  they  may  the  more  readily  make  a 
living  and  improve  their  mode  of  living.  Little  can  be  done  to  elevate  any  people 
until  they  begin  to  acquire  property  and  independence,  until  they  become  self- 
supporting  and  self-respecting,  as  we  have  learned  from  our  costly  experience  with 
our  Indian  tribes.  We  must  teach  the  negro  the  value  of  steady  habits,  so  that 
he  may  become  a  reliable  workman;  the  necessity  of  economy,  so  that  he  may 
gradually  acquire  property;  the  importance  of  raising  the  standard  of  his  social 
and  domestic  life,  so  that  his  character  may  be  improved,  and  the  need  of  education, 
in  order  that  he  may  be  fitted  for  intelligent  and  patriotic  citizenship.  The  low 
standard  of  living  among  the  negroes  tends  to  depress  the  price  of  labor,  and  thus 
injuriously  affects  the  white  workman.  Wherever  there  is  a  low  standard  of  living 
and  of  morals  among  the  colored  people  the  white  people  suffer  from  it;  and  if  in 
any  part  of  our  country  there  is  marked  improvement  in  the  general  condition  of 
the  weaker  race,  the  stronger  race  will  be  favorably  affected  by  such  progress. 

If  in  any  line  of  industry  the  negroes  bring  sharp  competition  to  bear  on  white 
workmen,  it  is  not  a  matter  to  be  wholly  deplored  on  account  of  the  latter,  for  this 
very  competition  will  cause  them  to  become  more  efficient  in  their  trades,  and  effi¬ 
cient  labor,  as  we  all  know,  is  a  crying  need  of  the  South.  If  there  is  danger  that 
the  white  mechanic  may  be  displaced  by  the  better-trained  negro  mechanic,  let  us 
not  for  that  reason  give  the  latter  less  industrial  training,  as  suggested  by  Dr. 
Barringer,  but  rather  let  us  provide  the  same  sort  of  education  for  the  white  man, 
and  then  let  there  be  an  open  field  for  fair  competition  on  the  basis  of  merit.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  our  Southern  people  will  not  discredit  their  own  profession  of 
interest  in  the  negro  by  shutting  against  him  doors  of  opportunity  for  making  a 
living  as  has  been  done  at  the  North,  where  his  position  and  inferior  advantages 
and  opportunities  to  better  his  condition  are  so  discouraging  as  to  account  largely 
for  race  deterioration  and  crime.  If  odds  are  to  be  given  in  the  race  of  life,  indus¬ 
trial  and  political,  surely  the  Anglo-Saxon  with  his  centuries  of  education,  achieve¬ 
ment,  and  accumulated  advantages  will  not  be  so  lacking  in  chivalry,  generosity, 
and  Christian  spirit  as  to  ask  odds  at  the  expense  of  a  weaker  race,  which  is  only 
now  fairly  setting  out,  with  uncertain  step  but  steady  purpose,  on  the  ample  high¬ 
way  of  a  larger  freedom  and  higher  civilization. 

In  the  solution  of  our  problem  the  fortunes  of  both  races  in  the  South  are 
involved.  We  must  help  to  lift  the  negroes  up  or  they  will  drag  us  down.  As 
the  Republic  could  not  exist  half  free  and  half  slave,  so  no  Commonwealth  can 
long  prosper  with  one  half  of  its  citizens  educated  and  the  other  half  illiterate. 
We  must  convince  our  people  that  no  investment  pays  better  dividends  than 
that  in  brains.  In  Massachusetts,  for  instance,  where  the  best  educational  facilities 
are  freely  provided  for  all  classes  alike,  the  average  price  of  a  day’s  labor  is  more 
than  double  the  average  price  in  the  Southern  States;  and,  although  that  Common¬ 
wealth  is  the  most  densely  peopled  in  the  Union,  the  census  just  taken  shows  that 
its  population  increased  more  than  25  per  cent  in  the  last  decade,  while  that  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  increased  less  than  12  i)er  cent.  In  the  South  every  effort  should  be  made  to 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


525 


lengthen  the  school  term  for  the  children  of  both  races,  and  we  ought  to  hear 
nothing  more  of  that  unwise  and  unpatriotic  suggestion  to  divide  the  school  fund 
between  the  races  in  the  proportion  of  taxes  paid  by  each,  a  proposition  against 
which  I  am  happy  to  know  that  Dr,  Barringer  protests. 

The  more  education  and  property  the  colored  people  acquire  the  better  for  the 
State,  for  they  will  thus  become  more  valuable  citizens.  If  the  negroes  of  Virginia 
had  as  much  property  per  caput,  and  as  high  an  average  in  intelligence  and  educa¬ 
tion  as  the  white  people,  does  anyone  doubt  that  the  State  would  be  immensely 
benefited?  And  if  we  could  to-day  lift  up  the  entire  colored  population  in  the 
South  100  per  cent  in  property,  education,  character,  and  general  civilization, 
would  we  not  be  far  on  the  way  toward  the  solution  of  our  problem?  That  prob¬ 
lem,  as  well  as  all  the  other  problems  of  humanity,  must  be  solved,  if  solved  at 
all,  by  the  power  of  religion  and  the  right  sort  of  education. 

After  a  somewhat  careful  study,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  negroes 
are  generally  more  eager  to  educate  their  children  and  improve  their  condition  in  life 
than  are  the  middle  and  the  poorer  classes  of  white  people.  The  self-denials  and 
sacrifices  of  colored  parents  to  educate  their  children  would  make  a  story  at  once 
pathetic  and  inspiring.  The  present  able  State  superintendent  of  schools  in  Geor¬ 
gia  told  me  nearly  two  years  ago  that  he  had  frequently  used  with  good  effect  the 
example  of  the  negroes  when  he  was  urging  white  people  to  take  more  interest  in 
the  education  of  their  own  children. 

We  who  have  spent  our  lives  in  the  South,  and  especially  those  of  us  whose 
experience  and  observation  antedate  the  civil  war,  know  well  how  much  the  con¬ 
tact  of  the  white  people  did  to  civilize  the  negroes  during  slavery.  Wherever  this 
contact  brought  the  races  into  relations  of  closest  sympathy  and  interest,  the  best 
results  were  produced.  As  educators  we  know  that  unless  a  teacher  has  the  con¬ 
fidence  of  his  pupils,  he  can  do  little  more  than  instruct  them  from  the  text-books, 
while  the  more  important  work  of  molding  character  is  scarcely  touched.  So  in 
adjusting  the  relations  of  the  races  in  the  South,  mutual  sympathy  and  confidence 
are  as  much  needed  as  education  from  books  and  in  trades.  The  negro  is  natur¬ 
ally  influenced  more  by  the  acts  and  example  of  the  white  man  than  by  his  words. 
In  working  out  our  problem  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  negro  should 
trust  the  white  man  as  a  friend  and  well-wisher,  and  that  the  latter  should  set  an 
example  of  absolute  fairness  and  justice  in  all  his  dealings,  as  well  as  in  making 
and  executing  laws.  The  blighting  results  of  reconstruction  left  a  wide  political 
gulf  between  the  races.  To  bridge  that  gulf  should  be  the  aim  of  the  statesman, 
teacher,  minister,  editor — of  every  true  patriot  of  both  races  in  public  or  in  private 
station. 

It  must  be  counted  as  unfortunate,  therefore,  that  recent  legislation  in  several 
States  has  seemed  to  justify  the  negro’s  belief  that  the  white  people  are  unwilling 
to  do  him  justice;  and  it  is  also  to  be  deplored  that  in  so  many  cases  of  all  sorts  of 
crimes  mobs  of  white  men  in  all  parts  of  our  country  have  trampled  law  under 
foot  by  undertaking  to  do  what  should  be  left  to  the  calm  deliberation  and  deci¬ 
sion  of  courts  and  juries,  after  the  evidence  on  both  sides  has  been  duly  pre¬ 
sented  and  considered.  Such  examples  of  injustice  in  making  laws  and  of  lack  of 
respect  for  laws  on  the  statute  book  hinder  the  good  work  of  establishing  and 
maintaining  harmonious  relations  between  the  races,  and  thus  far  render  the 
solution  of  our  problem  still  more  difficult.  Example  is  more  powerful  than  pre¬ 
cept.  Lawlessness  breeds  lawlessness,  hatred  begets  hatred,  revenge  incites  to 
revenge.  If  we  sow  the  seeds  of  wrong  and  injustice,  of  hatred  and  revenge,  of 
cruelty  and  brutality,  we  can  not  expect  to  reap  the  fair  fruits  of  Christian 
civilization. 

If  it  be  true,  as  Dr.  Barringer  asserts,  that  “a  distinct  generation  is  coming 
with  an  hereditary  intelligence  sharpened  by  adversity,  but  with  their  very  mother’s 
milk  they  have  drawn  in  a  hatred  of  the  negro  race  that  is  a  hate  infernal,”  then 


526 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


it  is  high  time  to  do  missionary  YvTork  to  save  the  civilization  of  the  white  people 
of  the  South.  Such  hatred  is  no  part  of  our  religion,  and  has  no  place  in  our  civi¬ 
lization.  And  if  white  people  are  growing  up  with  such  diabolical  hatred  of  the 
negro,  what  answer  do  you  expect  this  “  man  with  the  hoe  ”  to  make  to  such  a 
challenge  in  the  next  generation?  But  I  do  not  believe  that  Southern  mothers  are 
teaching  such  bitter  hatred  to  their  children,  and  it  is  difficult  for  me  to  under¬ 
stand  wThy  Dr.  Barringer  makes  such  a  bold  assertion.  It  seems  to  me  to  have 
little,  if  any,  foundation  to  support  it;  and  if  I  did  not  know  that  his  creed  is  that 
of  the  stern  orthodoxy  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  South,  I  would  suspect 
that  he  had  been  reading  Universalist  books  and  had  thus  been  persuaded  to 
adopt  a  much  milder  idea  of  things  infernal;  or  else  we  must  charitably  suppose 
that  when  Dr.  Barringer  speaks  of  “a  hatred  of  the  negro  race  that  is  a  hate 
infernal,'’  he  is  simply  indulging  in  superfluous  rhetoric. 

As  one  deeply  interested  in  all  the  facts  bearing  on  our  problem,  I  wish  Dr.  Bar¬ 
ringer  would  produce  some  proof  to  substantiate  also  the  statement  that  “  we  now 
see  daily  from  this  race  spontaneous  evidences  of  reversion  to  savagery.”  White 
men  occasionally  act  like  barbarians  in  America,  as  they  have  been  recently  act¬ 
ing  also  in  China  and  elsewhere,  but  we  do  not  believe  for  that  reason  that  the 
race  is  reverting  to  savagery.  Neither  do  I  believe  it  about  the  negroes. 

At  the  present  time,  when  the  negro  is  being  eliminated  as  a  political  factor,  it 
may  seem  inopportune  to  speak  of  educating  him  as  a  voter;  but  I  am  discussing 
this  question  in  the  firm  belief  that  it  can  not  be  settled  by  temporary  makeshifts 
of  doubtful  morals  and  still  more  doubtful  expediency.  Whether  it  takes  one 
century,  or  two,  or  five,  to  solve  this  problem,  we  may  be  sure  of  one  thing,  and 
that  is  that  it  will  never  be  settled  by  injustice.  The  truth  may  be  so  obscured 
now  as  to  be  only  dimly  apprehended  by  people  in  the  South,  but  it  remains  true 
that  it  is  the  chief  glory  of  our  country  that  it  is  great  enough  to  give  equal  rights 
befoie  the  law  to  all  classes  of  its  citizens  of  whatever  race  or  condition.  If  it  be 
taken  for  granted  that  the  suffrage  has  been  made  too  free  throughout  our  coun¬ 
try,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  admitted  that  at  the  present  stage  of  the  negro's 
advancement  whatever  restrictions  are  placed  on  the  elective  franchise,  whether 
of  education,  or  property,  or  both,  should  apply  with  equal  justice  and  fairness 
to  the  voters  of  both  races  alike.  And  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  a  far 
wiser  policy  to  fit  men  for  intelligent  citizenship  than  to  disfranchise  any  consid¬ 
erable  number  on  account  of  illiteracy  or  poverty.  For  as  James  Russell  Lowell 
so  pertinently  says  in  his  address  on  democracy:  “  It  may  be  conjectured  that  it  is 
cheaper  in  the  long  run  to  lift  men  up  than  to  hold  them  down,  and  that  the  bal¬ 
lot  in  their  hands  is  less  dangerous  to  society  than  a  sense  of  wrong  in  their 
heads.” 

Our  Southern  people,  with  their  love  of  fair  play,  will  not  long  tolerate  laws 
which  put  a  premium  on  the  intelligence  of  the  negro  and  on  the  ignorance  of  the 
white  man — laws  which  incite  the  former  to  make  the  utmost  efforts  to  qualify 
himself  for  the  intelligent  exercise  of  the  elective  franchise,  and  which  encourage 
the  latter  to  remain  in  a  state  of  chronic  apathy  with  regard  to  education.  A  law 
which  in  the  letter  discriminates  against  the  negro  and  which  has  an  understand¬ 
ing  clause  ”  by  which  it  is  intended  that  he  shall  be  further  discriminated  against 
at  the  ballot  box  according  to  the  whims  of  the  officers  in  charge  is  a  discredit  to 
any  civilized  State  that  pretends  to  legislate  on  a  basis  of  equal  justice  to  ail  its 
citizens.  Such  laws  operate  to  the  injury  of  both  races.  The  negro  is  profoundly 
discouraged  in  his  efforts  to  educate  and  improve  himself;  lie  resents  the  injustice 
done  to  him  and  still  further  distrusts  the  white  man,  while  the  latter  loses  respect 
for  laws  which  permit  such  injustice.  Already  from  Mississippi  and  Louisiana 
we  are  hearing  reports  of  alarming  apathy  among  the  white  voters,  indicating 
that  there  is  little  political  life  in  those  States.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  election 
returns  of  last  fall  show  that  there  is  one  Congressional  district  in  West  Virginia 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH, 


527 


and  others  in  various  Northern  and  Western  States  in  each  of  which  more  votes 
were  cast  than  in  all  the  Congressional  districts  together  in  either  Mississippi  or 
Louisiana. 

We  have  happily  passed  the  period  when  negro  domination  was  possible  any¬ 
where  in  our  country.  Any  State  in  the  South  could  now  pass,  laws  of  absolute 
fairness  to  restrict  the  suffrage  without  the  least  risk  that  the  evils  of  the  recon¬ 
struction  period  would  ever  he  repeated.  Hence  it  is.  our  plain  duty,  as  well  as 
good  political  policy,  to  treat  the  negro  with  sympathy,  justice,  and  absolute 
fairness,  and  to  condemn  in  individuals  or  States  anything  like  duplicity,  chican¬ 
ery,  and  injustice  in  dealing  with  them. 

Let  us  not  forget  that  the  negroes  are  not  to  be  blamed  for  their  present  situa¬ 
tion.  They  did  not  come  to  America  of  their  own  accord;  they  were  patient  and 
submissive  through  generations  of  slavery;  and  they  had  little  to  do  in  gaining 
their  freedom.  Instead  of  taking  partin'  the  struggle  which  involved  their  freedom, 
the  slaves,  as  guardians  and  protectors  of  the  families  on  the  plantations,  exhib¬ 
ited  a  faithfulness  to  their  trust  which  should  entitle  them  to  the  lasting  gratitude, 
kind  consideration,  and  patient  forbearance  of  the  white  people  of  the  South. 
The  suffrage  was  thrust  upon  the  freed  negro  when  he  was  wholly  unprepared  to 
appreciate  and  discharge  such  grave  responsibilities;  and,  in  spite  of  his  mistakes 
ana  blunders,  it  should  be  said  in  justice  to  him  that  in  his  political  life  he  has 
been  rather  sinned  against  than  sinning.  But  he  is  learning.  His  political  illu¬ 
sions,  with  others,  have  been  dispelled  by  the  stern  logic  of  events.  He  now  real¬ 
izes  that  the  road  to  manhood  and  character  and  independence  is  a  long  one,  and 
the  journey  painfully  tedious;  that  there  are  no  short  cuts,  and  that  he  must  at 
last  work  out  his  own  civilization  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  gained  his,  through  centu¬ 
ries  of  effort  and  struggle  and  conflict.  We  can  not,  however,  turn  a  deaf  ear  to 
this  last  child  of  the  centuries  in  his  appeal  for  all  the  help  and  encouragement 
we  can  give  him. 

The  negro  is  now  our  trust,  our  charge,  and  our  burden.  We  dare  not  be  faithr 
less  to  that  trust.  We  should  not  forget  that  the  white  man’s  burden  will  become 
even  heavier  in  the  coming  years  if  he  withholds  his  sympathy  and  help  from  the 
black  man  in  his  efforts  to  lift  up  himself  and  his  race.  We  dare  not  do  him 
injustice  by  any  policy  of  industrial  or  political  repression  or  suppression,  and  we 
can  not  afford  to  degrade  our  Anglo-Saxon  manhood  by  hating  or  wronging  onr 
weaker  brother  in  black.  By  as  much  as  we  are  superior  to  him  in  civilization, 
by  just  so  much  are  we  under  the  greater  obligation  to  help  the  less-favored  race 
in  every  worthy  endeavor  for  moral,  social,  and  material  progress.  Whatever 
may  be  the  fade  of  the  negro  in  the  future,  we  should  not  shrink  from  the  respon¬ 
sibility  of  doing  our  duty  manfully  in  the  present;  and  if  we  do  the  right  as  God 
gives  us  to  see  the  right,  we  may  with  unfaltering  faith  leave  the  consequences  to 
that  gracious  Providence  which  has  blessed  our  nation  through  all  the  eventful 
years  of  its  history. 

For  right  is  right,  since  God  is  God; 

And  right  the  day  must  win; 

To  doubt  would  be  disloyalty, 

To  falter  would  be  sin. 


DISCUSSION. 

By  H.  B.  Frissell, 

Principal  of  Hampton  Institute. 

I  approach  the  discussion  of  the  subject  before  us  with  a  certain  reluctance,  for 
I  realize  that  there  are  men  in  this  audience  and  on  this  platform  who  knowmuch 
more  about  this  problem  than  I  do.  For  though  I  have  lived  in  Virginia  for  many 
years,  I  am  not  to  the  manner  born.  I  realize  that  this  is  a  Southern  mans  prob- 


528 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


lem;  that  if  it  is  to  be  worked  ont  at  all  he  is  to  do  it,  and  that  we  of  the  North 
can  only  help.  If  I  have  any  fitness  for  the  task  it  is  because  I  have  had  such 
good  teachers.  For  years  I  have  sat  at  the  feet  of  Dr.  Curry,  whose  grand  work 
in  the  cause  of  common-school  education  is  known  to  you.  I  am  glad  of  a  chance 
to  express  publicly  to-night  my  sense  of  obligation  to  him  for  the  sympathy  and 
help  that  he  has  rendered  Hampton.  I  take  no  such  dark  view  of  the  relation  of 
the  races  as  Dr.  Barringer  does.  I  have  lived  in  Virginia  for  twenty  years.  Dur¬ 
ing  all  that  time  I  have  worked  alongside  of  Southern  white  men,  most  of  them 
mechanics,  and  I  do  not  believe  that  the  average  Southern  white  man  hates  the 
black  or  that  there  is  any  danger  of  a  race  war.  Most  of  our  shops  at  the  Hamp¬ 
ton  school  are  in  charge  of  Southern  white  men,  and  I  have  never  found  a  more 
loyal,  devoted  body  of  men,  or  men  more  interested  in  the  improvement  and  uplift 
of  the  negro  youth.  I  should  be  glad  if  I  had  time  to  tell  you  stories  showing  the 
pride  that  these  white  men  take  in  the  progress  of  their  black  proteges. 

I  live  in  a  community  where  the  blacks  largely  outnumber  the  whites,  and  where 
both  whites  and  blacks  receive  the  highest  wages  that  are  paid  in  any  part  of  this 
State.  There  is  the  least  possible  friction  between  the  two  races.  It  may  be  that 
I  am  not  an  unprejudiced  witness  in  this  matter  of  the  relation  of  whites  and 
blacks,  for  I  have  been  connected  with  a  negro  school  that  has  received  continually 
the  strongest  evidences  of  sympathy  and  interest  from  the  governor  and  superin¬ 
tendent  of  instruction  down  to  the  plainest  citizen  of  the  State.  Year  after  year 
the  Senators  and  Representatives  of  this  State  have  pleaded  in  the  Halls  of  Con¬ 
gress  for  an  appropriation  for  Indians.  Through  Dr.  Curry,  that  eloquent  apostle 
of  education  for  every  man,  white  or  black,  the  school  lias  received  generous 
appropriations  from  the  Slater  and  Peabody  funds,  and  from  every  part  of  the 
country  have  come  assurances  of  kind  feeling.  It  is  not  easy  under  such  circum¬ 
stances  for  me  to  believe  in  race  hatred  or  race  wars. 

Some  years  ago  there  was  a  suggestion  that  the  school’s  industries,  which  are 
quite  extensive,  were  interfering  with  the  industries  of  the  town.  It  was  pro¬ 
posed  by  the  citizens,  and  cordially  seconded  by  the  school  authorities,  that  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  the  senate  and  house  of  delegates  be  sent  down  to  investigate  the  matter. 
A  hearing  of  three  days  was  given  in  the  county  court-house.  W itnesses  were  sum¬ 
moned  from  every  walk  of  life— merchants,  mechanics,  and  farmers — white  and 
black.  There  was  not  a  single  case  of  a  man  who  wished  the  school  withdrawn. 
N ot  only  was  it  shown  that  the  school  was  bringing  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands 
of  dollars  into  the  town,  not  only  did  merchants  show  that  their  trade  was  largely 
helped  by  this  negro  school,  but  one  white  contractor  after  another  testified  that 
he  had  gotten  his  first  start  in  his  business  in  helping  to  erect  some  one  of  the 
school’s  sixty  buildings.  The  farmers  testified  as  to  the  better  stock  and  machines 
and  the  improved  methods  of  farming  which  the  school  had  brought  into  the  com¬ 
munity.  From  every  class  there  came  the  most  cordial  witness  to  the  fact  that 
the  school  was  not  only  not  a  hindrance  but  a  great  help,  not  only  to  the  blacks 
but  to  the  whites.  They  showed  what  I  firmly  believe  to  be  always  the  case,  that 
just  as  one  finger  can  not  be  fattened  without  the  others,  so  you  can  not  lift  up 
one  portion  of  a  community  without  lifting  up  all  of  it. 

The  report  of  the  joint  committee  of  the  senate  and  house  of  delegates  is  one  of 
the  strongest  campaign  documents  that  the  school  has  ever  received.  In  it  Judge 
Cardwell  and  his  associates  say:  “The  institute  has  been  a  great  benefit  to  this 
county  and  to  Hampton,  giving  employment  to  a  large  number  of  citizens,  white 
and  colored,  bringing  annually  tens  of  "thousands  of  dollars  to  the  community.  It 
has  been  one  of  the  means  of  building  up  this  part  of  the  State;  population  has 
increased,  every  branch  of  business  has  been  made  more  prosperous,  and,  indeed, 
it  is  a  self-evident  fact  that  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  has 
spent  a  vast  amount  of  money  in  the  community,  bringing  great  benefit  to  all  classes 
of  citizens.” 

This  testimony  as  to  the  value  to  all  classes  of  the  proper  education  of  the  blacks, 
and  the  kindly  relations  resulting  from  it.  comes  from  some  of  the  wisest  lawyers 
and  business  men  of  this  State.  But  similar  testimony  to  that  given  in  regard  to 
Hampton  has  been  given  in  the  case  of  the  schools  started  by  its  graduates  all  over 
the  South.  Booker  Washington  was  a  graduate  from  Hampton,  and  started  a 
school  on  the  same  plan  in  Tuskegee,  Ala.  We  have  sent  50  of  our  graduates  to 
help  him  carry  it  on.  In  his  autobiography,  which  is  just  appearing  in  the  Out¬ 
look,  he  bears  witness  to  the  uniform  kindness  shown  him  and  the  school  by  every 
class  in  that  community.  He  was  called  to  make  the  chief  address  at  the  opening 
of  the  Atlanta  Exposition  and  was  cheered  to  the  echo.  I  much  doubt  if  there  is 
any  white  man  in  the  South  more  cordially  loved  and  honored  by  the  whole  South 
and  the  whole  country  than  this  black  son  of  Hampton  and  the  Old  Dominion, 
f  What  Mr.  Washington  has  done  at  Tuskegee  in  a  large  way,  hundreds  of  Hamp¬ 
ton  graduates  have  done  all  through  the  South  in  a  small  way.  I  went  not  long 

t 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


529 


since  to  the  town  of  Lawrenceville,  in  Brunswick  County,  in  this  State,  where  a 
Hampton  graduate  has  started  an  industrial  school.  I  met  the  leading  white  phy¬ 
sician  of  the  place.  He  told  me  that  he  was  the  school  physician,  and  commended 
the  work.  I  found  that  the  leading  lawyer  of  the  place  was  the  school’s  treasurer. 
Every  white  man  in  the  town  whom  I  met  had  only  pleasant  words  to  say  of  this 
colored  teacher  who  had  started  in  the  black  belt  of  Virginia  a  smaller  Hampton. 

I  could  take  you  to  certain  counties  in  this  State  where  not  many  years  ago  the 
blacks  bore  no  part  of  the  burden  of  taxation,  but  to-day  are  paying  one-fifth  of 
the  property  tax.  I  could  take  you  to  counties  where  crime  is  reduced  to  a  min¬ 
imum  and  the  relations  between  the  races  are  of  the  pleasantest.  There  has  been 
an  increase  of  the  land  holdings  of  the  blacks  in  the  country  districts  of  Virginia 
of  nearly  one-third  in  the  last  six  years.  Hampton  has  sent  out  between  five  and 
six  thousand  young  people  since  its  founding.  So  far  as  we  can  find  out  there  has 
been  only  one  of  them  behind  the  bars,  and  there  has  been  absolutely  no  complaint 
of  unkind  treatment  by  the  whites. 

What  has  been  true  of  Hampton  graduates  has  been  true  of  the  blacks  that 
other  schools  have  sent  out.  The  leading  citizens  of  Winston-Salem,  N.  C.,  have 
helped  a  young  colored  man  to  start  a  school,  a  model  black  colony,  and  a  farm. 
They  have  themselves  subscribed  generously,  and  have  done  all  in  their  power 
to  improve  the  blacks.  When  I  was  last  in  their  beautiful  city  they  told  me  that 
in  that  black  community  of  hundreds  of  souls  there  had  never  been  an  arrest  made 
or  a  legal  paper  served.  That  shows  what  can  be  done  when  Southern  white  men 
really  take  this  negro  problem  in  hand.  Prof.  Jerome  Dowd,  a  professor  in  Trin¬ 
ity  College,  North  Carolina,  in  an  excellent  article  in  the  December  Century,  on 
“Paths  of  Hope  for  the  Negro,”  says:  “  The  field  is  broad  enough  for  both  races 
to  attain  all  that  is  possible  for  them.  In  spite  of  the  periodic  political  conflicts 
and  occasional  local  riots  and  acts  of  individual  violence,  the  relation  between  the 
races  in  respect  to  nine-tenths  of  the  population  are  very  friendly.” 

I  have  watched  with  great  interest  for  the  last  ten  years  the  labor  problem 
being  worked  out  near  my  home,  in  one  of  the  largest  shipyards  in  the  world, 
where  whites  and  blacks  labor  side  by  side.  There  have  been  fewer  strikes  and 
less  labor  trouble  in  that  great  yard,  with  its  thousands  of  workmen,  than  in 
almost  any  yard  of  its  size  in  the  world.  Instead  of  the  blacks  pulling  down  the 
wages  of  the  whites,  the  wages  paid  to  both  are  the  highest  in  the  market.  In  an 
undeveloped  country  like  the  South,  which  needs  all  the  labor  that  it  can  possibly 
obtain,  with  vast  tracts  of  land  waiting  to  be  cultivated,  with  untold  resources  of 
iron  and  coal  to  be  developed,  the  last  thing  to  be  feared,  it  seems  to  me,  is  a  race 
labor  war.  I  have  traveled  largely  in  the  South;  I  have  talked  with  all  classes  of 
men.  The  one  thing  that  faces  planters  and  manufacturers  is  scarcity  of  labor. 
The  planters  tell  me  that  their  men  are  drawn  off  to  the  mines  and  the  railroads. 
The  wage  of  the  laboring  man,  both  white  and  black,  is  rising,  and  that  means 
prosperity  for  both  races,  but  especially  for  the  white  man. 

The  Hon.  John  Temple  Graves  pleads  eloquently  for  the  removal  of  the  blacks. 
But  whenever  there  is  a  hint  of  the  removal  of  any  of  them  there  comes  the  loudest 
protest  from  every  class  in  the  community.  Not  long  since  a  movement  was  made 
in  one  of  the  agricultural  counties  of  Georgia  to  take  away  the  blacks.  The 
planters  begged  that  the  exodus  be  stopped,  declaring  that  if  it  went  on  they  would 
be  ruined.  A  friend  of  mine  tried  to  move  a  colony  of  blacks  from  Alabama  and 
Mississippi  to  Mexico.  He  declared  to  me  that  the  greatest  difficulty  he  had  to 
encounter  was  the  opposition  of  the  Southern  white  man.  The  truth  is,  people 
all  over  the  world  are  turning  their  eyes  continually  toward  the  Southern  negro 
laborer,  realizing  what  many  a  Southern  man  has  told  me,  that  the  blacks,  when 
properly  treated,  are  the  best  laborers  in  the  world.  Shrewd,  long-headed  Ger¬ 
many  has  asked  Booker  'Washington  to  send  some  of  his  men  to  raise  cotton  in 
South  Africa.  In  the  December  number  of  the  International  Monthly,  Mr.  Wash¬ 
ington  says  that  within  the  last  two  months  he  has  received  letters  from  the  Sand¬ 
wich  Islands,  Cuba,  and  South  America  asking  that  the  American  negro  be 
induced  to  go  to  these  places  as  laborers.  In  each  case,  as  he  says,  there  would 
seem  to  be  an  abundance  of  labor  already  in  the  places  named.  It  is  there,  but  it 
seems  not  to  be  of  the  quality  and  value  of  that  of  the  negro  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  testimony  given  recently  before  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission, 
again  and  again  Southern  white  men  have  stated  in  the  most  emphatic  language 
that  the  negro  is  the  best  laborer  that  the  South  has  ever  had,  and  is  the  best  the 
South  is  likely  to  get  in  the  future. 

We  have  been  hearing  much  of  late  to  the  effect  that  the  negro  is  dying  out, 
that  he  is  thoroughly  criminal,  that  education  ruins  him,  and  that  he  is  altogether 
valueless  as  a  laborer.  The  census  seems  to  show  that  he  has  increased  from 
four  to  nearly  ten  millions  since  the  war,  that  he  has  accumulated  nearly  a  billion 


ED  1901 


34 


530 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


dollars’  worth  of  property  of  his  own.  and  that  as  a  free  laborer  he  raised  four 
times  as  much  cotton  in  1899  as  he  did  as  a  slave  in  1850. 

Is  it  quite  just  to  say  of  this  people  that  it  “stands  at  the  door  of  the  ?outh  a 
criminal  beggar?  ”  It  is  not  strange  that  in  the  demoralization  following  emanci¬ 
pation  crime  should  have  increased,  that  the  negro  should  have  often  confused 
freedom  with  license  and  thought  that  it  meant  freedom  from  labor,  that  the 
negTo- father  and  mother  should  have  had  little  idea  of  family  life  or  of  the  proper 
way  to  train  their  children,  but  the  suggestion  that  education  is  the  cause  of 
crime,  or  that  an  increase  of  intelligence  in  any  part  of  the  community  is  harmful 
is  certainly  not  to  be  entertained  in  this  home  of  Thomas  Jefferson. 

Mr.  W  ashington  has  received  from  300  prominent  Southern  white  men  answers 
to  these  questions: 

1.  Has  education  made  the  negro  a  more  useful  citzen? 

2.  Has  it  made  him  more  economical  and  more  inclined  to  acquire  wealth? 

3.  Has  it  made  him  a  more  valuable  workman,  especially  where  thought  and 
skill  are  required? 

Nine- tenths  answered  all  three  questions  emphatically  in  the  affirmative.  A 
few  expressed  doubt;  only  one  answered  no. 


REPLY 

By  Paul  B.  Barringer. 

[By  previous  arrangement  Dr.  Dreher  and  Dr.  Frisseil  replied  to  Dr.  Barringer's  paper,  and 
in  reply  to  Dr.  Frissell’s  criticism  of  the  words  “  criminal  beggar,”  Dr.  Barringer  presented  the 
following  statements.]: 

A  few  years  ago  a  balance  sheet  for  the  blacks  and  whites  of  Virginia  stood  as 
follows : 


For  negro  criminal  expenses _ _ _ _ _ _ $204, 018 

For  negro  education _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  324, 364 

For  negro  lunatics . . . . . . .  80, 000 

Total  negro  expenses . . . : . . . . .  608, 382 

Total  negro  taxes _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  103,  565 


Annual  loss  to  .Virginia  on  account  of  negro . . .  504,817 


The  above  report  was  made  by  the  State  auditor,  and  was  quoted  in  Hoffman’s 
Race  Traits  and  Tendencies,  page  301.  It  will  be  seen  from  it  that  the  annual 
net  loss  on  the  negro  population  of  this  State  (Virginia)  is  over  a  half  a  million  of 
dollars,  and  that  the  total  negro  taxes  paid  is  even  less  by  $100,000  than  the  sum 
annually  expended  by  the  whites  to  repress  negro  crime. 

Secondly,  Dr.  Barringer  called  attention  to  the  report  of  the  Virginia  Peniten¬ 
tiary  for  1899,  where  there  were  among  the  State  convicts  only  404  whites  as 
against  1,694  blacks,  giving  on  the  basis  of  population  negro  criminality  as  7.4 
times  greater  than  the  white.  The  latest  reports  of  the  State  penitentiaries  from 
Maryland  to  Texas  show  about  the  same  results,  rising  to  9.4  and  8  in  Georgia, 
where  progressive  municipal  administration  draws  the  negro  to  town,  and  falling 
as  low  as  5>;..4  in  Mississippi,  where  the  negroes  live  in  the  country,  and  where 
white  domination  and  negro  disfranchisement  are  most  complete. 

These  facts.  Dr.  Barringer  stated,  warranted  him  in  making  this  clear  state¬ 
ment  of  the  situation. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


By  L.  Yiereck, 

Of  New  York,  late  Member  of  the  German  Reichstag. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 


Preface . . . . . . . . .  531 

List  of  works  consulted _ _ _ _ _ _ _  532 

Part  I.— Historical  development . . . . .  538 

I.  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  1825  _  539 

II.  From  1825  to  1876  _ _ _ _ _ _  552 

III.  From  1876  to  the  close  of  the  century _ _  564 

Part  II.— Position  of  German  instruction  at  the  beginning  of  the 

TWENTIETH  CENTURY _ _ _  589 

I.  Colleges  and  universities _ _ _  _ _ ,  589 

II.  Public  secondary  schools _ _ ... _ _  635 

III.  Public  primary  schools _ _ _ _ _ _  639 

IY.  Normal  schools . . . . . .  646 

V.  Parochial  schools. . . _ . . . . . 650 

YI.  Association  and  private  schools _ _ , _ _ _  654 

YII.  Summer  and  night  schools,  kindergartens,  instruction  in  ath¬ 
letics,  singing,  and  manual  training  . . . . .  655 

YIII.  Statistics _ _ _ _ _ 1 _  659 

Part  III.— The  future  of  German  instruction _ _  663 

I.  Silent  universities. _ _ _ _  663 

II.  Associations  and  periodical  publications  for  the  promotion  of 

German  instruction _ _ _  672 

III.  Special  institutions  and  endowments _ _ _ _ _  679 

IY.  Biographical  notes _ _ _ . . . .  687 

Y.  Effect  on  relations  between  Germany  and  America . .  . . .  703 


PREFACE. 

The  author  of  the  following  chapter  published  a  number  of  articles  on  the 
subject  in  German  and  German- American  journals  during  the  years  1899  and 
1900,  which  led  to  the  present  compilation.  No  one  appreciates  better  than  him¬ 
self  the  imperfection  of  his  work  and  its  numerous  deficiencies.  Independently 
of  the  short  time  allowed  him,  he  may  offer  in  excuse  the  reason  that  no  previous 
attempt  had  been  made  to  present  the  subject  as  it  is  herein  treated,  so  that 
comparatively  few  works  are  available  for  reference.  N  o  history  has  yet  been 
undertaken  which  portrays  the  manifold  influences  during  the  past  two  hundred 
years  of  German  thought  on  American  civilization  in  general  and  on  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  whole  educational  system  in  particular.  For  Maryland  and  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  these  influences  have  been  studied  to  some  extent,  but  for  all  the  other 
States  but  very  little,  if  any,  scattered  material  for  reference  exists,  especially  as 

531 


532 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


prominent  American  writers  on  the  history  of  education  in  the  several  States 
have  not  as  yet  paid  sufficient  attention  to  the  educational  relations  between  the 
two  great  nations. 

The  best  material  is  contained  in  a  number  of  detached  articles  and  addresses 
on  the  subject,  mostly  short,  in  more  comprehensive  works.  The  references  in  the 
text  furnish  the  necessary  information  as  to  the  sources  made  use  of,  though  it 
may  be  stated  in  advance  that  much  valuable  information  w~as  obtained  espe¬ 
cially  from  the  works  of  Hon.  William  T.  Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education;  Hon.  Andrew  D.  White,  United  States  ambassador  in  Germany; 
the  late  Professors  Seidensticker  and  Hinsdale,  and  School  Superintendent 
Knortz.  The  following  gentlemen,  at  present  connected  with  the  higher  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  of  the  country,  sent  excellent  material,  partly  in  manuscript, 
to  the  author:  Professor  Learned,  University  of  Pennsylvania;  Professors  Car¬ 
penter  and  Thomas,  of  Columbia  University;  Professor  Schoenfeld,  Columbian 
University;  Professors  Kuno  Francke  and  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  Harvard  Univer¬ 
sity;  Professor  Gruener,  Yale  University;  Professor  Goebel,  Stanford  University; 
Professor  Senger,  University  of  California;  Professor  Keller,  New  York  Normal 
College,  and  Director  Dapprich,  of  the  Normal  Seminary  in  Milwaukee.  The 
author  extends  his  sincere  thanks  to  these  gentlemen  for  their  kind  assistance. 

No  historical  sketch  of  the  development  of  German  instruction  could  have  been 
attempted  without  a  short  reference  to  the  relations  between  Germany  and  the 
United  States,  and  the  position  of  German- Americans  toward  Anglo-Americans. 
These  relations  influenced  the  organization  of  German  instruction  to  a  great 
extent,  and  also  explain  the  favorable  or  retarding  course  of  public  opinion.  At 
present  the  position  of  German  in  higher  education  and  the  recognition  of  German 
methods  on  the  part  of  the  scientists  of  America  is  so  assured  that,  in  future, 
patriotic  benefactors  need  only  occasionally  promote  the  extension  of  German 
elementary  instruction  in  the  city  district  schools. 

The  efforts  of  the  author  will  be  amply  rewarded  if  the  subject  treated  receives, 
in  the  course  of  time,  the  attention  heretofore  unquestionably  deserved  but 
denied,  and  if  a  general  knowledge  of  the  educational  relation^  between  two  of 
the  most  important  and  progressive  nations  of  the  whole  world  contributes  toward 
bringing  about  permanently  a  better  understanding  between  Americans  and 
Germans. 

LIST  OF  WORKS  CONSULTED. 

The  following  list  does  not  include  catalogues,  presidents’  reports,  and  similar 
easily  accessible  documents.  An  exhaustive  bibliography,  which  would  comprise 
a  number  of  other  publications  on  the  subject,  has  of  course  not  been  intended. 

Americana  Germanica ;  a  quarterly  devoted  to  the  comparative  study  of  the  liter¬ 
ary,  linguistic,  and  other  cultural  relations  of  Germany  and  America.  Editor: 
Marion  Dexter  Learned,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

American  Colleges,  On  the  growth  of,  since  1891,  an  address  given  at  the  opening  of 
Sibley  Hall,  in  Cornell  University,  June  21,  1871,  by  D.  C.  Gilman. 

American  Colleges,  their  students  and  their  work,  by  Charles  F.  Thwing. 

American  Education  in  1869-1879,  an  address  given- at  Saratoga,  Sept.  10,  1879, 
before  the  American  Social  Science  Association,  by  D.  C.  Gilman. 

American  German  Review;  a  monthly  magazine.  New  York,  1899. 

American  Institute  of  Instruction,  Annals  of,  1830-1900. 

Amerikanische  Litter atur -  u.  Kulturgescliichte,  Beitrage  zur.  Yon  E.  P.  Evans, 
Stuttgart,  1898. 

Amerikanische  Pddagogen,  Was,  uber  deutsche  Volksschulen  denken,  von  K. 
Knortz. 

Amherst  College,  History  of,  by  W.  S.  Tyler. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


533 


Aus  den  Erinnerungen  eines  Achtundvierzigers,  von  Jacob  Muller,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

Ans  grosser  Zeit.  Beitrage  zur  G-eschichte  der  Achtundvierziger  in  Amerika. 
Chicago,  1900. 

Baltimore,  seine  Vergangenheit  und  Gegenwart.  Herausgeg.  vom  deutschen  liter- 
arischen  Bureau,  Baltimore,  1887. 

Belleville  Public  Library.  17th  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Directors  (1900). 

Bureau  of  Education.  Circulars  of  Information-  and  Annual  Reports. 

Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  by  Alice  Morse  Earle,  1900. 

College  Book,  The,  by  Charles  F.  Richardson  and  Henry  A.  Clark,  Boston,  1878. 

College,  The,  and  the  Church,  by  L.  S.  Metcalf,  New  York,  1887. 

Connecticut,  The  History  of  Education  in,  by  B.  C.  Steiner.  Circular  of  Informa¬ 
tion,  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  1893. 

Conried  Plays,  The,  and  the  German  Publication  Fund  of  America.  Philadelphia, 
1900. 

Contributions  to  the  Educational  History  of  the  United  States,  edited  by  H.  B, 
Adams.  Circulars  of  Information,  Bureau  of  Education. 

Comenius,  The  place  of,  in  the  history  of  education,  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler, 
Syracuse,  1892. 

Cousin,  Victor.  Rapport  de  l’instruction  publique  dans  quelques  pays  de  TAlle- 
magne  et  particulierement  en  Prusse.  Deux  tomes. 

Deutsch-amerikanisches  Konversations-Lexikon.  Herausgeg.  von  Alex.  J.  Schem. 
11  Bande.  New  York. 

Deuisch-amerikanische  Geschichtsblatter.  Yierteljahrsschrift.  Herausgeg.  von 
der  Deutsch-amerik.  historischen  Gesellschaft  von  Illinois,  Chicago,  seit 
Jan.  1901. 

Deutsch  in  Amerika,  von  G.  A.  Zimmermann,  Chicago,  1894. 

Deutsche,  Der,  in  Amerika.  Yer.  Staaten  Kalender  fur  allg.  Information. 

Deutsche  Einfluss,  Der,  auf  die  Organisation  und  Entwicklung  der  amerikanischen 
Schuie,  von  G.  A.  Rattermann.  Milwaukee,  1896. 

Deutsche  Einwanderung ,  Die  erste,  in  Amerika,  von  O.  Seidensticker.  Philadel¬ 
phia,  1883. 

Deutsche  evangelische  Synode  von  Nordamerika,  Geschichte  der,  von  Albert 
Schorg. 

Deutsche  Gesellschaft  von  New  York,  Geschichte  der ,  von  Eickhoff. 

Deutsche  Gesellschaft  von  Pennsylvania,  Geschichte  der,  von  O.  Seidensticker. 

Deutsche  Revolution,  Die,  des  Jalires  1848,  von  Dr.  Hans  Kudlich. 

Deutsche  Schulen  und  deutscher  Unterricht  im  Ausland,  von  Dr.  J.  J.  Muller, 
Direktor  der  allg.  deutschen  Schuie  in  Leipzig,  1901. 

Deutsche  Sprache,  Die,  in  den  ojfentlichen  Schulen.  Reden  bei  der  Massenver- 
sammlung  im  Cooper  Institute  von  New  York  am  18.  Marz,  1875,  New  York. 

Deutschen,  Die,  im  Staate  New  York  wdlirend  des  ISten  Jahrhunderts,  von  Fried¬ 
rich  Kapp. 

Deutschen  Beziehungen,  Die,  zu  den  Ver.  Staaten.  Vortragvon  Dr.  H.  Schonfeld 
(Washington),  gehalten  in  der  deutschen  historischen  Gesellschaft  von  New 
York. 

Deutschen,  Die  sociale  und  politische  Stellung  der,  in  den  Yereinigten  Staaten,  von 
Dr.  E.  Schlager. 

Deutschen  Pionier,  Der,  Erinnerungen  aus  dem  Pionierleben  der  Deutschen  in 
Amerika  (redigirt  von  Dr.  G.  Bruhl,  Karl  Riimelin  und  G.  A.  Rattermann). 
Herausgeg.  unter  Mitwirkung  deutscher  Geschichtsfreunde  vom  Deutschen 
Pionier- Yerein  von  Cincinnati,  15  Bande,  1869-1884. 


534 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Deutsche  Sprachunterricht,  Der,  an  den  amerikanischen  Universitaten.  Yortrag 
gehalten  am  13ten  Januar  1898,  im  Gesellig.  wissenschaftliehqn  Verein  von 
New  York,  von  Prof.  Wm.  H.  Carpenter. 

Deutschen  Unterricht ,  Der,  in  den  Yereinigten  Staaten,  von  Max  Horwitz,  in  Band 
1Y  der  “Deutschen  Rundschau.”  Berlin,  1875. 

Deutschthum ,  Das,  in  den  Yereinigten  Staaten,  von  Prof.  Karl  Knortz.  Heft  281- 
282  der  Sammlung  gemeinverstandlicher  Yortrage  von  Yirchow  und  Holtzen- 
dorff. 

Documents  Illustrative  of  American  Educational  History ,  by  Prof.  Hinsdale. 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  of  1892-93,  vol.  2. 

Education,  A  history  of,  by  Thomas  Davidson,  New  York,  1900. 

Education  as  viewed  by  Thinkers.  School  Room  Classics.  Syracuse,  1896. 

Education,  Cyclopaedia  of,  by  Kiddle  &  Schem.  New  York,  1877. 

Education,  Higher,  its  function  in  preserving  and  extending  our  civilization. 
Address  delivered  at  the  Boston  University,  May  31,  1898,  by  Wm.  T.  Harris. 

Education  in  Europe,  Report  on,  by  Alex.  Dallas  Bache,  president  of  the  Girard 
College  for  Orphans.  Philadelphia,  1839. 

Education  in  the  United  States.  A  series  of  monographs  prepared  for  the  United 
States  exhibit  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900.  Edited  by  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler.  2  vols.  Albany,  1900. 

Education  in  the  United  States.  Its  history  from  the  earliest  settlements,  by 
Richard  G.  Boone.  New  York,  1890. 

Education  in  the  United  States,  Higher,  by  B.  A.  Hinsdale.  (Article  in  Encyclo¬ 
paedia  Britannica) . 

Education  in  America,  b}T  Wm.  T.  Harris.  In  America;  Our  Country’s  Develop¬ 
ment  and  Resources,  Greatness,  and  Future.  New  York,  1892. 

Education,  The  Status  of,  at  the  Close  of  the  Century,  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler. 
Reported  from  the  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1900. 

Education ,  The  Theory  of,  by  Wm.  T.  Harris.  Syracuse,  1893. 

Educational  Reform,  by  Charles  W.  Eliot. 

Educational  Review;  monthly,  edited  by  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler. 

Erziehungsbldtter  fiir  Schule  und  Haus,  Organ  des  nationalen  deutsch-amerika- 
nischen  Lehrerbundes,  Milwaukee.  Redigirt  von  W.  N.  Hailmann,  L.  R. 
Klemm  und  H.  H.  Fick  (bis  Juni  1899). 

Europe,  A  Year  in,  by  Prof.  John  Griscom. 

Evangelischer  Kalender  fiir  1901. 

Foreign  Influence  on  Education,  by  B.  A.  Hinsdale.  In  the  Report  of  the  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Education  of  1897-98. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  by  Francis  Newton 
Thorpe.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Information  No.  2,  1892. 

Freie  djfentliche  Bibliotheken,  von  Dr.  Ernst  Schultze.  Stettin,  1900. 

Frobel,  Friedrich.  The  Education  of  Man. 

Frobel,  Julius.  Kleine  politische  Schriften. 

FrobeVsche  Kindergarten,  Der,  und  seine  Bedeutung  fur  die  Erhaltung  des 
Deutschthums  im  Ausland. 

Florida ,  Education  in,  by  G.  G.  Busch.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Infor¬ 
mation,  Washington,  1889. 

German- American  Events,  up  to  1870,  collected  and  chronologically  arranged,  by 
Oscar  Seidensticker.  Philadelphia,  1892. 

German- American,  The,  during  the  War  between  the  United  States  and  Spain, 
1898.  An  address  delivered  before  the  German  Liederkranz  at  Saranac  Lake, 
N.  Y.,  July  4,  1899,  by  Charles  G.  F.  Wahle. 

German- American  Turner  Lyric,  The,  by  M.  D.  Learned,  University  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


535 


German  as  a  Culture  Element  in  American  Education.  A  lecture  delivered  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  on  July  8,  1898,  by  M.  D.  Learned. 

German  Educational  Reformers ,  by  Henry  Barnard. 

German  Instruction  in  American  Schools  and  the  national  idiosyncracies  of 
Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Germans.  An  address  delivered  at  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
July  16,  1890,  by  W.  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education. 

German  in  the  Public  Schools.  Papers  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  California 
Teachersr  Association,  held  in  San  Jose,  Cal.,  Dec.  28  to  31,  1897,  by  Prof. 
Julius  Goebel,.  President  David  Starr  Jordan  and  Prof.  Albin  Putzker. 

German  Language ,  The,  as  a  Regular  Branch  of  Public  Instruction.  New  York, 
1875. 

Germans,  The,  in  America,  by  Prof.  Calvin  Thomas. 

German  University,  The,  and  the  American  College,  by  Charles  Phelps  Taft. 

Germanistik  und  litter arisches  Schaffen  in  Amerika.  Ein  Yortrag  gehalten  10. 
Dez.  1900  im  Deutsehen  Yerein  der  Columbia,  von  Prof.  M.  D.  Learned. 

Germany  and  America ,  an  address  delivered  at  Leipzig,  July  4, 1898,  by  Andrew 
D.  White,  United  States  Ambassador. 

Georgia,  Education  in,  by  0.  E.  Jones.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Infor¬ 
mation,  Washington,  1889. 

Geschichte  der  Deutsehen  in  Amerika ,  Zwe,  von  Dr.  Herxn.  Sehdnfeld.  In  der 
wissensehaftlichen  Beilage  der  Allgem.  Ztg.  von  1897. 

Geschichte  und  Erziehung  in  den  Yereinigten  Staaten,  Quellen  zu  der,  von  Dr. 
Herm.  Sehonfeld.  Im  Pad.  Arehiv,  88.  Jahrg.,  Heft  9. 

Geschichte  der  evangelischen  Synode  von  Iowa  und  anderen  Staaten,  von  Pastor  I. 
Deindorfer.  Chicago,  1897. 

Geschichte  der  nor  darner ikanischen  Literatur,  von  Karl  Knortz.  2  Ban.de. 

Geschichte  des  gelehrten  UnterricMs  auf  deutsehen  Schulen  und  Universitaten, 
von  Prof.  Dr.  Fr.  Paulsen.  Leipzig,  1885. 

Geschichtsbldtter ,  Bilder  und  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  Leben  der  Deutsehen  in 
Amerika.  Herausgeg.  von  Karl  Schurz. 

Harvard  University,  Die,  Abth.  fill*  deutsche  Litteratur  und  Philologie,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  Mass.,  1893. 

Heimath ,*  In  der  neuen ,  geschichtliche  Mittheilungen  fiber  die  deutsehen  Ein- 
wanderer  in  alien  Theilen  der  Union.  Herausgeg.  von  Anton  Eickhoff.  2. 
Ausg.  New  York,  1885. 

Higginson,  Thomas  Wentworth.  Out-door  Papers.  Boston  and  New  York. 

Higher  Education,  Essays  on  the,  by  G.  T.  Ladd.  Yale  University,  1899. 

Historical  and  Biographical  Sketches,  by  S.  W.  Pennypacker.  Philadelphia,  1883. 

Historical  and  Political  Science,  Studies  in,  a  series  of  addresses  delivered  at  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University.  Baltimore,  1898. 

History  of  the  Germans,  Society  for  the,  in  Maryland..  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Society. 

Indiana,,  Higher  Education  in,  by  J.  A.  Woodburn.  Bureau  of  Education,  Cir¬ 
cular  of  Information,  Washington.  1891. 

Instruction  in  German  and  its  helpful  influence  on  common-school  education,  as 
experienced  in  the  public  schools  of  Cincinnati,  by  John  B.  Peaslee,  late  superin¬ 
tendent  of  the  public  schools  of  Cincinnati.  Address  delivered  July  19, 1889. 

International  Educational  Series,  edited  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Iowa,  Higher  Education  in,  by  L.  T.  Parker.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of 
Information,  Washington,  1891, 

Jahrbucher  der  deuisch-amerik.  Turnerei.  Herausgeg.  von  Heinn.  Metzner,  New 
York.  3  Bande. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  by  Herbert  B.  Adams.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Circular  of  Information  No.  1,  Washington,  1888. 


536 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Jefferson ,  Thomas ,  Views  of,  on  public  education,  by  John  Henderson. 

Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies.  Editor:  Herbert  B.  Adams,  Baltimore. 

Journal  of  Social  Science,  containing  the  transactions  of  the  Academy  of  Social 
Science. 

Kindergarten,  The  Future  of  the,  by  Wm.  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Knortz,  Karl,  Schulsuperintendent  in  Evansville,  Ind.  Deutsch-amerikanische 
Schriften.  (Yergl.  das  bei  seiner  Biographie  gegebene  Verzeichniss.) 

Lieber,  Franz.  Ein  Yortrag  von  Dr.  F.  W.  Holls.  New  York,  1884. 

Lutherischer  Kalender  fur  1901. 

Mann,  Horace.  Annual  Reports  on  Education.  Boston,  Mass.,  1868. 

Mann,  Horace.  Life  and  works.  5  vols.  Boston,  1891. 

Mann,  Horace,  an  address  delivered  before  the  National  Educational  Association, 
by  Wm.  T.  Harris,  Syracuse,  1896.  (School  Room  Classics,  XI.) 

Maryland ,  The  History  of  Education  in,  by  B.  C.  Steiner.  Bureau  of  Education, 
Circular  of  Information,  Washington,  1894. 

Massachusetts ,  History  of  Higher  Education  in,  by  G.  S.  Bush.  Bureau  of  Edu¬ 
cation,  Circular  of  Information,  Washington,  1892. 

Message  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  to  the  Twentieth,  an  address  delivered  in  the 
chapel  of  Yale  College,  26  June,  1883,  by  Andrew  D.  White. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages,  by  A.  M.  Elliott,  Calvin  Thomas,  and 
others. 

Michigan ,  Higher  Education  in,  by  A.  C.  McLaughlin.  Bureau  of  Education,  Cir¬ 
cular  of  Information,  Washington,  1891. 

Michigan  University.  Address  of  Ch.  K.  Adams  at  the  annual  commencement, 
June  25,  1896. 

Michigan  University.  A  Short  History,  by  Calvin  Thomas. 

Michigan  University.  Commencement  Oration  by  President  James  B.  Angell, 
June  30,  1887. 


Michigan  University.  Historical  Sketch,  by  Charles  Kendall  Adams. 

Michigan  University.  The  Inaugural  Address  by  Rev.  Dr.  Haven,  1863. 
Michigan  University ,  The,  and  its  recent  jubilee,  by  Calvin  Thomas. 

Missouri,  Higher  Education  in,  by  Marshal  S.  Snow  Bureau  of  Education,  Cir¬ 
cular  of  Information  No.  2,  Washington,  1898. 

Modern  Language  Association  of  America.  Transactions  and  Proceedings,  i884- 
1900. 


National  Educational  Association,  Proceedings  of  the. 

National  Educational  Association,  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  Superin¬ 
tendence  of  the. 

Nationales  deutsch-amerikanisches  Lehrerseminar  zu  Milwaukee.  Festschrift  zur 
Einweihungsfeier,  Lehrplan  und  Jahresbericht. 

New  Germany,  The,  an  address  delivered  before  the  American  Geographical 
Society,  by  Andrew  D.  White. 

New  York  City.  First  Annual  Report  of  the  City  Superintendent  of  Schools,  for 
the  year  ending  July  31,  1899. 

Normal  College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  29th  Annual  Report. 

North  American  Review,  since  1815. 

North  Carolina,  History  of  Education  in,  by  Charles  Lee  Smith.  Bureau  of  Edu¬ 
cation,  Circular  of  Information,  Washington,  1888. 

Oestlichen  deutschen  Konferenz,  Protokelle  der. 

Ohio,  History  of  Higher  Education  in,  by  J.  K.  Commons  and  J.  W.  Knight. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Information,  Washington,  1892. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


537 


Organization  des  hoheren  Schulwesens  in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten,  von  Dr.  C.  A. 
McMurry.  (In  der  Sammlung  national-okonomischer  nnd  statistischer 
Abhandlungen  des  Staatswissenschaftlichen  Seminares  zu  Halle  a.  S.) 

Out-door  Papers,  by  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson. 

Padagogisches  Archiv.  Monatsschrift.  Brannschweig. 

Pddagogische  Monatshefte,  Organ  des  Nationalen  deutschen  Lehrerbnndes. 
Jahrg.  I  and  II  (seit  Dezember  1899). 

Pennsylvania ,  History  of  Education  in,  by  Dr.  T.  P.  Wickersham.  Lancaster, 
1888. 

Physical  Training,  On,  by  Edw.  Mussev  Hartwell.  Boston,  1897. 

Physical  Training  in  American  Colleges.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Infor¬ 
mation,  Washington,  1888. 

Prince,  John  J.  Methods  of  Instruction  and  Organization  of  the  Schools  of 
Germany. 

Psychology ,  four  articles,  by  Wm.  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education. 

Relations,  The,  of  the  People  of  the  United  States  to  the  English  and  the  Germans, 
by  Wm.  Yocke.  Chicago,  1878. 

Remarks  on  the  Seventh  Annual  Report  of  Horace  Mann,  Secretary  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Board  of  Education.  Boston,  1844. 

Reminiscences  of  the  Ger mom- Americans  in  Baltimore  during  the  years  1850-1860, 
by  L.  P.  Henninghausen,  Baltimore. 

Reports  of  the  Commissioners  of  Education,  since  1888-89. 

Rhode  Island,  History  of  Higher  Education  in,  by  W.  H.  Tolman.  Bureau  of 
Education,  Circular  of  Information,  Washington,  1894. 

Scientific  and  Industrial  Education,  an  address  delivered  in  the  Department  of 
Superintendence,  National  Educational  Association,  Jan.  27, 1874,  by  Andrew 
D.  White. 

School  Gymnastics,  by  T.  T.  Putnam,  M.  D.  Address  delivered  May  8,  1876,  in 
the  American  Association  of  Social  Science. 

Seeley,  Dr.  Levi.  The  Common  School  System  of  Germany  and  its  lessons  to 
America. 

St.  Louis.  Reports  of  Public  Schools,  by  Superintendent  W m.  T.  Harris,  1867-1879. 

South  Carolina ,  History  of  Higher  Education  in,  by  Colyer  Meriwether.  In 
Adams's  Contributions,  1888,  No.  8. 

Systems  of  Public  Instruction  in  European  and  American  Cities  compared,  by 
Hon.  T.  D.  Philbrick,  of  Boston;  an  address  delivered  in  the  Department  of 
Superintendence,  National  Educational  Association,  Jan.  29,  1874. 

Taylor,  Bayard.  Views  a-foot,  or  Eurone  with  Knapsack  and  Staff.  New  York, 
1846. 

Teaching  of  German  in  Pennsylvania,  address  delivered  by  M.  D.  Learned,  Apr.  9, 
1898. 

Ticknor,  George.  Life,  Letters,  and  Journals.  2  vols. 

Three  Years ’  Course  of  German  for  California  High  Schools  proposed  by  the  Com¬ 
mittee  of  the  California  Teachers’  Association 

Training  of  Teachers  in  Germany,  The.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Infor¬ 
mation,  Washington,  1878. 

Turnlehrerseminar  des  nationalen  nordamerik.  Lehrerbnndes.  Lehrplan.  Mil¬ 
waukee. 

Universitat  von  Pennsylvania,  Bedeutung  der,  fur  deutsche  Kultur  und  Ge- 
schichte.  Yon  Dr.  Herm.  Schonfeld. 

University  Problems,  by  President  Daniel  C.  Gilman. 

University,  The  Idea  of,  by  President  Daniel  C.  Gilman.  North  American 
Review,  vol.  133. 


538 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Unterrichtswesen,  Das  hdhere,  in  den  Ver.  Staaten.  Yon  Dr.  E.  Emerson,  in  der 
Deutschen  Rundschan,  1900. 

Virginia,  History  of  the  German  Element  in,  by  Herm.  Schnricht. 

Wartburg-Kalender  der  evang.-luth.  Synode  von  Iowa  and  anderen  Staaten,  1900- 
1901. 

Washington  and  the  Higher  Education.  An  address  delivered  before  Cornell  Uni¬ 
versity,  Feb.  22,  1888,  by  Charles  Kendall  Adams. 

Wealth,  The  Gospel  of,  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  New  York,  1900. 

Wisconsin,  Higher  Education  in,  by  W.  T.  Allen  and  D.  E.  Spencer.  Bureau 
of  Education,  Circ.  of  Information,  Washington,  1889. 

Yale.  Her  Campus,  Class  Rooms,  and  Athletics,  by  L.  S.  Welch  and  Walker  Camp, 
Boston,  1899. 

Yale  University  Pamphlets,  Collected  at  Columbia  University. 

Yale  University.  Notes  on  the  development  of  instruction  in  the  modern  lan¬ 
guages.  An  address  delivered  bv  Prof.  Gustav  Gruenen. 

PART  I.— HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  historical  development  of  the  study  of  German  is  easily  divided  into  the 
three  following  epochs,  distinguished  by  characteristic  differences: 

I.  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  year  1825. 

II.  From  the  year  1835  to  the  year  1876. 

III.  From  the  year  1876  to  the  close  of  the  century. 

The  first  epoch  is  characterized  by  the  parochial  schools  of  the  German  colonists 
in  the  eighteenth  century  of  the  colonial  period,  by  the  “  first  travels  of  discovery  ’’ 
to  Germany  undertaken  by  wide-awake  Americans  either  for  the  purpose  of  study 
or  to  learn  the  conditions  of  higher  education  in  that  country,  and  finally  by  the 
first  modest  efforts  made  in  different  colleges  to  introduce  German,  all  of  which, 
however,  had  but  a  transient  effect. 

The  second  epoch  begins  with  the  appointment  of  a  German  professor  to  the 
chair  of  modern  languages  in  the  newly  founded  University  of  Virginia  and  the 
important  step  of  permitting  Prof.  Charles  Follen  to  teach  his  mother  tongue  at 
Harvard.  In  the  course  of  fifty  years  nearly  3,000,000  immigrants,  among  them 
thousands  of  men  with  an  academic  education,  came  into  the  country,  using  Ger¬ 
man  as  their  language  in  social  intercourse.  Numerous  German  private  schools 
were  established  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  German  was  introduced 
into  the  public  schools  of  cities  with  a  large  German  population  at  this  time.  The 
best  higher  educational  institutions  of  the  country  began  to  include  German  as  an 
optional  study,  after  educated  Americans  had  become  acquainted  with  German 
educational  methods,  German  literature,  and  German  science,  in  part,  indirectly 
from  France  through  England.  Such  a  condition  of  affairs  was,  in  a  great  meas¬ 
ure  brought  about  by  the  circumstance  that  German  high  schools  were  attended 
longer  and  oftener  by  American  students,  who  enthusiastically  advocated  educa: 
tional  reform  based  mpon  the  German  model. 

The  third  epoch  was  inaugurated  by  the  founding  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Unh 
versity,  which,  from  the  very  beginning,  has  based  its  work  upon  German 
methods  and  given  expression  to  the  fact  that  the  high  educational  value  of  the 
German  language  and  literature  is  at  present  generally  recognized.  Not  only 
have  all  universities  since  founded  followed  the  example  given  in  Baltimore,  but 
older  colleges  are  beginning  their  process  of  change  in  the  same  direction.  For 
admission  to  the  better  colleges  a  certain  knowledge  of  German  has  already 
begun  to  be  required,  and  no  academic  degree  is  now  conferred  unless  candidates 
are  at  least  so  well  acquainted  with  German  as  to  be  able  to  understand,  in  the 
orginal,  the  German  books  and  periodicals  which  they  must  study.  This  latest 
period  of  development  is  by  no  means  concluded;  it  seems  rather  to  be  leading  to 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


539 


the  general  issue  of  raising  German  and  German  literature  to  an  obligatory  ele¬ 
ment  of  “college  education,”  at  the  same  time  effecting  the  introduction  of  Ger¬ 
man  into  all  preparatory  schools  without  exception,  since  within  recent  years  no 
one  is  admitted  to  a  first-class  college  unless  he  possesses  an  elementary  knowl¬ 
edge  of  German. 

I.  From  the  Beginning  of  the  Eighteeenth  Century  to  1825. 

The  German  parochial  schools  in  Pennsylvania,  as  well  as  those  in  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  Virginia,  and  other  British  colonies  in  which  German  colonists  settled  in 
large  numbers  in  the  eighteenth  century,  are  about  as  old  as  the  settlements 
themselves.  Whether  the  immigrants  called  themselves  Pietists,  Mennonites, 
Dunkards,  Moravians,  German  Quakers,  members  of  the  Reformed  Church, 
Lutherans,  or  simply  dissenters,  and  however  great  their  differences  of  opinion  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  may  have  been,  on  one  point  at  least  they  were 
united.  They  all  believed  with  Martin  Luther: 

Burgomasters,  princes,  and  nobles  we  can  dispense  with;  schools  can  not  be 
dispensed  with,  for  they  must  govern  the  world. 

The  colonists  not  only  thought  so,  but  acted  accordingly.  As  soon  as  a  towrn 
was  formed  an  immediate  effort,  as  a  rule,  was  made  to  establish  a  school.  In 
fact,  it  is  stated  in  regard  to  a  Moravian  settlement  in  North  Carolina,  that  the 
founders  of  the  colony  considered  it  their  duty  to  begin  a  building  for  church  and 
school  xiurposes  before  the  homes  of  the  colonists  were  finished.  School  attend¬ 
ance  was  always  considered  as  serious  a  matter  as  the  teaching  of  religion,  which 
was  combined  with  elementary  instruction,  so  that  German  colonies  thus  paved 
the  way  for  compulsory  education. 

American  authors  are  prone  to  underrate  these  German  pioneers,  whom  they 
unjustly  regard  as  thoroughly  rough  and  ignorant  “  German  boors.”  However, 
what  has  been  said  should  suffice  to  establish  a  better  opinion  of  them.  For  the 
most  part  of  course  these  colonists  themselves  had  no  higher  education  than 
what  was  to  be  acquired  in  the  German  village  schools  of  that  time.  Therefore, 
as  a  rule,  they  brought  over  with  them  a  man  who,  as  minister  and  teacher,  repre¬ 
sented  the  movement  of  education.  This  union  of  personality  of  minister  and 
teacher  was  due  to  the  fact  that  formerly  in  Germany  theologians  were  always 
required  to  pass  the  teachers’  examination,  because  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  teachers,  almost  without  exception,  wTere  ministers.  When,  in  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  renowned  German  pedagogue,  August  Her¬ 
mann  Francke,  established  his  first  normal  school  in  Halle,  poor  theological 
students,  in  return  for  board  and  lodging,  at  first  taught  secular  studies  under 
the  direction  and  superintendence  of  school  inspectors. 1 

As  the  clerical  teachers  who  emigrated  to  America  were  in  the  course  of  time 
followed  by  men  who  had  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  higher  education  in  Halle  or  at 
other  German  universities,  the  first  parochial  schools  sometimes  attained  the  level 
of  passably  good  public  schools,  such  as  at  that  time  were  hardly  to  be  found  out¬ 
side  of  New  England,  if  anywhere.  These  schools  were  particularly  important 
for  the  progress  of  culture  in  Pennsylvania,  in  which  State  the  English  Quakers 
did  not  possess  the  same  deep  appreciation  for  the  necessity  of  public  schools  as 
did  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  who  established  Harvard  University  at  a  time  when  the 
whole  of  Massachusetts  contained  not  much  over  5,000  inhabitants  (1688). 

According  to  the  conscientious  researches  of  Oswald  Seidensticker,  the  first 
school  established  by  German  colonists  in  America  was  that  of  Germantown, 
which  was  regularly  attended  after  the  year  1702  by  the  children  of  the  author  of 
the  text-book  Pastorius’s  Primer.  Germantown,  the  German  city  which  now  forms 
a  part  of  Philadelphia— namely,  the  twenty-second  ward — was  founded  in  1688  by 


1  Compare  Paulsen’s  History  of  Scientific  Instruction. 


.540 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


.Francis  Daniel  Pastorius,  the  friend  of  William  Penn.  This  man,  who  was  a  uni¬ 
versal  genius  for  his  time,  deserves  the  greater  praise  for  the  labor  of  teaching  the 
children  in  his  colony  himself,  as  he  was,  undoubtedly,  one  of  the  busiest  men  of 
the  period.  He  was  at  the  same  time  teacher  in  the  English  Quaker  school  in 
Philadelphia,  and  burgomaster,  judge,  and  teacher  in  Germantown.  Besides, 
from  1683  till  his  death,  which  occurred  on  the  27th  of  December,  1719,  he  found 
time  to  write  43  different  works.  Among  them  are  Alvearium,  or  Bee-hive,  a 
kind  of  encyclopedia,  containing  over  5,000  articles  on  history,  geography,  liter¬ 
ature,  and  church  matters,  which  was  designed  to  teach  his  pupils  all  the  German 
learning  that  he  himself  had  imbibed. 

A  most  interesting  illustration  of  the  conception  which  the  noble  Pastorius  him¬ 
self  had  of  his  earthly  mission  to  be  the  actual  founder  of  German  Americanism 
is  found  in  the  Foundation  and  Daybook  of  Germantown,  kept  by  him  while  in 
office.  It  contains  the  following  pathetic  preface,  written  in  Latin. 

Hail!  posterity,  posterity  in  Germanopolis!  Learn  first  of  all  from  the  contents 
of  the  following  pages  that  your  parents  and  forefathers  left  Germany,  the  fair 
land  in  which  they  were  born  and  reared  (oh,  ye  native  hearths!),  for  voluntary 
exile,  in  order  to  pass  the  remainder  of  their  lives  in  the  wilds  of  Pennsylvania,  in 
less  anxious  lonely  isolation  and  in  true  German  fashion;  that  is  to  say,  like 
brothers.  Learn,  too,  how  painful  it  was  to  establish  the  German  name  in  North 
America  after  crossing  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  And  you,  beloved  generation  of  grand¬ 
children,  who  were  to  me  the  paragons  of  right,  imitate  our  example;  but  forgive 
us  for  swerving  from  the  difficult  path,  which  we  willingly  acknowledge  to  have 
done,  and  may  the  dangers  that  threatened  others  make  you  careful.  Farewell, 
posterity!  farewell,  German  nation  of  brothers!  forever  farewell! 

When  he  wrote  those  words,  the  old  student  of  Strassburg,  Basle,  and  Jena  must 
have  borne  the  celebrated  verse  from  the  HCneid  in  mind: 

Tantae  molis  erat  Romanam  condere  gentem. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  he  established  the  “  German- American  ”  name 
a  whole  century  before  the  thought  was  conceived  of  giving  birth  to  a  new  Ameri¬ 
can  nation.  To  the  Germain  immigrants  with  an  academic  education  he  gave  the 
example,  so  often  followed  since  with  more  or  less  success,  how  to  transmit  the 
treasures  of  older  German  civilization  to  the  younger  shoots  of  the  German 
nation,  and  how  to  convert  them  into  active  elements  of  the  new  American  civili¬ 
zation.  Pastorius  rejected  all  pointless  scholastic  knowledge,  and  desired  above 
all  else  to  have  such  learning  disseminated  as  would  be  profitable  to  the  growing 
generation  in  their  later  pursuits  in  life. 

I  myself  would  give  100  rix-dollars  at  once  [he  said  on  one  occasion]  if  I  had 
devoted  the  valuable  time  spent  in  learning  Sperling's  physics,  metaphysics,  and 
other  unnecessary  sophistical  argumentationibus  and  arguitionibus  to  engineering 
and  printing,  which  would  serve  me  better  now  and  would  be  of  more  use  and 
pleasure  to  me  and  my  fellow-Christians  than  such  physics,  metaphysics,  and  all 
Aristotelian  elenchi  and  syllogismi,  by  which  no  savage  or  heathen  is  led  to  God 
and  much  les3  a  piece  of  bread  is  earned. 

Pastorius  attached  great  importance  to  the  practice  of  teaching  children  English, 
the  “country  language,”  as  well  as  German,  the  language  of  their  former  home. 
This  policy  has  been  pursued  by  all  intelligent  German- American  teachers  of  later 
times.  The  Schwenkfeldians,  for  instance,  who  were  among  the  best  teachers  of 
their  times,  published  a  school  order  in  the  year  1764  which  contained  the  follow¬ 
ing  article: 

Concerning  the  useful  sciences  which,  besides  true  knowledge  and  the  fear  of 
God,  shall  be  taught  to  children  in  school,  they  must  begin  with  reading  and  writ¬ 
ing;  as  in  Pennsylvania  two  languages,  particularly,  are  spoken,  children  shall  be 
thoroughly  taught  and  informed  in  the  said  two  languages,  in  speaking  both  as 
well  as  in  reading  and  writing,  as  much  and  as  far  as  is  practicable.1 


1  Accordingly,  arithmetic,  geography  and,  if  possible,  Latin  were  to  be  taught.  Compare  the 
account  of  Learned  in  Americana  Germanica,  II,  No.  2,  p.  74. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


541 


As  early  as  the  year  1708,  the  Mennonites  founded  the  school  at  which  Christo¬ 
pher  Dock,  the  worthy  successor  of  Pastorius,  taught.  He  composed  the  celebrated 
school  order  which  was  published  under  the  following  title:  “A  simple  and  thor¬ 
oughly  prepared  school  order  in  which  it  is  clearly  defined  in  what  way  children 
are  not  only  best  trained  in  the  studies  usually  taught  in  schools,  but  how  they 
may  be  well  instructed  in  righteousness;  written  out  of  love  for  humanity  by 
Christopher  Dock,  an  experienced  teacher  of  long  practice,  and  published  by  sev¬ 
eral  friends  of  the  common  weal.”  Boone  rates  Dock’s  services  so  high  as  to  con¬ 
sider  him  in  a  certain  measure  the  German- American  Pestalozzi.1  Lutherans, 
as  well  as  members  of  the  Reformed  Church,  undoubtedly  established  schools 
before  the  year  1720,  though  definite  facts  can  be  traced  only  from  1720.  Learned 
mentions,  besides,  the  following  German  teachers  during  the  period  from  1720  to 
1740:2  John  Phillip  Brehm,  of  Whitpain,  Montgomery  County;  George  Michael 
Weiss,  a  graduate  of  Heidelberg  University;  George  Stiefel,  of  Tulpehocken,  Berks 
County;  John  Jacob  Hock  and  Kaspar  Leutbecker,  of  Tulpehocken.  Men  like  Muh¬ 
lenberg  and  Schlatter,  who  had  been  students  at  Francke’s  Paedagogium  in  Halle, 
came  later,  and  improved  the  schools.  The  development  of  German  literature  pro¬ 
duced  in  America,  and  including  thousands  of  different  prints,  went  hand  in  hand 
with  this  progress.  The  first  Bible  published  in  the  New  World  appeared  at  that 
time  in  the  German  language,  forty  years  before  an  English  Bible  was  printed  in 
America.3  The  first  printer  who  undertook  to  print  German  works  in  this  country 
was,  strange  to  say,  no  German  but  an  American;  none  other  than  Benjamin 
Franklin.  In  1730  he  printed  (in  Roman  characters)  the  oldest  German- American 
book  extant,  or  at  least  the  oldest  discovered  until  now.4  It  was  printed  by  order 
of  the  monastery  of  Ephrata,  which  established  its  own  printing  office  in  1745,  and 
bore  the  following -bombastic  title: 

‘  ‘  Divine  hymns  of  love  and  praise  that  together  penetrated  the  hearts  of  the  chil¬ 
dren  of  wisdom  and  again  flowed  out  from  them.  Written  out  of  heartfelt  love 
for  the  praise  of  God  and  by  those  followers  of  divine  wisdom  for  their  regenera¬ 
tion  and  encouragement  in  their  cross  and  sorrow.  For  to  be  filled  with  love  gives 
God  the  highest  praise  and  us  the  most  beautiful  inspirations  of  song.  Printed  in 
Philadelphia  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  Market  street,  1730.” 

It  is  a  duodecimo  volume  of  96  pages.5 6  Franklin  afterwards  printed  a  large 
number  of  German  hymn  books,  prayer  books,  and  text-books,  records,  and  also 
a  German  catechism,  until  in  1738  Christopher  Sauer,  the  father,  and  later  on  his 
son  of  the  same  name,  instituted  a  competition  in  this  line  of  business  in  Ger¬ 
mantown.  This  was  more  keenly  felt  as,  to  advertise  his  undertaking,  Sauer  con¬ 
trolled  a  powerful  agency,  having  founded  the  first  German  newspaper,  called 
the  “ Hochdeutscher  pennsylvanischer  Geschichtsschreiber  ”  (German  Historical 
Record  of  Pennsylvania),  which  was  afterwards  changed  to  “ Germantowner 
Zeitung”  (the  Germantown  Paper).  Nevertheless,  Franklin  printed  a  number 
of  German  books,  among  others,  jointly  with  Bohm,  in  the  year  1751,  a  splendid 
edition  of  “Arndt’s  True  Christianity.” 

Seidensticker,  in  fact,  asserts  that  Franklin  himself  was  the  editor  of  the  first 
German- American  newspaper.  In  his  “  German  American  Events,  principally  of 
Pennsylvania,  up  to  1870,”  we  find  the  following  apposite  data: 

1732.  Benjamin  Franklin  proposes  to  issue,  and  probably  issues,  the  Philadel¬ 
phia  Zeitung — first  German  paper  in  America. 

1  Boone,  Education  in  the  United  States.  Dock’s  life  and  services  to  pedagogics  are  given  with 

more  detail  in  Pennypacker’s  Historical  Sketches. 

3  Americana  Germanica,  II,  No.  2,  p.  73. 

3  Zimmermann,  German  in  America,  page  xxiv. 

4  Compare  Seidensticker,  German  Day,  1892,  page  12,  and  Zimmermann,  German  in  America, 

page  xx. 

6  The  only  copy  extant  of  this  remarkable  book  is  in  possession  of  Mr.  Abraham  H.  Cassel, 
Harleysville,  Montgomery  County,  Pa. 


542 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


1755.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Charity  School  Society,  Benjamin  Franklin  and 
Anton  Armbrtister  publish  a  German  newspaper  in  Philadelphia. 

Be  it  as  it  may,  whether  Franklin  was  not  only  a  German-Anierican  printer, 
but  also  the  first  German-American  journalist,  it  serves  our  present  purpose  only 
to  prove  the  fact  that  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  a  man  like  Franklin  paid 
the  greatest  attention  to  German  and  German  literature;  many  other  exception¬ 
ally  convincing  facts  exist. 

Charles  Lee  Smith  estimates  the  number  of  German  immigrants  during  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  have  been  only  80,000,  of  whom  18,000  settled  in 
North  Carolina.1  There  remained,  then,  only  1.2,000  persons  for  the  other  colonies, 
including  New  York  (the  foundation  of  Newburg  on  the  Hudson)  and  Maine  (the 
German  settlement  at  Broad  Bay),  as  objective  points  of  a  large  number  of  immi¬ 
grants  since  the  years  1709  and  1740,  respectively.  That  is  manifestly  much  too 
low  an  estimate.  In  the  year  1749  alone  a  German  traveler  by  the  name  of  Kalm 
saw  25  emigrant  vessels,  with  7,049  German  emigrants  aboard,  arrive  at  Philadel¬ 
phia.  The  authority  accepted  as  most  reliable  on  such  questions,  the  celebrated 
German  geographer,  Christopher  Daniel  Ebeling,  gives  the  population  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  in  the  year  1755  as  200,000  souls,  of  whom  the  half  came  from  Germany.2 
The  governor  of  the  colony,  Thomas,  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  German  element 
formed  even  a  larger  proportion  of  the  population,  for  in  1748  he  wrote  to  the 
bishop  of  Exeter: 

The  Germans  of  that  province  are,  I  believe,  three- fifths  of  the  whole  people,  and 
by  their  industry  and  frugality  have  been  the  principal  instruments  of  raising  it 
to  its  present  flourishing  condition. 

We  understand  from  these  opinions  of  Governor  Thomas  that  he  did  not  allow 
himself  to  be  duped  by  the  Nativists,  but  favored  German  immigration.  His 
predecessor,  Patrick  Gordon,  had  in  1729  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  in  the 
assembly  of  Pennsylvania  providing  that  an  entrance  duty  of  20  shillings  should  be 
pa:d  for  every  Irish  servant,  as  well  as  for  all  “redemptioners,”  40  shillings  for  all 
other  foreigners,  and  £5  for  every  negro.  In  1730,  however,  these  restrictions  were 
revoked  and  such  persons  only  excluded  as  were  incompetent  to  work  or  might 
become  a  burden  to  the  community  for  other  reasons.  Franklin,  and  all  intelli¬ 
gent  citizens  with  him,  maintained  the  point  of  view  that  every  further  restriction 
upon  immigration  would  be  prejudicial.  However,  he  advocated  that  all  new¬ 
comers  should  be  Americanized  in  an  appropriate  manner.  The  best  means  for 
this  end,  as  most  of  the  immigrants  were  Germans,  was  the  introduction  of  Ger¬ 
man  into  American  schools,  and  this  measure  was  promptly  adopted.  Learned 
refers  concisely  to  the  matter  in  the  following  terms:3  “While  the  introduction 
of  the  charity  or  free  school  and  the  ‘  neighborhood  school  ’  naturally  favored  the 
study  of  English  as  the  official  speech  of  the  province,  yet  German  was  retained 
in  the  course  of  study.  And  when  the  school  extended  its  scope  in  the  direction  of 
the  academy,  the  forerunner  of  the  later  college  and  university,  German  still  found 
a  place  among  the  languages  to  be  taught.  Indeed  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
German  instruction  has  been  kept  up  in  Pennsylvania  persistently  from  the  days 
of  Penn  and  Pastorius  to  the  present  time.” 

But  if  that  could  be  proved  as  the  course  of  educational  development  in  this 
State  for  two  hundred  years,  no  one  deserves  a  higher  acknowledgment  than  Ben¬ 
jamin  Franklin.  Soon  after  settling  in  Philadelphia  he  founded  the  “Junto 
Club,”  which  was  incorporated  in  1732,  and  enlarged  to  the  “  Philosophical  Society 
of  Philadelphia”  in  1748.  Again,  in  1749,  this  society  agitated  the  foundation  of 
the  “Public  Academy  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,”  the  same  institution  that,  later 
on,  developed  into  the  present  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


Compare  “History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina.” 

In  his  celebrated  work  on  the  History  and  Geography  of  North  America,  Vol.  IV  p  203. 
Compare  Americana  Germanica,  II,  No.  2,  pp.  74  and  75. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


543 


This--  is  the  first-  American  school  info  which  German  was  introduced.  Franklin 
designed  its  course  of  study  and  recommended  instruction  in  French  and  Ger¬ 
man,  besides  the  language  of  the  country.  This  proposition  was  accepted.  When, 
in  1753-,  the  academy  became  a  college,  the  trustees  decided  to  appoint  Mr.  Wil¬ 
liam  Creamer  as  German  professor.  Mr.  Creamer  filled  the  position  until  1775, 
and  never  had  cause  to-  complain  of  the  want  of  pupils. 

About  this  time  an  event  occurred  which,  strange  enough,  seems  to  have  escaped: 
the  notice  of  Franklin’s  biographers,  but  which  is  an  eloquent  testimony  of  the  keen 
interest  which  this  far-sighted  man  took  in  the-  educational  system  of  Germany.. 
Franklin’s  visit  t3  Gottingen  took  place  in  August,  1766,.  and  justly  created  a  sen¬ 
sation  in  Germany.  As  far  as  we  know,  Benjamin  Franklin  was  the  first  Ameri¬ 
can  who  ever  visited  a  German  uni  versity. 1  He  was  permitted  to  attend  a  session 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  enjoyed  the  distinction  in  Gottingen  due  to  his 
prominent  position. 

Hinsdale,  who  found  out  the  fact  himself  and  made  it  known  to  the  American 
public,  accompanies  it  with  the  following  comment: 

It  is  rather  surprising  to  find  that  the  man  who  is  the  best  embodiment  of  the 
practical  spirit  of  American  philosophy  should  have  been  the  first  American  to 
show  an  interest  in  the  higher  education  of  the  land  of  abstract  thought  and 
science.  It  is  surprising,  also,  to  find  that  nearly  all  the  facts  which  we  possess 
relating  to  the  visit  are  found  in  German  authorities.  In  truth,  I  have  never  been 
able  to  find  the  slightest  allusion  to  the  visit  either  in  Franklin’s  correspondence 
or  in  the  leading  biographies  of  him  that  have  been  published,  although  I  have 
reason  to  think  that,  some  slight  allusions  are  to  be  found  in  these  sources. 

After  what  has  been  said  of  Franklin  a&  a  German  printer  and  publisher  and  his 
recommendation  of  the  introduction  of  German  into  American  schools,  the  reader 
will-  not  be  so  surprised  to  hear  of  his  interest  in  a  German  university,  and  espe¬ 
cially  the  one  which,  in  consequence  of  the  union  of  Hanover  and  England  in  the 
Guelph  dynasty  was,  like  Pennsylvania,  under  English  rule.  The  opinion  seems 
likewise  justifiable  that  the  transformation  of  the  college  in  Philadelphia  to  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,,  begun  soon  after  Franklin’s  return  from  Germany, 
was  in  no  small  measure  due  to  the  account  of  the  impressions  which  Franklin 
received  in  his  ‘•‘travel  of  discovery  ”  to  Gottingen. 

But  even  if  this  opinion  be  untenable,  the  event  is  of  great  importance  for 
American  civilization,,  as  such  American  travels  of  discovery  were  until  then 
mostly  a  cause  of  wonder,  somewhat  like  the  expeditions  for  the  exploration  of 
the  interior  of  Africa,  or  the.  discovery  of  the  North  Pole.  The  latter  expeditions, 
however,  were  directed  to  savage  or  little  civilized  districts,  whilst  the  former 
established  the  line  of  communication  with  a  center  of  the  highest  civilization, 
and  this  connection  was  calculated  to  exert  a  most  beneficial  influence  on  the 
American  mind,  especially  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  With¬ 
out  Franklin,  whose  visit,  we  shall  soon  see,  encouraged  the  first  Pennsylvania 
students  to  attend  Gottingen,2  totally  unknown  in  America  at  that  time,  there 
would  have  been  no  American  “  Gottingen  men,”  who-  were  so  prominent  in 
bringing  on  the  final  issue,  and  of  whom  the  American  ambassador  in  Berlin, 
Andrew  D.  White,  spoke  so  admirably  in  his  last  Thanksgiving  Day  speech.3 
Among  other  things,  he  said: 

Although  Great  Britain  is  generally  honored  as  the  mother  of  the  United  States, 
Germany  ha,s,  from  an  intellectual  standpoint,  become  more  and  more  the  second 
mother  of  the  United  States.  More  than  any  other  country,  Germany  has  made 
the  universities  and  colleges  of  America  what  they  are  to-day — a  powerful  force  in 
the  development  of  American  civilization. 


1  Compare  Hinsdale,  Foreign  Influence  upon  Education,  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  for  the  year  1897-68-,  Vol.  1.  The  text  of  the  detailed  account  of  the  visit  can,  of 
course,,  not  he  repeated  here,,  hut  is:  to  he  recommended  for  close  study. 

2  Compare  Hinsdale,  page  697. 

3  According  to  the-  reports  of  both  German  and  American  newspapers. 


544 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


A  long  time,  it  is  true,  was  to  intervene  before  German  influence  was  felt,  as 
Mr.  White  declared  it  has  been.  In  the  beginning  it  seemed  almost  as  though  it 
would  take  America  by  storm.  According  to  the  new  charter  of  1779  of  the  insti¬ 
tute  of  Pennsylvania,  the  six  chief  churches  in  Philadelphia,  namely,  the  Episcopal, 
the  Presbyterian,  the  Baptist,  the  Lutheran,  the  German  Calvinist,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic,  selected  their  own  chapter  among  the  three  of  which  the  board  of  trus¬ 
tees  was  composed.  They  appointed  two  of  the  most  prominent  German  minis¬ 
ters  of  the  city,  John  Christopher  Kunze  and  Kaspar  Weiberg,  as  trustees. 
Owing  to  the  influence  of  these  two  men,  the  following  remarkable  resolution  was 
passed  on  January  10, 1780:  “A  German  professor  of  philosophy  shall  be  appointed, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  teach  Latin  and  Greek  by  means  of  the  German  lan¬ 
guage  in  the  academy  as  well  as  in  the  present  university.”  One  of  the  proposers 
of  this  measure,  Kunze,  considered  the  most  eminent  teacher  of  his  time  in 
America,  was  elected  to  fill  the  position  and  contemplated  making  the  new  uni¬ 
versity,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  “Gottingen”  of  America,  which  was  to  be  the 
intermediary  between  German  and  American  education. 

Kunze,  whose  literary  merit  Learned  has  minutely  discussed,1  had  made  an 
attempt  as  early  as  1773  to  establish  a  kind  of  German  “normal  seminary.”  The 
following  statement,  written  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  is  still  in  existence: 

Since  my  stay  in  Klosterburg  I  have  always  felt  a  special  desire  to  be  connected 
with  a  school  in  which  languages  and  the  sciences  would  be  taught.  All  my  other 
affairs  have  done  so  little  to  repress  this  within  me  that,  on  the  contrary,  I  have 
always  rather  entertained  the  thought  sometime  *  *  *  to  establish  a  like  insti¬ 
tute  among  the  Germans  here.  *  *  *  In  the  beginning  of  the  new  year  1773  a 
student  of  Halle  came  to  us,  who  had  given  up  law,  become  a  soldier,  and  finally 
taught  a  long  time  in  St.  Thomas.  He  is  looking  for  a  position,  and  presented  cer¬ 
tificates  from  the  University  of  Halle.  *  *  *  It  seemed  strange  to  me  that  the 
day  before  my  candidate,  Mr.  Leps,  was  announced  the  thought  came  to  me:2  If  I 
should  ever  come  in  possession  of  £20,  I  would  buy  the  first  German  student  who 
would  land  on  these  shores  in  debt  for  his  passage,  put  him  in  my  uppermost  room, 
begin  a  small  Latin  school,  teach  myself  during  the  morning  hours,  and  then  let 
my  servant  teach  for  me  and  charge  a  small  tuition  fee.  *  *  * 

Meanwhile  Mr.  Leps  was  not  in  debt,  and,  besides,  had  a  small  sum  of  money, 
sufficient  to  support  him  for  a  few  months.  I  advised  him  to  open  a  Latin  school, 
promised  to  help  him  in  the  undertaking,  and  wrote  out  the  following  for  him  on 
a  sheet  of  paper: 

“A  few  promoters  of  the  true  welfare  of  the  German  nation  in  America  con¬ 
template  forming  a  society  to  be  entitled:  ‘  The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  and  all  Useful  Knowledge  among  Germans  in  America.’” 

The  required  24  subscribers  were  found,  each  contributing  £10  (^50).  These 
founders  enjoyed  free  instruction;  the  others  were  obliged  to  pay.  Three  classes 
were  formed,  and  the  work  was  begun  with  energy.  “  This  school,”  says  Learned, 
“seems  to  represent  the  first  attempt  to  introduce  strictly  academic  instruction 
among  the  Germans  in  America,  and  transferred  the  influence  of  Francke’s 
pedagogical  institute  in  Halle  to  American  soil.  ” 

The  worth  of  this  small  private  school,  which  proudly  bore  the  title  of  “  Ger¬ 
man  seminary,”  has  perhaps  been  overestimated,  as  Mr.  Leps,  the  teacher,  had 
received  no  seminary  education  himself;  still  the  success  of  his  first  pedagogical 
effort  encouraged  Professor  Kunze  to  further  action  in  this  direction.  He  was 
an  influential  member  of  the  “  German  society,”  founded  in  1764,  for  the  protec¬ 
tion  of  German  immigrants,  which  applied  to  the  assembly  in  1780  or  1781  for  a 
charter.  In  their  petition  the  members,  prompted  by  Kunze,  declared: 

That  they  contemplate  extending  their  original  institution,  and  applying  a 
portion  of  the  money  in  their  hands  and  what  would  be  received  in  the  future  to 
other  charitable  purposes,  as,  for  instance,  the  instructing  of  poor  children  in  Ger¬ 
man  as  well  as  in  English,  and  in  reading  and  writing,  and  obtaining  for  them  the 


1  In  his  speech  of  March  21, 1896,  at  the  dedication  of  the  Bechstein  library  in  Philadelphia. 

2  The  following  explains  what  was  at  that  time  understood  by  redemptioners;  i.  e.,  poor  immi¬ 
grants  whose  services  were  sold  for  a  stipulated  period  to  pay  the  expense  of  their  passage. 


GEBMAN  INSTBUCTION  IN  AMEBICAN  SCHOOLS. 


545 


instruction  and  education  for  which  they  may  be  best  adapted,  placing  those  who 
excel  in  the  position  to  complete  their  studies  at  the  university  established  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia;  moreover,  that  they  intend  to  found  a  library  and,  besides,  do 
more  that  they  can  undertake  with  a  charitable  purpose,  without  prejudice  to 
other  residents  of  the  State,  for  the  help  and  welfare  of  their  compatriots. 

The  charter  granted  more  than  these  petitioners  asked;  it  imposed  the  obligation 
on  the  society  to  attain  these  purposes  by  their  action.1 

But  excepting  a  few  successful  efforts  nothing  was  achieved,  on  account  of  the 
same  adversity  of  circumstances  which,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  led  to  the 
decline  of  the  ‘ '  German  Institute,  ”  the  official  name  given  to  the  ‘ £  German  division  ” 
established  at  the  university  under  the  auspices  of  Kunze.  The  “  German  Soci¬ 
ety  ”  furnished  the  means  for  many  students  to  study  German  and  other  scien¬ 
tific  branches  at  the  university.  In  the  year  1784  Kunze  accepted  an  invitation 
to  the  “Columbia  University,”  in  New  York,  where  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
oriental  languages,  as  at  that  time  a  German  professor,  John  Daniel  Gross,  S.  T.  D. , 
had  already  been  appointed  for  the  years  1784-1795. 2 

Reverend  Justus  Henry  Christian  Helmuth  succeeded  Kunze  in  Philadelphia, 
and  was  so  decided  upon  promoting  the  study  of  German  that  he  made  a  most 
earnest  appeal  to  the  “German  Society  ”  to  give  an  annual  prize,  a  gold  medal, 
for  the  best  composition  on  a  given  theme,  allowing  every  lover  of  the  German 
language  in  America  and  Europe  to  compete.  The  first  theme  was  to  be:  “How 
can  the  preservation  and  extension  of  German  in  Pennsylvania  be  best  effected?” 

The  petition  received  as  little  consideration  as  an  article  in  the  Philadelphia 
Correspondenz  of  1787,  which  recommended  the  founding  of  public  schools  in 
which  German  should  be  taught.  Helmuth  enjoyed  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the 
“  institute  ”  decidedly  prosperous  under  his  direction.  In  his  annual  report  for 
1785  he  could  proudly  assert  the  fact  that  the  attendance  of  the  “institute”  had 
risen  to  60.  At  the  “  actus  oratorius  ”  the  young  men  acquitted  themselves  bril¬ 
liantly  in  a  number  of  German  recitations,  and  in  the  representation  of  a  scene  in 
which  several  children  from  the  country  go  to  school  and  there,  for  the  first  time, 
learn  something  of  the  world  in  studying  German.  At  the  same  time,  the  stu¬ 
dents  were  so  well  posted  in  current  German  literature  that  they  were  already 
acquainted  with  Lessing’s  “Nathan,”  for  instance,  which  had  appeared  only  in 
1779.  Perhaps  the  very  circumstance  that  the  “institute”  was  so  prosperous 
exerted  a  prejudicial  influence  for  the  cause  of  German.  In  the  year  1786  a  num¬ 
ber  of  German  citizens  of  the  State  manifested  opposition  to  the  “institute”  by 
founding  “  Franklin  College.”  On  the  occasion  of  the  one  hundredth  anniversary, 
in  1891,  of  the  institution  now  known  as  Franklin  Marshall  College,  Provost  Pepper 
made  the  following  most  noteworty  statements  concerning  the  participation  of 
the  aged  Franklin  in  this  undertaking: 

For  a  long  time  he  had  taken  great  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  Germans,  who 
formed  the  bulk  of  the  population  in  some  parts  of  Pennsylvania.  He  aided  in 
the  establishment  of  schools  for  them,  and  served  as  a  trustee  of  a  society  for  the 
benefit  of  the  poor  among  them,  and  in  1787,  although  in  his  eighty-first  year,  he 
was  active  in  the  promotion  of  the  long-cherished  scheme  of  founding  a  college 
for  the  education  of  young  Germans.  On  March  10  of  that  year— 1787 — an  act 
was  passed  by  the  assembly  incorporating  and  endowing  the  German  College  and 
Charity  School  in  the  borough  and  county  of  Lancaster,  in  which  act  it  is  recited 
that  ‘  ‘  the  college  is  established  for  the  instruction  of  youth  in  the  German,  English, 
Latin,  Greek,  and  other  learned  languages,  in  theology,  and  in  the  useful  arts, 
sciences,  and  literature.”  The  same  act  of  incorporation  states  that,  “from a  pro¬ 
found  respect  for  the  talents,  virtues,  and  services  to  mankind  in  general,  but  more 
especially  to  this  country,  of  his  excellency  Benjamin  Franklin,  esq.,  president  of 

1  Act  of  incorporation,  page  8  in  Seidensticker’s  History  of  the  German  Society  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  page  180. 

2  Columbia  University  Bulletin,  March,  1897. 


ed  1901- — 35 


546 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


supreme  executive  council,  the  said  college  shall  be,  and  hereby  is,  denominated 
Franklin  College.  ”  Franklin  was  the  largest  contributor  to  its  funds,  giving  of  his 
moderate  fortune  the  sum  of  $1,000,  which  may  be  considered  large  for  thosedays; 
and  still  more  when,  in  the  spring  of  1787  the  corner  stone  was  to  be  laid  in  Lan¬ 
caster,  he  underwent  the  pain  and  fatigue  of  a  journey  thither  in  order  to  perform 
that  ceremony. 

The  long  list  of  deeds  by  which  Benjamin  Franklin  proved  himself  an  excellent 
patriot  and  likewise  a  warm  friend  of  the  Germans  closes  in  a  brilliant  climax  by 
this  undoubtedly  authentic  representation  of  his  participation  in  the  foundation 
of  the  first  German  college.  Unfortunately,  neither  the  zeal  of  Germans  such  as 
Helmuth,  nor  the  commendable  example  of  so  eminent  an  American  as  Franklin, 
could  delay  the  downfall  of  German  in  Pennsylvania  for  many  years.  As  early 
as  1787  the  German  “institute,”  whose  attendance  had  diminished  to  6,  was 
abolished;  Professor  Helmuth,  however,  was  permitted  to  retain  his  position  as 
professor  of  German, 

The  misfortune  [Learned  remarks  on  these  events]  did  not  lie  in  the  founding 
of  “Franklin  College”  by  the  Germans,  but  in  the  division  of  the  forces  in  the 
State  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  suppression  of  the  prosperous  German  institute  in 
Philadelphia  on  the  other;  by  the  premature  formation  of  a  German  college  in 
the  central  part  of  the  State  at  a  time  when  not  sufficient  interest  was  manifested 
for  the  support  of  German  education  in  the  country.  If  the  German  institute  of 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  had  been  continued  a  quarter  of  a  century  longer, 
and  if  “Franklin  College”  had  been  founded  on  ground  thus  prepared  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  a  strong  current  of  German  culture  setting  toward  Philadelphia,  the 
history  of  both  institutes,  the  “  University  of  Pennsylvania,”  as  well  as  “  Frank¬ 
lin  College,”  would  have  left  decidedly  more  noticeable  traces  in  the  annals  of  the 
young  Republic. 

But,  as  matters  took  their  course,  neither  “  Franklin  College  ”  nor  the  “Uni¬ 
versity”  fulfilled  their  educational  purposes.  The  so-promising  cooperation  of 
German  and  English  civilization  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  during  the 
time  when  Kunze  and  Helmuth  taught  there  was  suspended  for  nearly  a  century. 
The  scion  of  German  learning  took  root  again  in  the  cool  soil  of  New  England, 
and  then  only  in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

This  first  phase  of  the  development  of  German  instruction  in  America  led  to 
the  attendance  of  the  first  American  student  at  a  German  university — Benjamin 
Smith  Barton.  At  the  age  of  21  he  was  a  student  at  the  university  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  when  the  event  occurred  of  Franklin’s  visit  to  his  home — Lancaster — to  lay 
the  corner  stone  of  Franklin  College.  Such  an  event  was  calculated  to  make  a 
deep  impression  upon  a  highly  gifted,  intellectual,  and  industrious  young  man, 
and  so  he  decided  to  spend  a  number  of  years  in  Europe  to  apply  himself  to  the 
studies  of  medicine  and  the  sciences.  He  studied  in  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Got¬ 
tingen.  At  the  last-mentioned  university  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
medicine,  in  1799.  Returning  to  America,  Dr.  Barton  occupied  a  prominent  posi¬ 
tion  in  Philadelphia.  Previous  to  his  death,  which  occurred  in  the  year  1815,  he 
wrote  a  number  of  scientific  works  that  have  given  him  a  place  in  the  annals  of 
American  civilization.1 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  influence  of  German  civilization  in  America 
suddenly  suffered  so  decided  an  interruption  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century  was  the  struggle  for  independence  that  continued  for  so  many 
years,  and,  in  fact,  ceased  only  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  England,  in  1812. 
Inter  arma  silent  leges!  Even  schools  can  seldom  continue  their  peaceful  work 
of  civilization  undisturbed.  Many  colleges,  as  the  Columbia,  in  New  York,  from 
1778  to  1784,  were  obliged  to  close  their  halls  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  whilst 
others  were  altogether  abolished.  Kunze’s  German  Seminary,  of  Philadelphia, 
was  among  the  schools  swept  away  by  the  storms  of  revolution,  whereas  the  Ger- 


1 A  sketch  of  Barton’s  life  is  contained,  in  Vol.  I  of  Appleton’s  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biogra 
phy.  Hinsdale  accords  him  the  honor  (ibid.,  p.  607,)  of  being  the  first  American  to  receive  an 
academic  degree  at  a  German  institution. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS.  54-7 

man  College,  of  Lancaster,  gradually  sacrificed  its  character  as  a  German  educa¬ 
tional  institution  par  excellence. 

Why  German  influence  was  so  much  less  predominant  in  general  after  the 
peace  of  1783  than  the  French,  which  then  predominated  for  a  long  time,  is  easily 
explained  by  historical  events.  Lafayette  and  the  French  had  taken  just  as  active 
a  part  in  the  foundation  of  the  republic  as  the  29,166  Hessian,  Brunswick,  and 
other  German  soldiers  in  opposition  to  it.  The  fact  was  not  generally  known  that 
these  tools  of  England  were  only  the  victims  of  degenerate  petty  despots  who 
were  forced  to  turn  their  arms  against  the  Americans  and  even  occasionally  went 
over  to  their  side.  Readers  are  used  in  the  schools  of  the  present  day  which 
record  only  the  fact  that  at  that  time  German  princes  sold  their  soldiers  in 
America  in  order  to  crush  rising  liberty  there.  Not  one  word,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  mentioned  concerning  Frederick  the  Great’s  friendly  attitude  toward  the  young 
republic  or  the  part  which  German- Americans  have  a  right  to  claim  in  the  patri¬ 
otic  events.  For  the  sake  of  historical  truth  the  fact  should  not  be  passed  over  in 
silence  that  American  generals  included  men  like  the  inspector-general  of  the 
Army,  Baron  von  Steuben,  General  De  Kalb,  and  General  Nicholas  Herkimer, 
the  victor  of  Oriskany;  moreover,  Germans  like  Rev.  Peter  G.  Muhlenberg,  who 
formed  an  entirely  German  regiment,  were  found  on  the  American  side.  George 
Bancroft  and  all  other  great  American  historians  render  full  justice  to  the  Ger¬ 
mans,  but  the  public  at  large  are  as  ignorant  of  the  conditions  of  the  case  as,  pre¬ 
sumably,  even  the  educated  are  of  Benjamin  Franklin’s  attitude  to  the  German 
nationality,  as  explained  above. 

Another  reason  why  German  influence  declined  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 
18th  and  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century  was  the  decrease  of  the  num¬ 
ber  of  immigrants  from  German  countries.  According  to  the  calculations  of  J. 
Blodget  and  the  statements  given  in  Seibert’s  statistical  annals,  the  whole  immi¬ 
gration  during  this  time  did  not  exceed  4,000  to  6,000  persons  a  year  whenever  the 
blockades  of  the  harbors  during  the  wars  admitted  of  any  maritime  intercourse. 
Immigration  to  any  great  extent  was  resumed  only  in  the  year  1817.  In  that  year 
there  were  22,240  immigrants,  among  whom  few  Germans  were  to  be  found.  At 
all  events,  in  the  year  mentioned  only  3,102  Germans  and  Swiss  came  to  Pennsyl. 
vania,  where,  in  the  meantime,  the  exceedingly  friendly  attitude  which  Franklin 
had  maintained  had  been  laid  aside,  and,  instead,  measures  had  been  taken  that 
tended  to  a  less  considerate  Americanization  of  German  colonists.  Thus,  for 
instance,  the  attempt  was  made  to  oblige  Germans  to  anglicize  their  family  names, 
a  proceeding  that  explains  the  fact  that  in  the  State  which  originally  showed  the 
largest  percentage  of  German  residents,  German  names  are  comparatively  weakly 
represented,  and  that  sometimes  families  which  have  good  reason  to  be  numbered 
among  German  Americans  bear  a  name  which  gives  no  sign  of  a  German  origin, 
for  instance,  the  Pennypacker  family.  The  determination  to  require  German  immi¬ 
grants  against  their  will  to  relinquish  at  once  their  nationality,  instead  of  assimilat¬ 
ing  them  gradually  in  an  appropriate  way,  has,  fortunately,  been  now  completely 
set  aside.  No  one  has  opposed  it  more  decidedly  and  instead  emphatically  recom¬ 
mended  the  introduction  of  German  instruction  in  public  schools  than  Dr.  W.  T. 
Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  in  his  lecture  on  “German 
Instruction  in  American  schools  and  the  national  idiosyncracies  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  the  Germans,”  delivered  in  Cleveland,  July  16,  1890.  As  the  most 
noteworthy  remarks  of  Dr.  Harris  have  by  no  means  become  as  well  known  as  the 
interests  of  educational  progress  demand,  a  short  extract  from  them  will  not  be 
out  of  place  here. 

The  speaker  based  the  appropriateness  of  the  introduction  of  German  instruc¬ 
tion  in  public  schools  on  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  citizens  who  have  come 
from  Germany  desire  to  have  their  children  know  their  native  language  and 


548  EDUCATION  REPOBT,  1900-1901. 

should  find  the  best  means  of  satisfying  this  just  desire  in  the  public  schools  of 
the  country. 

It  will  contribute  to  raise  the  number  of  German  immigrants,  and  at  the  same 
time  “Americanize  ”  them,  if  they  are  taught  in  public  schools  to  be  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  American  institutions  and  to  sympathize  with  them. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  immigrants  should  be  educated  in  the  best 
institutions  of  the  country  and  be  “Americanized”  in  the  spirit  of  our  free  intel¬ 
ligence;  otherwise  they  will,  most  assuredly,  be  “Americanized”  by  the  worst 
forms  of  our  political  corruption.  That  is  the  alternative  before  which  we  stand 
which  leaves  us  no  free  choice.  For  if  we  do  not  ‘  ‘Americanize  ”  our  immigrants 
by  giving  them  a  part  in  the  best  accomplishments  of  our  civilization  and  main¬ 
tain  an  active  intellectual  intercourse  with  them,  they  will  rather  contribute  to 
the  degeneration  of  our  community  and,  in  this  way,  de- Americanize  or  even 
directly  undermine— our  national  life. 

The  author  then  referred  to  his  own  experiences  while  superintendent  of 
schools  in  St.  Louis,  where  he  introduced  German  to  the  greatest  extent,  and 
closed  the  first  part  of  his  lecture  with  the  following  noteworthy  remarks: 

For  a  long  time  after  immigration  the  immigrants  keep  a  relation  with  their 
kindred  in  the  mother  country.  Our  population  in  the  Northwestern  States  keeps 
up  correspondence  and  recognizes  the  family  ties  that  exist  with  the  people  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Germany  and  the  Atlantic  States.  No  difficulty  is 
experienced  by  the  Anglo-American  settler  among  us  in  this  matter.  But  the 
German- American  is  obliged  to  learn  two  languages.  For  if  his  children  learn 
English  only,  there  must  be  a  too  sudden  and  abrupt  breaking  off  the  continuity 
of  race  and  a  consequent  great  evil  wrought  upon  his  character.  The  conscious¬ 
ness  of  the  history  of  one’s  ancestry  and  the  influences  derived  from  communica¬ 
tion  with  the  oldest  members  of  one’s  family  are  very  potent  in  giving  tone  to  the 
individuality  of  youth  and  ripening  age.  This  continuity  of  history  is  a  kind  of 
solid,  substantial  ground  for  the  individual,  and  from  its  soil  spring  up  his  self- 
respect  and  aspiration. 

A  class  of  immigrants  who  had  no  desire  to  preserve  a  relation  with  their  family 
stock  would  bring  calamity  upon  the  community  into  which  they  come. 

The  best  Germans  in  America  have  always  manifested  the  highest  degree  of 
patriotism  toward  their  adopted  country.  The  Utopian  idea  of  founding  their 
own  “state  within  the  state”  had  comparatively  few  adherents,  and  these  were 
soon  converted  to  a  sensible  view  by  the  logic  of  facts.1  This  is  best  shown  by 
the  distinguished  German  author,  Julius  Frobel,  who  states  in  direct  terms2  that 
Anglo-American  thought  does  and  must  ever  exercise  a  governing  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  United  States. 

Now,  by  fusing  itself  with  this  ruling  thought  and  exerting  its  own  influence 
upon  it,  the  German  element  can  participate  and  continue  to  participate  in  the 
great  advantages  of  the  extraordinary  results  of  American  civilization.  The  Ger¬ 
man  spirit  in  America  can  receive  its  just  due  only  by  fusion  with  the  American. 
For  it  is  inherent  in  the  nature  of  idealism  that  it  can  only  be  effective  in  the  world 
through  realism. 

Those  who  landed  in  America  with  the  chimerical  notion  of  founding  a  distinct 
German  community  built,  for  instance, the  cities  of  Hermann,  in  Missouri  (1837), 
New  Braunfels,  in  Texas  (1839),  and  New  Ulm,  in  Minnesota  (1855),  all  of  which 
have  become  flourishing  centers  of  American  civilization.  The  citizens  of  this 
country  who  have  emigrated  from  Germany  have  fully  understood  that  they  have 
become  Americans,  and  must  allow  that  fact  preeminence  in  deciding  their  atti¬ 
tude  toward  any  question  affecting  the  public  good  of  America.  They  have  an 
excellent  example  for  their  course  of  action  in  the  French  Huguenots  who  emi¬ 
grated  to  Germany  centuries  ago,  and  have  clung  as  tenaciously  to  their  mother 
tongue  as  to  their  religion.  As  many  bloody  conflicts  have  since  been  fought 
between  the  two  neighboring  nations,  these  “refugees”  have  never  allowed  them- 

xThe  political  Utopias  of  German  missionaries  are  briefly  sketched  in  a  comprehensive  work 
in  Americana  Germanica,  Vol.  I,  part  2,  by  Dr.  T.  S.  Baker. 

2  Julius  Frobel,  German  Emigration,  page  123. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS.  549 

selves  to  be  surpassed  in  patriotism  even  by  those  Germans  whose  forefathers  may 
have  fought  against  the  Romans  in  the  Teutoburgerwald. 

The  patriotism  of  German- Americans  was  proved  beyond  a  doubt  during  the 
critical  times  of  the  Revolution.  Michael  Hillegas 1  (of  German  parentage)  was 
the  first  treasurer  of  the  United  Colonies  in  1775,  and  subsequently  of  the  United 
States  until  1787.  F.  A.  Muhlenberg  was  in  1787  president  of  the  Pennsylvania 
convention  that  ratified  the  Constitution,  and  in  1789  was  Speaker  of  the  First 
Congress.  Thus,  the  Germans  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  development  of 
public  law  in  the  Republic.  In  all  probability  no  blame  attaches  to  them  for  the 
failure  of  the  ingenious'  plan  of  George  W ashington  to  organize  education  for  the 
sake  of  the  Union  and  for  this  purpose  to  found  a  national  university  in  the  Fed¬ 
eral  city,  “embracing  all  the  advantages  of  European  tuition.” 2  As  we  have  seen, 
they  attached  the  greatest  importance  to  the  education  of  the  people,  and  were 
willing  to  erect  the  proud  structure  of  liberty  upon 'this  rock. 

After  the  favorable  opportunity  of  making  the  education  of  the  people  a 
national  affair  had  thus  been  missed,  the  separate  States  were  compelled  to  give 
their  attention  to  retrieve  at  once  what  the  colonial  governments  for  the  most 
part  had  neglected.  The  proceedings  in  Virginia  in  this  regard  are  of  particular 
interest.  William  and  Mary  College,  the  second  oldest  in  the  country,  had  been 
in  existence  since  1693.  Influenced,  probably,  by  the  circumstance  that  relations 
with  Europe  were  becoming  constantly  more  active,  it  had  introduced  instruction 
in  French  at  an  early  period.  Thomas  Jefferson,  who,  as  we  know,  spent  some 
time  in  Paris,  supported  the  plan  of  Chevalier  Quesnay  de  Beaurepaire  to  establish 
a  “French  academy  of  the  arts  and  sciences”  in  Richmond,  with  branches  in  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  When  this  undertaking  failed  for  want  of 
capital,  he  for  a  time  cherished  the  odd  idea  “  of  removing  bodily  to  Virginia  the 
entire  faculty  of  the  Swiss  College  of  Geneva,  which  was  thoroughly  French  in 
its  form  of  culture.”  This  proposition,  however,  met  with  little  response  from 
the  practical  Americans.  European  institutions  can  not  be  directly  transplanted 
to  America.  They  only  belong  there  if,  and  in  so  far  as,  they  can  be  adapted  to 
the  totally  dissimilar  American  conditions.  Had  the  idea  been  realized,  it  would 
surely  have  helped  to  broaden  the  gulf  that  later  on  separated  the  North  andjthe 
South.  One  of  the  most  prominent  of  Jefferson’s  biographers  pertinently  remarks 
concerning  this  incident:  “Nothing  is  so  enduring  when  once  established  as  forms 
of  culture.  If  French  ideas  had  really  penetrated  Virginian  society  they  would 
have  become  as  dominant  in  the  South  as  German  ideas  are  now  becoming  in  the 
State  universities  and  school  systems  of  the  Northwest.”  The  penetration  of  the 
great  statesman  was  manifested  in  that  he  clearly  discerned  one  of  the  main  defi¬ 
ciencies  of  American  education,  that  the  habit  of  speaking  the  modern  languages 
can  not  be  well  acquired  in  America.3  W e  shall  see  later  on  that  by  the  foundation 
of  the  State  University  of  Virginia  he  found  the  right  way  to  supply  the  deficiency, 
at  least  for  Virginia.  To  estimate  his  other  extraordinary  services  to  American 
education  would  be  out  of  place  here.  To  follow  the  development  of  education  in 
the  separate  States  would  also  lead  us  beyond  our  intended  scope. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  but  that  the  proceedings  in  Massachusetts,  par¬ 
ticularly  at  Harvard  College,  were  of  the  very  greatest  importance  for  the  subse¬ 
quent  definite  introduction  of  German  into  the  curriculum  of  American  schools. 
At  a  time  when  German  parochial  schools  were  just  beginning  to  be  called  into 
existence  in  Pennsylvania,  Cotton  Mather  had  already  placed  himself  in  direct 
communication  with  Professor  Francke,  in  Halle,  and  conducted  a  regular  cor- 

1  German-American  Events,  page  19. 

2  Compare  Charles  Kendall  Adams,  Washington  and  the  Higher  Education,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,1888. 

3  Compare  Hinsdale’s  article  on  “  Education  in  the  United  States,”  in  the  New  American  Sup¬ 
plement  of  the  latest  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Vol.  II,  page  1118. 


550 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


respondence  with  him  during  the  years  1709  to  1724. 1  A  result  of  this  inter¬ 
course  was  that  Mather  published  a  comprehensive  account  of  Francke’s  works, 
and  that  New  England  theologians  consequently  showed  themselves  favorably 
inclined  toward  German  ideas.  It  would  require  a  whole  volume,  Hinsdale 
asserts,  to  give  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  influence  of  German  studies  upon 
American  theology.2  For  the  purpose  of  this  review  it  is  sufficient  to  state  that 
these  men  were  obliged  to  acquire  the  knowledge  of  German.  Naturally,  this 
reacted  upon  all  those  who  were  influenced  by  these  pioneers  of  the  study  of  Ger¬ 
man.  Thus,  Prof.  Moses  Stuart  brought  over  German  theology  and  philology  to 
Andover.  James  Marsh,  born  in  Vermont  in  1794,  and  president  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Vermont,  was  one  of  his  pupils.  It  was  he  who  became  acquainted  with 
Kant’s  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  and  brought  the  first  knowledge  of  it  into 
America.  Through  his  influence  the  “  Coleridgians  ”  became  acquainted  with 
each  other.3  By  this  term  the  disciples  of  Coleridge  are  meant.  Since  1780.it  had 
been  the  custom  for  the  most  prominent  English  authors  to  make  a  trip  to  Ger¬ 
many,  visit  Goethe,  and  then  try  to  make  the  treasures  of  German  classic  litera¬ 
ture  accessible  to  their  compatriots.  Among  them  were  William  Taylor,  of 
Norwich,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Walter  Scott,  and  Carlyle.  However,  their 
influence  was  probably  greater  over  the  inquisitive  American  mind  than  over  their 
own  compatriots,  since  from  that  time  a  steadily  increasing  interest  in  German 
literature  and  science  was  manifest.  Owing  to  this  interest,  Edward  Everett 
and  George  Ticknor  became  the  first  two  New  England  students  of  Gottingen, 
which  they  attended  from  1815  to  1817.  The  latter  himself  states  that  his  motives 
for  going  were  suggested  by  the  reading  of  Mme.  de  Stael’s  celebrated  book  on 
Germany,  a  pamphlet  on  Gottingen,  and  the  verbal  accounts  of  an  Englishman.4 

In  consequence  of  increased  intercourse,  the  channels  through  which  German 
influence  made  itself  felt  were  manifold.  Ticknor’s  account  of  the  difficulties 
which  he  was  required  to  overcome  to  gain  the  necessary  rudimentary  knowledge 
are  highly  interesting.  He  relates  the  following: 

The  first  intimation  I  ever  had  on  the  subject  was  from  Mme.  de  Stael's  work  on 
Germany,  then  just  published.  My  next  came  from  a  pamphlet,  published  by 
Villers,  to  defend  the  University  of  Gottingen  from  the  ill  intentions  of  Jerome 
Bonaparte,  the  King  of  Westphalia,  in  which  he  gave  a  sketch  of  the  university 
and  its  courses  of  study.  My  astonishment  at  these  revelations  was  increased  by 
an  account  of  its  library,  given  by  an  Englishman  who  had  been  at  Gottingen,  to 
my  friend,  the  Rev.  Samuel  C.  Thacker.  I  was  sure  that  I  should  like  to  study 
at  such  a  university,  but  it  was  in  vain  that  I  endeavored  to  get  further  knowl¬ 
edge  upon  the  subject.  I  would  gladly  have  prepared  for  it  by  learning  the  lan¬ 
guage  I  should  have  to  use  there,  but  there  was  no  one  in  Boston  who  could  teach 
me. 

At  Jamaica  Plain  there  was  a  Dr.  Brosius,  a  native  of  Strasburg,  who  gave 
instruction  in  mathematics.  He  was  willing  to  do  what  he  could  for  me  in  Ger¬ 
man,  but  he  warned  me  that  his  pronunciation  was  very  bad,  as  was  that  of  all 
Alsace,  which  had  become  a  part  of  France.  Nor  was  it  possible  to  get  books. 
I  borrowed  a  Meidinger's  Grammar,  French  and  German,  from  my  friend  Mr. 
Everett,  and  sent  to  New  Hampshire,  where  I  knew  there  was  a  German  diction¬ 
ary,  and  procured  it.  I  also  obtained  a  copy  of  Goethe's  Werther  in  German 
(through  Mr.  William  S.  Shaw’s  connivance)  from  among  Mr.  J.  Q.  Adams's  books, 
deposited  by  him  on  going  to  Europe  in  the  Athenaeum,  under  Mr.  Shaw's  care, 
but  without  giving  him  permission  to  lend  them.  I  got  so  far  as  to  write  a  trans¬ 
lation  of  Werther,  but  no  further. 

The  result  of  Everett's  and  Ticknor’s  stay  at  Gottingen  was  that  the  former  pre¬ 
vailed  upon  President  Kirkland  to  grant  George  Bancroft  a  scholarship  for  Gottin¬ 
gen.  He  studied  there  from  1818  to  1820,  and  was  about  the  most  successful  of 
all  who  ever  attended  the  university.  On  hi3  return  he  wanted  to  teach  history  at 


1  Harvard  Studies  in  Philology  and  Literature,  Vol.  V. 

2  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  1897-98,  Vol.  1,  page  627. 

3 Ibid.,  page  613. 

4 Ibid.,  page  608. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


551 


his  first  alma  mater  as  a  “lecturer,”  but  could  not  carry  out  his  intention.  He 
therefore  united  himself  with  his  fellow-student  at  Gottingen,  Dr.  Joseph  Green 
Cogswell,  to  establish  an  educational  institution  after  the  mpdel  of  the  German 
gymnasium,  in  Northampton,  Mass.  In  the  “  Round  Hill  School  ”  attention  was 
not  given  to  the  memorizing  of  facts,  but  to  the  development  of  the  critical  powers 
of  pupils.  From  1823  to  1831  the  school  was  attended  by  293  impils,  who  came 
from  19  separate  States  and  4  foreign  countries.  All  received  instruction  in  Ger¬ 
man.  The  institution  prospered,  but  not  for  any  great  length  of  time,  having 
been  discontinued  in  1839.  The  Gymnasium,  conducted  by  the  brothers  Henry  E. 
and  Sereno  Dwight  in  New  Haven  from  1828  to  1831,  met  a  similar  fate.  Never¬ 
theless,  the  book  written  by  the  former  and  entitled  “Travels  in  the  north  of 
Germany  in  the  years  1825-1826,”  which  contained  a  complete  description  of  Ger¬ 
man  life,  and  especially  of  education,  had  a  wide  circulation,  and  advocated  the 
introduction  of  German  methods  of  instruction. 

In  the  meantime  New  York  had  likewise  begun  to  be  interested  in  the  German 
educational  reform.  An  eminent  teacher,  John  Griscom,  had  spent  the  years  1818 
and  1819  in  Europe,  become  acquainted  with  Pestalozzi,  and  was  enthusiastic 
over  the  institution  conducted  by  Fellenberg  according  to  Pestalozzi’s  ideas  in 
Hofwyl,  near  Bern.  This  was  the  same  place  that  gave  Friedrich  Frobel  his 
suggestions  for  his  “kindergartens.”  Griscom  remarks  on  this  institution,  “I 
can  not  but  cherish  the  hope  that  this  scheme  of  education,  of  combining  agricul¬ 
tural  and  mechanical  with  literary  and  scientific  instruction,  will  be  speedily  and 
extensively  adopted  in  the  United  States.”  His  own  subsequent  attempt  to  estab¬ 
lish  a  similar  institution  failed,  but  nevertheless  his  work  was  not  vain.  Such 
was  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Barnard,  the  celebrated  American  educator,  who  states, 
in  reference  to  Griscom’s  report,  which  appeared  in  two  volumes  under  the  title 
“A  year  in  Europe,”  that  “no  other  book  of  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
exerted  s'o  powerful  an  influence  on  the  development  of  our  educational  system.” 
Ex-President  Thomas  Jefferson  confirmed  this  opinion,  with  the  further  comment 
that  in  organising  the  University  of  Virginia  he  had,  so  far  as  it  was  practicable, 
followed  the  suggestions  given  therein. 

In  1819  the  plan  of  Jefferson  was  approved  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia. 

In  one  point  [he  wrote  on  this  subject  to  Ticknor,  in  Cambridge1]  we  shall 
depart  from  the  usual  custom  that  has  been  adopted  by  almost  every  college  and 
academy  in  the  United  States.  Restricting  students  to  certain  branches,  the  obli¬ 
gation  of  following  exclusively  those  studies  that  will  qualify  them  for  special 
pursuits  selected  by  them  will  not  be  carried  through.  On  the  contrary,  we  shall 
allow  students  the  full  liberty  of  attending  all  lectures  which  they  may  desire  to 
hear,  and  shall  require  nothing  more  than  the  necessary  preparatory  education 
and  the  necessary  age. 

Ticknor  himself  was  to  be  the  soul  of  the  new  institution,  and  was  invited  to 
accept  the  chair  of  modern  languages,  with  the  guaranteed  salary  of  $2,500 — a  large 
amount  for  those  times.  He  declined,  however,  though  he  considered  Jefferson's 
plans  very  good.  His  views  coincided  with  those  expressed  by  his  colleague,  Pro¬ 
fessor,  afterwards  President,  Everett,  of  Harvard,  in  his  critique  of  Jefferson ’snew 
institution: 2  “We  highly  approve  the  professorship  of  the  modern  languages,  and 
would  wish  to  see  this  example  followed  by  such  of  our  universities  as  have  not 
already  made  provision  for  them.  ” 

By  this  declaration,  which  may  be  considered  the  programme  of  the  second 
epoch  of  the  development  of  German  instruction,  Everett  proves  conclusively  that, 
as  an  educator,  he  was  abreast  of  his  times,  or  rather,  as  Eliot  says,  in  advance  of 
them.  Everett  had,  besides,  brought  a  large  number  of  German  books  from  Got¬ 
tingen,  which  formed  the  foundation  of  a  German  library  for  Harvard.  In  1818 


1  Jefferson’s  Works,  ,VTII,  p.  300. 

2  North  American  Review  for  January,  1820. 


552 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


this  collection  was  considerably  increased  by  the  acquisition  of  Professor  Ebeling’s 
library  in  Hamburg,  which  this  eminent  geographer  had  been  collecting  for  fifty 
years  and  which  was  purchased  by  a  resident  of  Boston  by  the  name  of  Thorn¬ 
dike.  Ebeling  had  undoubtedly  written  the  best  work  on  American  history  and 
geography,  and  had  received  the  thanks  of  the  members  of  Congress  officially.1 

It  created  a  great  sensation,  both  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  that  a  Yankee 
should  have  carried  off  Ebeling’s  library  before  the  King  of  Prussia.  This  inci¬ 
dent  must  have  had  some  influence  on  the  great  master,  Goethe,  who  was  very 
much  pleased  that  all  American  students  at  Gottingen  hurried  to  Weimar  to 
pay  him  their  respects  personally.  These  circumstances,  perhaps,  afford  the  key 
to  the  extremely  interesting  fact  that  he  should  have  felt  called  upon  to  present  a 
set  of  his  works  in  30  volumes  to  the  Harvard  library.  These  books  bear  the 
inscription:  “  Gifts  of  the  author,  J.  W.  von  Goethe,  of  Germany,”  to  which  is 
added  the  following  translation  of  the  original  letter  accompanying  them: 

The  above  poetical  and  scientific  works  are  presented  to  the  library  of  the  uni¬ 
versity  at  Cambridge,  in  New  England,  as  a  mark  of  deep  interest  in  its  high 
literary  character  and  in  the  successful  zeal  it  has  displayed  through  so  long  a 
course  of  years  for  the  promotion  of  solid  and  elegant  education. 

With  the  high  respects  of  the  author. 

J.  W.  von  Goethe. 

Weimar,  August  11,  1819. 

II.  From  1825  to  1876. 

Alexander  von  Humboldt  ranks  first  among  the  illustrious  visitors  who  came  to 
America  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1804,  he  finished  his 
work  in  Central  America,  for  which  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Spanish  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  went  to  Washington  as  the  guest  of  Thomas  Jefferson.  As  subse¬ 
quently  an  uninterrupted  correspondence  and  exchange  of  books  took  place 
between  these  two  prominent  men,  we  may  suppose  that  this  intercourse  fur¬ 
nished  one  of  the  reasons  that  determined  Jefferson  to  establish,  instead  of  a 
French  academy,  a  ‘  ‘  State  university,”  at  which  German  was  taught  from  the  very 
beginning.  In  his  report  to  the  legislature  of  the  year  1818,  the  introduction  of 
German  into  the  curriculum  of  the  institute  is  recommended  in  the  following 
terms:2 

The  German  now  stands  in  a  line  with  that  of  the  most  learned  nations  in  rich¬ 
ness  of  condition  and  advance  in  the  sciences.  It  is,  too,  of  common  descent  with 
the  language  of  our  own  country,  a  branch  of  the  same  original  Gothic  stock,  and 
furnishes  valuable  illustrations  for  us. 

At  the  opening  of  the  institution  in  the  year  1825,  a  division  for  modern  lan¬ 
guages  was  at  once  established;  64  of  the  total  number  of  students  (116)  with 
which  the  university  began  its  work  took  German  from  the  beginning.  In  1854-55 
the  division  numbered  an  attendance  of  200.  In  1859  the  knowledge  of  German 
and  French  was  made  obligatory  for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  created  in  1831, 
and  the  same  rule  has  obtained  since  then. 

The  first  “professor  of  modern  languages,”  who  filled  the  position  from  1825  to 
1840,  was  Dr.  Biattermann,  a  German.  It  seems,  however,  that  in  the  same  way 
and  for  the  same  reasons  his  life  was  made  as  hard  as  that  of  Francis  Lieber,  at 
South  Carolina  College.3 


1  Christopher  Daniel  Ebeling,  born  1741,  died  June  30, 1817,  published  his  above-mentioned  cel¬ 
ebrated  History  and  Geography  of  North  America,  in  seven  volumes,  during  the  years  1796  to 
1816.  He  collected  about  4,000  books  on  America,  besides  many  smaller  publications  and  a  large 
number  of  charts.  Though  we  look  for  his  name  in  vain  in  Brockhaus  or  Meyer,  and  even  in  the 
German- American  Con  versations-Lex  icon,  we  find  him  mentioned  in  the  American  Cyclopedia, 
Vol.  VI,  p.  383.  In  the  earlier  numbers  of  the  North  American  Review  frequent  reference  is 
made  to  Ebeling,  and  the  acquisition  of  his  library,  of  which  Thorndike  gained  possession, 
though  his  competitor  was  King  Frederick  William  III  of  Prussia,  is  discussed  at  length. 

2  Compare  John  C.  Henderson,  Thomas  Jefferson’s  Views  on  Public  Education,  pp.  200,  201. 

8  Compare  American  Contributions,  p.  114. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


553 


As  much  as  it  may  always  redound  to  the  fame  of  the  University  of  Virginia  to 
have  been  the  first  to  give  German  instruction  a  permanent  introduction ,  this  fact 
was,  nevertheless,  much  less  important  for  the  progress  of  the  study  than  the  cor¬ 
responding  step  taken  at  Harvard,  likewise  in  the  year  1825.  Since  the  conclusion 
of  peace,  owing  to  the  increased  intercourse  between  the  Old  and  the  New  World, 
the  necessity  of  studying  modern  languages  was  felt  more  than  ever  in  the  north¬ 
eastern  part  of  the  Union.  As  James  Russell  Lowell  remarked  upon  one  occasion, 
“The  modern  languages  were  not  deemed  worthy  to  be  taught,  except  as  a  social 
accomplishment  or  as  a  commercial  subsidiary.  ”  In  most  instances  French  hum¬ 
bugs  a  la  Riccaut  de  la  Marliniere  were  alone  accessible,  who  attempted  to  teach 
without  being  at  all  prepared  for  the  profession,  and  became  dancing  masters  if 
they  did  not  succeed  in  teaching  French.  Bad  experiences,  such  as,  for  instance, 
that  of  Amherst  College  in  the  years  1827  and  1828,  with  such  an  ignorant  professor, 
were  a  very  great  drawback  to  the  introduction  of  modern  languages. 

As  we  have  learned,  Everett  and  Ticknor  long  since  desired  to  have  German 
instruction  and  German  methods  introduced  into  Harvard.  Jefferson’s  bold  action 
in  Virginia  strengthened  their  opinions  and  led  them  also  to  act  at  the  earliest 
opportunity.  Just  at  the  right  time  two  men  arrived  in  the  country  whose  action 
was  to  bear  far-reaching  consequences.  These  were  Dr.  Charles  Follen,  who  also 
adopted  his  Latin  family  name,  Follenius,  and  Dr.  Charles  Beck.  Both  were 
German  political  refugees,  and  possessed  excellent  credentials  from  Lafayette, 
when  they  landed  in  New  York  on  Christmas  Day  in  1824.  Called  to  Round  Hill 
school  by  Bancroft  and  Cogswell,  they  were  soon  connected  with  Cambridge.  In 
the  autumn  of  1825  Follen  was  called  to  Harvard  as  professor  of  church  history 
and  ethics1,  and  the  arrangement  was  made  allowing  him,  by  way  of  experiment, 
to  form  a  German  class.  In  his  Harvard  Reminiscences  Dr.  A.  T.  Peabody  speaks 
of  this  memorable  event  in  the  following  words,  that  have  not  lost  their  interest: 

German  had  never  been  taught  in  college  before,  and  it  was  with  no  little  diffi¬ 
culty  that  a  volunteer  class  of  eight  was  formed.  I  was  one  of  that  class.  We 
were  looked  upon  with  very  much  the  amazement  with  which  a  class  in  some 
obscure  tribal  dialect  of  the  remotest  Orient  would  be  now  regarded.  We  knew 
of  but  two  or  three  persons  in  New  England  who  could  read  German,  though 
there  were  probably  many  more  of  whom  we  did  not  know.  There  were  no  Ger¬ 
man  books  in  the  bookstores.  A  friend  gave  me  a  copy  of  Schiller's  “Wallen¬ 
stein,”  which  I  read  as  soon  as  I  was  able  to  do  so,  and  then  passed  it  from  hand 
to  hand  among  those  who  could  obtain  nothing  else  to  read.  There  was  no  attain¬ 
able  class  book  that  could  be  used  as  a  “reader.”  A  few  copies  of  Nohden’s 
Grammar  were  imported,  and  a  few  copies  of  I  forget  whose  “pocket  dictionary,” 
fortunately  too  copious  for  an  Anglo-Saxon  pocket,  and  suggesting  the  generous 
amplitude  of  the  Low  Dutch  costume,  as  described  in  Irving’s  mythical  “History 
of  New  York.”  The  German  Reader  for  Beginners,  compiled  by  our  teacher, 
was  furnished  to  the  class  in  single  sheets  as  it  was  needed,  and  was  printed  in 
Roman  type,  there  being  no  German  type  within  easy  reach.  There  could  not 
have  been  a  happier  introduction  to  German  literature  than  this  little  volume. 
It  contained  choice  extracts  in  prose,  all  from  writers  that  still  hold  an  unchal¬ 
lenged  place  in  the  hierarchy  of  genius,  and  poems  from  Schiller,  Goethe,  Herder, 
and  several  other  poets  of  kindred,  if  inferior,  fame.  But  in  the  entire  volume  Dr. 
Follen  rejoiced  especially  in  several  battle  poems  from  Korner,  the  soldier  and  mar¬ 
tyr  of  liberty.  I  never  have  heard  recitations  which  impressed  me  so  strongly  as 
the  reading  of  those  pieces  by  Dr.  Follen,  who  would  put  into  them  all  of  the  heart 
and  soul  that  had  made  him  too  much  a  lover  of  his  country  to  be  suffered  to 
dwell  in  it.  He  appended  to  the  other  poems  in  the  first  edition  of  the  reader, 
anonymously,  a  death  song  in  memory  of  Korner,  which  we  all  knew  to  be  his 
own,  and  which  we  read  so  often  and  so  feelingly  that  it  sank  indelibly  into  per¬ 
manent  memory,  and  I  find  that,  after  an  interval  of  sixty  years,  it  is  as  fresh  in 
my  recollection  as  the  hymns  that  I  learned  in  my  childhood. 

!  In  this  account,  unusual  in  its  grasp  of  the  subject,  one  thought  strikes  us, 
namely,  the  reported  deficiency  of  German  books,  of  which  the  university  library 

1 1  hare  not  been  able  to  find  any  other  reference  to  this  professorship  than  the  mention  made 
of  it  by  Metzner  in  the  Yearbook  of  German- American  Athletics,  Yol.  I,  No.  1,  p.  10. 


554 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


must  have  possessed  thousands  at  that  time.  Of  course  we  do  not,  on  that 
account,  lose  interest  in  Peabody’s  report,  which  testifies  that  there  have  been 
enthusiastic  American  students  at  all  times. 

Follen  continued  to  work  with  the  same  zeal  that  he  manifested,  in  his  first 
course.  The  consequence  was  that  he  gained  recognition  for  German  instruction 
in  America,  whilst  he  himself  was  called  to  a  chair  of  German  language  and 
literature  in  September,  1831.  He  entered  upon  this  position  with  a  speech  on 
“  The  importance  of  the  study  of  German  and  German  literature,’' in  which  he 
said: 

The  treasures  that  are  contained  in  German  boobs  no  longer  escape  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  the  public;  the  same  intelligent  interest  is  manifested  toward  them  as 
toward  all  else  that  tends  to  enrich  knowledge  and  strengthen  the  intellect.  At 
this  university,  where  formerly  German  literature  was  included  under  the  rubric 
“  non  leguntur  ”  (i.  e.,  “  is  not  read”),  the  library  has  been  recently  increased  by 
a  considerable  number  of  valuable  German  works.  The  university  itself  prints 
books  in  German  characters,  and  the  number  of  those  who  are  studying  German 
averages  50  for  each  session.  Moreover,  there  are  now  German  teachers  and 
German  books  in  all  important  cities  of  this  country,  whereas,  I  have  been 
assured,  fifty  years  since,  not  a  single  German  grammar  or  dictionary  could  De 
found  in  Boston.  Many  present  residents  can  not  only  speak  German,  but  read 
German  works  with  a  full  understanding  of  their  meaning.  Many  German 
classics  have  found  their  way  into  private  libraries. 

This  great  progress  occurred  in  the  short  space  of  time  between  the  years  1825 
and  1831,  during  which  the  influence  of  Follen,  and  (after  1827)  of  Francis  Lieber 
on  the  mind  of  the  American  Athens  was  felt.  These  men  did  not  confine  them¬ 
selves  to  the  intellect,  but  also  gave  their  attention  to  the  physical  development 
of  youth.  They  were  the  first  to  introduce  instruction  in  gymnastics  and  swim¬ 
ming.  Lieber’s  Boston  swimming  school  made  such  a  sensation  that  even  the 
President  of  the  United  States  went  to  see  it. 

Follen  acted  officially  as  German  professor”  only  five  years.  In  1838  he  pub¬ 
lished  an  appeal  to  the  American  nation  against  slavery,  for  which  he  was  greatly 
censured.  The  press  reproached  him  with  “being  a  fugitive  enjoying  American 
hospitality,”  for  whom,  to  say  the  least,  it  was  out  of  place  to  throw  a  firebrand 
into  the  social  life  of  his  new  home.  In  being  an  abolitionist,  however,  Follen 
acted  in  perfect  accord  with  all  German-American  traditions.  As  far  back  as 
April  18,  1688,  the  German  Quakers  of  Germantown  had  issued  a  protest  against 
traffic  in  human  flesh.1  But  his  aggressive  attitude  seemed  to  make  continuance 
in  office  impossible.2 

Fortunately,  however,  the  stone  once  set  in  motion  could  not  be  kept  from  roll¬ 
ing.  As  early  as  1838,  Longfellow  began  his  celebrated  lectures  on  Goethe's 
Faust,  in  consequence  of  which  educated  Americans  of  to-day  are  thoroughly 
conversant  with  “  Faust,”  and  some  even  take  an  active  part  in  researches  relat¬ 
ing  to  that  work.  Even  before  Longfellow,  Alexander  Hill  Everett,  in  his 
“Europe,”  published  in  1822,  had  referred  to  German  literature  and  had  written, 
particularly  upon  Schiller,  a  fiery  criticism  in  the  North  American  Review. 

An  intimate  knowledge  of  German  classic  literature,  until  then  known  only  in 
English  translation,  was  speedily  recognized  by  practical  Americans  to  be  the 
main  purpose  of  the  study  of  German.  As  Professor  Learned  states  in  a  recent 
lecture,3  the  study  of  German  literature  animated  the  great  active  period  of 
American  literature  represented  by  the  names  of  Longfellow,  Emerson,  Margaret 
Fuller,  and  the  so-called  transcendentalists.  He  says: 

They  all  drew  either  indirectly  through  Carlyle  or  directly  from  the  German 
source,  and  created  in  prose  or  metrical  form  a  truly  beautiful  American  national 


1  Compare  Seidensticker’s  The  First  German  Immigrants  in  America,  page  80. 

2  Compare  Metzner,  ibid.,  page  14. 

3  The  lecture  referred  to  was  delivered  m  German  before  the  Deutschen  Verein  of  Columbia, 
and  was  published  in  the  Pedagogical  Monthly, 


GERMAN  INTSRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


555 


literature,  such  as  no  subsequent  period  has  ever  again  attained.  Longfellow,  as 
mediator  of  German  poetry,  in  beautiful,  pure,  imetical  form,  still  occupies  the 
highest  rank  among  our  poets,  and  just  where  Americans  recognize  the  great  poet 
in  the  “  Golden  Legend'5  he  is  a  worthy  imitator  and  interpreter  of  the  master 
Goethe.  His  entire  conception  of  the  Christ  trilogy  is  Goethe’s,  and  purely  Ger¬ 
man,  although  he  took  the  matter  partly  from  American  life.  What  would 
Emerson  have  been  without  Kant,  the  transcendentalists,  Margaret  Fuller,  the 
other  Concord  poets,  and  the  visionaries  of  Brook  Farm  without  this  German 
impulse?  It  was  cultural  history  that  gave  the  great  philosopher-essayist  Emer¬ 
son  a  German  disciple  like  Hermann  Grimm.  From  William  E.  Channing  to 
James  Russell  Lowell,  German  influence  on  our  literature  is  unmistakable,  and 
whether  consciously  or  unconsciously,  our  greatest  poets  have  thought  and  writ¬ 
ten  under  this  influence.  Whenever  a  return  to  purely  English  models  has  taken 
place,  the  want  of  creative  power,  poetical  depth,  and  culture- historical  under¬ 
standing  is  manifest. 

In  this  period  of  German  force  in  New  England  we  find  the  beginnings  of  Ger¬ 
manic  ties,  from  which  have  proceeded,  directly  or  indirectly,  our  historical  writ¬ 
ings,  our  later  academic  education,  our  gymnastics,  our  music,  in  part  our  desire 
of  investigation  in  natural  science,  our  liberal  tendency  in  theology  and  religion, 
and  particularly  the  so-called  “new  criticism”  in  our  philosophy,  and,  to  a  great 
extent,  our  fine  literature  and  rising  literary  criticism.  From  this  time  Germany 
was  a  new  Athens  for  educated  Americans,  and  the  stream  of  American  students 
to  Germany  increased  from  year  to  year. 

Strange  to  say,  the  July  revolution  in  France,  through  the  following  remarka¬ 
ble  concatenation  of  circumstances,  is  one  of  the  factors  that  strengthened  German 
influence  on  American  civilization.  In  May,  1831,  the  French  Government  sent 
the  celebrated  student  and  philosopher  Victor  Cousin  to  Germany  to  study  the 
educational  system  of  that  country.  The  result  of  his  observations  is  given  in  the 
masterly  conceived  work  in  two  volumes  entitled:  Rapport  de  l’lnstruction 
Publique  dans  quelques  Pays  de  l’Allemagne  et  Particulierement  en  Prusse 
(Report  on  Public  Instruction  in  Some  of  the  Countries  of  Germany,  especially 
Prussia).  Cousin  began  his  travels  in  Frankfort- on- the- Main  and  subsequently 
visited  Schulpforta,  Saxe- Weimar,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  Two- thirds  of 
the  whole  work,  however,  are  devoted  to  Prussia.  Cousin  was  particularly 
impressed  by  the  general  observance  of  compulsory  education  wherever  he  went, 
even  in  the  smallest  villages. 

He  pertinently  observes  that  in  all  questions  of  civilization  national  antipathies 
are  prejudicial,  and  that  the  true  greatness  of  a  nation  does  not  consist  in  proudly 
ignoring'  the  achievements  of  others,  but  rather  in  turning  to  the  best  account 
what  progress  has  been  made  in  others,  without  being  afraid  of  undermining 
thereby  individual  patriotism. 

This  report  made  a  great  sensation,  first  in  England,  where  attention  was  drawn 
to  it  by  the  Edinburgh  Review,  and  where  a  translation  of  the  part  relative  to 
Prussia  was  published  in  London  in  1834  through  the  efforts  of  Mrs.  Sarah  Austin. 
In  America  the  demand  for  this  translation  was  so  great  that  the  firm  Wiley  <fc 
Long,  in  New  York,  published  an  edition.  This  literary  event  was  of  paramount 
importance  for  the  organization  of  the  entire  educational  system  of  the  West. 

Just  at  the  time  when  Cousin’s  report  was  agitating  the  minds  of  educated  men, 
matters  had  progressed  so  far  in  Michigan  that  the  organization  of  the  educational 
system  was  contemplated.  For  this  purpose  a  highly-gifted,  eccentric,  elderly 
man,  Judge  Woodward,  had  years  before  planned  a  system,  original  throughout, 
even  to  its  nomenclature,  according  to  which  the  State  was  to  organize  instruc¬ 
tion.1  A  division  was  to  be  arranged  into  special  faculties  according  to  the  Epis- 

1  Unfortunately,  we  have  not  the  space  to  give  any  of  the  interesting  details  of  the  celebrated 
“  Catholepistemiad.”  They  can  be  obtained  from  the  different  publications  of  the  University 
of  Michigan,  as  Woodward  desired  the  institution  to  be  called.  See  also  History  of  Higher 
Education  in  Michigan,  Circular  of  Information  No.  4, 1891,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 


556 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


temic  system.  Tims  the  German  thought  of  a  state  university  had  already  taken 
root,  and  Rev.  J ohn  D.  Pierce,  whose  duty  it  was  as  State  school  superintendent  to 
plan  the  institution,  expressed  his  purpose  to  adapt  the  Prussian  system,  as  por¬ 
trayed  by  Cousin,  to  the  West. 

■>.  A  competent  judge  thus  expresses  himself: 1 

A  university  in  the  German  sense— an  institution  crowning  the  educational  sys¬ 
tem  of  a  state,  treating  its  students  as  free  adults  engaged  in  a  bona  fide  pursuit 
of  knowledge,  offering  its  advantages  at  the  lowest  possible  prices,  sending  down 
its  roots  into  the  life 'of  the  people  to  take  thence  the  sap  of  its  own  vitality  and 
paying  back  the  debt  by  raising  the  intelligence  and  adding  to  the  value  and  the 
dignity  of  life  throughout  the  entire  commonwealth — a  university  upon  this  the¬ 
ory  was  as  yet  an  experiment  to  be  tried.  That  the  experiment  came  to  be  tried 
in  Michigan,  under  reasonably  favorable  conditions,  is  largely  due  to  Mr.  Pierce, 
whose  office  was  modeled  after  that  of  the  Prussian  minister  of  public  instruction, 
and  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  American  to  hold  such  a  position  under  a 
State  government. 

Unfortunately,  the  task  was  not  by  any  means  completed  with  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  “board  of  instruction”  and  a  “university.”  On  the  contrary,  the 
extremely  painful  work  of  creating  a  solid  foundation,  such  as  German  universi¬ 
ties  possessed  in  the  gymnasia,  and  Eastern  colleges  partly  in  academies,  had  to  be 
undertaken.  In  this  direction  a  system  of  high  schools  was  established  for  Michi¬ 
gan,  whose  pupils,  after  completing  the  school  studies,  were  to  be  qualified  to  enter 
the  State  University  without  examination  after  the  year  1870.  This  latter  arrange¬ 
ment  has  not  been  the  least  instrumental  in  acquiring  for  the  State  a  reputation 
for  possessing  such  an  excellent  school  system  as  few  other  States  in  the  whole 
Union  can  show.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  study  of  modern  languages,  and  par¬ 
ticularly  German,  receives  its  full  due.  In  the  middle  of  the  century  President 
Henry  T.  Tappan  was  able  to  introduce,  besides  the  classic  degree  of  bachelor  of 
arts,  the  equally  meritorious  academic  degree  of  bachelor  of  science,  for  which 
two  modern  languages  were  equivalent  to  Latin  and  Greek.  No  special  “scientific 
schools”  were  erected  for  these  “modern”  students,  as  in  the  great  Eastern  col¬ 
leges;  but  all  students  were  brought  together  in  the  closest  possible  relations,  in 
order  to  develop  among  them  the  proper  “  esprit  du  corps.” 

Tappan  aimed  to  make  the  institution,  as  soon  as  he  had  taken  charge  of  it,  as 
much  like  a  German  university  as  possible.  For  this  reason  he  abolished  the 
regulation  of  distributing  the  positions  equally  among  the  different  denomina¬ 
tions,  and  made  the  effort  to, get  the  very  best  teachers.  Persons,  and  not  build¬ 
ings,  he  considered  the  chief  matter  of  value  for  universities.  He  called  Andrew  D. 
White  to  the  chair  of  history  and  English  literature;  the  astronomer  Brunnow, 
one  of  Encke’s  best  pupils  from  Berlin,  to  the  direction  of  the  observatory,  and 
Henry  T.  Frieze  to  the  professorship  of  the  dead  languages.  His  successors, 
Dr.  E.  O.  Haven  (1868-69)  and  J.  B.  Angell  (since  1871),  have  followed  in  his  foot¬ 
steps,  and  thus  brought  the  institution  to  its  present  honored  position. 

Professor  Hinsdale,  who  occupied  the  chair  of  pedagogics  at  this  university, 
sums  up  its  significance  for  the  whole  educational  system  of  America  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  words: 

The  University  of  Michigan  has  been  the  type  to  which  all  the  really  vigorous 
and  subsequent  State  universities  have  conformed  more  or  less  closely.  Reference 
has  once  been  made  to  the  State  universities  as  introducing  a  secular  factor  into 
the  higher  education.  This  fact,  together  with  the  possession  of  comparatively 
large  resources,  has  given  these  institutions  an  influence  in  many  of  the  Western 
States  that  has  been  very  powerful,  if  not  controlling. 

The  guiding  influence  of  the  University  of  Ann  Arbor  can  hardly  be  better 
characterized  than  by  saying  that  it  opened  German  ideas  in  general  and  the  study 
of  German  in  particular  to  the  whole  West.  The  increase  in  ocean  travel  and  the 


1  Calvin  Thomas,  The  University  of  Michigan  and  Its  Recent  Jubilee. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


557 


growth  of  German  immigration  to  giant  proportions  at  the  close  of  the  German 
revolution  of  1848  contributed  to  this  result  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  During  the 
half  century  in  question,  between  two  and  one-half  and  three  millions  of  German 
immigrants  must  have  landed.  The  majority  of  these  traveled  to  the  middle  part 
of  the  West,  where,  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  and  Michigan  numerous  German  colonists  settled.  As  this  new 
national  element  was,  for  the  most  part,  resolved  to  adhere  to  its  mother  tongue, 
and,  if  possible,  to  found  strictly  German  colonies,  many  German  society  or 
private  schools  were  founded  which,  in  contrast  to  the  still  existing  and  newly 
established  German  parochial  schools,  bore  no  religious  character.  How  well 
defined  the  movement  was  among  the  immigrants  to  found  German  schools  twelve 
years  before  the  tide  of  the  “immigrants  of  48  ”  ( Achtundvierziger) ,  is  best  mani¬ 
fested  by  the  fact  that  in  October,  1887,  a  German  convention 1  was  held  in  Harris¬ 
burg,  composed  of  delegates  from  six  different  States.  It  was  agreed  to  demand 
the  recognition  of  German  as  a  second  State  language  next  to  English,  and  to  found 
a  German  normal  school  for  the  strengthening  of  existing  German  schools,  as  well 
as  of  those  to  be  founded.  Collections  of  money  were  taken  up  that  amounted  to 
enough  to  establish  the  normal  school  in  1838  in  Philipsburg.  Subsequently, 
interest  flagged  to  such  an  extent  that  it  was  forced  to  close  in  1840. 

In  the  meantime  the  abnormal  condition  had  developed  in  Ohio  that  in  the 
larger  cities  there  was  a  greater  attendance  at  German  private  schools  than  at  the 
different  public  schools.  In  the  year  1831  in  Cincinnati  only  400  children  received 
instruction  in  the  city  schools,  whereas  the  attendance  at  German  schools  num¬ 
bered  1,500.  This  condition  lasted  a  number  of  years,  and  was  the  worse,  as  the 
public  schools  were  decidedly  inferior  to  the  private.  Thus  in  1835  an  excellent  Ger¬ 
man  educator,  Dr.  Frederick  Holker,  resigned  from  his  position  in  the  city  schools 
to  accept  that  of  superintendent  in  the  newly  founded  Catholic  elementary  school, 
for  the  sole  reason  that  the  latter  “promised  to  be  decidedly  better  than  the  city 
schools,  and  he  was  not  so  handicapped  in  developing  it  into  a  perfect  elementary 
school,  according  to  the  German,  i.  e.,  Prussian,  system,  by  the  depressing  mechan¬ 
ism  and  manner  of  instruction  that  obtained  in  the  city  schools.”2 

In  1836  the  German  Protestants  of  Cincinnati  founded  a  ‘  ‘  German  Immigrant 
School,”  later  on  incorporated  by  the  State,  in  which  the  chief  positions  were  filled 
by  three  excellent  teachers  educated  in  Germany — Edward  Solomon,  from  Erfurt, 
Julius  Weyse,  and  Julius  Schwarz,  the  son  of  a  professor  at  Heidelberg.  This 
school  was  under  the  patronage  of  the  “  Lane  Seminary  ”  in  Cincinnati,  at  which 
a  prominent  American  teacher,  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  who  afterwards  married  the 
authoress  of  “Uncle  Tom’s  Cabin,”  was  appointed  professor.3  What  he  saw 
proved  to  him  beyond  a  doubt  that  radical  measures  were  necessary  to  remedy  the 
deplorable  condition  of  public  schools  in  Ohio. 

In  January,  1836,  Stowe  took  part  in  a  convention  of  “  professional  teachers  and 
school  advocates”  of  the  West,  held  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  before  which  he 
delivered  a  lecture  on  the  subject,  “  The  Prussian  system  of  public  instruction 
and  its  applicability  to  the  United  States.” 

Like  a  newly  announced  gospel,  this  lecture  attracted  so  great  attention  in  the 
whole  country  that  the  then  governor  of  the  State  of  Ohio  sent  it  with  a  message, 
February  4,  1836,  to  the  legislature  then  in  session,  which  resolved  to  print  it. 
Governor  Lucas  was  subsequently  commissioned  by  the  legislature  to  send  Pro¬ 
fessor  Stowe  to  Europe,  as  a  representative  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  to  study  the 


1  Compare  Schem’s  German- American  Conversations-Lexicon,  XI,  p.  284. 

2  Compare  The  German  Pioneer,  Yol.  XIY,  p.  3. 

3  The  account  of  conditions  in  Ohio  is  taken  from  the  excellent  writings  of  H.  A.  Rattermann, 
especially  from  the  article  on  German  influence  on  the  organization  and  development  of  Amer¬ 
ican  schools.  If  more  of  such  works  pf  reference  had  been  available,  this  account  could  have 
been  made  more  complete. 


558 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


school  systems  of  the  different  countries  and  to  report  on  them.  Professor  Stowe 
left  for  Europe  in  March,  1836,  made  a  careful  study  of  the  educational  systems 
of  England,  Scotland,  France,  The  Netherlands,  Germany  (especially  Prussia  and 
Bavaria),  Austria,  Russia,  and  Denmark,  and  made  a  comprehensive  report  to  the 
legislature,  which  was  published  by  the  State  of  Ohio  in  1837.  In  reference  to 
Prussia  he  states: 

Indeed,  I  think  the  system  in  its  great  outlines  as  nearly  complete  as  human 
ingenuity  and  skill  can  make  it,  though,  undoubtedly,  some  of  its  arrangements 
and  details  admit  of  improvements,  and  some  changes  will,  of  course,  be  necessary 
in  adapting  it  to  the  circumstances  of  different  countries. 

Professor  Stowe  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  German  (i.  e.,  Prussian)  system  had 
already  been  introduced  into  this  country  by  private  enterprise  in  the  Gerrnan- 
English  elementary  schools  with  two  languages.  As  this  expression  of  a  prominent 
American  is  of  special  interest,  I  may  be  permitted  to  give  the  following  quo¬ 
tation: 

There  is  one  class  of  our  population  for  whom  some  special  provision  seems 
necessary.  The  children  of  foreign  immigrants  are  now  very  numerous  among 
us,  and  it  is  essential  that  they  receive  a  good  English  education.  But  they  are 
not  prepared  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  our  common  English  schools, 
their  imperfect  acquaintance  with  the  language  being  an  insuperable  bar  to  their 
entering  on  the  course  of  study.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  there  be  some 
preparatory  schools,  in  which  instruction  shall  be  communicated  both  in  English 
and  their  native  tongue.  ;  The  English  is  and  must  be  the  language  of  this  country, 
and  the  highest  interests  of  our  State  demand  it  of  the  legislature  to  require  that 
the  English  language  be  thoroughly  taught  in  every  school  which  they  patronize. 
Still,  the  exigencies  of  the  case  make  it  necessary  that  there  should  be  some  schools 
expressly  fitted  to  the  conditions  of  our  foreign' immigrants,  to  introduce  them  to 
a  knowledge  of  our  language  and  institutions.  A  school  of  this  kind  has  been 
established  in  Cincinnati  by  benevolent  individuals.  It  has  been  in  operation 
about  a  year,  and  already  nearly  300  children  have  received  its  advantages.  Mr. 
Solomon,  the  head  teacher,  was  educated  for  his  profession  in  one  of  the  best 
institutions  of  Prussia,  and  in  this  school  he  has  demonstrated  the  excellencies 
of  the. system.  The  instructions  are  all  given  both  in  German  and  in  English, 
and  the  use  of  the  two  languages  does  not  interrupt  the  progress  of  the  children 
in  their  respective  studies.  I  can  not  but  recommend  the  philanthropic  insti¬ 
tution  to  the  notice  and  patronage  of  the  legislature. 

In  neighborhoods  where  there  is  a  mixed  population  it  is  desirable,  if  possible, 
to  employ  teachers  who  understand  both  languages,  and  that  the  exercises  of  the 
school  be  conducted  in  both,  with  the  rule,  however,  that  all  the  reviews  and 
examinations  be  in  English  only. 

As  a  supplement  to  his  comprehensive  report,  Professor  Stowe  added  a  transla¬ 
tion  of  the  Prussian  school  laws,  which  were  taken  into  consideration  in  framing 
the  school  law  of  Ohio  in  1839.  Thus  Ohio,  like  Michigan,  attained  in  a  different 
way  a  State  school  system  based  upon  German  ideas,  that  has  surely  done  much 
toward  helping  these  progressive  States  to  their  present  flourishing  condition. 

In  New  England  at  this  time  a  lively  movement  was  begun  toward  educational 
reform.  The  events  at  Harvard,  the  founding  of  the  schools  in  Northampton  and 
New  Haven,  the  ever-increasing  number  of  publications,  and  the  lively  personal 
agitation  of  many  prominent  men,  necessarily  weakened  gradually  old  traditions. 
The  legislature  of  Massachusetts  sent  for  the  report  of  Professor  Stowe  and  made 
it  generally  known.  Two  men  in  particular — Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Barnard — 
fought  with  as  much  success  as  energy  against  the  old  system  of  district  schools 
with  their  mechanical  methods. 

As  early  as  1837  Horace  Mann  brought  about  the  appointment  of  a  “  State  board 
of  education  ”  in  Massachusetts,  of  which  he  was  made  secretary.  In  his  annual 
reports  he  advocated  educational  reform  with  ardent  zeal,  but  lived  to  experience 
the  positive  opposition  of  teachers  themselves.  In  the  year  1830  the  teachers  of 
New  England,  with  whom  educators  from  other  parts  of  the  country  subsequently 
associated  themselves,  had  formed  the  “American  Institute  of  Instruction,”  in 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


559 


which  pedagogical  questions  were  discussed  at  the  annual  meetings  held  in  differ¬ 
ent  places.  This  association  had  listened  to  lectures  by  several  Germans  (Follen  in 
1834  and  Hermann  Bockum  in  1835),  had  been  instructed,  as  to  the  advantages  of 
the  people’s  schools  of  Germany,  and  had  even  conducted  a  correspondence  with 
Victor  Cousin,  in  which  expressions  of  esteem  are  not  wanting.  But  when  in  the 
year  1839  Mann  demanded  the  introduction  of  the  study  of  modern  languages,  he 
met  with  violent  opposition,  which  was  strengthened  when,  in  1843,  he  published 
his  seventh  annual  report,  since  so  renowned,  in  which  he  gives  a  detailed  state¬ 
ment  of  the  events  of  his  travels,  undertaken  at  private  expense,  to  Scotland, 
Saxony,  and  Prussia.  In  this  report  he  severely  censures  the  faults  of  every  sys¬ 
tem  applied  in  American  instruction,  and  places  that  of  Prussia  foremost  as  a 
model  of  a  thoroughly  and  consistently  executed  system,  without  referring  to  its 
deficiencies.  Proceeding  on  the  principle  that  “  in  a  republic  ignorance  is  a  crime,  ” 
he  demanded  radical  reforms  according  to  the  proposed  model. 

The  reply,  entitled  “  Remarks  on  the  Seventh  Annual  Report,”  addressed  to  Mann 
by  31  Boston  teachers,  is  not  without  interest.  They  protested  against  Mann’s 
“Utopian”  and  “revolutionary”  ideas,  which  did  not  even  allow  corporal  punish¬ 
ment,  sanctified  by  age;  and  complained  in  bitter  terms  that  Mann  should  have 
spoken  of  American  schools  as  “dormitories”  in  comparison  with  those  of  Prussia; 
they  even  reproached  him  with  partial  ignorance  of  American  conditions. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  31  protesters  could  not  stop  the  march  of  events. 
Mann  succeeded  at  least  in  paving  the  way  for  his  reforms.  In  1839  he  established 
the  first  American  normal  school  in  Massachusetts,  which  was  thus  founded  one 
3^ear  after  the  German  institution  in  Philipsburg  that  proved  a  failure.  What 
Mann’s  “normal  school”  signified,  which  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  a 
“teachers’  institute”  in  Connecticut,  established  by  Henry  Barnard,  we  learn 
from  the  following  statement  of  a  specially  gifted  educator: 1 

Normal  school. 

When  the  agitation  for  better  education  had  fairly  set  in  (in  the  decade  1835-45) , 
it  was  clearly  seen  that  the  provision  of  better  teachers  was  necessary  to  the  accom¬ 
plishment  of  the  end.  About  the  same  time  the  attention  of  American  educators 
was  first  drawn  to  the  school  systems  of  the  German  states,  in  which  the  teacher's 
seminary,  or  the  normal  school,  as  we  have  chosen  to  call  it,  borrowing  the  name 
from  the  French,  is  such  an  important  feature.  In  these  facts  originated  the 
movement  to  give  elementary  teachers  professional  training  as  well  as  academical 
training.  The  first  American  normal  school  was  founded  in  1839,  and  the  number 
of  such  schools  has  continued  to  increase  until  the  present  day.  But  the  effort  to 
provide  professional  training  for  teachers  has  not  been  confined  to  normal  schools. 
Training  classes  are  found  in  high  schools,  while  pedagogical  departments  and 
chairs,  which  look  rather  to  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  secondary  schools, 
have  been  established  in  many  colleges  and  universities.  A  small  number  of  teach¬ 
ers’  colleges  have  also  been  established.  Public  normal  schools  are  divisible  into 
two  classes— schools  supported  by  the  States  and  schools  supported  by  the  locali¬ 
ties  or  cities.  Many  cities  have  adopted  the  policy  of  providing,  in  whole  or  part, 
teachers  for  their  own  schools. 

A  teachers’  institute  may  be  defined  as  a  normal  school  that  is  held  for  a  short 
term  with  a  short  course  of  study,  and  conducted  according  to  methods  peculiar 
to  itself.  It  is  known  only  in  the  United  States,  save  as  it  may  have  been  intro¬ 
duced  in  Canada.  In  1839  Dr.  Henry  Barnard,  then  secretary  of  the  Connecticut 
board  of  education,  “in  order  to  show  the  practicability  of  making  some  pro¬ 
vision  for  the  better  qualification  of  common  school  teachers,  by  giving  them  an 
opportunity  to  review  and  extend  their  knowledge  of  the  studies  usually  pursued 
in  district  schools,  and  of  the  best  methods  of  school  arrangements,  instruction, 
and  government  under  the  recitations  and  lectures  of  experienced  and  well-known 
teachers  and  educators,”  called  together  at  Hartford  for  a  month’s  session,  such 
teachers  of  Hartford  County  as  were  disposed  to  attend,  organized  them  into  a 
school,  and,  with  several  instructors  whom  he  had  called  to  his  assistance,  pro- 


1  Compare  the  article  of  Hinsdale  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  American  Supplement, 
XXIX,  page  2657. 


560 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-3901. 


ceeded  to  instruct  them  along  the  lines  proposed.  This  was  the  first  institute  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge;  the  name,  however,  was  given  at  a  later  day. 
The  next  year  Dr.  Barnard  held  a  second  one  for  ladies.  Other  educators  were 
quick  to  imitate  his  example,  and  soon  the  institute  spread  over  the  States  that 
were  participating  in  the  forward  educational  movement  then  in  progress. 

Besides  Mann  and  Barnard,  Francis  Wayland,  of  New  York,  deserves  mention 
as  being  a  prominent  pedagogical  reformer  of  these  times.  From  1826  to  1855  he 
was  president  of  Brown  University  in  Rhode  Island,  where  he  instituted,  even  if, 
unfortunately,  only  for  a  time,  liberty  of  instruction  and  study.  He  also  intro¬ 
duced  instruction  in  modern  languages,  and  provided  a  great  number  of  German 
books  for  the  university  library.  It  was  specially  through  his  works,  however, 
that  he  gained  a  widespread  reputation.  Among  these  his  Thoughts  on  the  Pres¬ 
ent  Collegiate  System  in  the  United  States  (1842),  and  his  Report  to  the  Corpora¬ 
tion  of  Brown  University  on  Changes  in  the  System  of  College  Education  (1850) 
deserve  special  mention. 

The  second  third  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  strikingly  characterized  by  the 
efforts  of  distinguished  men,  who,  following  Victor  Cousin's  advice,  recommended 
their  compatriots  to  make  use  of  the  accomplishments  of  Germany  in  culture 
generally,  and  for  the  organization  of  the  system  of  education  in  particular.  From 
the  long  list  of  names  we  add  to  those  already  mentioned  the  following,  to  whom 
frequent  allusion  is  made: 

Alexander  Dallas  Bache,  president  of  the  celebrated  orphan  asylum  founded  by 
Stephen  Girard  in  Philadelphia,  was  sent  to  Europe  in  1837  and  1838  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  studying  educational  systems,  in  order  to  draw  up  appropriate  regulations 
for  the  institution.  On  his  return  he  composed  his  celebrated  Report  to  the 
Trustees  of  Girard  College  on  Education  in  Europe,  which  was  published  in  Phila¬ 
delphia  in  1839.  Six  of  the  sixteen  chapters  of  the  report  are  devoted  exclusively 
to  German  relations,  and  they  are  frequently  referred  to  in  other  places.  He 
maintains  the  fundamental  idea  that  the  general  principles  of  education  must  be 
based  upon  human  nature,  but  that  they  must  be  modified  according  to  national 
differences.  In  this  sense  he  recommends  the  Prussian  model  for  the  purposes  of 
the  institution. 

Frederick  Henry  Hedge  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first,  American  to  com¬ 
plete  his  education  at  a  German  gymnasium,  where  he  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  German  language.  He  was  therefore  able  to  make  a  life  work 
of  spreading  the  knowledge  of  German  poetry  and  philosophy  in  America. 

Theodore  Parker  was  a  minister  thoroughly  acquainted  with  German  literature, 
even  that  of  no  theological  tendency.  Knortz  comments  on  his  other  work: 1 

His  article  on  German  literature,  appended  to  C.  C.  Felton's  English  translation 
of  Menzel’s  history  of  literature,  is  very  interesting;  in  this,  he  makes  a  vigorous 
attack  on  the  nativism  of  his  compatriots.  At  that  time  American  women  in 
New  England  were  accused  of  so  far  forgetting  themselves  as  to  admire  nothing 
but  German  classics.  A  German  epidemic  was  said  to  have  broken  out,  to  which 
professors  and  theologians  had  fallen  victims.  Parker,  who  upon  occasion  could 
be  sarcastic,  expresses  his  astonishment  that  German  literature  was  not  thrown 
back  into  the  salt  ocean  when  it  landed  on  American  soil;  but,  whilst  the  guard¬ 
ians  of  morality  had  fallen  asleep,  the  enemy  came,  and  American  youths  and 
virgins  paid  homage  to  the  German  lotus.  He  makes  a  bold  stroke  for  German 
literature  and  philosophy,  which  he  considers  as  important  as  religion,  and  proves 
by  numerous  examples  that  Germans  are  not,  as  the  Knownothings  so  often 
sounded  forth,  nothing  but  unbelievers,  tobacco  smokers,  visionaries,  and  com¬ 
pilers  of  dictionaries.  He  triumphantly  proclaims  German  literature  to  be  the 
richest,  freshest,  most  beautiful,  original,  and  religious  of  modern  times.  Eng¬ 
land  [he  states]  boasts  much  of  its  classical  learning;  but  the  men  who  prepare 
faultless  editions  of  Roman  and  Greek  authors  and  write  keen  explanations  for 
them  are  Germans.  He  thus  proves  the  superiority  of  German  science  in  all 
departments. 


Knortz,  History  of  North  American  Literature,  I,  page  263. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


561 


The  Emerson  brothers  may  be  numbered  among  the  Coleridgeans  to  whose  great 
influence  reference  has  already  been  made.  William  was  at  first  a  theologian, 
and  sought  Goethe  in  Y/eimar,  to  lay  before  him  his  religious  scruples.  As 
Goethe's  diplomatic  advice  gave  him  little  comfort,  he  changed  his  profession  and 
became  a  lawyer,  whilst  his  brother,  Ralph  Waldo,  so  prominent  in  philosophy 
and  polite  literature,  became  a  minister.  His  essays  belong  to  the  pearls  of  the 
literature  of  the  world.  He  says  of  Goethe  that,  since  Shakespeare,  the  world 
has  produced  no  mind  equal  to  his. 

Goethe  exerted  the  very  strongest  influence  over  the  group  of  American  authors 
in  question.  Longfellow  has  already  been  mentioned  in  this  regard.  George 
Henry  Calvert,  the  author  of  “Goethe,  His  Life  and  Works,”  and  Bayard  Taylor 
should  not  be  omitted.  The  latter  paid  his  first  visit  to  Germany  in  1844  to  take 
his  tramp  through  that  country,  which  he  has  so  charmingly  described  in  his 
Views  Afoot,  or  Europe  with  Knapsack  and  Staff.  He  was  attracted  back  to  Ger¬ 
many  again  and  again,  where  he  met  his  companion  in  life,  and  acquired  so  thor¬ 
ough  a  knowledge  of  the  language  that  he  was  able  to  produce  his  celebrated 
translation  of  Faust. 

At  the  memorable  banquet  of  former  students  of  Gottingen,  held  at  the  Metro¬ 
politan  Club  in  New  York,  November  12,  1898,  an  object  lesson  was,  in  a  manner, 
given  on  the  importance  to  America  of  the  element  of  culture  that  is  gained  by 
the  development  of  American  intelligence  at  German  high  schools.  Among  those 
who  pursued  their  studies  at  the  Georgia  Augusta  before  1850,  or  soon  afterwards, 
were  Edward  Everett,  George  Ticknor,  George  Bancroft,  G.  H.  Calvert,  Emer¬ 
son,  Longfellow,  John  Lothrop  Motley,  Basil  L.  Gildersleeve,  Francis  T.  Child, 
and  George  Martin  Lane.  At  that  time  this  category  numbered  225  students,  of 
whom  not  fewer  than  137  became  professors  at  American  universities  and  colleges. 

One  of  these,  Prof.  E.  T.  Harris,  of  Amherst  College,  thus  expresses  himself  on 
the  advantages  which  the  students  enjoy  there: 

Has  the  American  student  anything  especially  to  gain  in  seeking  a  German  uni¬ 
versity?  My  observation  and  experience  answer  in  the  affirmative.  The  important 
sentiment  first  referred  to  can  only  ripen  into  profit  and  pleasure  by  viewing  the 
scenes  I  have  recounted.  We  must  compare  the  foreign  with  the  home  scenes, 
that  we  may  appreciate  our  own.  And  in  the  purpose  of  a  scholar  it  is  of  the  first 
importance  that  the  opening  and  developing  mind  should  take  in  the  different 
methods  and  points  of  view  we  meet  with  in  foreign  institutions,  where  we  can 
come  in  contact  with  the  very  sources  of  science  and  all  modern  thought.  It  acts 
as  a  quickening  impulse,  and  not  a  few  have,  for  the  first  time,  felt  that  glow  of 
a  burning  enthusiasm  as  they  contrasted  the  German  thought  and  method  with 
those  of  their  native  realm.  It  is  like  feeding  flocks  in  new  fields.  There  is  an 
added  sentiment  which  has  so  of  ten  been  the  keynote  to  so  many  Americans  that 
have  there  had  a  new  birth,  and  afterwards  developed  ofttimes  to  honorable  stand¬ 
ard,  frequently  to  distinction,  and  sometimes  to  fame. 

Harris,  it  is  true,  belongs  to  a  former  generation,  but  the  fact  that,  at  present, 
the  American  colony  in  Gottingen  averages  30  to  50  students  each  session  proves 
that  the  same  force  acts  now  as  before,  despite  the  great  reforms  carried  out  in  the 
system  of  higher  education  in  this  country.  The  only  novelty  consisted  in  the 
women  students,  of  whom  Miss  Margaret  E.  Maltby,  the  second  American  woman 
who  ever  received  an  academic  degree  in  Germany,  was  graduated,  a  few  years 
since,  as  doctor  of  philosophy.1 

It  were  not  easy  to  exhaust  the  plenitude  of  intellectual  relations  between  Ger¬ 
many  and  America  represented  by  the  students  of  Gottingen  alone.  But  Gottin¬ 
gen  is  only  one  among  several  dozen  of  German  universities. 


*It  is  probably  deserving  of  mention  that  the  hall  was  ornamented  with  the  busts  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  six  men:  Edward  Everett,  George  Bancroft,  Motley,  Longfellow,  Benjamin  Franklin,  and 
Prince  Bismarck.  The  latter  was  so  intimate  a  friend  of  Motley  from  their  school  days  that  the 
relation  continued  till  the  latter’s  death. 

ed  1901 - 36 


562 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

Before  1850  Berlin  and  Halle  were  regarded  with  special  favor,  and,  subsequently, 
Leipzig,  Munich,  Heidelberg,  Freiburg.  Wurzburg,  and  many  others  came  into 
notice.  President  Thwing  estimates  the  number  of  students  abroad  at  700  a  ses¬ 
sion.  How  great,  then,  must  be  the  number  of  Americans  who  have  studied  in 
Germany  or  the  neighboring  German-speaking  countries!  There  must  be  thou¬ 
sands,  if  not  tens  of  thousands,  among  the  living,  and  the  influence  of  this  elite 
element  must,  as  a  matter  of  course,  promote  the  relations  of  civilization  between 
the  two  countries. 

In  contrast  to  this  American  exodus  to  the  East,  the  constant  movement  west¬ 
ward  annually  brought  fresh  streams  of  German  immigrants  into  this  country. 
After  the  movement  of  1848  and  1849,  that  notable  class  of  German- Americans 
came  over  that  are  distinguished  from  other  European  malcontents  as  “the 
emigrants  of  1848 (Achtundvierziger).  The  greater  number  of  these  were  iffiysi- 
cians,  lawyers,  ministers,  authors,  and  professors  of  all  kinds,  who  had  adopted 
the  cause  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people  at  the  sacrifice  of  position  and 
honors,  as  well  as  fortune.  They  were  forced  to  emigrate  in  order  to  escape  the 
persecutions  which  they  would  be  called  upon  to  suffer  on  account  of  their  partici¬ 
pation  in  the  revolution.  In  this  country  they  were  taunted  by  the  name  of  world 
reformers,  because  they  criticised  existing  conditions  here  just  as  much  as  those 
that  they  had  left  behind.1  They  discovered,  at  the  same  time,  however,  that  as 
much  as  reform  might  be  needed,  there  was  possibility  of  improvement,  as 
American  intelligence  was  positively  resolved  to  smooth  the  way  for  all  rational 
progress. 

The  burning  questions  of  the  times  were  abolition  and  educational  reform,  both 
of  which  presented  to  the  educated  representatives  of  German  idealism  a  specially 
suitable  field  of  action,  in  which  they  could  cooperate,  body  and  soul,  with  the 
best  native  citizens.  The  cause  of  German  instruction  in  public  schools,  particu¬ 
larly,  received  a  decided  impulse  because  of  the  circumstance  that  so  many  edu¬ 
cated  teachers  were  at  one  time  at  command.  We  have  already  mentioned  some 
Germans,  as  Charles  Follen,  Francis  Lieber,  Dr.  Beck,  Dr.  Blattermann,  and  Oscar 
Seidensticker,  who  occupied  chairs  at  universities.  There  was  now  no  longer  a 
lack  of  teachers  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  optional  German  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  of  cities  with  a  large  German  population.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
fifties  its  introduction  was  effected,  as  in  New  York,  where,  besides  French,  it 
became  an  optional  study  in  the  highest  class  (1854).  In  the  middle  of  the  century 
the  flourishing  period  of  German  private  and  association  schools  first  began,  and 
only  upon  their  decadence  could  the  introduction  of  this  study  into  public  schools 
meet  with  success.  It  was  in  the  natural  order  of  events,  therefore,  that  fresh 
efforts  were  made  to  found  a  German  normal  school.  Dr.  Ad.  Douai  gave  his 
whole  energy  to  the  work  in  New  York,  and  at  the  same  time  was  one  of  the 
strongest  advocates  of  Frobel  kindergartens,  the  first  of  which  was  opened  in 
1855  by  the  wife  of  Karl  Schurz  at  her  residence  in  Watertown,  Wis. 

The  following  words  of  a  competent  Anglo-American  judge  in  recognition  of 
the  work  of  the  emigrants  of  1848  may  be  appropriately  quoted: 

These  Germans  founded  a  vigorous  German- American  press  for  both  defensive 
and  offensive  warfare.  Some  of  them  even  dreamed  of  a  great  German  Freistaat 
in  America.  But  the  most  of  them  were  men  of  cool  heads,  and  looked  with  a 
steady  gaze  to  the  future  of  the  great  Republic.  They  took  up  the  antislavery 
cause  and  made  noble  sacrifice  for  the  American  Union.  They  transplanted  the 
new  turner  organizations  and  revived  the  gymnastic  spirit  of  Beck,  Follen,  and 
Lieber,  advocating  the  doctrine  that  has  become  one  of  the  cardinal  principles 
of  American  education  to-day:  that  manhood  is  the  backbone  of  the  nation's 
strength.  They  introduced  the  scientific  method  and  spirit  of  the  Fatherland, 
many  of  them  becoming  strong  factors  in  American  education.  They  introduced 
German  art,  especially  the  art  of  music,  winning  American  admiration  for  the 


Compare  Mueller’s  Reminiscences  of  an  Emigrant  of  ’43,  page  7. 


GERMAN-  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


563 


rich  melodies  of  German  song,  and  eclipsing  the  masters  of  Italian  opera.  They 
haye  been,  in  a  word,  the  inaugnrators  of  a  new  era  of  German  influence  in 
American  life,  and  we,  as  a  nation,  are  now  at  the  zenith  of  this  great  German 
revival. 1 

The  agitation  of  mind  that  preceded  the  civil  war  was  by  no  means  favorable  to 
the  positive  wort  of  educational  reform,  which  came  in  a  degree  to  a  standstill 
during  the  war.  The  new  citizens  of  the  Republic,  on  that  very  account,  had  a 
better  opportunity  to  prove  their  patriotism  and  show  their  gratitude  for  the  hos¬ 
pitable  reception  which  they  had  received  in  the  1ST ew  W orld.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
they  were  a  valuable  aid  to  the  North  in  its  struggle.  The  following  quotation 
is  taken  from  Yocke’s  The  German  Soldier  in  the  American  Civil  W ar: 

We  have  no  complete  statistics  to  inform  us  with  any  exactness  how  great  the 
participation  of  the  different  nations  represented  in  our  country  was  in  the  civil 
war.  According  to  the  statements  of  Dr.  A.  B.  Gould,  who  was  commissioned  by 
the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission  to  make  out  his  report,  “Investigations 
in  the  Statistics  of  American  Soldiers,”  an  American  work  which,  as  far  as  I  know, 
is  considered  the  most  reliable  by  the  bureaus  in  Washington,  the  Germans  gave 
187,858  men  to  the  Union  army,  while,  in  proportion  to  the  German  population, 
as  given  by  tlie  census  of  1860,  they  need  only  have  sent  128,102.  According  to 
these  figures,  therefore,  we  may  assert  that  the  proportion  of  German  troops,  in 
relation  to  the  population,  was  greater  than  that  of  the  troops  of  other  nationali¬ 
ties.  The  Germans  likewise  gave  a  number  of  brilliant  leaders  and  many  officers 
of  higher  and  lower  rank  whose  names  are  imperishable  in  the  history  of  the  war. 

It  would  lead  us  too  far  from  our  subject  to  go  beyond  this  short  allusion  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  case.  W e  understand  from  it  why  American  patriots  never 
seriously  doubted  on  which  side  the  body  of  German- Americans  would  be  found 
if  vital  interests  of  the  nation  were  ever  at  stake.  That  is  true  of  the  whole  his¬ 
tory  of  the  nation  from  the  beginning  to  the  present  day.2 

The  great  events  of  1866  and  1870-71  were  needed,  it  is  true,  to  open  the  eyes  of 
the  public  at  large  to  the  nucleus  of  substantial  and  respectable  citizens  contained 
within  the  German  communities  and  particular.  States.  This  insight  reacted 
encouragingly  on  the  promotion  .of  German  instruction,  as  the  increased  attend¬ 
ance  on  German  courses  in  different  places  proves. 

No  event  from  the  end  of  the  civil  war  till  the  close  of  this  epoch  furnishes  a 
better  indication  of  general  progress  than  the  founding  of  Cornell  University, 
opened  October  7,  1868,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  This  institution  is  named  after  a  promi¬ 
nent  resident  of  that  city,  Hon.  Ezra  Cornell,  who  contributed  a  half  million  dol¬ 
lars  toward  its  foundation,  upon  the  advice  of  Andrew  D.  White  as  to  how  that 
sum  of  money  could  best  be  devoted  to  the  common  good.  The  programme  of  Cor¬ 
nell  is  as  short  as  it  is  pertinent:  “I  would  found  an  institution  in  which  anyone 
may  study  anything.”  Could  a  better  man  have  been  found  for  the  execution  of 
this  design  than  the  present  member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences?  He  has 
kindly  given  to  the  writer  the  following  information  concerning  the  plans  which 
he  cherished  when  he  accepted  the  presidency: 

I  may  observe  that  instruction  in  German  has  been  begun  and  taken  large  pro¬ 
portions  since  I  was  a  student  at  high  school,  college,  and  university.  In  my 
young  manhood  very  little  Instruction,  if  any,  was  given  in  the  German  language 
and  literature  at  the  leading  universities  of  the  United  States.  What  was  given 
was  entirely  outside  any  regular  course  of  study  and  was  very  little  thought  of. 
At  Yale  University,  at  the  time  of  my  graduation,  1853,  no  Instruction  whatever 
in  German  was  offered  to  students,  though  that  institution  was  the  second  in 
importance  in  the  United  States. 

Since  that  time  a  very  striking  development  has  taken  place.  In  presenting  a 
plan  of  organization  for  Cornell  University,  which  was  established  in  1865,  I,  as 
its  first  president,  laid  especial  stress  on  the  importance  of  instruction  in  the  Ger¬ 
man  language  and  literature,  and  from  the  opening  of  that  university  to  instruc- . 


1  Thos.  J.  Learned,  “German  as  a  culture  element  in  American  Education,”  p.  19. 

2  Compare  The  German- American  during  the  War  between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  1898. 
An  address  delivered  July  4, 1899,  by  Charles  G.  P.  Wahle. 


564 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


tion  in  1888  the  German  literature  has  held  quite  a  large  part.  In  order  to  create 
an  interest  in  the  literature  I  called  the  late  Bayard  Taylor,  who  was  a  devoted 
lover  of  German  literature,  to  give  lectures  on  the  subject,  and  also  called  some 
resident  professors  and  instructors  to  take  charge  of  the  regular  instruction  in 
German.  Other  large  institutions  have  done  the  same  thing,  until  now  such 
instruction  forms  a  very  important  part  in  the  curricula  of  almost  all  the  leading 
institutions  of  learning. 

The  direction  of  Cornell  University  in  this  way  contributed  much  to  inaugu¬ 
rate  the  most  recent  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  entire  educational  system. 
The  author  of  the  classic  study  on  the  New  Germany  deserves  the  praise  of  having 
encouraged,  by  his  action,  the  advocates  of  reform  to  further  progress,  which  has 
since  been  happily  realized  and  found  tangible  expression  in  the  organization  of 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  the  University  of  Chicago,  and  the  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University. 

It  would  be  unjust  to  pass  over  in  silence  the  fact  that  many  leading  educators 
in  the  country  had  the  same  end  in  view  as  White.  Several  of  these  will  be  men¬ 
tioned  later.  We  shall  now  refer  to  but  one,  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris. 

******* 

III.  From  1876  till  the  Close  of  the  Century. 

In  1876  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  was  founded  and  the  scientific  study  of 
the  modern  languages  first  introduced.  It  would  be  hard  to  overestimate  the 
influence  of  this  university  in  giving  full  academic  recognition  to  the  modern  lan¬ 
guages,  in  stimulating  original  research  by  basing  it  on  purely  scientific  methods, 
and  in  bringing  about  a  more  enlightened  attitude  toward  these  languages  in 
other  centers  of  learning. 

With  these  words,  allusion  was  made  to  the  founding  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University  at  a  large  convention  of  prominent  educators.1  As  the  new  university 
at  first  established  only  one  faculty  the  work  could  be  the  more  thoroughly  carried 
out,  and  German  derived  the  greatest  advantage.  From  the  very  beginning, 
therefore,  German- Americans  manifested  the  greatest  interest  in  this  institution. 
This  is  proved  by  the  memorial  published  in  1837  by  the  former  German  Literary 
Bureau,  of  Baltimore,  which  took  an  active  interest  in  the  university. 

The  following  instructive  extract  is  taken  from  the  long  article  of  Prof.  E.  D. 
Schonrich: 

The  Johns  Hopkins  University,  founded  by  a  legacy  of  §3,500,000  left  by  the 
generous  Baltimore  merchant  whose  name  it  bears,  was  opened  October  3,  1876. 
The  administration  of  the  new  university  was  confided  to  a  board  of  trustees  com¬ 
posed  of  12  prominent  citizens  selected  by  the  founder  during  his  lifetime,  and 
this  board  invited  Dr.  Daniel  0.  Gilman,  then  president  of  the  University  of  Cali¬ 
fornia,  to  accept  the  presidency.  In  May,  1875,  he  entered  upon  his  duties,  and 
at  the  opening  of  the  university  he  had  already  given  convincing  evidence  of  his 
exceptional  ability  as  an  organizer  and  administrator.  In  the  organization  the 
German  university,  besides  the  French  and  the  English,  was  kept  in  view  as  a 
model,  with  such  changes  and  additions  as  were  deemed  wise  for  American  condi¬ 
tions.  Thus,  within  the  university  a  preparatory  school  “college”  was  estab¬ 
lished.  This  college  corresponds,  in  the  main,  to  the  three  highest  classes  of  a 
German  gymnasium;  only  the  students  are  allowed  a  conditional  selection  of 
studies  (elective  system),  and  certain  principles  of  the  German  high  school  (Real- 
schule)  have  been  introduced.  The  course  of  studies  in  the  college  is  arranged  for 
three  years.  The  studies  themselves  are  divided  into  seven  groups,  namely: 

I.  Classical  group. 

II.  Mathematical-physical  group. 

III.  Chemical- biological  group. 

IV.  Physical-chemical  group. 

V.  Latin-mathematical  group. 

VI.  Historical-political  group. 

VII.  Group  for  foreign  languages. 

The  whole  system  aims  to  adhere  to  the  spirit  and  organization  of  the  German 
gymnasium  training,  wfith  wise  consideration  of  the  demands  of  modern  times. 


1  Convention  for  the  founding  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  in  Columbia  College,  1883. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


565 


A  diploma  of  this  44 college”  admits  to  the  university  proper.  A  noteworthy 
arrangement  in  the  “college”  is  “  the  board  of  collegiate  advisers,”  composed  of 
representative  lecturers  in  the  different  departments.  Upon  entering,  every  col¬ 
lege  student  is  referred  to  one  of  the  members  of  this  board  as  adviser,  who  assists 
him  in  the  selection  and  pursuit  of  his  studies,  to  whom  the  young  student  may 
confidentially  apply  in  private  affairs,  and  who,  in  a  certain  way,  is  sponsor  to 
him  until  his  admission  into  the  university.  In  the  university,  from  the  very 
beginning  the  most  conscientious  effort  is  made  to  direct  students  to  independent 
action.  All  tends  to  this  end.  In  this  respect  students  are  not  left  to  themselves, 
as  in  Germany. 

Instruction  is  given  according  to  the  German  principle  of  the  seminary.  All 
lectures  are  interpreted  in  the  work  of  the  seminary.  The  professor  proposes 
themes,  which  are  developed  by  the  students  and  must  be  submitted  for  discus¬ 
sion.  What  is  known  in  German  universities  as  “  privatissima  ” — regular  meet¬ 
ings  in  the  home  of  the  lecturer — is  now  and  then  zealously  put  into  practice. 
Instruction  is  thus  more  and  more  individualized,  every  individual  is  stimulated 
to  independent  action,  and,  by  intimate  intercourse  between  teachers  and  pupils, 
exchange  of  thought  and  knowledge  is  assumed  in  its  highest  potentiality. 

The  university  has  but  one  complete  faculty — that  of  philosophy,  The  medical 
faculty  is  about  to  be  established. 1 

The  university  faculty  numbers  53  professors  and  lecturers.  With  but  few 
exceptions,  all  have  spent  more  or  less  time  at  German  universities,  13  of  them 
having  received  abroad  the  degree  of  doctor.  These  are  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  Ph.  D. , 
Gottingen,  1853;  Ira  Remsen,  Ph.  D.,  Gottingen,  1870;  H.  N.  Morse,  Ph.  D.,  Got¬ 
tingen,  1875;  W.  E.  Story,  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1875;  H.  B.  Adams,  Ph,  D.,  Heidelberg, 
1878;  Paul  Haupt,  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1878;  Henry  Wood,  Ph.  D.,  Leipzig,  1879;  M. 
Warren,  Ph.  D.,  Strassburg,  1879;  R.  T.  Ely,  Heidelberg,  1879;  E.  Renouf,  Ph.  D., 
Freiburg,  1880;  Julius  Gobel,  Ph.  D.,  Tubingen,  1881;  G.  H.  Williams,  Ph.  D,, 
Heidelberg,  1882;  Herbert  W.  Smyth,  Ph.  D.,  Gottingen,  1884. 

Two  of  the  above,  Professor  Haupt  and  Dr.  Gobel,  are  native  Germans.  The 
former  was  for  three  years  professor  of  Assyriology  at  the  University  of  Gottingen. 
One  of  the  lecturers,  Dr.  Edward  H.  Spieker,  is  a  German- American. 

No  wonder  that  German  is  called  the  ‘  ‘  court  language  of  the  university.”  That 
the  German  department  under  such  circumstances  is  most  flourishing  is  evident. 
Those  in  charge  are  Prof.  Dr.  Henry  Wood,  Dr.  Marion  D.  Learned,  and  Dr.  Julius 
Gobel. 

Johns  Hopkins  has  been  recognized  in  German  university  circles  as  an  important 
scientific  center.  The  rector  of  Heidelberg  University,  Professor  Kuhne,  wrote  a 
letter  to  President  Gilman  January  2,  1887,  in  which  he  says: 

On  its  foundation,  and  when  we  became  acquainted  with  its  excellent  organiza¬ 
tion,  we  greeted  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  with  special  pleasure  as  a  scientific 
sister  of  the  New  World,  and  again  after  the  new  institution  gained  the  highest 
recognition  everywhere  by  its  magnificent  work.  In  the  beginning  of  its  sixth 
century,  old  Heidelberg  has  won  a  new  and  young  friend,  and  who  knows  but 
that  in  the  future  it  will  not  be  outstripped  by  its  young,  vigorous  companion? 
However  the  case  may  be,  we  can  always  learn  from  each  other,  and  I  can  not 
suppress  the  desire  that  the  students  of  our  universities  may  frequently  have  the 
opportunity  of  studying  with  you  as  your  compatriots  with  us. 

This  letter  is  a  fine  testimony  that  German  academicians  acknowledge  their 
American  colleagues  to  be  equal  factors  in  the  great  international  republic  of  let¬ 
ters,  although  the  latter  have  begun  to  win  their  laurels  in  a  relatively  short  time. 
The  Americans,  however,  have  had  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  make  use  of 
the  accomplishments  of  all  older  civilized  nations  for  their  own  advancement,  and 
they  have  profited  well  by  their  opportunity.  The  possibility  that  American  uni¬ 
versities  may,  in  the  course  of  time,  outstrip  the  German,  as  Professor  Kuhne 
says,  is  therefore  not  inconceivably  far  olf. 

In  the  meantime,  the  best  teachers  and  directors  of  American  universities  fully 
agree  that  they  can  still  learn  a  great  deal  from  Germany,  while  the  German 
language  is  one  of  the  most  important  mediums  to  transmit  the  German 


xIt  was  opened  in  1803.  In  1880  Professor  Gildersleeve  founded  the  American  Journal  of  Phi¬ 
lology,  which  proclaims  the  progress  of  that  science  in  America  throughout  the  world. 


5(36 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


intellectual  treasures  which  are  to  be  again  turned  to  account.  This  is  verified  in 
a  most  notable  passage  of  an  address  of  President  Gilman  to  his  students.1  ‘‘As 
Latin  was  the  language  of  the  scholars  during  the  Middle  Ages,  so  the  knowledge 
of  German  is  now  indispensable  for  anyone  who  claims  the  name  of  a  student 
and  scholar.  ”  The  opinion  that  President  Gilman  alone  holds  this  view  is  best 
disproved  by  the  definition  which  Charles  W.  Eliot,  president  of  Harvard,  has 
given  of  a  £‘ liberal  education.”  In  a  speech  delivered  at  Johns  Hopkins,  he  says:2 

The  next  subjects  for  which  I  claim  a  position  of  academic  equality  with  Greek, 
Latin,  and  mathematics  are  French  and  German.  This  claim  rests  not  on  the 
usefulness  of  these  languages  to  couriers,  tourists,  or  commercial  travelers,  and 
not  on  their  merit  as  languages,  but  on  the  magnitude  and  worth  of  the  literatures, 
and  on  the  unquestionable  fact  that  facility  in  reading  these  languages  is  abso¬ 
lutely  indispensable  to  a  scholar,  whatever  may  be  his  department  of  study.  Until 
within  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  scholarship  had  a  common 
language,  the  Latin;  so  that  scholars  of  all  the  European  nationalities  had  a  perfect 
means  of  communication,  whether  in  speaking,  writing,  or  printing.  But  the 
cultivation  of  the  spirit  of  nationality  and  the  development  of  national  litera¬ 
tures  have  brought  about  the  abandonment  of  Latin  as  the  common  language  of 
learning,  and  imposed  on  every  student  who  would  go  beyond  the  elements  of  his 
subject  the  necessity  of  acquiring  at  least  a  reading  knowledge  of  French  and 
German,  besides  Latin,  indeed,  the  advanced  student  of  our  day  can  dispense 
with  Latin  better  than  with  French,  German,  or  English;  for,  although  the  anti¬ 
quated  publications  in  any  science  may  be  printed  in  Latin,  the  recent  (which  will 
probably  contain  all  that  is  best  in  the  old)  will  be  found  .printed  in  one  of  these 
modern  languages.  I  can  not  state  too  strongly  the  indispensableness  of  both 
French  and  German  to  the  American  or  English  student.  Without  these  lan¬ 
guages  he  will  be  much  worse  off  in  respect  to  communication  with  his  contem¬ 
poraries  than  was  the  student  of  the  seventeenth  century  who  could  read  and 
speak  Latin;  for  through  Latin  the  student  of  the  year  1684  could  put  himself  into 
direct  communication  with  all  contemporary  learning.  So  far  as  I  know,  there  is 
no  difference  of  opinion  among  American  scholars  as  to  the  need  of  mastering  these 
two  languages  in  youth.  The  philologists,  archaeologists,  metaphysicians,  physi¬ 
cians,  physicists,  naturalists,  chemists,  economists,  engineers,  architects,  artists, 
and  musicians  ail  agree  that  a  knowledge  of  these  languages  is  indispensable  to 
the  intelligent  pursuit  of  any  one  of  their  respective  subjects  beyond  its  elements. 
Every  college  professor  who  gives  a  thorough  course  of  instruction — no  matter 
in  what  department — finds  himself  obliged  to  refer  his  pupils  to  French  and  Ger¬ 
man  authorities.  In  the  reference  library  of  any  modern  laboratory,  whether  of 
chemistry,  physics,  physiology,  pathology,  botany,  or  zoology,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  books  will  be  found  to  be  in  French  or  German.  The  working  library  of 
the  philologist,  archseologist,  or  historian  teaches  the  same  lesson.  Without  a 
knowledge  of  these  two  languages  it  is  impossible  to  get  at  the  experience  of  the 
world  upon  any  modern,  industrial,  social,  or  financial  question,  or  to  master  any 
profession  which  depends  upon  applications  of  modern  science.  I  urge  no  utilitarian 
argument,  but  rest  the  claims  of  French  and  German  for  admission  to  complete 
academic  equality  on  the  copiousness  and  merit  of  the  literatures  and  the  indis¬ 
pensableness  of  the  languages  to  all  scholars. 

And  at  another  place  in  his  paper  he  remarked: 

The  opportunities  and  facilities  for  studying  Greek  and  Latin  in  our  schools  are 
none  too  great,  but  surely  the  opportunities  and  facilities  for  studying  French  and 
German  are  far  too  small.  The  modern  languages  should  be  put  on  an  equality 
with  the  ancient. 

The  effort  to  place  modern  languages  on  a  par  with  the  classical  in  the  curric¬ 
ulum  of  higher  institutions  is  the  mark  of  the  last  epoch  in  the  history  of  American 
education,  and.  this  aim  naturally  contributed  to  an  extraordinary  degree  to  the 
promotion  of  German  in  various  directions.  Ample  proofs  of  this  exist. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Educational  Association  held  in  Balti¬ 
more  in  the  year  1876,  Prof.  Edw.  S.  Joynes,  of  South  Carolina  College,  read  a  paper 
on  the  subject,  “Position  of  the  modern  languages  in  the  higher  education,”  in 
which  he  advocates  “that  the  modern  languages  be  elevated  from  the  mere^  tuto- 


1  Baltimore,  Its  Past  and  Present,  p.  208. 

2  What  is  a  Liberal  Education?  A  paper  read  on  the  22d  of  February,  1881. 


GEBMAH  IHSTBTJ CTIGIST  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


567 


rial  position  which  they  have  so  often  occupied  to  a  rank  and  dignity  in  our  higher 
institutions  of  learning  commensurate  with  their  disciplinary  value,  with  their 
literary  importance,  and  with  their  intimate  relations  to  our  own  language,  his¬ 
tory,  and  nation.”  The  convention  agreed  upon  this,  as  their  resolutions  proved. 
This  purely  academic  recognition  of  the  justice  of  their  efforts  was  naturally  not 
enough  for  the  reformers.  Six  months  after  Prof.  Charles  Francis  Adams's  sen¬ 
sational  speech  at  Harvard  against  the  “ fetich”  of  Greek,  to  which  modern  lan¬ 
guages  were  to  be  sacrificed,  a  number  of  interested  men,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
teachers  of  Johns  Hopkins,  met  in  Hew  York  to  form  a  league  for  the  promotion  of 
modern  languages.  - 

At  the  convention  held  in  the  Columbia  College  halls,  December  27  and  28,  1888, 
for  the  purpose  of  founding  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America,  the 
large  colleges  and  universities  of  the  East,  the  State  University  of  Michigan,  and 
12  other  colleges  were  represented  by  32  gentlemen,  who  discussed  the  following 
subjects: 

I.  The  present  condition  of  English,  German,  and  French  in  our  colleges. 

II.  The  methods  of  teaching  the  modern  languages. 

III.  The  best  expedients. 

Respecting  the  transactions  of  the  first  annual  meeting,  likewise  held  at  Colum¬ 
bia,  December  29  and  30,  we  need  only  mention  that  the  following  question  was 
discussed: 

“Would  it  be  desirable  to  allow  the  substitution  of  one  modern  in  place  of  one 
ancient  language  for  admission  to  college?” 

The  result  of  this  debate  was  the  appointment  of  a  committee  composed  of 
Professors  W.  T.  Hewett,  chairman;  Dr.  H.  C.  G.  Brandt,  J.  H.  Worman,  W.  L. 
Montague,  and  H.  A.  Todd,  who  were  commissioned  to  make  exact  inquiries  and 
submit  the  results,  together  with  their  own  opinion,  at  the  next  annual  meeting. 
The  committee  fulfilled  their  duty  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

The  exceptionally  thorough  and  instructive  report  drawn  up  by  Professor  Hewett 
reads  as  follows: 

THE  PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  MODERN  LANGUAGES  IN 
AMERICAN  COLLEGES. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America  a  commit¬ 
tee  was  appointed  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  present  state  of  instruction  in 
the  modern  languages  in  our  American  colleges. 

The  first  duty  of  the  committee  was  to  examine  the  courses  of  study  in  French 
and  German  offered  in  the  different  colleges,  to  determine,  as  far  as  was  possible, 
the  time  devoted  to  these  studies,  both  required  and  elective,  the  order  in  which 
they  were  pursued,  whether  they  were  required  for  admission,  and  their  relative 
place  in  a  college  curriculum.  In  pursuance  of  this  duty  the  committee  sent  out 
blanks  to  nearly  a  hundred  colleges,  and  received  in  reply  statements  of  the  courses 
of  study  and  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  each  language. 

From  catalogues  and  written  reports  of  instructors  the  committee  has  prepared 
a  tabular  view  of  the  instruction  given  in  these  colleges.  The  inquiry  for  infor¬ 
mation  was  sent  to  leading  colleges  in  the  E^st,  South,  and  West,  and  the  returns 
represent  with  approximate  accuracy  the  usage  of  different  sections. 

We  purpose  to  present  briefly  the  results  obtained  by  this  investigation: 

First.  What  is  shown  to  be  the  prevailing  usage  in  requiring  one  or  more  of  the 
modern  languages  for  admission? 

Until  within  a  few  years  the  classics  and  mathematics,  with  a  brief  English 
examination,  have  been  the  main  requirements  for  admission  to  college.  The  intro¬ 
duction  of  French  or  German  is  comparatively  of  recent  date.  Harvard  imposed 
a  slight  prerequisite  for  admission  in  1874;  Cornell  University  added  one  year  of 
French,  German,  or  advanced  mathematics  to  the  courses  in  science,  literature, 
and  philosophy  in  1877;  but  the  traditional  requirements  in  most  colleges  remained 
unchanged.  A  doubt  existed  of  the  capacity  of  training  schools  to  meet  this  new 
requirement. 

If  we  examine  the  table  to  determine  how  general  the  requisition  of  French  or 
German  for  admission  to  the  course  in  arts  is,  we  find  that  half  a  dozen  colleges 


568 


EDUCATION  KEPOST,  1900-1901. 


require  only  one  of  these  languages,  and  the  requisition  is  extremely  meager,  not 
embracing  scientific  grammar  or  any  definite  knowledge  of  the  literature,  but  an 
elementary  knowledge  of  forms  and  the  translation  of  easy  phrases.  Harvard, 
Yale,  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  require  about  a  half  year  of  one  of  these 
languages.  Brown  University  requires  one  year  of  French.  Boston  University 
and  Amherst  College  one  term"  of  French.  Swarthmore  College  requires  one  year 
or  more  of  French  and  German.  We  thus  see  how  limited  even  yet  is  this  require¬ 
ment  for  admission.  A  significant  event  in  the  past  year  has  been  the  revision  of 
the  courses  of  study  at  Yale,  with  a  view  of  giving  a  larger  place  to  the  modern 
languages,  and  the  harmonization  of  other  prescribed  studies.  Through  this  action 
at  least  one-half  year  of  French  and  German  is  required  for  admission,  and  the 
study  of  one  or  both  languages  is  required  during  the  first  two  years.  A  certain 
liberty  of  election  is  permitted  during  the  junior  and  senior  years. 

The  considerations  which  in  our  judgment  demand  that  the  elements  of  French 
and  German  shall  be  required  of  all  "students  before  entering  college  are:  That 
language  is  acquired  with  greatest  facility  when  the  student  is  young,  and  modern 
languages  have  a  special  claim,  since  their  practical  use  is  essential  to  so  many 
students.  If  instruction  in  French  and  German  is  postponed  until  late  in  the 
course,  a  mastery  of  the  language  as  well  as  a  comprehensive  study  of  the  literature 
is  impossible. 

The  objection  to  the  study  of  French  and  German  in  our  secondary  schools  has 
been  due  to  the  fear  that  satisfactory  instruction  in  these  languages  could  not  be 
obtained.  In  a  paper  read  before  the  association  at  its  last  session  I  attempted  to 
show  that  if  elementary  instruction  in  Latin  and  Greek  could  be  successfully 
given  in  the  preparatory  sc&iools  by  our  college  graduates  there  is  no  reason  why 
the  same  graduates,  if  skillful  instruction  is  imparted  in  college,  should  not  be 
equally  competent  to  teach  French,  German,  and  historical  English.  I  showed, 
further,  from  the  statistics  of  the  examinations  at  Harvard  for  ten  years,  that 
while  the  percentage  of  students  conditioned  in  these  languages  upon  entrance 
was  at  first  high  it  has  gradually  fallen  until  in  recent  years  as  many  have  been 
conditioned  in  algebra  and  geometry  as  in  French  or  German.  The  number  con¬ 
ditioned  in  English  is  nearly  as  great  as  that  conditioned  in  German.  The  test  of 
experience  has  shown  that  the  colleges  give  direction  to  all  elementary  instruc¬ 
tion,  define  its  nature,  and  prescribe  its  amounts.  The  standard  of  instruction  in 
our  colleges  should  not  be  dependent  upon  the  low  average  of  the  majority  of  our 
high  schools  and  academies,  but  should  be  determined  solely  by  the  requirements  of 
higher  culture.  The  law  of  educational  history  is  that  the  higher  institutions  and 
the  higher  demands  everywhere  condition  and  prescribe  the  character  of  the  lower. 

The  objections  that  may  be  urged  to  requiring  French  or  German  as  requisite 
for  admission  to  college  may  be  either  that  the  preliminary  course  of  study  is 
already  crowded  and  that  no  "time  remains  to  be  devoted  to  the  modern  languages, 
or  that  in  natural  order  they  should  be  studied  later,  or  that  the  schools  can  not 
give  the  requisite  training.  The  direct  requirements  in  the  classics  and  mathe¬ 
matics  for  admission  to  college  may  be  met  in  a  course  of  study  of  three  years. 
The  average  age  of  students  entering  upon  the  classical  course  in  our  colleges  is 
about  184.  If  we  omit  a  mass  of  subjects  which  are  irrelevant  or  superficially 
pursued,  or  which  can  better  be  studied  later,  there  is  ample  time  for  a  thorough 
elementary  training  in  the  modern  languages,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
classics  should  monopolize  the  earliest  and  most  useful  years  of  the  student. 
There  is  no  purpose  in  this  view  of  the  case  to  displace  the  classics,  but  only  to 
claim  an  equal  right  beside  them  for  the  modern  languages  and  to  insist  that  lan¬ 
guage  is  acquired  with  greater  ease,  as  regards  idioms  and  pronunciation,  early  in 
life  than  later,  and  that  only  when  thus  studied  does  it  become  a  permanent 
possession. 

The  second  question  presented  by'an  examination  of  this  table  of  courses  and 
studies  is,  What  place  is  assigned  to  the  modern  languages? 

Out  of  50  conferring  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  18  or  36  per  cent  could  offer 
instruction  in  French  or  German  in  the  freshman  year,  while  22  or  44  per  cent 
begin  the  study  in  the  sophomore  year;  8  or  16  per  cent  in  the  junior  year,  and  2 
or  4  per  cent  in  the  senior  year.  In  23  colleges,  or  nearly  one-half  of  the  whole 
number,  the  study  of  one  language  is  not  begun  until  the  junior  year.  The 
Canadian  colleges  which  are  included  in  this  table,  University  College  of  Toronto 
University,  McGill  College  of  McGill  University,  and  Dalhousie  College  of  Dal- 
housie  University,  exhibit  a  progressiveness  of  spirit  and  a  thoroughness  of  instruc¬ 
tion  in  the  modern  languages  which  may  well  be  imitated  by  many  of  our  American 
institutions.  In  all  these  instruction  in  French  and  German  is  begun  in  the  fresh¬ 
man  year. 

An  interesting  fact,  revealed  incidentally  in  the  study  of  this  table,  bears  upon  a 
mooted  point  at  the  present  time  in  considering  the  meaning  which  attaches  to  cer- 


GEEMAK  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


569 


tain  degrees— What  value  shall  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  represent?  The  dis¬ 
cussion  of  this  point  is  foreign  to  this  report,  hut  the  following  colleges  confer  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  without  a  knowledge  of  Greek:  Dalhousie  College,  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  the  University  of  Oregon,  Randolph-Macon  College, 
South  Carolina  College,  and  Swarthmore  College;  Harvard  and  the  University  of 
Toronto  require  an  entrance  examination  in  Greek.  As  a  substitute  for  the  entrance 
examination  in  Greek,  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  requires  an  examination  in 
both  French  and  German;  Dalhousie  College,  in  French  or  German;  South  Carolina 
College  gives  the  degree  of  B.  A.  for  all  courses  of  study.  Tulane  University  con¬ 
fers  the  degree  of  B.  A.  for  courses  in  classics,  modern  languages,  mathematics, 
natural  science,  commerce,  and  mechanics. 

The  third  question  to  which  an  answer  is  given  in  this  table  is,  What  position  do 
French  and  German  occupy  in  modern  college  education? 

Out  of  50  colleges  29,  or  58  per  cent,  require  one  foreign  language;  18  or  86  per 
cent  require  no  foreign  language  for  graduation  in  arts;  18  or  36  per  cent  require 
both  French  and  German. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  different  colleges  in  the  amount  of  instruc¬ 
tion  afforded  in  the  modern  languages.  Assuming  15  hours  per  term  as  a  normal 
average  of  the  studies  of  each  student  and  190  hours  as  the  aggregate  of  the  four 
years’  course,  the  smallest  number  of  hours  of  instruction  offered  in  French  and 
German  in  any  college  conferring  the  degree  of  B.  A.  is  15  hours,  or  8  per  cent  of 
all  the  studies  of  the  curriculum,  or,  in  other  words,  only  one-twelfth  of  all  the 
time  of  the  student  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  literature  of  France  and  Ger¬ 
many.  This  minimum  is  counterbalanced  by  the  extended  courses  in  French 
and  German  offered  in  Harvard,  Cornell,  Michigan,  and  Toronto  universities  and 
Columbia  College,  where  the  percentage  of  elective  hours  possible  in  modern 
languages  reaches  56  per  cent  of  the  entire  curriculum  for  the  degree  of  B.  A. 

Of  50  colleges  conferring  the  degree  of  B.  A.  from  which  full  reports  have  been 
received,  Harvard,  Michigan,  and  Cornell  universities  offer  more  than  100  hours 
in  French  and  German  out  of  a  possible  190;  Toronto,  California,  and  Columbia 
offer  between  75  and  100  hours:  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  its  collegiate 
course,  Yale,  Indiana,  Iowa,  and  McGill  universities  and  Swarthmore  and  Amherst 
colleges  offer  between  50  and  75  hours. 

Another  question  which  is  answered  by  the  table  is,  What  is  the  order  of  prece¬ 
dence  of  these  two  languages  in  the  judgment  of  the  majority  of  educators?  The 
former  prominence  given  to  French  and  the  comparatively  late  introduction  of 
German  as  an  essential  part  of  a  college  course  give  French  still  the  precedence  in 
the  arrangement  of  studies.  French  is  studied  in  three-fourths  of  our  colleges  in 
the  first  two  years.  German  is  begun  in  a  little  more  than  half  the  colleges  during 
the  same  period,  while  in  the  remainder  it  belongs  to  the  last  half  of  the  course. 
French  is  begun  in  the  freshman  year  in  16,  German  in  18  colleges;  French  is  begun 
in  the  sophomore  year  in  20,  German  in  15  colleges;  French  is  begun  in  the  junior 
year  in  11,  German  in  20  colleges;  French  is  begun  in  the  senior  year  in  2,  German 
in  2  colleges.  One  college  does  not  report  French  in  its  curriculum,  and  no  mention 
of  if  appears  in  its  catalogue.  The  College  of  the  Holy  Cross, in  Worcester,  Mass,, 
reports  little  demand  for  German  and  a  larger  demand  for  French,  owing,  possibly, 
to  the  large  number  of  French-Canadians  in  the  manufacturing  cities  of  Hew 
England.  Conversely,  the  College  of  St.  Louis  reports  almost  no  demand  for 
French  on  the  part  of  its  x>upils,  but  a  large  and  uniform  demand  for  German. 

Few  colleges  have  a  modern-language  requirement  for  admission  to  the  course 
in  arts.  Of  the  50  reported,  8  require  French,  2  offer  an  election  between  French 
and  German,  and  2  require  both  French  and  German. 

The  position  assumed  at  the  opening  of  this  paper,  that  the  modern  languages 
should  be  studied  before  entering  college,  receives  support  from  the  position  of 
these  studies  in  the  G-erman  gymnasia.  The  practical  use  of  at  least  two  foreign 
languages,  French  and  English,  is  attained  before  entering  the  university.  Ger¬ 
man  students  possess  not  only  a  knowledge  of  the  grammar  of  these  languages, 
but  familiarity  with  much  that  is  best  in  the  literatures.  The  admirable  results 
attained  in  Germany  in  the  burgerschulen  and  gymnasia  in  the  same  periods  in 
which  pupils  are  attending  our  grammar  and  high  schools  show  the  wraste  of 
time,  the  dissipation  of  interest,  the  defective  methods  of  our  schools.  The  limita¬ 
tion  of  preliminary  studies  to  language,  viz.  the  classics,  French  and  German, 
historical  English,  the  essentials  of  arithmetic,  which  do  not  involve  advanced 
processes,  algebra  and  geometry,  would  afford  the  basis  for  an  admirable  collegiate 
training.  The  multiplicity  of  subjects,  the  loss  of  time  by  devoting  attention  to 
minor  branches,  naturally  and  better  acquired  later,  are  among  the  evils  of  our 
present  school  system.  The  pupil's  pow7ers  are  exhausted  and  no  true  mastery  of 
the  essentials  of  a  single  branch  of  knowledge  attained. 

The  attention  of  school  boards  should  be  directed  to  correcting  these  abuses, 


570 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


which  are  due  fco  a  false  conception  of  what  is  required  in  elementary  education 
as  well  as  to  defective  methods. 

W e  find  established  in  the  numerous  colleges  a  course  sometimes  called  the  Latin- 
scientific  course,  but  which  in  a  majority  of  cases  is  designated  as  the  course  in  phi¬ 
losophy.  In  one  or  two  cases  we  find  the  term  4  4  course  in  letters,”  with  the  degree 
Bachelor  of  Letters  applied  to  it,  as  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  Sometimes  it 
is  called  the  modern-language  course,  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  as  in 
Adelbert  College,  or  the  modern  classical  course,  as  in  the  University  of  Wiscon¬ 
sin,  where  the  degree  of  B.  L.  is  given.  This  course  does  not  require  Greek, 
either  for  admission  or  after  entering.  The  place  of  Greek  is  supplied  usually  by 
an  entrance  requirement  in  modern  languages.  In  this  course  more  opportunity 
is  presented  for  the  study  of  modern  languages  than  in  the  course  in  arts  which  we 
have  just  considered.  The  requirements  for  admission  are  considerable,  and  large 
opportunity  for  the  study  of  French  and  German  is  afforded.  Nearly  one-half  of 
the  colleges  reported  contain  this  course  in  philosophy,  or  one  in  letters  of  the 
same  general  character. 

One  curse  of  our  educational  system  is  the  variety  of  degrees  conferred  which 
have  no  specific  or  recognized  meaning.  An  effort  on  the  part  of  all  our  colleges 
to  unify  degrees  and  give  them  a  fixed  value  would  contribute  to  rescue  our 
degree  system  from  merited  contempt.  Degrees  are  even  invented  to  accommo¬ 
date  them  to  some  supposed  fitness  on  the  part  of  the  recipient,  whose  qualifica¬ 
tions  would  not  justify  a  degree  of  general  signification.  The  prevalence  of  the 
degree  of  Ph.  B.  suggests  that  its  adoption  in  its  present  accepted  meaning  would 
be  one  step  in  the  direction  indicated. 

A  noticeable  and  commendable  tendency  in  scientific  and  technical  schools  and 
in  colleges  offering  scientific  courses  is  shown  by  the  prominence  given  to 
the  study  of  the  modern  languages.  The  vast  treasures  of  scientific  discovery 
which  are  contained  in  these  languages  make  the  most  advanced  attainments 
impossible  without  them.  The  tendency  of  all  professional  and  technical  pur¬ 
suits  is  to  exclusive  devotion  to  a  single  end.  A  narrow  and  strictly  technical 
course  limits  the  view  of  the  relation  of  the  different  departments  of  science. 
Literary  training  makes  thought  and  expression  clear,  and  any  course  of  study 
that  ignores  this  element  in  education  is  in  that  degree  defective  and  its  results 
unsatisfying. 

The  leading  scientific  schools,  such  as  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  and  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  make  ample  provision  for  the  study  of 
French  and  German,  both  as  instruments  of  culture  as  well  as  for  their  practical 
use  in  scientific  pursuits. 

The  critical  study  of  English  has  made  a  rapid  advance  since  the  foundation  of 
this  association.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  our  Southern  colleges.  Excellent 
advanced  courses  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English  are  now  offered  in  many 
colleges  in  the  South.  For  a  decade,  it  is  safe  to  say,  this  study  in  the  North 
was  confined  to  but  a  few  leading  institutions,  among  which  Harvard.  Lafayette, 
and  Cornell  deserve  especial  mention.  An  examination  of  the  courses  of  study 
in  the  hundred  colleges  which  have  been  reviewed  reveals  graver  deficiencies  in 
the  study  of  historical  English  than  in  that  of  French  or  German.  The  instruc¬ 
tion  in  our  own  language,  with  its  matchless  inheritance  of  the  treasures  of 
literature,  is  less  adequate  than  that  of  the  modern  languages.  Here  the  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  are  lamentably  deficient.  Years  of  time  are  spent  in  the  study  of 
grammar  and  in  reading  some  elementary  history  of  literature,  and  the  student 
44  graduates”  at  some  famous  high  school  with  no  knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon,  no 
linguistic  training  ‘which  will  fit  him  to  read  Chaucer  or  even  Shakespeare  intelli¬ 
gently.  The  murder  of  the  innocents  is  repeated  in  our  public  schools  every  year 
and  in  the  training  of  nearly  every  scholar. 

Two  or  three  questions  remain:  Does  the  character  of  the  French  or  German 
language  or  the  relation  of  either  to  English  or  to  the  classics  suggest  a  natural 
order  in  their  study?  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  our  large  German  population, 
scattered  throughout  all  our  cities  and  larger  villages,  makes  it  possible  to  secure 
instruction  in  German  from  capable  native  teachers  more  generally  than  in 
French.  The  compulsory  instruction  in  German  in  the  public  schools  of  many 
Yfestern  cities  gives  prominence  to  this  language  and  promotes  its  study.  If  we 
assume  that  the  historic  study  of  English  should  become  a  part  of  all  instruction 
in  our  lower  schools,  replacing  the  so-called  English  grammar,  the  transition  to 
German  is  not  difficult.  Its  kindred  words  and  inflexions  will  present  enough  of 
divergence  of  form  to  stimulate  comparison  and  attract  interest  without  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  the  difficulties  of  an  entirely  dissimilar  language.  For  students  unfa¬ 
miliar  with  the  classics,  the  discipline  of  a  language  possessing  such  a  regularity 
of  forms  and  fullness  of  inflexions  as  the  German  affords  a  linguistic  discipline 
akin  to  the  classical. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


571 


Similarly,  the  entrance  upon  the  study  of  French  through  the  Latin  is  easy.  A 
knowledge  of  French  is,  however,  of  high,  if  not  indispensable,  value  in  the  study 
of  semi-Saxon,  and  of  later  English.  These  considerations  reenforce  our  position 
at  the  opening  of  this  paper,  that  both  in  themselves  and.  from  their  relation  to 
later  study,  instruction  in  these  two  important  languages  should  be  begun  at  an 
early  date.  A  knowledge  of  French  will,  conversely,  throw  light  upon  Latin  forms 
and  facilitate  its  acquisition. 

The  question  what  is  a  proper  equivalent  for  Greek  in  the  requirements  for 
admission  to  college  can  not  be  settled  by  any  a  priori  or  doctrinaire  considera¬ 
tions.  Admitting  the  equal  value  of  both  languages  in  modern  culture,  and  the 
force  of  the  argument  in  favor  of  their  early,  precollegiate  study,  the  question  of 
their  relative  order  or  precedence  will  be  determined  by  practical  considerations  in 
the  schools;  only  the  grammar  will  be  taught  on  scientific  and  historical  princi¬ 
ples,  and  a  substantial  acquaintance  with  the  languages  themselves  will  be 
properly  required. 

The  above  report  is  a  commendable  evidence  of  the  earnestness  and  conscien¬ 
tiousness  with  which  the  association  accepted  its  important  mission.  It  was 
supplemented  by  two  other  reports  submitted  to  the  association,  one  of  which 
referred  to  the  progress  of  the  study  of  modern  languages  in  the  South,  while  the 
other  gave  a  general  statistical  review  of  its  growth  throughout  the  country. 

The  text  of  the  first  is  as  follows: 

Report  by  Prof.  Edivard  S.  Joynes,  of  South  Carolina  College ,  on  the  progress  of 

modern  language  study  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  late  Confederate 

States  since  the  war  (I86O-I8S4.)  ■ 

The  study  of  the  modern  languages  was  so  little  known  in  the  colleges  of  the 
South  before  the  war,  as  the  following  statement  will  show,  that  it  may  be  said 
with  truth  that  the  progress  exhibited  in  this  paper  covers  a  little  more  than  a 
decade— the  years  (since  1867-1876)  of  the  restored  autonomy  of  the  Southern 
States  and  of  the  reviving  work  of  their  educational  institutions  under  the  neW 
condition  of  public  affairs.  Indeed  the  results  would  have  been  only  the  more 
striking  if  1870  instead  of  1860  had  been  assumed  as  our  starting  pom  t  of  compari¬ 
son,  but  they  would  not  have  been  so  significant. 

Early  in  November  I  issued  to  45  colleges  and  universities  of  the  late  Confeder¬ 
ate  States,  including  all  institutions  of  any  prominence,  a  circular  letter  asking 
for  information  on  the  points  hereafter  noted.  I  regret  to  say  that  I  have  received 
only  15  replies.  The  institutions  from  which  returns  are  presented  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing:  The  University  of  Virginia;  Washington  and  Lee  University,  Virginia; 
Roanoke  College,  Virginia;  Virginia  Military  Institute;  Virginia  Agricultural 
College;  West  Virginia  University;  Vanderbilt  University,  Tennessee;  University 
of  Arkansas;  South  Carolina  College;  Wofford  College,  South  Carolina;  South 
Carolina  Military  Academy;  University  of  Louisiana;  University  of  Texas;  South¬ 
western  University,  Texas;  Austin  College,  Texas.  Many  of  the  institutions  from 
which  the  most  important  returns  might  have  been  expected  are,  I  regret  to  say, 
not  reported,  notably  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  the  University  of  Ten¬ 
nessee,  the  University  of  Georgia,  the  University  of  Alabama,  the  University  of 
Mississippi,  etc.  But  I  have  good  reason  to  know  that  their  returns  would  only 
have  confirmed  the  results  reported.  It  should  be  stated  that  some  qf  the  institu¬ 
tions  here  included  liave  been  founded  since  1860.  But  this  does  not  affect  ths 
value  of  the  returns  given.  This  fact  is  only  a  further  testimony  to  the  general 
awakening  of  education  in  the  South  since  the  war. 

Summary  of  instruction  in  modern  languages  in  fifteen  colleges  and  universities  in 
the  late  Confederate  States. 


1860. 

1884. 

Gain. 

Gain 
per  cent. 

Number  of  professors  of  modern  languages . . . . 

3 

15 

12 

400 

Number  of  other  teachers  of  modern  languages . . 

a  4 

15 

11 

275 

Number  of  students  of  modern  languages, . _ . 

255 

1,210 

268 

955 

370 

Total  hours  weekly  in  modern  languages . . 

30 

238 

780 

Number  of  courses  of  study  for  degrees,  including  modern 
languages . . . . . 

5 

47 

42 

840 

Total  years  in  any  modern  language  required  for  degrees . 

6 

36 

30 

500 

a  Ail  in  one  institution,  tlie  University  of  Virginia. 


572 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


These  figures  are  remarkable.  In  fact  they  almost  render  comparison  impos¬ 
sible,  by  showing  that  the  study  of  modern  languages  has  found  a  recognized 
place  in  the  higher  education  of  the  South  only  since  the  war,  or,  as  has  been 
already  explained,  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  When  we  consider  the 
poverty  and  depression  of  the  people  of  the  South  during  this  period  we  must 
confess  that  the  facts  here  exhibited  are  not  only  remarkable,  but  extraordinary 
and  most  encouraging. 

In  many  if  not  all  of  these  institutions  the  work  done  in  modern  languages 
would  doubtless  fall  far  below  the  highest  standard.  But  this  is  due  not  so  much 
to  shortcomings  in  the  colleges  themselves  as  to  the  want  of  good  preparatory 
schools  in  the  South,  and  applies  to  modern  languages  only  in  common  with  all 
other  departments  in  Southern  colleges.  The  professors  and  teachers  of  modern 
languages  in  these  colleges  are,  so  far  as  I  know  them,  men  of  high  qualifications 
and  of  earnest  purpose.  The  foundation  at  least  is  securely  laid,  and  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  the  work  in  this  department  will  be  advanced  as  rapidly  as 
the  condition  of  our  Southern  people  may  require  or  permit. 

Much  of  the  progress  here  exhibited  is  due  to  the  general  awakening  of  educa¬ 
tional  interest  in  the  Southern  States;  much  of  it  also  to  new  and  larger  views  of 
education  in  general — to  enlarged  and  multiplied  courses  of  study  and  the  relaxa¬ 
tion  of  the  old  curriculum.  But  not  a  little  is  due  directly  to  new  views  of  the 
educational  value  and  importance  of  the  modern  languages  themselves,  as  shown, 
first,  by  the  faculties,  and  then  in  the  progressive  action  of  the  governing  boards 
of  Southern  institutions.  Of  course  such  movements  in  official  quarters  are  only 
responsive  to  a  progressive  change  in  the  general  public  demand,  but  this  demand 
is  also  greatly  stimulated  and  extended  thereby.  On  this  point  I  may  add  some 
interesting  facts  within  the  limits  of  a  single  personal  experience — interesting  not 
from  their  personal  bearing,  but  because  they  illustrate  the  growth  of  opinion  in 
influential  quarters.  The  first  chair  of  modern  languages  established  in  the 
South,  so  far  as  1  know,  after  the  war  was  (1866)  in  Washington  and  Lee  Uni¬ 
versity — then  Washington  College — Lexington,  Va.,  under  the  presidency  of  Gen. 
Robert  E.  Lee,  whose  large  and  prophetic  mind  foresaw  the  future  as  it  recog¬ 
nized  the  present  demands  of  Southern  education.  Yet  even  under  this  great 
influence  these  languages  were  admitted,  as  it  were,  onty  by  sufferance.  A  spe¬ 
cial  fee  of  $20,  outside  of  the  usual  tuition,  was  charged  for  each  modern  language, 
thus,  at  first,  practically  excluding  them  from  the  course  of  study.  In  a  few 
years  the  growing  demand  overcame  this  restriction  and  the  modern  languages 
were  admitted  into  the  regular  courses  on  equality  with  other  branches. 

In  1875  the  Vanderbilt  University  was  organized  on  a  scale  designed  to  repre¬ 
sent  the  foremost  progress  of  Southern  education.  Yet  in  its  first  programme 
only  an  adjunct  professorship,  with  greatly  reduced  salary,  was  assigned  to  mod¬ 
ern  languages.  But  before  the  organization  was  effected  this  was  raised  to  the 
rank  and  pay  of  a  full  professorship,  and  from  the  first  this  department  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  in  the  university,  as  now— still  further  subdivided — it  is 
one  of  the  most  advanced  in  the  South.  From  1877  to  1880  a  like  advancement  and 
extension  of  the  course  of  study  in  modern  languages  was  made  in  the  University 
of  Tennessee.  In  1882,  in  the  reorganization  of  South  Carolina  College,  only  a 
tutorship  on  half  pay  was  assigned  to  modern  languages,  but  when  the  faculty 
was  constituted  this  department  occupied  a  full  chair,  and  the  modern  languages 
were  made  requisite  in  all  the  courses  of  study  appointed  for  degrees.  These  are 
only  records  of  my  own  experience,  given  here  as  signs  of  a  public  progress; 
others  of  equal  interest  could  doubtless  be  found  in  the  recent  history  of  other 
Southern  institutions,  as  the  University  of  Mississippi,  for  example. 

Thus,  in  the  South  all  signs  point  to  the  gratifying  progress  of  the  study  of 
modern  languages  in  the  higher  education.  Fifteen  years  ago  these  languages 
were  hardly  recognized  in  our  colleges.  Now  there  is  not  a  Southern  college  of 
any  prominence  or  pretensions  that  does  not  make  provision,  more  or  less  exten¬ 
sive,  for  their  study;  and  gradually,  yet  rapidly,  they  are  taking  their  place  along¬ 
side  of  the  most  favored  requirements  in  our  courses  of  study.  This  progress  is  sup¬ 
ported  oy  an  intelligent  and  growing  appreciation  on  the  part  of  students  and  of 
the  public.  Wherever  the  elective  system  prevails  these  studies  hold  their  own 
and  show,  indeed,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  rates  of  increase.  The  day  of  preju¬ 
dice  and  depreciation  which  I  have  witnessed  is  now  past.  The  right  of  the 
modern  languages  to  a  place  in  every  scheme  of  liberal  education,  on  an  equality 
with  the  most  important  studies,  is  now  recognized  in  every  Southern  college 
which  aspires  to  a  leading  rank. 

The  above-mentioned  statistical  review  included  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
36  States,  from  which  authentic  reports  or  catalogues  were  obtained.  Within 
these  localities  in  the  year  1884  there  were  273  institutions  with  instruction  in 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


573 


modern  languages  that  engaged  616  professors  and  instructors  besides  92  other 
teachers. 

From  this  list  we  make  the  following  extract,  which  contains  the  205  institutions 
that  reported  German  as  a  special  study.  It  is  likewise  of  interest  to  add  the 
names  of  the  professors  of  German  and  the  number  of  their  assistants,  as  they 
are  contained  in  the  original  report. 

List  of  colleges  and  their  professors  of  German. 


State  and  institution. 


Professor  of  German. 


Number 
of  assist¬ 


ants. 


California: 

State  University  of  California . 

Santa  Clara  College . . . - . 

University  of  Southern  California,  Los  Angeles 

St.  Ignatius  College,  San  Francisco . 

Colorado: 

Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs . 

University  of  Colorado,  Boulder . 

University  of  Denver,  Denver . 

Connecticut: 

Yale . - . 

Sheffield  Scientific  School . . . 

District  of  Columbia: 

Columbian  University . . 

Washington  High  School . 

Illinois: 

Augustana  College,  Rock  Island . . . 

Blackburn  University,  Carlinville . 

Ewing  College,  Ewing.. . .... 

Illinois  College,  Jacksonville . 

Illinois  State  University,  Champaign - - 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  Bloomington... 

Knox  College,  Galesburg. - - - - - 

Lake  Forest  University,  Chicago . . ..... 

Lincoln  University,  Lincoln . ... 

McKendree  College,  Lebanon . . . . . 

Northwestern  College,  Naperville . 

Northwestern  University,  Evanston . . . 

Shurtleff  College,  Upper  Alton . 

St.  Ignatius  College,  Chicago . . . 

St.  Viateur’s  College,  Bourbonnais  Grove - 

University  of  Chicago,  Chicago  . . 

Wheaton  College,  Wheaton . . . 

Indiana: 


Albin  Putzker.. . 

W.  Melchers . . 

Rev.  G.  H.  Bolinger . 

Rev.  P.  Mans . . 

Mrs,  Mary  T.  Hatch . . . 

Miss  Mary  Rippon  . . 

Dr.  Wm.  P.  Headen . 

Tutor,  Alfred  B.  Nichols . 

Instructor,  Albert  S.  Wheeler  ... 

A.  H.  Janus . . . 

Dr.  W.  Bernhardt . 

A.  O.  Bersell . . . 

Instructor,  Th.  Blanke - 

Instructor,  Yal.  Minier . 

Henry  E.  Storrs . . 

Edward  Snyder . . 

Wm.  H.  Waite . . . . . 

Thomas  R.  Willard . 

Miles  Whittlesey . . . 

Teacher,  Miss  Clara  Cook . 

Rev.  Wm.  F.  Swahlen . 

Rev.  Wm.  Heidner . .. 

Instructor,  Rev.  Geo.  H.  Horswell 
Instructor,  Rev.T.  C.  C.  Clarke.... 

Rev.  T.  F.  Pohls . 

Rev.  Angels  Dosling . 

Oscar  Howes . . . . . 

¥7.  H.  Fischer . . . . . 


o 


Butler  University,  Irvington . 

Earlham  College,  Richmond _ _ _ 

Indiana  University,  Bloomington  (depart¬ 
ment  of  modern  languages). 

Moores  Hill  College,  Moores  Hill . 

Iowa: 

Agricultural  College,  Ames . 

Iowa  College,  Grinnell . . . . 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  Mount  Pleasant.. 

Cornell  College,  Mount  Vernon . . . . 

St.  J  oseph’s  College,  Dubuque . 

Kansas: 


Hugh  C. Garvin  . . . . . 

Dr.lHans  v.  Yagemann . 

Dr.  S.  Garner .  1 

Monroe  Yay hinge  r . .  . 

Preceptress,  Martha  Sinclair  . . 

Instructor,  Wm.  T.  Seelye . . . 

Instructor,  Geo.  Addiks . 

Mrs.  Harriette  J.  Cooke  . .... . . 

P.  Hoffmann . —  1 


Baker  University,  Baldwin . . 

Bethany  College,  Topeka . . . 

Campbell  Normal  College,  Holton . 

Highland  University,  Highland . 

Kansas  Normal  College, Fort  Scott.. . 

Ottawa  University,  Ottawa . . . 

St.  Benedict’s  College,  Atchison . . 

State  University,  Lawrence . 

Y/ashburn  College,  Topeka . 

Kansas  Normal  School,  Paola. . . . 

State  Normal  School,  Emporia . 

Kentucky: 

Bethel  College,  Russellville . 

Central  College,  Richmond . . 

Center  College,  Danville . 

Georgetown  College,  Georgetown  . . . . 

Kentucky  University,  Lexington . 

Kentucky  Wesleyan  College,  Miller sburg . 

South  Kentucky  College,  Hopkinsville . 

Cecilian  College,  Cecilian  Post-Office . 

St.  Joseph’s  College,  Bardstown . 

Louisiana: 


Miss  Ida  A.  Ahlborn . 

Miss  C.Adell  Coleman . . . 

Carl  F.  Menninger . . . . 

Dr.  Daniel  Kloss . 

H.  T.  Bauer . . . 

Dr.  Gge.  Sutherland . 

Chas.  Stoeckle . . 

Arthur  G.  Canfield  . . .  1 

Miss  Nathalie  Thomas . . . 

Miss  Ella  M.  Kingsley. - - - 

Miss  Emilie  Kuhlmann . . . . 

John  Phelps  Fruit . . . 

J.  T.  Akers. . . . . . . 

John  W.Redd . . 

R.  H.  Garnett . . . . 

Charles  Schultze . 

B.T.  Spencer . 

Frans  S.  Braun . . 

Ferd.  Kretz . . 

Alb.  Schadler . 


Centenary  College  of  Louisiana,  Jackson. 
Louisiana  State  University,  Baton  Rouge. 

Tulane  University.  New  Orleans . . 

Jefferson  College,  St.  Mary’s,  St.  James _ 


C.  E.  Greene  . . 

L.  W.  Sewell _ 

J.Hanno  Deiler _ 

Rev.  A.  Braxmeyer. 


574 


EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1901. 

List  of  colleges  and  their  professors  of  German — Continued. 


State  and  institution. 


Maryland: 

Baltimore  City  College,  Baltimore . 

Johns  Hopkins,  Baltimore . 

New  Windsor  College,  New  Windsor . . 

Mount  St.  Mary’s  College,  Emmitsburg . 

St.John’s  College,  Annapolis. . . 

Western  Maryland  College,  Westminster - 

Massachusetts : 

Amherst  College,  Amherst . . . 

Boston  University,  Boston . . 

Harvard,  Cambridge . . . 

Smith  College,  Northampton . . 

Tufts  College,  College  Hill . . . . . . 

Wellesley  College,  Wellesley . - . . 

Williams  College,  Williamstown. . 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Bos¬ 
ton. 

Michigan: 

Adrian  College,  Adrian . . . . 

Hillsdale  College,  Hillsdale . . . . . 

Kalamazoo  College,  Kalamazoo  .. . . 

University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor . . 


State  Normal  School,  Ypsilanti . 

Minnesota: 

Hamline  University,  Minneapolis . 

University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis. . . 

Mississippi : 

Mississippi  College,  Clinton . . . . . 

Toceopola  College,  Pontotoc . . . . . . 

University  of  Mississippi,  Oxford .. . . 

Whitworth  Female  College,  Brookhaven . 

Central  Female  Institution,  Clinton . 

Dudley  Institute,  Dudley _ _ ... _ 

Elisha  Calaway  Institute,  Macon . . 

Grenada  Institute,  Grenada . . 

Maury  Institute,  Holly  Springs _ _ 

Mississippi  Military  Institute,  Pass  Christian . 

Macon  Public  School,  Macon . . . . 

Missouri: 

Central  Wesleyan  College,  Warren  ton . . 

Drury  College,  Springfield . 

Fayette  College,  Fayette . . . . . 

Lewis  College,  Glasgow . . . . 

St.  Louis  University,  St.  Louis _ ....^ . 

St.  Vincent’s  College,  Cape  Girardeau . . 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia  . . 

Washington  University,  St.  Louis . 

Westminster  College,  Fulton  . . . . 

William  Jewell  College,  Liberty . 

Washington  University  (Manual  Training 
School). 

Nebraska: 

University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln . . . . 


New  Hampshire: 

Dartmouth  College,  Hanover . . . 

New  Jersey: 

College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton . . 

Seaton  Hall  College,  South  Orange . . 

Stevens  Institute,  Hoboken . . . . 

New  York: 

Alfred  University,  Alfred _ _ _ _ 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca . . 

Hamilton  College,  Clinton . . 

Hobart  College,  Geneva . . . . 

Union  College,  Schenectady  .  _ . . . 

University  of  Rochester,  Rochester . 

Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie _ _ _ 

W ells  College,  Aurora _ *_  _  _ . . 

Columbia  College,  New  York . 

Manhattan  College,  New  York . . . . . 

St.  John’s  College,  Fordham. . 

St.  Lawrence  University,  Canton . __ . 

University  of  the  City  of  New  York. . 

University  of  the  State  of  New  York _ 

Adelphi  Academy,  Brooklyn . . 

a  H.  S.  White  and  T.  T.  W.  Krueger. 


Professor  of  German. 

Number 
of  assist¬ 
ants. 

Chas.  F.  Raddatz . . 

Teachers,  Geo.  Hempl  and  Henry 
Wood. 

Instructor,  Emil  Benkert . 

C.  A.  LeToup . . 

Wm.  H.  Hopkins. . . 

Instructor,  Rev.  T.  H.  Lewis . 

Henry  B.  Richardson . 

Augustus  H.  Buck . . 

1 

3 

Q.  A.  Bartlett _ _ _  _ _ _ 

Frau  Marie F. Kapp . . . 

C.  E.  Fay . . 

Elizabeth  H.  Denio . . . 

3 

1 

Rich.  Austin  Rice  . . . . . 

Charles  P.  Otis . . . . . 

Barnard  H.  Rupp . 

Rev.  John  S.  Copp . 

Instructor,  Rev.  Ign.  Muller . . 

Instructor,  Alfred  Hennequin; 
Professor  of  modern  languages, 
Dr.  Edw.  L.  Walter. 

August  Lodemann . 

E.  F.  Mearkle . . . 

John  J.  Moore  _ _ _ 

John  G.  Deupree . . . 

Wvnu  David  Heldeston . 

Charles  Woodward  Hutson _ 

Teacher,  Miss  Annie  Marion  Brown 
Emil  Meuger . . . 

President,  W.  S.  Dudley . 

Teacher,  Miss  Caloway . . . 

Teacher,  Miss  Edwina  Brumley . . . . 

Teacher,  Miss  Gray . . 

Professor  Patrick _ _ _ 

A.  H.  Foster . . . 

J.  M.  Rinkell . . . 

Geo.  B.  Adams . . . 

Miss  Mary  E.  Barnes..... . 

Charles  J.  Peterson _ _ 

Edward  Hanhauser . . . . 

2 

1 

1 

Rev.  H.  Augustus  Asmuth . . 

James  Black. . . 

J.  K.  Flosmer . 

C.  C.  Hersman _ _ 

R.  B.  Semple . . 

Dr.  J.  Jinks  . . . . . . . 

Modern  languages:  Tutor,  Law¬ 
rence  Fossler;  Professor,  Fred¬ 
erick  W.  Grube. 

Instructor,  John  Henry  Wright. .. 

Dr.  H.  Huss . . 

Fridolin  Meyer . . 

Charles  F.  Kroeh . . . 

Mrs.  I.  F.  Kenyon . . . 

W.  T.  Hewett . . . _ . . 

a  2 

H.K.G.  Brandt . . 

Charles  J.  Rose . . . . 

Wm.  Wells . . . . . . 

A.  H.  Mixer  . 

Miss  Minna  Hinkel . . 

Miss  Elise  Piutti . 

H.  H.  Boyesen  _ _ _ 

u 

No  name  given.  _ 

Adolph  Peterson . . 

H.  H.  Liotard 

Dr.  Chas.  Carroll 

Dr.  Adolph  Werner 

T n  st/rn  ot nv .  FT  J .  finfh mirlt; 

k  Dr.  Wm.  H.  Carpenter. 

GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


575 


List  of  colleges  and  their  professors  of  German — Continued. 


State  and  institution. 


Professor  of  German. 


Number 
of  assist¬ 
ants. 


New  York— Continued. 

Onondaga  Academy,  Onondaga  Valley . 

Rochester  Free  Academy,  Rochester  . . 

Brooklyn  College  and  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Brooklyn. 

Clinton  Liberal  Institute,  Clinton . 

Albany  High  School,  Albany . . . . 

Angola  Union  School . . . 

Ilion  Union  School,  Ilion . . . . . 

Littlefalls  Union  School,  Littlef alls . . 

Syracuse  High  School,  Syracuse . . 

The  Ithaca  High  School,  Ithaca  . . . 

Lockport  Union  School . . . . . 

Waterloo  Union  School . . . 

North  Carolina: 

Rutherford  College,  Happy  Home _ 

Trinity  College,  Randolph  County . 

University  of  North  Carolina,  Chapel  Hill . 

Davidson  College,  Mecklenburg  County . . 

Ohio: 

Adelbert  College  of  Western  Reserve,  Cleve¬ 
land. 

Baldwin  University,  Berea _ _ _ _ 

Buchtell  College,  Akron . 

Capital  University,  Columbus . . 

Denison  University,  Granville . 

Franklin  College,  New  Athens . . . 

Heidelberg  College,  Tiffin . . 

Kenyon  College,  Gambier . _ 

Marietta  College,  Marietta. . . . 

Muskingum  College,  New  Concord . 

Gberlin  College,  Oberlin.— . . 

Ohio  State  University,  Athens _ _ 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  Delaware _ _ _ 

Otterbein  University/-,  Westerville. . . . 

Rio  Grande  College,  Rio  Grande. . . . . 

St.  Joseph’s  College,  Cincinnati . . 

St.  Xavier’s  College,  Cincinnati . . . 

University  of  Cincinnati,  Cincinnati  . . 

University  of  Wooster,  Wooster . . 

Urbana  University,  Urbana . „ . 

Wilmington  College,  Wilmington . . . 

Antioch  College,  Yellowsprings . . . . 

Pennsylvania: 

Allegheny  College,  Mead ville . . . 

Augustinian  College,  Delaware  County . 

Dickinson  College,  Carlisle. . 

Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  Lancaster _ 

Lebanon  Valley  College,  Ann  ville. . 

Muhlenberg  College,  Allentown . 

Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg . . 

Pennsylvania  State  College . . . 

St.  Francis  College,  Loretto.. . 

St.  Vincent’s  College,  Beatty. . . 

Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore . 

Thiel  College.,  Greenville . . . 

University  of  Philadelphia . . 

Ursinus  College,  Freeland . . 

Washington  and  Jefferson  College,  Washing¬ 
ton. 

Western  University,  Pittsburg _ _ _  . 

Westminster  College,  New  Wilmington . 

Pennsylvania  Military  Academy,  Chester  .... 
Rhode  Island,  Brown  University,  Providence  .... 

South  Carolina: 

College  of  Charleston . 

Erskine  College,  Due  West _ _ _ _ _ 

Newberry  College . . . 

University  of  South  Carolina,  Columbia . 

Wofford  College,  Spartanburg . . 

Tennessee: 

Carson  College,  Mossy  Creek . . 

Cumberland  University,  Lebanon _ _ 

East  Tennessee  Wesleyan  University,  Athens. 

Mary ville  College,  Maryville . . 

Southwestern  Presbyterian  University, 
Clarksville. 

University  of  the  South,  Sewanee . . 

Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville . 


Charlotte  Lalirert . . . . 

A.  Trzeciak . . . . . . 

Horace  M .  Kennedy . . . 

William  Gunn . . . . . 

Dr.  Leo  H.  Altmayer . 

Inez  J.  Ames . . 

May  F.  Park . . . . . . 

Dr.  Henry  H.  Robert . . . 

Miss  M.  F.  Griffin . . . .  3 

Miss  H.  W.  Thompson . . . . 

Jules  G. Daudler - _ - -  - - ..... 

Geo.  E.  Hartman . . . 

Rev.  Rob.  L.  Abernethy - -  - 

Rev.  J.  Franklin  Heitman . . . 

George  Taylor  Winston . . . 

J.  F.  Latrum . 

Arthur  H.  Palmer — . . . 

Victor  Wilker  . . . . . .... 

Carl  F.  Kolbe  . . . 

Rev. F.  W.  Stellhorn . . 

George  F.  McKibben  . . 

Robert  Gowan  Campbell . . . . 

Rev.  A.  S.  Zerbe  . . . . — . 

William  T.  Colville . . . 

E .  E .  Phillips _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  .  - . 

Miss  Marv  Miller . . . . 

Miss  F.F.  Rice . . . . 

Miss  Emily  F.  Wheeler . . . 

Dr.  William  W.  Davies . . . 

Josephine  Johnson . . .  . . 

President,  Albanus  A.  Moulton . 

F. Boeres . . . . 

Augustine  Effiger. . . . . . 

James  Morgan  Hart  . . . . 

John  C .  Boyd  - - -  1 

George  W.  Worcester . . . . . 

President,  James  Bryant  Unthank . 

Evelyn  Darling _ _ _ _ _ 

C.  W. Reid  _ _ _ _ ....  ..... _ 

P.  M.Arnu. . . . 

Dr.  O.B.  Super . . 

Rev.  Prof.  J.  H.  Stahr . . . . 

Teacher,  John  F.  Muller . . 

Rev.  Wm.  Wackernagel  _  _ _ _ 

Rev.  Adam  Martin . . . . 

Charles  F.  Reeves . 

Bro.  De  Sales  Witmer. _ _ _ _ . _ 

Rev.  Gallus  Hock. .  2 

Wm.  Hyde  Appleton. .  1 

Rev.  Kerm.  Gilbert _ _ _ _ _ 

Dr.  Oswald  Sejidensticker . . . . 

Rev- John  v.  Haagen  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

J.  S.  Sim  on  ton . . . . . . 

Paul  F.  Rohrbacher . ? . . 

A.  M.  Paterson  . . . . . 

Lieut.  Emile  L.  Feffer  . . . . . . . 

Instructor,  W.  G.  Crosby;  modern  . 

languages,  Alonzo  Williams. 

Sylvester  Primer . . . 

J.  I.  McCain . . . 

Dr.  G.  W.  Holland . 

Edward  S.  Joynes . 

Jesse  T.  Littleton . . . 

T.C.  Earns . . . . . . 

John  J.  D.  Hinds . . . . . 

Mrs.  A. C. Knight . . 

Miss  J.  B.  Smith . 

S.  J.  Coffman . - . 

F.  M.  Page  . .' . . . .  4 

J.  H.  Watkins . . .  2 


576 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

List  of  colleges  and  their  prof  essors  of  German — Continued. 


State  and  institution. 


Professor  of  German. 


Number 
of  assist¬ 
ants. 


Texas: 

Add  Ran  Star  College,  Thorp  Spring  .. . . [ 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  College  | 
Station. 

Baylor  University,  Independence . 

Chapel  Hill  Female  College,  Chapel  Hill _ 

Marvin  College,  Waxahachie. . 

Southwest  University,  Georgetown . . 

University  of  Texas,  Austin . 

"Waco  Female  College,  Waco  . . 

Utah— University  of  Deseret,  Salt  Lake  City . I 

Virginia: 

Randolph  Macon  College,  Ashland . . 

Norfolk  Academy,  Norfolk . . _J 

Wisconsin— University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison  — 


T.M.  Clark . . . 

R.  Wipprecht .  . . . 

Instructor,  Geo.  Hamman. . . 

Instructor,  Miss  E.  V/.  Parkman . 

Instructor,  Miss  Rosa  McMillan . 

R.  F.  Young . 

H.  Taliichet . 1 

Instructor,  Jno.  C.  Wiley . 

Alfred  Andre . 

R.  E.  Blackwell . . . . . 

J.  H.  Dillard  . .  1 

Win.  H.  Rosenstengel .  1 


The  process  of  transformation  begun  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  century 
by  the  most  advanced  colleges  in  order  to  develop  into  universities  in  the  German 
sense  of  the  term,  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  and  is  therefore  passed 
over;  moreover,  data  relative  to  the  separate  institutions  are  given  in  the  next  part 
of  this  article.  The  action  of  Harvard,  immediately  followed  by  that  of  Columbia 
and  Yale,  opened  the  way.  The  process  is  not  by  any  means  completed,  as  the 
facts  stated  at  the  close  of  this  section  prove. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  mention  here  that,  in  the  meantime,  in  the  year 
1878,  the  German  normal  school  planned  for  more  than  a  half  century,  claiming 
an  uninterrupted  period  of  activity  for  more  than  twenty-two  years,  was  eventu¬ 
ally  established  with  success.  The  history  of  the  founding  of  this  seminary  and 
its  subsequent  results  is  contained  in  that  section  of  this  article  which  treats  of 
normal  schools.  We  need  only  mention  here  that  Milwaukee  possesses  a  similar 
school,  the  German-English  Academy,  with  which  a  normal  school  for  athletics 
is  connected. 

The  merit  not  only  of  having  founded,  but  of  having  organized  this  institute 
for  active  work  is  due  to  the  National  German- American  Teachers’  Association, 
in  existence  since  the  year  1870.  The-  author  has  learned  the  following  condensed 
facts  respecting  the  purpose  and  success  of  the  work  of  this  association,  which  has 
striven  for  the  following  ends: 

I.  The  introduction  of  kindergartens,  according  to  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi 
and  Frobef,  which  since  1870  have  found  greater  and  greater  recognition  on  the 
part  of  Anglo-American  educators.  One  of  the  first  kindergartens  was  established 
by  the  association  in  Detroit.  In  Milwaukee  a  kindergarten  and  normal  kinder¬ 
garten  are  connected  with  the  seminary. 

II.  The  introduction  of  athletic  instruction  into  the  curriculum  of  public  schools. 
In  the  cities  where  it  is  found  its  establishment  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  associa¬ 
tion,  which  received  the  warmest  support  from  German  athletic  associations. 

III.  The  introduction  of  instruction  in  manual  training  and  hand  work  into 
public  schools.  It  is  generally  known  that  instruction  in  athletics,  manual  train¬ 
ing  and  hand  work  has  long  since  been  introduced  into  the  schools  of  Germany. 
All  advanced  teachers  agree  to  generalize  this  reform  in  America,  in  which  coun¬ 
try  its  favorable  results  have  likewise  been  sufficiently  proved. 

IV.  The  association  has  always  exerted  the  strongest  efforts  to  replace  the 
method  of  mechanical  memorization  formerly  dominant  in  America  by  the  Ger¬ 
man,  which  aims  systematically  to  disclose  the  meaning  of  the  subject  of  instruc¬ 
tion  and  to  develop  the  pupil’s  power  of  reasoning. 

V.  The  association  has  always  endeavored  to  do  away  with  the  preponderance 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


577 


of  women  teachers,  the  crowding  of  classes,  and  the  restriction  of  instruction  to 
the  traditional  three  R’s. 

VI.  The  association  has  finally  endeavored  to  make  clear  to  the  public  and  pro¬ 
fessional  mind  the  necessity  of  a  normal  education  for  teachers,  the  superintend¬ 
ence  of  schools  by  competent  educators,  and  the  value  of  instruction  in  more  than 
one  language,  particularly  the  English  and  the  German. 

No  more  need  be  said  of  the  former  work  of  the  association.  The  present  presi¬ 
dent,  Prof.  M.  D.  Learned,  published  the  following  important  article  in  the 
Pedagogical  Monthly,  of  December,  1899: 

THE  “LEHRERBUND  ”  AND  THE  TEACHERS  OF  GERMAN. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  American  people  as  an  English  speaking  nation  to 
ignore  forms  of  modern  culture  which  are  not  expressed  in  the  English  language. 
Accordingly,  we  find  even  college  and  university  professors  of  German  ignorant, 
not  only  of  the  character,  but  in  many  cases,  even  of  the  existence  of  the  extensive 
literature  which  has  been  written  in  America  in  the  German  language,  and  of 
German  organizations,  and  of  German  effort  in  general  in  this  country. 

The  organization  of  German- American  teachers  known  as  “  Nationaier  Deutsch- 
amerikanischer  Lehrerbund  ”  has  not  received  hitherto  the  cooperation  of  aca¬ 
demic  teachers  of  German  which  it  deserves  and  invites.  Now  that  the  Association 
of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  has  brought  about  more  harmonious  relations 
between  academic  and  secondary  teachers,  and  the  attention  of  academic  men  has 
been  drawn  more  and  more  toward  the  wTork  of  the  National  Educational  Associa¬ 
tion,  the  time  seems  ripe  for  a  closer  affiliation  between  the  “  Lehrerbund”  and 
the  professors  of  German  in  American  colleges  and  universities.  Such  an  affilia¬ 
tion  would  be  a  further  stage  in  the  evolution  of  American  education  during  the 
last  three  decades.  The  American  Philological  Association 1  first  effected  a  union 
of  the  professors  of  languages,  and  reared,  so  to  speak,  the  generation  of  modern 
language  professors,  who  in  the  year  1883 2  formed  a  new  organization  for  the 
furtherance  of  their  more  specific  interests.  Thus  the  Modern  Language  Associa¬ 
tion  of  America  came  into  existence.  In  the  course  of  a  decade  a  need  was  felt  for 
similar  organizations  within  more  limited  territory,  to  facilitate  the  holding  of 
meetings  and  to  subserve  the  interests  of  the  State  or  group  of  States  in  question. 
Thus  originated  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  Ohio3  and  the  Central 
Modern  Language  Conference.4  Within  the  last  five  years  a  further  differentia¬ 
tion  has  manifested  itself  in  the  formation  of  societies  devoted  more  specifically  to 
the  interests  of  a  single  language — in  this  case,  of  German — thus  giving  rise  to 
State  organizations  of  teachers  of  German.  So  were  formed  the  Association  of 
Teachers  of  German  in  California,5  and  the  Association  of  Teachers  of  German  in 
Pennsjdvania,6  including  teachers  of  German  of  all  grades,  and  thus  realizing  in 
another  direction  one  of  the  aims  of  the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary 
Schools. 

In  like  manner  there  has  been  an  evolution  in  the  German  organizations  toward 
the  same  result.  The  first  organization  of  German  teachers  in  America,  the 
“Lehrerbund,”  now  in  the  thirtieth  year7  of  its  existence,  directed  its  attention 
for  years  to  the  exclusive  interests  of  the  lower  and  secondary  schools,  which 
formed  in  themselves,  so  to  speak,  a  system  of  German  instruction  culminating  in 
the  foster-center  of  German  teachers  in  America,  tho  “  Lehrerseminar  ”  in  Milwau¬ 
kee.  Within  the  last  few  years  the  Germans  have  awakened  to  the  fact  that  they 
have  made  a  great  contribution  to  American  culture,  but  that,  while  Americans 
have  been  appropriating  German  culture,  going  by  hundreds  to  study  at  German 
universities,  the  German  youths  in  this  country  have  been  discarding  and  even 


1  Organized  November  13,  1868,  at  the  University  of  New  York,  and  including  within  its  scope 
both  ancient  and  modern  languages  and  pedagogy.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  one  of  its  proto¬ 
types  was  the  German  society,  “  Sammlung  der  deutschen  Philologen  und  Schulmannner.” 
(Compare  proceedings  of  the  “American  Philological  Association,”  I,  p.  5  ff.  1860.) 

2 December  27,  28,  at  Columbia  College.  (Compare  “Proceedings  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association  of  America  ”  for  1884,  p.  1  if.) 

3  Organized  1890. 

4 December  30,  31,  and  January  1, 1895-96,  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  (Compare  “Publica¬ 
tions  of  the  Modern  Language  Association.”  1896,  p.  lvii  if.) 

5  Compare  Americana  Germanica,  I,  3, 104. 

6  April  9,1898,  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  (Compare  Americana  Germanica,  11,2. 
Reprint  19.) 

7  The  thirtieth  annual  meeting  (Lehrertag)  takes  place  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  at  the  close  of  the 
school  year  1899-1900. 


ed  1901 - 37 


578 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


despising  the  ‘ 1  Muttersprache,”  thns  imperiling  the  future  of  the  German  lan¬ 
guage  and  life  in  America.  Accordingly,  these  Germans  have  organized  the 
American-German  League,1  one  of  whose  avowed  objects  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
German  language  in  America.  Every  possible  effort  is  being  made  by  them  to 
improve  the  teaching  of  German  in  both  German  and  English  schools,  not  to  the 
exclusion  of  English,  but  simultaneously  with  it.  All  these  forces — the  “Lehrer- 
bund,”  the  associations  of  teachers  of  German  in  the  various  States,  and  the 
American-German  League — have  mobilized  and  lined  up  with  the  associations  of 
academic  professors  in  the  cause  of  modern  language  instruction,  in  this  case,  in 
the  cause  of  German  in  the  schools.  It  is  at  this  juncture  that  the  old  organiza¬ 
tion  of  German  teachers  in  America,  the  “Lehrerbund,”  takes  another  step  for¬ 
ward  by  inviting  the  cooperation  of  the  entire  body  of  German  teachers  and 
teachers  of  German  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university  to  join  in  one  united 
effort  to  win  for  German  in  the  schools  that  recognition  which  its  importance  in 
American  culture  demands. 

In  the  cultural  development  of  America,  German  influence  has  played  a  most 
important  part,  and  bids  fair  to  continue  for  a  long  time  the  foremost  foreign  in¬ 
fluence  in  American  life.  Americans  have  long  been  divided,  in  their  estimate  of 
the  value  of  this  influence,  into  two  parties.  The  German-born  American,  as  well 
as  many  born  here  of  German  parentage,  insist  upon  the  preservation  of  German 
speech  and  German  customs,  both  in  public  and  private  life.  Accordingly,  they 
maintain  German  churches,  German  schools,  German  clubs,  and  other  German 
forms  of  social  life.  The  extremist  of  this  party  goes  still  farther  and  advocates 
that  German  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  and  be  employed  as  a  medium  of  all 
instruction  in  those  schools  whose  pupils  come  from  German  families.  This  has 
resulted,  in  some  cities,  in  the  organization  of  German  public  schools  for  German 
children.  Others,  who  are  less  extreme,  are  content  to  see  German  taught  in  the 
primary  schools  during  certain  periods,  with  German  as  the  medium  of  instruc¬ 
tion  during  these  periods.  To  this  latter  class  of  the  pro-German  party  belong 
many  English  teachers  of  German. 

The  other  party  is  the  native  Anglo-American  population,  who  insist  upon 
“American  (English)  for  Americans.”  They  oppose  everything  foreign  in  the 
schools,  particularly  everything  German;  they  oppose  the  German  language  and 
the  German  school;  they  disapprove  of  the  German  church,  ignore  the  influence 
of  German  culture,  and  look  with  disfavor  upon  the  inroads  of  German  industry 
and  trade.  Happily,  the  extreme  representatives  of  this  jingo  spirit  are  not  the 
most  influential  in  directing  the  deeper  cultural  processes  of  America.  The  more 
moderate  class  of  this  party  represent  the  educators  of  the  land  who  recognize  the 
importance  of  German  culture  in  our  life,  and  of  the  German  language  as  a  dis¬ 
cipline  in  American  education.  Through  the  efforts  of  this  class  German  has  been 
introduced  as  an  essential  language  in  the  college  and  university,  and  is  now  fast 
finding  its  way  into  the  curriculum  of  the  secondary  schools,  particularly  high 
schools.  While  this  class  of  educators  recognize  the  cultural  value  of  German,  they 
insist  upon  English  as  the  medium  of  instruction.  They  do  not  approve  of  public 
schools  conducted  exclusively  in  a  foreign  language,  and  deprecate  the  segregation 
of  foreign-born  citizens  in  certain  districts  of  country  or  city  for  the  preservation 
of  foreign  forms  of  life.  To  this  moderate  class  of  the  pro-American  party  belong 
some  of  foreign  extraction,  and  a  few  even  of  foreign  birth. 

It  is  clear  to  the  unpartisan  observer  that  the  permanent  interests  of  both 
extreme  wings  lie  along  the  line  of  a  compromise  between  the  moderate  classes  of 
each  party — in  a  word,  in  the  cultural  elevation  of  our  American  youth  through 
the  best  educational  means  which  Germany  and  America  can  provide. 

The  best  corroboration  of  this  view  is  the  fact  that  the  highest  and  best  preserved 
forms  of  German  life  in  America  are  to  be  found  in  those  German  communities 
which  represent  the  highest  culture  and  most  liberal  ideas.  It  is  in  German  com¬ 
munities  representing  the  uneducated  classes  that  we  find  the  German  element  so 
objectionable,  not  only  to  the  English  population,  but  to  the  better  German  classes 
as  well.  It  is  in  them,  too,  that  we  find  that  immovable  German  conversation 
which  has  made  them  impervious  to  modern  culture. 

The  educated  German  classes  and  the  academic  men  in  America  understand  and 
appreciate  the  significance  of  these  facts.  The  professors  in  our  universities  and 
colleges  and  of  the  better  secondary  schools  understand  the  problems  which  con¬ 
front  the  Germans  among  us  better  than  any  other  class  of  Americans.  In  fact, 
this  educating  class  have  actually  built  up  in  America,  for  the  most  part  uncon¬ 
sciously,  a  “  Gelehrtenrepublik,”  which  furnishes  a  prototype  of  what  the  German 


1  October  3,  1898  at  the  “  Halle  der  deutschen  Gesellschaft  ”  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  The  first  aim 
of  the  league  is  “'die  Einfuhrung  des  deutschen  Sprachunterrichts  als  einen  Zweig  des  Lehr- 
planes  in  den  offentlichen  Schulen.” 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


579 


in  America  might  well  aspire  to  become.  This  republic  of  teachers,  composed  of 
Germans  of  both  native  and  foreign  birth  who  have  assimilated  the  best  of  Amer¬ 
ican  culture,  and  of  Americans  who  have  appropriated  the  best  German  culture,  is 
the  best  conserver  of  true,  lasting,  German  influence  in  America,  as  in  it  the  two 
cultures  are  harmoniously  combined. 

Academic  teachers  have  hitherto  directed  their  efforts  mainly  tov^ard  the  more 
technical  pedagogical  side  of  German  teaching  in  our  schools,  giving  only  inci¬ 
dental  attention  to  the  larger  problem  of  what  German  influence  is  to  do  in  shap¬ 
ing  American  life  and  institutions  or  of  what  must  be  the  ultimate  effect  of  the 
G  erman  and  American  culture  persisting  side  by  side  in  America  with  little  or  no 
affiliation  between  them.  A  glance  at  such  a  state  of  things  must  show  that  a  con¬ 
tinuation  of  such  conditions  would  prove  detrimental  both  to  Germans  and  Amer¬ 
icans.  Two  hundred  years  of  German  history  in  America  have  demonstrated  that 
the  best  results  of  German  effort  have  followed  the  higher  activity  in  the  domain 
of  education,  art,  statesmanship,  and  international  trade-in  a  word,  in  those 
departments  of  life  in  which  the  German  has  come  into  close  touch  with  the  native 
American.  In  like  manner,  three  centuries  of  English  history  in  America  have 
taught  that  the  greatest  epochs  of  cultural  development  have  been  those  in  which 
there  was  a  strong  infusion  of  foreign  influence  in  American  life,  as  was  in  the 
case  of  French  the  present  century. 

The  educators  of  this  country  should  no  longer  remain  mechanical  pedagogues, 
looking  only  to  the  tasks  of  the  day.  They  must  look  forward  into  the  future  to 
the  probable  results  of  the  coalescing  of  German  and  American  forms  of  culture 
in  our  national  life.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  college  or  university  professor  con¬ 
tent  himself  with  teaching  the  principles  of  the  language  and  the  outline  history 
of  the  literature.  He  must  mediate  between  the  two  great  cultures  and  infuse 
the  stimulus  of  German  thought  into  the  American  mind  in  such  intelligent  wise 
that  a  new  and  higher  intellectual  life  shall  follow.  The  academic  professor 
should,  moreover,  try  to  unfold  to  the  American  student  and  to  the  American 
people,  through  the  medium  of  German  thought,  a  new- kinship  of  the  Teutonic 
races,  and  thus  broaden  the  horizon  of  his  countrymen,  enrich  their  cultural 
resources,  and  thus  lay  the  foundation  of  a  new  epoch  in  American  literature. 

In  the  cooperation  of  the  German  and  American  in  our  national  education  lies 
the  possibility  of  an  even  higher  form  of  linguistic  and  literary  scholarship,  and  a 
higher  cultural  Ideal.  No  teacher  of  German  should  permit  his  students  to  rest 
satisfied  with  a  bare  reading  knowledge  of  German.  Much  less  should  any  teacher 
venture,  or  any  school  board  allow,  a  teacher  to  teach  German  without  the  ability 
to  speak  and  write  that  language  with  reasonable  facility.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  while  the  universities  of  the  land  are  requiring  a  sight-reading  knowledge  of 
German  and  French,  even  of  candidates  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in 
any  science,  many  of  our  high  schools,  and  even  colleges  (be  it  said  to  their  shame) , 
are  employing  teachers  who  can  not  so  much  as  pronounce  correctly  the  foreign 
language  which  they  are  supposed  to  teach.  It  is  high  time  that  this  state  of 
things  had  become  an  impossibility  in  all  departments  of  modern  languages. 

The  one  point  upon  which  academic  and  secondary  teachers  in  America  should 
now  concentrate  their  energies  is  the  elevation  of  the  secondary  teaching  into  a 
profession,  requiring  the  same  vigorous  preparation  as  the  strictly  academic  career. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this  a  number  of  preliminary  steps  are  necessary: 

1.  A  uniform  system  of  education. — Regulating  the  curricula  and  methods  of  all 
schools,  public  and  private,  which  will  guarantee  the  continuity  of  educational 
effort  throughout  all  grades  of  instruction. 

2.  The  emancipation  of  education  from  politics. — Some  of  our  Western  States 
seem  to  be  rising  to  that  dignity  of  statehood  which  protects  the  schools  from  the 
toils  of  political  intrigue.  This  is  unfortunately  not  the  case  with  a  number  of 
the  original  thirteen. 

3.  The  State  recognition  of  the  importance  of  experience  and  skill  in  the  lower 
and  secondary  schools. — The  disgrace  of  our  public  schools  has  been  that  they  have 
been  made  recruiting  stations  for  other  professions.  The  student  of  law,  medicine, 
or  theology  teaches  school  till  he  can  save  money  enough  to  quit  this  business  for 
his  chosen  profession.  The  young  woman  waiting,  not  like  Micawber,  for  some¬ 
thing  to  turn  up,  but  for  some  one  to  turn  up,  teaches  school  as  a  temporary 
makeshift. 

These  conditions  once  fulfilled,  the  elevation  of  school-teaching  to  a  profession 
follows  of  necessity. 

This,  then,  is  the  work  which  clamors  for  the  cooperation  of  all  academic  and 
secondary  teachers  of  German — that  the  language,  wherever  it  is  taught,  should 
be  taught  correctly  and  intelligently  by  trained  teachers  who  are  willing  to  make 
it  their  life  work. 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


5  SO 


Toward  the  accomplishment  of  this  result  the  ‘ ‘  Lehrerbund  ”  offers: 

1.  The  advantages  of  a  thoroughly  organized  association,  with  the  experience 
of  thirty  years,  during  which  time  it  has  accumulated  a  vast  amount  of  valuable 
material,  which  has  been  published  in  the  official  organ,  recorded  in  the  “Proto- 
koli,”  or  transmuted  into  improved  methods.  It  has  a  creditable  standing  in 
America  and  is  in  close  touch  with  European  education. 

2.  An  opportunity,  especially  at  the  annual  meeting  (Lehrertag),  to  promote 
mutual  acquaintance  between  German  teachers  and  teachers  of  German  of  all 
grades  and  to  discuss  questions  of  vital  interest. 

3.  A  definite  plan  for  the  improvement  of  the  teaching  of  German  in  the  schools 
by  advocating  (a)  a  thorough  speaking  knowledge  of  German  on  the  part  of  all 
teachers  of  the  language;  (b)  the  introduction  of  a  full  course  of  four  years  of 
German  in  the  high  schools;  (c)  the  teaching  of  German  in  the  lower  grades  as  far 
as  it  is  advisable;  (d)  the  use  of  German  as  the  medium  of  instruction  where  the 
conditions  will  permit;  (e)  the  emphasizing  of  a  careful  use  of  German  in  the 
German  home,  in  order  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  idiom  in  America,  and  to 
secure  to  the  youth  of  German  extraction  the  bilingual  advantages  to  which  the 
accident  of  birth  entitles  them.1 

4.  A  well  equipped  “  Lehrerseminar, ”  which  devotes  itself  to  the  training  of 
primary  and  secondary  German  teachers,  eliciting  the  attention  of  academic  men 
by  the  thoroughness  of  its  work.  There  are  in  this  institution  greater  possibili¬ 
ties,  which  might  result  in  the  development  of  a  National  German- American  Nor¬ 
mal  School  in  the  higher  and  ideal  sense  of  the  term  (such  as  none  of  our  normal 
schools  has  yet  been  or  bids  fair  to  become),  a  “  Piidagogium,”  supplementing  the 
work  of  the  colleges  and  universities,  and  forming  a  recruiting  station  for  teach¬ 
ers  who  already  hold  the  degree  of  A.  M.  or  Ph.  D.,  and  aspire  to  permanent 
careers  in  the  high  schools  and  secondary  schools  of  the  land. 

5.  A  medium  of  publication,  through  its  official  organ,'2  open  to  all  teachers  of 
German  for  the  interchange  of  views  touching  methods,  books,  administration, 
and  other  vital  subjects.  Here  the  elementary,  secondary,  and  academic  teacher 
will  find  an  opportunity  to  discuss  text-books  and  other  literature  relating  to  the 
schools  and  to  make  original  contributions  to  American  education.  The  official 
publication  of  the  “Lehrerbund  ”  welcomes  such  contributions  from  teachers  of 
every  grade.  The  closest  touch  with  European  schoolmen  will  be  aimed  at,  and 
can  not  fail  to  prove  a  source  of  stimulus. 

6.  The  greatest  thing  the  ‘ '  Lehrerbund  ”  offers  is  the  opportunity  of  cooperation 
between  the  hitherto  rather  exclusive  German  teachers  and  their  altogether  too 
indifferent  English-speaking  colleagues,  thus  opening  the  way  to  a  harmonious 
union  of  educational  forces  which  must  lead  to  a  better  understanding  and  to  a 
well-organized  system  of  national  education.  It  is,  after  all,  the  teachers  of 
America  who  are  the  medium  of  cultural  intercourse  and  of  friendly  feeling 
between  Germany  and  America;  and  the  closer  the  relation  between  the  German 
and  English  teachers  of  America,  the  more  generous  will  be  the  sympathies 
between  them.  Both  will  be  more  intelligently  loyal  Americans,  and  both  will 
contribute  to  a  more  intelligent  friendship  between  the  German  Empire  and  the 
American  Republic.  This  is  a  task  not  for  the  ephemeral  jingoistic  press,  but  for 
the  slower  and  surer  processes  of  national  education. 

This  publication,  not  widely  enough  known,  by  an  Anglo-American  professor, 
is  manifestly  a  bridge  between  the  efforts  of  Germans  who  esteem  their  native 
language  in  America  and  do  not  wish  to  disclaim  their  national  individuality,  and 
those  of  the  most  intelligent  Americans  who  recognize  in  the  German  language, 
German  literature,  and  German  science  factors  of  culture  that  are,  in  the  course 
of  time,  to  become  more  effectual  means  still  in  the  progress  of  American  civiliza¬ 
tion  than  they  have  been  in  the  last  two  centuries.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that,  in  this 
way,  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  German- Americanism  will  be  introduced,  char¬ 
acterized  by  an  intense  interest  in  German  at  all  the  better  educational  institu¬ 
tions  of  the  country. 

The  establishment  of  special  “German  departments”  at  American  universities 
and  colleges  of  high  rank  is  evidently  an  important  step  in  this  direction.  Again 
Harvard  University  is  among  those  which  led  the  way,  especially  as  the  reform 


1  The  general  attitude  of  the  “Modern  Language  Association  ”  on  some  of  these  points  is  set 
forth  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve,  just  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  at 
Washington. 

2  The  old  organ,  “  Erziehungsblatter,”  was  discontinued  in  the  spring  of  1899,  and  the  first 
number  of  the  new  organ,  “  Padagogische  Monatshefte,”  continues  the  work  on  a  different  plan. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


581 


was  undertaken  in  the  consciousness  of  thus  “contributing  to  the  appreciation  of 
German  ideals  in  America.”  In  a  short  article  on  this  subject,  prepared  for  the 
Chicago  Exposition,  we  read: 1 

During  the  whole  time  from  Follen’s  withdrawal  (1835)  till  the  appointment  of 
Professor  Pledge  (1872)  the  department  was  in  a  stagnating  condition,  and  even 
while  the  latter  was  in  office  it  suffered  from  an  insufficient  corps  of  teachers  and 
limited  aims.  Gradually,  however,  a  change  was  effected  by  the  appointment  of 
a  number  of  teachers  who,  although  they  represented  a  great  diversity  of  interests 
in  the  history  of  literature  and  philology,  still  felt  united  in  the  effort  of  making 
German  ideals  appreciated  in  America.  The  German  department  at  Harvard 
thereby  attained  a  degree  of  development  and  excellen  e  in  that  line  which  enti¬ 
tles  it  to  the  right  of  special  esteem  on  the  part  of  the  German-American  popula- 
lation  and  all  those  interested  in  the  promotion  of  German  study. 

The  “  German  department  ”  of  Harvard  is  the  largest  and  most  capable  of  all. 
It  has  a  staff  of  five  professors,  seven  instructors,  and  several  lecturers,  who  teach 
as  many  as  1,200  students.  The  details  of  the  most  recent  plan  of  study  and  all 
other  interesting  facts  are  contained  in  the  following  section,  in  which  special 
references  to  the  German  departments  of  other  important  institutions  are  given. 
An  examination  of  them  will  show  what  astonishing  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  short  space  of  sixteen  years  since  the  above-quoted  inquiries  of  the  Modern 
Language  Association  on  the  position  of  German  instruction  in  the  country  were 
made. 

The  introduction  of  German  instruction  into  the  highest  educational  institu¬ 
tions  reacts  in  a  decided  manner  upon  secondary  schools,  which  for  the  most  part 
prepare  future  students  of  colleges.  We  have  seen  this  exemplified  in  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  educational  system  in  Michigan.  President  Eliot  adduces  the  proof 
that  every  advancement  in  the  conditions  of  admission  to  his  university  “  has  been 
followed  by  a  corresponding  advance  in  the  instruction  of  all  the  high  schools  of 
Massachusetts. 2  ”  N  umerically  the  greater  significance  which  German  instruction 
has  attained  is  shown  by  the  following  proportion  of  pupils  who  study  German 
in  public  and  private  high  schools,  which  will  be  given  with  more  detail  further 
on:  In  1889-90  there  were  34,208,  or  11.48  per  cent  of  the  total,  studying  German; 
in  1897-98  there  were  78,994,  or  14.24  per  cent;  in  1900-1901  there  were  about 
100,000,  or  about  20  per  cent. 

What  has  been  said  shows  how  very  important  for  our  subject  the  efforts  of  late 
years  have  been  to  establish  uniform  conditions  of  admission  for  colleges,  and  to 
assure  thereby  a  firm  position  for  German  in  the  curriculum  of  all  higher  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  as  in  that  of  secondary  schools.  Efforts  have  been  made  from 
the  middle  of  the  eighties  to  have  uniform  rules  framed  relative  to  elementary  and 
higher  German,  to  be  observed  by  college  applicants.  At  the  instigation  of  the 
Massachusetts  High  and  Classical  School  Teachers’  Association  the  faculties  of 
fifteen  different  colleges  in  New  England  appointed  a  committee  in  the  year  1886 
to  prepare  theses  on  this  subject.3  They  read  as  follows: 


1  The  department  for  German  literature  and  philology  at  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass.  Harvard  University  edition,  1893,  pp.  4,  5. 

2  Compare  Transactions  of  the  Modern  Language  Association,  Vol.  I,  p.  36. 

3  At  the  seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  (1889)  these  theses  were 
minutely  discussed,  and  on  the  whole  received  favorable  judgment.  On  this  occasion,  Professor 
White  stated  that  a  “  modern-language  diploma  ”  would  be  introduced  at  Cornell.  In  addition, 
he  made  the  following  statement:  “In  New  York  State  a  large  ‘literary  fund  ’  is  distributed  to 
the  academies  and  high  schools  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  regents’  examinations  which  the 
students  of  such  institutions  may  pass  during  the  year,  so  that  each  academy  and  high  school 
will  have  a  certain  financial  interest,  too,  in  promoting  the  study  of  French  and  German.  This 
movement  is  regarded  in  New  York  as  of  great  moment,  and  it  seems  fortunate  that  the  same 
effort  should  be  now  under  way  in  New  England.”  At  Harvard,  admission  examinations  in 
French  and  German  have  been  held  since  18S7,  and  modern  languages  have  been  on  a  par  with 
all  other  subjects  of  examination. 


582 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


A  PROPOSED  SCHEME  OF  UNIFORM  ELEMENTARY  AND  ADVANCED  REQUIREMENTS 
IN  GERMAN  AND  FRENCH  FOR  ADMISSION  TO  COLLEGE,  DRAFTED  BY  A  COMMIT¬ 
TEE  ON  ADMISSION  EXAMINATION  APPOINTED  BY  THE  COMMISSION  OF  COLLEGES 
IN  NEW  ENGLAND. 


ELEMENTARY  GERMAN. 

1.  Proficiency  in  the  following  topics  of  elementary  grammar:  declension  of  snch 
nouns  as  are  readily  classified,  of  adjectives,  and  pronouns;  conjugation  of  weak 
and  of  the  more  usual  strong  verbs;  simple  cases  of  word-order. 

2.  The  candidate  must  have  read  not  less  than  200  duodecimo  pages  of  easy  Ger¬ 
man — chiefly  narrative  prose,  with  a  few  lyric  poems. 

3.  Ability  to  pronounce  German  and  to  recognize  German  words  and  simple 
phrases  when  uttered. 


1.  Proficiency  in  more  advanced  grammar.  In  addition  to  a  thorough  knowl¬ 
edge  of  accidence  (including  the  elements  of  word-formation)  and  of  the  principal 
values  of  prepositions  and  conjunctions,  the  candidate  must  be  familiar  with  so 
much  of  syntax  as  is  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  use  of  modal  auxiliaries, 
of  the  subjunctive  and  infinitive  modes,  and  of  word-order  in  connected  discourse. 

2.  Ability  to  translate  ordinary  German,  to  be  acquired  by  the  reading  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  elementary  requisites  of  the  following  works:  Deutsche  Liebe  (Muller) ; 
Hoher  als  die  Kirche  (Hillern);  Die  Journalisten  (Freitag);  Peter  Schlemihl 
(Chamisso);  Die  Harzreise  (Heine);  Minna  von  Barnhelm  (Lessing);  Die  Jung¬ 
frau  von  Orleans  (Schiller);  Egmont  (Goethe),  and  30  pages  of  lyrics,  includ¬ 
ing  Schiller  s  Lied  von  der  Glocke. 

3.  Composition  and  conversation,  presupposing  familiarity  with  the  subject- 
matter  and  vocabulary  of  Hoher  als  die  Kirche,  Die  Journalisten,  and  Die  Jung¬ 
frau  von  Orleans. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  works  assigned  be  changed  from  time  to  time  by  a  com¬ 
mittee  to  be  appointed  by  the  professors  of  modern  languages  in  the  colleges 
represented  in  the  commission. 

The  author  does  not  know  what  tangible  practical  results  followed  upon  this 
beginning.  At  all  events,  it  paved  the  way  for  action.  The  decisive  step  was 
taken  February  1,  1896,  when  representatives  of  the  six  large  eastern  colleges: 
Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  Cornell,  Princeton,  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
together  with  those  of  secondary  schools,  came  together  in  the  halls  of  Columbia 
for  a  ‘  ‘  German  conference.  ”  The  result  of  this  conference  is  contained  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  concise  and  important  report: 

March  4,  18S6. 

Dear  Sir:  The  members  of  the  German  conference  held  at  Columbia  University 
for  unifying  the  present  entrance  requirements  at  the  six  colleges  represented, 
adopted,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  each  paragraph  of  the  subjoined  elementary  and 
advanced  requirements,  and  have  since  unanimously  adopted  the  requirements 
as  a  whole. 

In  elementary  German— (a)  The  rudiments  of  grammar,  and  especially  these 
topics:  The  declension  of  articles,  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  such  nouns  as  are 
readily  classified;  the  conjugation  of  weak  and  of  the  more  usual  strong  verbs; 
the  commoner  prepositions;  the  simpler  uses  of  the  modal  auxiliaries;  the  elemen¬ 
tary  rules  of  syntax  and  word-order.  The  proficiency  of  the  applicants  may  be 
tested  by  questions  on  the  above  topics  and  by  the  translation  into  German  of 
simple  English  sentences,  (b)  Translation  at  sight  of  a  passage  of  easy  prose  con¬ 
taining  no  rare  words.  It  is  believed  that  the  requisite  facility  can  be  acquired 
by  reading  not  less  than  200  duodecimo  pages  of  simple  German. 

Practice  in  pronunciation,  in  writing  German  from  dictation,  and  in  the  use  of 
simple  German  phrases  in  the  class  room  is  recommended. 

Preparation  for  the  elementary  requirement  need  not  call  for  more  than  one 
years  instruction  of  five  periods  per  week. 

In  advanced  German — (a)  More  advanced  grammar.  In  addition  to  a  thor¬ 
ough  knowledge  of  accidence,  of  the  elements  of  word  formation,  and  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  uses  of  prepositions  ancl  conjunctions,  the  candidate  must  be  familiar  with 
the  essentials  of  German  syntax  and  particularly  with  the  use  of  modal  auxiliaries 
and  the  subjunctive  and  infinitive  moods.  The  proficiency  of  the  applicant  may 
be  tested  by  questions  on  these  topics  and  by  the  translation  into  German  of 
easy  connected  English  prose,  (b)  Translation  at  sight  of  ordinary  German.  It 
is  believed  that  the  requisite  facility  can  be  acquired  by  reading,  in  addition  to  the 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


583 


amount  mentioned  under  elementary  German,  at  least  500  pages  of  classical  and 
contemporary  prose  and  poetry.  It  is  recommended  that  not  less  than  one-half  of 
this  reading  be  selected  from  the  works  of  Lessing,  Schiller,  and  Goethe. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  candidate  acquire  the  ability  to  follow  a  recitation 
conducted  in  German,  and  to  answer  in  that  language  questions  asked  by  the 
instructor. 

Preparation  for  the  advanced  requirement  need  not  call  for  more  than  two  addi¬ 
tional  years  of  instruction. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

Horatio  S.  White,  Chairman. 

Wm.  H.  Carpenter,  Secretary. 

President  Seth  Low,  LL.  D. , 

Columbia  University. 

The  subject  was  afterwards  further  advanced  by  the  National  Educational  Asso¬ 
ciation  and  the  Modern  Language  Association.  The  former  has  aimed  for  some 
time  to  bring  about  a  better  regulation  of  secondary  instruction  in  the  subjects 
usually  required  for  admission  to  American  colleges.  In  matters  pertaining  to 
instruction  in  modern  languages  it  appealed  to  the  latter  body  to  prepare  practical 
propositions.  At  the  annual  meeting  in  1896  the  Modern  Language  Association 
appointed  Prof.  Calvin  Thomas  and  commissioned  him  to  form  a  committee  of 
twelve  to  comply  with  this  request  thoroughly. 

The  committee  of  twelve  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America  met 
in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1897.  It  consisted  of  the  following  gentlemen:  Calvin 
Thomas,  Columbia  University,  chairman;  E.  H.  Babbitt,  Columbia  University 
(at  present  University  of  the  South);  H.  C.  G.  Brandt,  Hamilton  College;  B.  L. 
Bowen,  Ohio  State  University;  W.  H.  Carruth,  Kansas  University;  S.  W.  Cut¬ 
ting,  University  of  Chicago;  A.  M.  Elliott,  Johns  Hopkins  University;  C.  H. 
Grandgent,  Harvard  University;  G.  A.  Hench,  University  of  Michigan  (since 
deceased);  Hugo  A.  Rennert,  University  of  Pennsylvania;  William  B.  Snow, 
Boston  High  School;  B.  W.  Wells,  University  of  the  South. 

The  committee  prepared  a  circular  that  was  sent  to  about  2,500  teachers.  The 
object  of  the  circular  was  to  obtain  information  with  regard  to  the  present  status 
of  secondary  instruction  in  French  and  German  in  the  country  at  large  and  also 
to  elicit  opinions  with  respect  to  a  number  of  more  or  less  debatable  questions 
which,  as  was  thought,  would  be  likely  to  arise  in  the  course  of  the  committee’s 
deliberations.  The  answers  received,  which  numbered  several  hundred,  were  a 
perfect  chaos  of  opinion  respecting  the  value  of  German  instruction,  the  number 
of  courses  and  their  extent,  the  number  and  length  of  hours  of  instruction,  and 
the  requirements  of  admission  examinations. 

The  committee  realized  the  necessity  of  conservative  measures  the  more,  as  col¬ 
leges  could  never  be  forced  to  accept  the  propositions  submitted.  No  attempt  was 
to  be  made  either  to  decide  which  of  the  various  competing  courses  was  the  best 
course  or  to  antagonize  any  particular  study.  Finally  the  fact  was  perfectly  under¬ 
stood  that  it  is  not  the  main  purpose  of  secondary  schools  to  prepare  their  pupils 
for  college,  but  that  ‘‘the  great  majority  of  those  studying  the  modern  languages 
in  school  do  not  go  to  college  at  all.  ”  Our  secondary  education  must  be  recognized 
as  having  its  own  function,  its  own  aim  and  ideals.1 


iln  an  addr'ess  delivered  by  Dr.  Frank  A.  Hill,  Litt.  D.,  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Education,  July  11,  1894,  at  the  sixty -fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Instruction,  we  find  the  following  pertinent  statements:  “The  high  school  is  the  people’s  col¬ 
lege.  It  has  a  threefold  duty:  It  should  give  its  pupils  a  good  training  for  their  own  sakes;  it 
should  furnish  good  material  for  the  normal  schools  as  for  the  colleges,  and  it  should  inspire 
and  lift  up  the  schools  below;  therefore  it  should  be  held  up  itself.” 

The  same  speaker  asserted  that  of  the  24?  high  schools  considered  in  the  celebrated  “Report 
of  the  committee  of  ten  on  the  course  of  study  of  secondary  schools,”  only  146  had  college  pre¬ 
paratory  courses.  Accordingly,  it  would  be  an  altogether  impossible  demand  of  secondary 
schools  to  arrange  their  course  of  study  exclusively  for  preparation  for  college. 


584 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  propositions  of  the  committee  relative  to  German  were  published  in  full  in 
the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the  year  1897-98,  pages  1409-1421. 
The  following  summary  will  therefore  suffice: 

Three  preparatory  courses,  namely,  elementary,  intermediate,  and  advanced  Ger¬ 
man,  are  recommended  for  secondary  schools.  The  elementary  course,  designed 
for  a  term  of  two  years,  should  enable  a  pupil  to  pass  the  admission  examination 
in  elementary  German  wherever  German  is  required  as  a  third  language,  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  Latin  and  Greek. 

In  the  first  year  the  pupil  should  be  drilled  in  pronunciation,  etymology,  and 
the  chief  rules  of  syntax,  besides  the  phrases  of  daily  occurrence,  and  75  to  100 
pages  of  easy  text  should  be  read.  In  the  second  year  the  knowledge  of  grammar 
should  be  extended,  easy  prose  translated  into  German,  and  150  to  200  pages  of 
selected  passages  from  German  literature  (narrations  and  comedies)  read. 

The  intermediate  course  in  German,  with  a  term  of  three  years,  should  enable  a 
pupil  to  read  at  sight  German  prose  of  ordinary  difficulty,  whether  recent  or 
classical;  to  put  into  German  a  connected  passage  of  simple  English,  paraphrased 
from  a  given  text  in  German;  to  answer  any  grammatical  questions  relating  to 
usual  forms  and  essential  principles  of  the  language,  including  syntax  and  -word 
formation;  and  to  translate  and  explain  a  passage  of  classical  literature  taken 
from  some  text  previously  studied.  About  400  pages  of  moderately  difficult  prcse 
and  poetry  should  serve  for  reading.  This  course  is  designed  for  those  who  do  not 
intend  to  study  Greek,  and  are  therefore  required  to  accomplish  much  more  in 
German  than  the  conditions  of  admission. 

Finally,  the  advanced  course  in  German,  with  a  term  of  four  years,  should 
enable  a  pupil  to  read,  after  brief  inspection,  any  German  literature  of  the  last 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  that  is  free  from  unusual  textual  difficulties;  to  put  into 
German  a  passage  of  simple  English  prose;  to  answer  in  German  questions  relating 
to  the  lives  and  works  of  the  great  writers  studied,  and  write  in  German  a  short, 
independent  theme  upon  an  assigned  topic.  About  500  pages  should  be  read  from 
such  works  as  the  following:  Scheffers  Ekkehard,  Freitag’s  Soil  und  Haben, 
Goethe’s  Egmont  or  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  the  Sesenheim  episode  from  Dichtung 
und  Wahrheit,  Wallenstein’s  Lager,  Wallenstein’s  Tod,  the  third  book  of  Schiller's 
Thirty  Years’  War,  Emilia  Galotti,  and  Kleist’s  Der  Prinz  von  Homburg.  Appro¬ 
priate  works  of  Grillparzer,  Korner,  Heine,  Tieck,  Sudermann,  and  Wildenbruch 
may  likewise  be  made  use  of. 

On  principle  the  committee  did  not  consider  any  answer  to  the  question  as  to 
whether  German  should  be  introduced  into  primary  schools  or  retained  in  the 
many  cities  in  which  it  is  already  taught.  “The  question  in  its  politico-social  bear¬ 
ings  is  a  very  large  one,  but  it  is  a  question  which  every  community  must  and 
will  decide  for  itself  in  view  of  local  conditions.”  In  general  the  following 
principles  were  proposed: 

I.  Instruction  in  foreign  languages  should  never  be  made  compulsory,  but  should 
only  be  given  upon  expressed  desire. 

II.  The  study  of  a  foreign  language  should  be  taken  by  only  those  primary 
school  pupils  who  intend  to  continue  it  in  a  secondary  school.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  it  is  impossible  to  acquire  a  sufficient  practical  knowledge  of  a  foreign  lan¬ 
guage  in  a  primary  school.  It  is  very  true  that  children  learn  the  beginning  of 
“conversation”  in  a  foreign  language  quickly  and  easily,  but  they  forget  what 
they  learn  just  as  readily.  It  may  be  of  some  advantage  to  children  whose  parents 
speak  German  regularly  at  home  to  receive  elementary  instruction  in  German, 
“but  if  they  leave  school  at  the  age  of  12  or  14  they  inevitably  drop  back  into  the 
speech  habits  of  those  with  whom  they  associate,  and  their  school  training  becomes, 
so  far  as  the  German  language  is  concerned,  a  reminiscence  of  time  wasted.  The 
children  of  parents  who  speak  English  at  home  get  a  smattering  of  German  at 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


585 


school,  but  if  they  leave  school  at  the  age  of  12  or  14  they  soon  forget  all  they  have 
learned.” 

III.  German  instruction  should  be  given  in  the  primary  grades  only  by  teachers 
who  have  a  thorough  command  of  the  language,  and  they  should  teach  a  small 
class  regularly  every  day.  4  ‘  Infrequent  lessons  in  large  classes  amount  to  noth¬ 
ing.  It  is  important  that  the  teacher  know  his  pupils  intimately  and  be  able  to 
adapt  his  instruction  fo  their  individual  needs.  The  general  aim  should  be  to 
familiarize  the  learner  with  the  vocabulary  and  phraseology  of  the  spoken  lan¬ 
guage  and  to  teach  him  to  express  himself  readily  and  correctly  in  easy  sentences.” 

This  report,  which  deserves  to  be  called  a  worthy  supplement  to  the  above- 
mentioned  similar  report  of  the  committee  of  ten  on  the  course  of  study  of  sec¬ 
ondary  schools,  was  presented  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association  held  in  Charlottesville,  Va.,  December,  1898,  and  at  the  annual  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  National  Educational  Association  held  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  the  follow¬ 
ing  summer.  On  both  occasions  it  was  received  with  extraordinary  approval. 
The  consequence  was  that  on  December  22,  1899,  President  Seth  Low  presided  at 
a  most  important  convention  of  representatives  of  colleges  and  secondary  schools 
who  met  in  the  halls  of  Columbia  University  to  establish  a  “college  entrance 
examination  board.”  This  was  definitely  constituted  November  17,  1900,  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Barnard  College,  Acting  Dean  Robinson;  Bryn  Mawr,  President  Thomas; 
Columbia  University,  President  Seth  Low;  Cornell,  Prof.  Horatio  S.  White;  Johns 
Hopkins,  Professor  Griffin;  New  York,  Chancellor  MacCracken;  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Professor  Lamberton;  Rutgers  College,  President  Scott;  Swarth- 
more  College,  President  Birdsall;  Union  College,  President  Raymond;  Yassar 
College,  President  Taylor;  Woman’s  College,  Baltimore,  Professor  Yon  Meter. 

The  following  representatives  of  secondary  schools  were  members  of  the  board: 
Dr.  Julius  Sachs,  New  York;  Dr.  Edw.  I.  Goodwin,  New  York;  Dr.  Walter  B. 
Gunnison,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Dr.  Wilson  Ferrand,  Newark,  N.  J. ;  Charles  I.  Cross¬ 
man,  Plaverford,  Pa. 

The  officers  of  the  board  were:  President  Seth  Low,  chairman;  President 
Thomas,  vice-chairman;  Prof.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  secretary  and  executive 
officer. 

The  executive  committee  was  composed  of  President  Seth  Low,  President 
Thomas,  President  Taylor,  Professor  Lamberton,  Dr.  Sachs. 

On  May  12,  1900,  it  had  been  decided  with  respect  to  German  instruction  that 
the  requirements  in  German  follow  the  recommendations  of  the  committee  of  12 
of  the  Modern  Language  Association.  These  demands,  therefore,  need  not  be 
repeated.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  resolution  is  deserving  of  mention 
that  the  uniform  examinations  should  go  into  effect  June  17,  1901.  What  effect 
this  important  step  will  have  on  the  other  institutions  of  the  country  is  apparent 
from  a  statement  in  the  Educational  Review1  to  the  effect  that  at  their  last  meet- 
ng  the  New  England  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  authorized 
the  appointment  of  a  strong  committee  to  take  into  consideration  a  similar  plan 
for  the  colleges  of  that  territory. 

In  a  union  of  American  universities,  founded  in  Chicago,  April,  1900,  the  first 
step  was  taken  toward  a  permanent  organization  of  all  first-class  educational 
institutions  in  the  country.  The  first  measures  were  taken  by  the  University  of 
California,  whose  president,  Mr.  B.  I.  Wheeler,  presided  at  the  conference  in  ques¬ 
tion,  whilst  all  arrangements  were  in  charge  of  President  Harper  of  the  University 
of  Chicago. 

The  following  universities  were  represented:  University  of  California,  Berkeley, 
Cal.;  Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C.;  University  of  Chicago; 
Clark  University,  South  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Columbia  University,  New  York  City; 


December,  1900,  page  536. 


586 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  1ST.  Y.;  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  State  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.;  University  of  Princeton,  Princeton,  1ST.  J.;  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia;  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  California;  State  University  of 
Wisconsin,  Madison,  WTis.;  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

These  14  institutions,  as  charter  members,  founded  the  Association  of  American 
Universities,  for  the  purpose  of  a  common  consideration  of  all  matters  pertaining 
to  university  studies  and  the  adopting  of  a  common  attitude  on  all  pertinent  ques¬ 
tions.  As  soon  as  practicable,  this  association  is  to  embrace  all  higher  institutions 
claiming  the  title  of  university,  and  all  universities  proposed  at  the  annual  meet¬ 
ings  by  the  executive  committee  are  to  be  admitted  as  members  upon  a  favorable 
vote  of  three-fourths  majority.  Each  university  has  but  one  vote,  without  regard 
to  the  number  of  its  delegates.  The  association  takes  no  active  part  in  the  politics 
of  the  separate  higher  institutions,  as  all  “  control”  on  its  part  is  prohibited. 

The  president  of  Harvard  University,  Charles  W.  Eliot,  was  elected  president; 
vice-president,  Benjamin  I.  Wheeler  (California);  secretary,  William  Rainey 
Harper  (Chicago).  Besides  these  Messrs.  Seth  Low  (Columbia)  and  Daniel  C. 
Gilman  (Johns  Hopkins)  belong  to  the  executive  committee.  It  remains  to  be 
seen  to  what  extent  the  new  association,  which  will  probably  hold  its  second 
annual  meeting  in  Chicago,  intends  to  promote  the  most  immediate  aim  of  educa¬ 
tional  reform — i.  e. ,  uniformity  of  entrance  conditions  for  the  freshman  class.  That 
this  question  is  ripe  for  consideration  is  a  tangible  fact.  On  April  18  and  19, 1900, 
the  representatives  of  Catholic  colleges  in  the  country  held  a  meeting  in  Chicago, 
at  which  Monsignor  Conaty,  president  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America, 
presided,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about  united  action.  To  effect  a  uniformity 
of  entrance  examinations,  a  committee  was  appointed  which  is  to  present  its 
report  during  Easter  time,  1901. 1 

Three  years  ago,  President  Charles  K.  Adams,  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
delivered  a  noteworthy  lecture  on  “State  Aid  to  Higher  Education,”2  in  which  he 
foretold  that  the  present  chaos  would  be  soon  followed  by  a  new  order  of  affairs. 
He  says: 

It  follows  that  the  colleges  and  the  universities  are  coming  more  and  more  to 
regard  themselves  as  the  natural  continuation  of  the  high  schools  in  much  the 
same  sense  as  the  German  university  is  the  natural  continuation  of  the  realschule 
and  the  gymnasium.  Under  the  impulse  of  this  belief  the  chaos  that  has  hitherto 
prevailed  in  our  educational  systems  is  gradually  giving  place  to  systematic 
organization,  and  we  are  coming  to  have  some  approach  to  what  may  fairly  be 
called  an  organic  educational  system. 

One  thing  is  beyond  all  doubt,  that  in  this  organic  educational  system  which  is 
just  forming  German  instruction  will  assert  a  position  that  can  never  be  taken 
from  it.  As  in  the  course  of  time  all  higher  educational  institutions,  without 
exception,  will  be  forced  to  conform  to  the  uniform  entrance  conditions  of  the  lead¬ 
ing  institutions,  so  those  colleges  in  which  German  at  present  receives  little  or  no 
attention  will  be  compelled  to  give  it  the  place  due  to  it  in  their  course  of  study. 

A  final  step  would  be  to  make  an  elementary  knowledge  of  German  obligatory 
upon  all  applicants,  in  order  to  free  colleges  and  universities  of  the  burden  of 
giving  a  part  of  their  students  the  first  training  in  this  direction.  That  this  step 
is  by  no  means  a  dream  whose  realization  is  not  to  be  thought  of  is  proved  by  the 
following  circular  of  the  Association  of  Teachers  of  German  in  California, 
addressed  to  the  superintendents  of  the  California  high  schools; 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  May  10,  1897. 

Dear  Sir:  The  Association  of  Teachers  of  German  in  California,  which  is  com¬ 
posed  of  the  professors  of  German  in  both  universities  and  of  teachers  of  German  in 

1For  this  report  see  Chapter  XVIII,  Third  Annual  Conference  of  the  Association  of  Catholic 
Colleges  of  the  United  States. 

2  February  23,  1898,  at  the  Twenty-second  anniversary  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


587 


various  high  schools  and  private  institutions  of  this  State,  recently  made  an  inves¬ 
tigation  of  the  condition  of  the  instruction  in  German  in  our  secondary  schools, 
resulting  in  the  discovery  that  only  in  35  of  the  88  high  schools  is  the  German  lan¬ 
guage  taught  at  the  present  time.  It  became  evident,  further,  that  of  7,183  pupils 
who  are  taught  in  these  35  high  schools  only  918,  or  less  than  12  per  cent,  were 
taking  German,  while  all  of  the  7,163  pupils  receive  instruction  in  Latin,  although 
but  one-third  of  this  number  would  probably  afterwards  enter  a  university. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  the  Association  of  Teachers  of  German  in  California, 
being  convinced  of  the  great  educational  value  of  the  study  of  German,  begs  to 
call  your  attention  to  the  following  considerations: 

There  are,  in  the  first  place,  numerous  practical  reasons  which  speak  for  a  speedy 
introduction  of  German  in  the  high  school  curriculum.  Owing  to  the  large  per¬ 
centage  of  the  German  population  of  this  country,  and  owing  to  the  constantly 
increasing  commercial  relations  between  America  and  Germany,  a  knowledge  of 
the  German  language  is  invaluable  for  business  purposes.  In  all  the  large  busi¬ 
ness  centers  of  our  country  young  men  and  women  who  command  the  German 
language  are  usually  preferred  when  seeking  positions  to  those  who  do  not  under¬ 
stand  German. 

It  is,  moreover,  a  well-known  fact  that  professional  men,  like  lawyers  and  phy¬ 
sicians,  profit  likewise  from  a  practical  knowledge  of  German;  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  our  high-school  graduates,  after  they  have  been  instructed  in  German- 
by  a  competent  teacher  for  a  period  of  three  years,  should  not  gain  a  speaking 
knowledge  of  this  language,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  avail  themselves,  of  the  great 
practical  advantages  resulting  from  such  a  knowledge. 

But  the  purely  educational  value  of  the  study  of  German  must  be  considered  as 
equally  great,  especially  for  those  high-school  graduates  who  enter  the  university. 
There  is  at  the  present  no  branch  of  science  in  which  Germany  does  not  indispu¬ 
tably  take  the  foremost  place  among  the  European  nations,  and  a  reading  knowl¬ 
edge  of  German  is  therefore  indispensable  for  the  student  in  every  department  of 
university  study.  As  a  consequence,  in  all  of  the  leading  universities  of  this  coun¬ 
try  German  can  be  substituted  for  entrance  in  place  of  one  of  the  ancient  lan¬ 
guages,  President  Gilman,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  explaining  this  policy  best 
by  saying,  “As  Latin  was  during  the  middle  ages  the  language  of  scholars,  so  the 
knowledge  of  German  is  now  indispensable  for  anyone  claiming  the  name  of  a 
student  and  scholar.” 

Comparing  the  secondary  education  of  California  with  the  progressive  move¬ 
ments  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  Association  of  Teachers  of  German  believes  that 
hitherto  undue  preference  has  been  given  to  the  study  of  Latin  in  our  high  schools. 
While  the  knowledge  of  Latin  will  always  remain  invaluable  for  those  entering 
special  professions,  it  is  comparatively  of  little  benefit  to  the  great  mass  of  higli- 
school  pupils,  who  later  on  follow  the  practical  pursuits  of  life.  The  mental  drill 
claimed  for  the  study  of  Latin  may  be  derived  in  the  same  measure  from  a  thor¬ 
ough  study  of  the  German  language,  which  at  the  same  time  opens  to  the  student 
a  literature  that  in  wealth  of  the  most  advanced  thought  and  in  beauty  of  expres¬ 
sion  can  only  be  compared  with  the  literature  of  the  Greeks.  Our  English  tongue 
is,  moreover,  in  its  formations  and  structure,  essentially  a  Germanic  language, 
and  it  is  of  far  greater  educational  value  for  the  majority  of  high-school  pupils  to 
study  the  historical  growth  of  their  own  language  in  comparison  with  the  closely 
related  German  than  to  learn  the  rudiments  of  Latin,  which  in  most  cases  are  only 
forgotten,  because  a  proficiency  in  reading  Latin  can  never  be  attained  by  the  high 
school. 


At  the  recent  meeting  of  the  California  Teachers’  Association  a  resolution  was 
passed  recommending  that  the  study  of  German  be  placed  on  an  equal  footing 
with  Latin  m  the  high  schools  of  California.  The  Association  of  Teachers  of  Ger¬ 
man  in  California  believes  that  it  is  advocating  the  cause  of  higher  education  in 
the  State  by  submitting  this  resolution  herewith  to  your  kind  consideration,  ask¬ 
ing  you  at  the  same  time  to  introduce  the  study  of  German  in  the  high  school  of 
your  district  and  to  make  German  elective  with  Latin.  The  great  importance  of 
the  study  of  German  is  being  recognized  more  and  more  by  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  University  of  California,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  Association  of 
Teachers  of  German  in  California  that  it  is  presumably  only  a  question  of  time 
when  the  University  will  officially  make  German  one  of  its  entrance  requirements. 

Respectfully 


Julius  Goebel, 

President,  Stanford  University ,  California. 
H.  E.  F.  Ungerth, 
Secretary,  Alameda,  Cal., 
Association  of  Teachers  of  German  in  California . 


588 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


This  circular  was  followed  by  a  second,  dated  April,  1900,  in  which  a  committee 
composed  of  Prof.  Julius  Goebel,  Prof.  Henry  Senger,  and  W.  Zimmermann, 
appointed  by  the  Teachers’s  Association,  submitted  to  high-school  superintend¬ 
ents  a  detailed  plan  of  study  for  a  proposed  three  years’  course  in  German.  As  we 
learn  from  a  letter  of  Professor  Senger,  quoted  below,  the  number  of  high  schools 
that  have  introduced  German  in  pursuance  of  the  above  recommendation  is  rap¬ 
idly  increasing. 

The  efforts  that  tend  to  the  obligatory  German  examination  for  entrance  to  col¬ 
lege  have  received  no  little  support  from  the  recent  international  pedagogical 
movement  toward  substituting  modern  for  classical  languages  as  general  subjects 
of  instruction,  a  movement  which  has  received  its  scientific  indorsement  from 
Prof.  Dr.  Fr.  Paulsen,  of  the  University  of  Berlin,  Germany,  in  his  highly  import¬ 
ant  work,  The  History  of  Scientific  Instruction.  Such  a  radical  change  in  the 
higher  educational  institutions  is  undoubtedly  far  off,  but  in  all  probability  the 
compromise  will  gradually  become  familiar  which  sacrifices  the  Greek  “  fetich  ” 
on  the  altar  of  the  common  good  and  brings  German  into  the  foreground,  a 
measure  which  Professor  Goebel  warmly  advocates. 

In  the  June  number  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  of  1900  William  Cranston  Lawton 
treats  this  subject  in  an  article  entitled  A  Substitute  for  Greek. 

Before  Lawton  proceeds  to  his  subject  proper  he  presents  the  following  three 
theses,  according  to  which  the  value  of  every  study  in  primary  and  high  schools 
is  to  be  estimated: 

I.  Every  study  should  aim  to  form  good  citizens,  for  only  such  can  do  their 
part  in  the  intellectual  development  of  mankind. 

II.  No  study  should  be  so  managed  as  to  overburden  the  mind  by  mechanical 
memorizing.  It  should  serve  to  strengthen  it. 

IIT.  Of  whatever  kind  the  study  may  be  it  must  prepare  for  life  and  for  no  other 
purpose. 

Proceeding  from  these  views,  Lawton  deiidedly  advocates  replacing  Greek  by 
German  in  our  high  schools  and  universities.  He  is  of  opinion  that  German 
should  be  considered  the  most  important  foreign  language  in  the  course  of  study 
and  that  Latin  should  be  second  in  order.  A  child  should  begin  the  study  of  Ger¬ 
man  not  later  than  in  his  tenth  year.  Lawton  considers  the  beauties  and  artistic 
worth  which  pupils  can  find  in  German  poetry  much  more  important  than  the 
knowledge  which  Greek  text-books  afford,  and  he  thinks  that  every  child  14  or  15 
years  old  ought  to  know  hundreds  of  gems,  as,  for  instance,  the  ballads  of  Uhland, 
by  heart.  Lawton  asserts  that  a  living  language  is  much  more  easily  mastered 
than  the  “fragments  of  a  dialect  that  has  been  dead  for  a  long  time.”  The  Ger¬ 
man  language  should  be  placed  first  in  order  also  because  the  most  prominent 
learned  men  make  use  of  it.  He  attacks  those  teachers  in  cutting  terms  who  do 
not  recognize  any  education  as  classical  unless  the  study  of  Greek  forms  a  part. 
“A  man,”  says  Lawton,  “who  knows  nothing  of  Blass  or  Brueggemann,  Mommsen 
or  Boeckh,  Furtwaengler  and  Doerpfeld,  Roscher  and  Ivan  von  Mueller,  is  not 
justified,  in  boasting  of  classical  education.  If  he  does  not  know  his  deficiency  in 
education,  he  is  so  much  the  worse  off.  He  on  whose  desk  no  German  books  are 
to  be  found  can  not  be  numbered  among  the  learned.”  The  history  of  civilization, 
Latin,  and  German  should,  in  Lawton’s  estimation,  be  the  three  chief  branches  in 
every  course  of  study  of  our  high  schools.  He  believes  that  the  perception  of  the 
relationship  of  all  civilized  nations  should  form  the  foundation  of  our  own  school 
system,  and  that  the  German  language  and  German  science,  together  with  the 
“history  of  Anglo-Saxon  races,”  should  be  the  most  important  element  in  the 
course  of  study  of  American  schools. 

Lawton  favors  pointing  out  the  beauties  contained  in  the  works  of  poets  to  chil¬ 
dren,  and  lie  believes  that  learning  poems  by  heart  is  of  more  value  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  mind  and  character  than  the  mechanical  memorization  of  whole  pages 
out  of  text-books.  To  him  the  knowledge  of  modern  writers  and  the  understand- 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


589 


mg  of  their  beauties  is  far  more  important  than  a  drilling  on  the  five  variations  of 
the  verb  “  to  be  ”  in  Homer,  and  it  seems  enough  to  him  if  pupils  are  instructed  in 
the  beauties  of  Greek  mythology  and  poetry  by  their  teacher  of  history. 

Lawton  hopes  that  the  time  may  not  be  far  distant  when  Greek  will  be  excluded 
from  the  course  of  study  of  high  schools.  If  for  reasons  of  principle  there  should 
be  any  hesitation  in  taking  such  a  step,  practical  reasons  will  effect  the  desired 
change,  as  it  is  no  longer  a  rare  occurrence  to  find  only  two  or  three  pupils  in  the 
Greek  classes  of  the  large  high  schools. 

The  study  of  Greek  may  be  safely  confided  to  the  old  colleges;  in  the  “iieople’s 
college'5  of  the  twentieth  century,  however,  German  will  take  the  place  of  Greek, 
and  all  who  desire  to  attend  a  university  in  the  future  must  have  at  least  an  ele¬ 
mentary  knowledge  of  this  important  language. 

PART  II.— THE  POSITION  OF  GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  AT  THE  BEGIN¬ 
NING  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY. 

In  the  following  account  special  stress  is  laid  upon  colleges  and  universities  for 
the  following  reasons: 

I.  Colleges  and  universities  are,  undoubtedly,  leading  educational  institutions, 
at  which,  as  a  rule,  the  best  teachers  are  engaged.  As  Eliot  says:  “Schools  follow 
universities  and  will  be  what  universities  make  .them. 551 

II.  They  give  instruction  of  every  kind,  from  elementary  for  beginners  to  edu¬ 
cation  of  teachers  and  training  for  the  highest  branches  of  philological  studies. 

III.  The  most  reliable  and  detailed  information  can  be  had  concerning  these 
first-class  institutions,  whereas  that  concerning  secondary  schools,  for  instance,  is 
more  or  less  incomplete. 

IV.  There  is  no  question  but  that  secondary  schools,  as  a  rule,  will  adapt  them¬ 
selves  to  the  conditions  laid  down  in  reference  to  instruction  in  modern  languages 
in  the  examinations  for  matriculation  at  colleges. 

For  these  reasons,  the  most  explicit  statements  were  required  from  the  most 
important  higher  educational  institutions,  whereas  fewer  facts  sufficed  concern¬ 
ing  the  condition  of  affairs  in  all  other  kinds  of  schools. 

I.  Colleges  and  Universities. 

Among  the  nearly  half  thousand  institutions  that  go  by  the  name  of  “college  ” 
or  “  university,”  there  are  but  a  small  number  which  are  universities  in  the  Ger¬ 
man  acceptation  of  the  term,  or  are  at  least  on  the  road  of  becoming  such.  Again, 
there  are  others  that  do  so  little  that  in  many  respects  they  stand  below  the  level 
of  a  German  gymnasium.  The  average  college,  as  it  has  developed  as  a  specifically 
American  institution,  ranks  between  these  two  extremes  as  an  institution,  the 
graduates  of  which,  who  leave  at  an  average  age  of  22  years,  acquire  a  highly 
creditable  general  education,  which  is  a  suitable  foundation  for  the  special  studies 
of  any  learned  profession. 

The  existing  highest  class  institutions  have,  in  connection  with  their  “  college,” 
one  or  more  “  faculties,”  which  have  great  similarity  to  the  bodies  in  connection 
with  German  higher  institutions  of  the  same  name.  By  their  general  plan  on  a 
large  scale;  their  seminaries,  laboratories,  museums,  and  experiment  halls;  their 
scientifically  educated  teachers  and  the  scientific  methods  followed  by  them;  the 
preparatory  education  which  they  require  for  their  entrance  examinations  and  the 
knowledge  which  they  demand  for  the  conferring  of  an  academic  degree;  the  num¬ 
ber  of  their  students;  the  means  at  their  command,  and  the  reputation  which  they 
enjoy  among  the  highly  educated  at  home  and  abroad,  these  “  universities  ”  par 
excellence  are  so  far  above  the  second  or  third-grade  institutions  that  bear  the 
same  title  that  only  those  who  are  thoroughly  unacquainted  with  the  conditions  are 


Charles  W.  Eliot,  Educational  Reform,  page  131. 


590 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


misled  by  the  term.  The  so  frequent  misuse  of  the  term  “  university  ”  is  an  evil 
which  should  be  remedied  in  the  future,  and  will  probably  disappear  of  itself  when 
once  the  chaotic  condition  which  must  prevail  from  the  founding  of  most  of  the 
higher  educational  institutions  by  private  enterprise  or  societies  of  a  religious 
character  has  been  displaced  by  a  uniform  regulation  of  the  entire  educational 
system. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  define  the  position  of  all  the  institutions  included 
in  the  category  of  colleges  and  universities,  especially  as  this  attempt  would  rack 
the  brain  of  the  most  experienced  educators  in  the  country.  Still,  one  may 
remark  that  a  glance  at  the  statistics  of  education  will  give  tangible  data  to  deter¬ 
mine  the  importance  of  an  institution.  If,  for  instance,  one  finds  the  statement: 
The  “  University  of  New  Mexico,”  with  10  teachers,  100  students,  5,000  volumes, 
and  an  annual  income  of  $14,000,  and  Harvard  University,  with  496  teachers, 
4,288  students,  576,900  volumes,  and  an  annual  income  of  $1,376,672,  he  need  make 
no  further  research.  Of  course  there  are  indisputably  first-class  institutions  suf¬ 
fering  from  lack  of  funds,  like  the  Johns  Hopkins,  which  nevertheless  have 
excelled  in  brilliant  accomplishments.  Such  an  exception,  however,  does  not  set 
aside  the  general  rule. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  institutions  whose  yearly  reports  show  great  obligations 
on  the  part  of  teachers  and  small  salaries,  whose  libraries  and  other  appurtenances 
are  most  deficient,  whose  geographical  position  leaves  no  favorable  genius  loci  to 
be  expected,  can  do  nothing  of  note  with  regard  to  German  instruction.  For  the 
present  purpose  it  will  suffice  to  give  an  account  of  how  German  instruction  is 
organized  at  a  true  university,  subsequently  in  the  “  German  sections  ”  of  fourteen 
of  the  best  known  and  most  important  universities,  and  then  at  a  small  number  of 
other  selected  prominent  institutions. 

For  the  first  end  in  view  the  “Columbia”  has  been  chosen,  because  the  author 
has  known  this  excellent  university  for  a  number  of  years  from  personal  observa¬ 
tion  and  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  its  regulations,  and  besides  is  in  possession  of  a 
recently  given  and  most  instructive  lecture  on  this  subject  by  Mr.  William  H. 
Carpenter,  professor  of  Germanic  philology  and  senior  professor.1  German 
instruction  at  present  is  conducted  as  follows:  The  introduction  of  modern  lan¬ 
guages  into  the  curriculum  of  the  college  is  the  result  of  a  victorious  struggle. 
The  old  college  course  did  not  recognize  the  modern  languages  as  equal  to  the 
classical  as  a  foundation  for  a  liberal  education.  Latin  and  Greek  were  the  only 
languages  that  were  systematically  taught.  If  the  opportunity  to  study  a  modern 
language  was  offered  at  all,  it  was  only  possible  as  a  side  branch,  perhaps  two  or 
three  hours  a  week  during  a  single  year.  Yv^hoever  wanted  to  learn  more  was 
obliged  to  seek  instruction  outside  of  the  university,  a  condition  of  affairs  that  has 
existed  in  Germany  in  like  manner  in  order  to  admit  the  equal  qualification  of 
modern  languages. 

Unfortunately  America  possesses  no  carefully  arranged  and  uniform  educational 
system,  such  as  there  is  in  Germany;  in  which  each  part  is  suited  to  the  other,  so 
as  to  form  a  pliable  but  unbroken  chain  that  binds  the  whole  German  realm,  east 
and  west,  south  and  north,  leading  the  nation  to  similar  ideas,  common  thought, 
and  common  ideals,  as  no  purely  political  union  can.  In  America,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  is  not  in  the  least  unnatural  in  so  unequally  developed  a  country,  the 
different  parts  of  the  country  have  very  different  notions  of  the  nature  of  the  prob¬ 
lem,  not  only  of  higher  but  of  secondary  education.  The  colleges  here  have  been 
founded  under  entirely  different  conditions,  and  have  always  developed  on  their 
own  lines  altogether  independent  of  those  of  other  institutions.  The  state,  as  a 
rule,  paid  no  attention  whatever  to  the  matter,  so  that  it  is  rather  astonishing  that 


German  Instruction  at  American  Universities;  a  lecture  delivered  before  the  Gesellig 
“  Wissenschaft  licherVerein  ”  of  New  York,  January  13, 1878.  With  the  author’s  permission, 
we  reproduce  the  following  remarks,  partly  verbatim,  partly  condensed. 


GEBMAN  -INSTRUCTION  IN  AMEBIC  AN  SCHOOLS. 


591 


the  whole  educational  system  should  have  become  organized  as  uniform  as  is  rela¬ 
tively  the  case.  The  time  will  come,  however,  when  the  highest  educational  institu¬ 
tions  at  least  will  be  so  far  in  accord  that  liberty  of  attendance  will  exist  between 
the  different  universities,  and  as  characteristic  a  system  of  exchange  will  be  adopted 
as  obtains  in  Germany,  where  students  prefer  to  attend  several  universities.  In 
this  respect  the  meeting  of  the  six  large  universities  in  the  East,  February  1, 1896, 
was  an  important  event,  the  consequences  of  which  will  be  known  in  the  course 
of  years  in  a  revolutionizing  of  the  old  system  of  attendance. 

The  present  position  of  German  instruction  is  as  follows:  Some  smaller  colleges 
adhere  to  the  old  regime,  according  to  which  the  modern  languages  formed  no 
essential  part  of  the  course  of  study  and  were  learned  or  not  learned  by  the  stu¬ 
dents,  as  it  pleased  them.  They  also  had  the  privilege  of  choosing  between  them 
and  some  other  study  in  any  one  year  of  the  college  course.  In  other  colleges  there 
is  liberty  of  choice  between  German  and  French  in  one  year  or  within  two  years, 
during  which  either  German  or  French  is  a  prominent  study.  In  some  institu¬ 
tions  the  opportunity  is  afforded  of  learning  both  languages  at  the  same  time  or 
consecutively;.  Others,  again,  require  that  both  must  be  studied  in  one  grade  or 
other  of  the  course.  AH  colleges  of  this  category  agree  throughout  in  not  requir¬ 
ing  any  knowledge  of  modern  languages  for  admission.  All  that  is  learned  must 
be  acquired  in  the  short  space  of  four  years.  The  actual  value  of  the  knowledge 
of  the  language  thus  gained  is  so  problematical  that  it  would  be  much  better  to 
set  aside  the  modern  languages  altogether  and  make  use  of  the  time  given  to  them 
in  some  other  way. 

Fortunately,  what  has  been  said  applies  only  to  a  minority  of  small  and  poorly 
endowed  colleges.  In  all  the  large  institutions  of  the  country  modern  languages 
play  an  altogether  different  part  and  occupy  a  very  prominent  position  in  their 
currieulums.  As  a  rule,  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  modern  languages  is 
required  for  admission  into  the  college.  Most  colleges  prescribe  that  the  fresh¬ 
man  admitted  must  pass  an  examination  in  German  or  French.  In  some  instances 
that  will  be  mentioned  farther  on  candidates  must  pass  examinations  in  both 
languages. 

After  a  student  has  been  formally  admitted  he  is  sometimes  left  free  to  choose 
whether  he  will  study  a  modern  language,  and  which  one.  Sometimes  he  is 
obliged  to  study  one  or  more.  In  this  respect  different  rules  obtain  at  different 
colleges;  but  whether  a  matter  of  choice  or  of  obligation,  so  much  has  been  attained 
that  at  the  present  day  ample  opportunity  is  afforded  at  every  American  educa¬ 
tional  institution  of  the  better  class  to  learn  French  or  German  thoroughly  in 
nearly  every  place  of  development  and  application;  and  this  is  true  both  of  the  lan¬ 
guage  itself  and  its  literature.  German  has  acquired  not  only  an  honorable  but  an 
indispensable  position  among  the  branches  of  study.  The  time  when  German  was 
looked  upon  as  unnecessary  is  long  since  passed.  *  On  the  contrary,  a  certain  knowl¬ 
edge  of  it  in  the  higher  grades  of  education  is  considered  indispensable.  No  one 
who  is  not  able  at  least  to  read  German  can  receive  the  highest  academic  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy  at  Columbia  University,  for  instance. 

Every  new  student  at  Columbia  is  required  to  know  a  certain  amount  of  at  least 
one  of  the  two  principal  modern  languages  besides  English,  and  both,  if  he  has  no 
knowledge  of  Greek.  Since  the  conference  of  February  1,  1896,  referred  to,  these 
conditions  for  admission  have  been  in  force  for  the  other  large  colleges  in  the  East. 
The  entrance  examination  aims  to  determine  whether  the  candidate  possesses 
sufficient  knowledge  of  German,  grammar,  and  an  adequate  vocabulary  for  an 
academic  education,  and  can  translate  easy  prose.1  The  conditions  of  admission 
are  thoroughly  appropriate.  They  were  defined  by  a  committee  composed  of  an 

^-Tlie  regulations  on  the  subject  were  sent  to  Prof.  Seth  Low,  in  full,  with  the  report  of  the 
German  conference.  See  pp.  582-3  of  this  article. 


592 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


equal  number  of  college  professors  and  members  of  the  teachers’  association  con¬ 
sidered  particularly  competent  for  this  purpose.  Representatives  of  secondary 
schools,  therefore,  had  an  equal  voice  with  those  of  colleges.  Nevertheless,  from 
all  parts  teachers  are  constantly  sending  forth  the  cry  that  too  great  a  burden  has 
been  laid  upon  them  and  one  which  they  are  not  able  to  bear. 

In  reality  every  intelligent  American  schoolboy  who  knows  no  German  but 
what  he  has  learned  in  school  during  a  period  of  instruction  of  three  hours  a 
week  for  two  years  ought  to  be  able  to  pass  this  examination.  The  same  result 
could  be  attained,  in  fact,  by  a  thoroughly  competent  teacher  with  one  hour  for  a 
year.  The  instruction  presupposes  as  an  absolute  necessity,  however,  a  sufficient 
practice  in  grammar,  not  empiric,  but  in  connection  with  ample  reading  matter, 
by  means  of  which  a  vocabulary  is  acquired  and  the  grammatical  forms  and 
principles  which  come  under  observation  in  the  text  are  studied,  together  with 
daily  drill  in  translation  at  sight  and  practice  in  conversation  at  least  during  a 
part  of  the  hour.  To  acquire  a  sufficient  vocabulary  not  fewer  than  200  pages  of 
easy  prose  should  be  read  and  studied. 

Another  question  that  suggests  itself  is,  whether  schools  of  the  present  day  really 
prepare  pupils  so  that  they  are  able  to  pass  such  an  examination?  On  the  whole, 
they,  unfortunately,  do  not.  In  1898  there  were  at  Columbia  41  candidates,  of 
whom  only  27  passed;  in  1897  there  were  71,  of  whom  only  89  passed;  in  1898  there 
were  109,  of  whom  only  64  passed.1 

Consequently  something  must  be  wrong,  and  as  it  is  impossible  for  a  mistake 
to  be  in  the  standard,  the  organization  of  secondary  schools  in  general  must  be 
held  responsible  for  the  evil.  These  include  some  institutions  whose  pupils  never 
fail  in  the  examinations  or  among  whom  failure  is  the  exception,  whilst  pupils  of 
others  do  so  much  the  worse.  The  point  is  a  most  important  one.  The  accom¬ 
plishments  of  colleges  are,  in  a  very  great  measure,  dependent  upon  the  material 
which  they  receive  from  secondary  schools,  and  the  evil  is  that  many  of  these 
have  not  yet  taken  up  German  instruction  seriously  enough.  The  chief  reason  of 
this  is  that  this  language  is  a  recent  addition  to  the  curriculum  and  is  more  in  the 
nature  of  an  exterior  accretion  than  of  an  organic  element  developed  under 
influences  acting  from  within.  A  further  evil  is  the  choice  of  unfit  teachers,  who 
are,  moreover,  frequently  overburdened  and  poorly  paid.  School  boards,  in  many 
cases,  think  they  have  done  enough  by  choosing  a  German  by  birth  for  the  posi¬ 
tion  in  question.  That  has  its  incalculable  advantages  it  is  true,  but  it  does  not 
supply  the  deficiency  of  a  professional  education. 

The  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  students  enter  from  secondary  schools  with 
an  insufficient  knowledge  of  German  has  contributed  much  to  lower  the  dignity 
of  modern  languages  as  elements  of  the  course  of  study.  At  Columbia  the  custom 
obtains  of  allowing  freshmen  to  make  up  the  German  examination  during  the 
first  year,  but  in  that  case  they  are  required  to  do  a  considerable  amount  of  extra 
work,  and  are  only  admitted  to  the  second  year  course  if  they  have  made  good 
their  deficiency  so  as  to  be  able  to  pass  the  examination. 

In  case  a  student  upon  entering  the  college  prefers  to  take  the  examination  in 
French  instead  of  German,  in  connection  with  Greek,  he  is  obliged  to  study  ele¬ 
mentary  German  during  the  first  year.  He  then  receives  daily  instruction  for 
one  hour  as  has  been  previously  described,  and,  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  must 
possess  as  much  knowledge  of  German  as  those  who  passed  the  examination  in  ele¬ 
mentary  German  upon  entering. 

1  Since  the  recent  action  of  the  city  high  schools  has  gone  into  effect  the  conditions  seem  to 
have  improved  to  some  extent,  for  in  1899  there  were  96  candidates,  of  whom  73  passed.  How¬ 
ever,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  result  of  a  single  year  is  dependent  upon  accidents,  and  permits 
no  reliable  conclusions,  which  must  be  deduced  from  more  full  data.  In  his  Educational 
Reform,  Professor  Eliot  deplores  the  fact  that  only  9  of  the  330  high  schools  in  Massachusetts 
regularly  prepare  competent  students  for  Harvard. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


598 


With  the  admission  examination,  if  German  was  chosen  as  the  modern  lan¬ 
guage,  or  with  the  elementary  one  year  course  in  German,  if  candidates  preferred 
to  be  examined  in  French,  the  obligation  of  students  to  study  German  is  fulfilled; 
but  an  ample  number  of  opportunities  are  presented  to  build  on  this  foundation, 
and  it  is  their  own  fault  if  they  do  not  make  use  of  them.  For  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts,  however,  no  more  than  an  elementary  knowledge  of  German  and 
French  is  required. 

For  those  students  who  pass  the  examination  for  the  higher  grade  on  entering, 
the  opportunity  is  afforded  to  follow  a  higher  course  at  once.  To  pass  the  exami¬ 
nation  for  the  intermediate  course,  either  an  extra  year  must  be  devoted  to  pre¬ 
paratory  instruction  or  the  student  in  question  must  have  a  comprehensive  knowl¬ 
edge  of  German  before  admission.  This  is  much  more  seldom  the  case  in  America 
than  we  are  led  to  expect  from  the  large  population  of  German  extraction.  In 
New  York  there  are  only  a  few,  but  still  at  least  some,  institutions  that  are  able 
to  prepare  for  this  higher  examination. 

After  the  elementary  course,  two  courses  with  three  hours  a  week  for  a  year 
are  arranged  to  advance  students  to  the  level  corresponding  to  the  intermediate 
course.  The  one  aims  to  give  students,  while  they  are  continuing  their  study  of 
the  language,  some  knowledge  of  the  classical  period  of  German  literature. 
Accordingly,  selected  passages  from  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Lessing  are  translated. 
Students  are  required  besides  privately  to  read  historical  and  biographical  works 
on  these  authors  and  their  times.  Compositions  written  altogether  or  partly  in 
German,  intended  to  show  the  results  of  this  study,  are  required  from  time  to 
time.  A  part  of  every  hour  is  given  to  sight  reading.  During  the  second  semes¬ 
ter  one  or  more  works  are  read  in  the  original.  The  language  spoken  during 
instruction  is  as  far  as  possible  German. 

The  other  course  aims  to  enable  those  students  who  intend  to  make  a  special 
study  of  history,  literature,  philosophy,  political  economy,  or  other  disciplinary 
study  of  the  kind,  to  read  German  books  on  these  subjects  with  profit.  In  this 
case,  the  work  consists  chiefiy  in  sight-reading  with  explanation  of  the  difficult 
passages.  The  readers  used  are,  for  instance:  Freytag's  Bilder  aus  der  deutschen 
Vergangenheit,  Scherer’s  Deutsche  Literaturgeschichte,  and  Hansen’s  Die  drei 
Bevblkerungsstufen.  A  special  course  in  this  grade  is  designed  for  more  advanced 
students  of  the  natural  sciences;  readers  are  used  containing  an  appropriate  scien¬ 
tific  vocabulary,  and  the  selections  are  from  good  technical  works  on  these  subjects. 

After  a  student  has  advanced  so  far  he  must  decide  whether  he  intends  to  follow 
the  linguistic  or  the  literary  course,  or  both.  The  first  literary  course  open  to 
him  gives  him  a  bird’s-eye  view  of  the  general  development  of  German  literature, 
by  which  he  is  made  acquainted  with  the  most  important  authors  and  their  works, 
and  receives  a  general  idea  of  the  different  epochs  and. the  relation  of  the  history 
of  literature  to  politics,  religion,  and  the  development  of  society. 

The  course  of  two  hours  a  week  on  Goethe’s  Faust  (Parts  I  and  II),  which 
claims  a  whole  year,  follows  upon  completion  of  the  general  course  of  the  history 
of  literature.  In  this  course  the  student  is  made  familiar  with  this  work,  learns 
its  importance,  as  well  as  its  poetical  and  ethical  value,  and  becomes  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  history  of  its  origin.  Another  two  hours’  course  is  confined 
especially  to  the  coryphei  of  German  literature,  and  is  open  to  such  students  as 
can  read  German  fluently,  and  desire  to  study  the  masterpieces.  In  this  sense  such 
works  are  read  and  explained,  and  students  are  required  from  time  to  time  to 
write  compositions  on  the  works  studied. 

The  linguistic  course  has  two  divisions  in  this  grade.  The  one  (two  hours  a 
week  for  one  year)  gives  practice  in  speaking  and  writing.  Ail  is  conducted  in 
German  discussions  and  compositions;  an  excellent  opportunity  for  practical  use 
of  the  language  is  thus  afforded  to  those  who  are  sufficiently  advanced.  The  other 

ED  1901 - 38 


594 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


course  (likewise  two  hours  a  week  for  one  year) ,  consists  of  lectures  on  the  history 
of  the  German  language,  combined  with  text  interpretation  of  all  periods  of  litera¬ 
ture.  The  purpose  is  to  follow  the  history  of  the  Modern  High  German  written 
language  gradually,  from  Old  High  German  to  the  present  time,  and  to  explain 
the  changes  of  the  relations  of  vowels  and  the  origin  of  grammatical  forms.  Suit¬ 
able  readers  furnish  Old  and  Middle  High  German  text  for  the  time  of  Luther, 
and  copies  of  German  literary  works  for  Modern  High  German. 

The  Germanic  Seminary,  which  likewise  works  two  hours  a  week,  accepts  only 
graduates  who  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  what  has  been  studied  in  the  preced¬ 
ing  courses.  The  critical  study  of  the  separate  productions  of  Old  and  Middle 
High  German  poetry  is  pursued. 

The  other  courses  of  the  curriculum  justify  the  name  of  the  department  of  the 
Germanic  languages.  They  include  the  Scandinavian  languages,  the  Icelandic, 
and  the  Gothic.  Further  lectures  are  given  on  philology.  All  these  higher  courses 
naturally  are  not  meant  for  college  students,  but  for  graduates  only.  This  curric¬ 
ulum  does  not  claim  to  be  perfect,  and  admits  of  various  additions;  neverthe¬ 
less,  it  has  been  drawn  up  with  a  thoroughness  and  regularity  of  plan  that  are 
deserving  of  recognition.  If  it  is  carried  out  systematically  from  beginning  to 
end,  it  is  possible  for  even  a  college  student  who,  on  entering,  did  not  understand 
a  single  word  of  German,  to  become  so  familiar  with  the  language  within  the 
quadrennium  that  he  will  be  able  intelligently  to  read  any  printed  or  written 
text  that  presents  no  unusual  difficulties,  express  himself  in  correspondence  wTith 
exactness,  and  read  with  a  good  pronunciation.  Furthermore,  the  opportunity 
is  presented  to  acquire  a  comprehensive  general  knowledge  of  German  literature 
in  all  its  periods  of  development,  and  a  special  knowledge  of  the  classic  writers, 
modern  and  ancient.  Besides,  the  German  language  can  be  learned  in  its  historic 
development,  together  with  German  and  Germanic  etymology.  In  this  way  the 
best  graduates  of  every  year  have  acquired  an  apprehension  of  the  German 
language  very  nearly  equal  to  that  for  their  native  English. 

In  case  the  mental  equipment  of  a  student  on  entering  includes  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  German  for  him  to  omit  the  elementary  course,  he  can  attain  the 
aim  proposed  the  more  surely,  since  he  is  in  the  position  to  take  ail  the  courses, 
which  are  only  given  alternately  in  the  higher  classes,  and  because,  with  his 
greater  advancement,  he  can  derive  more  advantage  from  instruction  and  can  do 
more  justice  to  the  separate  studies. 

Columbia  could  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  better  colleges,  because  its  work  ranks 
about  equal  with  that  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  or  of  the  universities  of 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  Some  universities,  like  Harvard,  have  a  greater  number 
of  courses;  others,  like  Yale,  have  fewer.  On  the  whole,  however,  all  universities 
have  the  same  end  in  view,  and  the  wholesome  competition  among  the  greatest 
institutions  of  the  country  fully  supplies  the  want  of  State  supervision  exer¬ 
cised  in  Germany.  At  all  events,  German  instruction  in  colleges  has  been  set  on 
a  sure  foundation,  both  as  regards  the  forms  of  instruction  and  its  subjects.  The 
science  of  pedagogics  will  not  stand  still  in  reference  to  instruction  in  the 
languages,  but  will  make  further  demands.  The  issues  belong  to  the  future,  and 
will  in  the  course  of  time  be  decided  in  the  natural  order  of  normal  development. 

The  following  accounts  of  the  “  German  departments of  14  leading  institu¬ 
tions  demonstrate  how  far  each  deviates  from  the  type  which  has  been  under  con¬ 
sideration.  As  with  some  the  catalogue  of  1899-1800,  with  others  that  of  1900-1901, 
was  used  as  main  reference,  uniformity  may  in  the  meantime  have  become  a  shade 
closer.  The  effort  to  bring  about  a  general  regulation  of  entrance  conditions  and 
of  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  for  the  receiving  of  academic  degrees,  is  apparent 
throughout;  and  the  harmonious  cooperation  of  the  Modern  Language  Association 
has  not  failed  to  exert  an  influence  on  the  uniform  organization  of  German 
instruction. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


595 


HARVARD. 

Much  has  already  been  said  concerning  the  history  of  the  German  department 
of  the  leading  university  of  the  country;  we  need,  therefore,  now  only  to  refer  to 
the  state  of  affairs  in  that  department  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1901. 

The  personnel  of  teachers  consists  of  the  following  gentlemen:  George  Alonzo 
Bartlett,  A.  M.,  associate  professor  of  German;  Kuno  Francke,  Ph.  D.,  professor 
of  German  literature  and  chairman  of  the  department  of  Germanic  languages  and 
literatures;  Hans  Carl  'Gurfther  von  Jagemann,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  Germanic 
philology  and  chairman  of  the  division  of  modern  languages;  Hugo  Karl  Schill¬ 
ing.  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  German;  Alfred  Bull  Nichols,  A.  B.,  D.  B., 
instructor  in  German  and  secretary  of  the  department  of  Germanic  languages  and 
literatures;  Heinrich  Conrad  Bierwirth,  Ph,  D. ,  instructor  in  German;  William 
Guild  Howard,  A.  M.,  instructor  in  German;  John  Firman  Coar,  A.  M. ,  instructor 
in  German;  Macy  Millmore  Skinner,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  German;  Guido  Carl 
Leo  Riemer,  A.  M.,  instructor  in  German;  William  Witherle  Lawrence,  A.  B., 
instructor  in  German. 

Besides  this  regular  corps  of  teachers,  the  following  gentlemen  conduct  separate 
courses  of  lectures  in  this  department:  George  Lyman  Kittredge,  A.  B.,  professor 
of  English;  William  Henry  Schofield,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  English;  Dr.  Neilson; 
Dr.  F.  N.  Robinson;  Professor  Sheldon;  Professor  Grandgent;  Associate  Professor 
Gates. 

The  courses  classed  under  the  head  of  Germanic  languages  and  literatures  are 
divided  into  four  groups. 

I.  German. — This  group  comprises  those  courses  which  aim  to  impart  a  practi¬ 
cal  knowledge  of  the  German  language,  and  to  introduce  the  student  to  the  prin¬ 
cipal  works  of  the  great  German  writers. 

II.  German  literature. — This  group  is  devoted  to  the  history  of  German  litera¬ 
ture  and  to  a  critical  study  of  special  phases  of  German  culture. 

III.  Scandinavian  literature. — This  group  consists  of  courses  which  aim  to  impart 
a  practical  knowledge  of  the  Dano-Norwegian  language;  to  introduce  the  student 
to  the  best  works  of  modern  Danish  and  Norwegian  writers,  and  to  aid  him  in  a 
critical  study  of  the  great  monuments  of  the  old  Norse  literature. 

IV.  Germanic  ’philology. — This  group  is  devoted  to  a  comparative  study  of  Ger¬ 
manic  languages  and  institutions  and  to  instruction  in  the  methods  of  linguistic 
and  literary  research. 


Separate  Courses. 

L  PRIMARILY  FOR  UNDERGRADUATES. 

1.  Elementary  course — Grammar — Translation  from  German  into  English,  and 
elementary  exercises  in  translating  into  German.  Three  times  a  week. 

_  The  principal  aim  of  course  1  is  to  give  the  student  a  knowledge  of  German  suffi¬ 
cient  to  enable  him  to  read  easy  German  at  sight  and  translate  simple  English 
sentences  into_German.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  systematic  training  in  pro¬ 
nunciation.  Five  teachers  (for  freshmen  in  Harvard  College). 

2.  Elementary  course — Grammar — Translations  from  German  into  English,  and 
elementary  exercises  in  translating  into  German.  Three  times  a  week.  Three 
teachers  (for  students  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  wTho  did  not  present  Ger¬ 
man  at  the  examination  for  admission). 

_  3.  Elementary  course— Grammar — Composition — Translation  and  reading  at 
sight— Selections  in  prose  and  poetry.  Five  times  a  week,  counting  as  two  courses. 

Course  3  is  intended  for  those  students  who,  beginning  German  in  their  fresh¬ 
man  year,  wish  to  give  more  time  to  this  language  than  is  prescribed  in  course  1. 
It  will  be  found  especially  adapted  to  those  students  who  intend,  in  subsequent 
years,  to  give  much  attention  to  college  studies  in  which  a  good  knowledge  of 
German  is  of  advantage.  Such  studies  are  ancient  and  modern  languages,  philos¬ 
ophy,  history,  fine  arts,  etc. 

4.  German  prose  and  poetry — Reading  at  sight — Grammar  and  composition. 
Three  times  a  week. 

The  course  is  conducted  in  a  manner  to  meet  the  needs  of  students  who  can  read 
easy  German  at  sight,  but  who  have  not  had  as  much  systematic  training  in 
grammar  and  composition  as  is  given  in  course  1.  Practice  is  given  in  reading  at 


596 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


sight,  in  pronunciation,  in  translation  from  Gorman  into  English  and  from  English 
into  German,  and  in  writing  German  from  dictation. 

5.  German  prose  and  poetry — Reading  at  sight — Grammar  and  composition. 
Three  times  a  week. 

This  is  the  course  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  students  who  intend  in  a  sub¬ 
sequent  year  to  take  any  of  the  higher  courses  in  German.  Constant  practice  is 
given  in  reading  at  sight,  in  pronunciation,  and  in  translation  from  German  into 
English  and  from  English  into  German.  No  attempt  is  made  to  teach  the  student 
to  speak  German,  but  practice  in  writing  German  from  dictation  and  similar  exer¬ 
cises  aid  to  give  him  some  facility  in  understanding  German  when  it  is  spoken  or 
read  by  others.  This  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  preparation  for  courses  12, 13,  and 
14,  which  are  conducted  in  German. 

0.  German  prose — Subjects  in  history  and  biography — Reading  at  sight.  Three 
times  a  week. 

This  course  is  especially  designed  for  those  students  who  wish  to  acquire  a  suffi¬ 
cient  knowledge  of  the  language  to  enable  them  to  read  German  books  on  history, 
philosophy,  etc.  It  may,  however,  if  taken  in  connection  with  course  8,  serve  as 
an  introduction  to  courses  11,  12,  13,  and  14.  A  large  amount  is  read,  and  much 
time  is  given  to  reading  at  sight.  The  matter  to  be  read  is  selected  from  such 
works  as  Riehl’s  Kulturgesehichtliche  Novellen,  Yon  Sybel’s  Kleine  historische 
Schriften,  Frey  tag’s  Bilder  aus  der  deutsclien  Vergangenheit,  etc.  The  examina¬ 
tions  test  the  student’s  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  well  as  of  the  language  of  the 
texts. 

7.  German  prose — Subjects  in  natural  science — Reading  at  sight.  Three  times 
a  week. 

This  course  is  intended  to  furnish  drill  in  the  reading  of  modern  scientific  Ger¬ 
man,  and  is  recommended  to  students  who  are  taking,  or  who  plan  to  take,  special 
courses  in  natural  science  or  in  medicine.  An  elementary  knowledge  of  at  least 
two  of  the  natural  sciences  is  requisite  for  success  in  this  course.  Dippold's  Sci¬ 
entific  German  Reader  is  used  as  an  introduction,  and  is  followed  by  monographs 
on  various  subjects,  in  order  to  give  the  student  as  large  a  vocabulary  as  possible. 
The  reading  matter  is  taken  from  such  books  as  Hirzel's  Chemie,  Brewer's  Natur- 
lehre,  Muller’s  Die  elektrischen  Maschinen,  Helmholtz's  Ueber  Goethe’s  naturwis- 
senschaftliche  Arbeiten. 

8-10.  German  grammar  and  practice  in  writing  German.  Twice  a  week. 

In  courses  8-10  instruction  is  given  in  the  principles  of  German  grammar  and 
weekly  themes  in  German  are  required.  They  are  graded  courses,  and  no  two 
of  them  may  be  taken  in  the  same  year. 

11.  Introduction  to  German  literature  of  the  eighteenth  century — Selections 
from  the  works  of  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller — German  ballads  and  lyrics — 
Translation — Reading  at  sight— Composition.  Three  times  a  week. 

The  object  of  this  course  is  to  give  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  German  liter¬ 
ature.  The  texts  used  include  selections  from  the  prose  writings  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller  and  selected  dramas  of  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller.  Kluge's  Auswahl 
deutscher  Gedichte  is  used  as  a  text-book  in  the  study  of  German  ballads  and 
lyrics.  Much  attention  is  given  to  translation  at  sight,  and  there  are  frequent 
exercises  in  composition  and  in  writing  German  from  dictation. 

12.  The  German  drama  of  the  classic  period— Lessing:  Minna  von  Barnhelm; 
Emilia  Galotti;  Nathan  der  Weise — Schiller:  Maria  Stuart;  Die  Jungfrau  von 
Orleans;  Wallenstein’s  Tod— Goethe:  Egrnont;  Faust— Lectures  in  German. 
Three  times  a  week. 

The  object  of  this  course  is  to  make  the  student  acquainted  with  the  principal 
dramas  of  Lessing,  Goethe,  and  Schiller.  The  history  of  German  literature  of 
the  classic  period  forms  the  subject  of  weekly  lectures,  special  attention  being 
paid  to  the  drama. 

13.  Schiller  and  his  contemporaries — Schiller.  Kabale  und  Liebe;  Wallenstein; 
Maria  Stuart;  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans;  Die  Braut  von  Messina — Goethe, 
Egrnont;  Faust — Lessing,  Emilia  Galotti — Ballads  and  lyrics.  Lectures  in  Ger¬ 
man.  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  aims  to  give  the  student  a  general  idea  of  the  classic  period  of  Ger¬ 
man  literature,  and  a  more  detailed  acquaintance  with  the  life  and  the  principal 
works  of  Schiller.  The  development  of  German  literature  from  Lessing's  first 
appearance  to  Goethe’s  death  is  treated  in  weekly  lectures.  Much  time  is  devoted 
to  practice  in  reading  at  sight  and  to  the  oral  discussion  and  criticism  of  the  texts. 

14.  Goethe  and  his  time — Lessing,  Emilia  Galotti — Schiller,  W'allenstein — 
Goethe.  Gotz  von  Berlichingen;  Egrnont;  Iphigenie;  Tasso;  Dichtung  undWahr- 
heit;  Gedichte;  Faust— Lectures  in  German.  Three  times  a  week. 

In  this  course  the  principal  works  of  Goethe  and  selected  works  of  Lessing  and 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS.  597 

Schiller  are  read  and  discussed.  Goethe’s  life  and  his  position  in  the  literary 
movements  of  his  time  form  the  subject  of  weekly  lectures. 

II.  GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

Courses  16,  19,  20,  21,  22,  28,  24  are  conducted  in  German. 

15.  Introduction  to  the  history  of  German  literature — Lectures  and  collateral 
reading  of  representative  works  in  English  translations.  Once  a  week-. 

This  course  does  not  require  a  knowledge  of  German.  It  is  intended  chiefly  for 
students  who,  without  making  a  specialty  of  the  study  of  German  literature,  wish 
to  obtain  a  general  knowledge  of  its  great  men  and  its  leading  ideas.  Francke’s 
Social  Forces  in  German  Literature  is  used  as  text-book,  the  lectures  in  the  course 
being  intended  as  a  running  commentary  and  supplement  to  it.  The  collateral 
reading  consists  of  the  standard  works  of  German  literature  from  the  Nibeiun- 
genlied  to  Goethe’s  Faust,  in  English  translations. 

16.  History  of  German  literature  to  the  nineteenth  century,  with  special  study 
of  the  classic  periods  of  the  twelfth  and  eighteenth  centuries — Lectures,  reading, 
and  English  theses.  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  is  intended  to  give  a  more  detailed  knowledge  of  the  development  of 
German  literature  and  a  better  understanding  of  its  great  men  than  can  be 
obtained  in  Course  25.  Among  other  works,  the  following  are  read  and  discussed: 
The  Nibelungenlied  (translated  into  modern  German  by  Roman  Woerner) ;  Gott¬ 
fried  von  Strassburg’s  Tristan  (translated  into  modern  German  by  Wilhelm  Hertz) ; 
Walther  von  der  Vogel  weide’s  Gedichte  (translated  into  modern  German  by 
Bruno  Obermann);  Lessing’s  Laocoon  and  Nathan;  Schiller’s  Wallenstein  and 
Braut  von  Messina;  Goethe’s  Wilhelm  Meister  and  Faust  (both  parts).  The  stu¬ 
dent  is  also  expected  to  consult  the  standard  works  on  the  history  of  German 
literature,  such  as  Scherer  s  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Litteratur,  Hettner’s 
Geschichte  der  deutschen  Litteratur  im  18.  Jahrhundert,  etc.,  and  critical  com¬ 
mentaries  by  such  men  as  Kuno  Fischer,  Herman  Grimm,  Erich  Schmidt,  Lud¬ 
wig  Bellermann,  and  others. 

17.  German  literature  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century — Kleist — 
Uhland — Heine— Lectures  with  collateral  reading.  Three  times  a  week. 

In  this  course  the  reading  and  discussion  of  selected  works  is  accompanied  by 
a  weekly  lecture,  and  by  assigned  outside  reading.  The  lectures  deal  with  the 
romantic  school;  Heinrich  von  Kleist;  romantic  fiction;  Uhland  and  the  Suabian 
school;  romantic  lyric;  the  poetry  of  pessimism;  Young  Germany;  Heinrich  Heine. 
The  course  is  conducted  in  English. 

18.  German  literature  in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century — The  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  novel  and  the  drama — Lectures  with  collateral  reading.  Three 
times  a  week. 

This  course  is  conducted  on  the  same  lines  as  the  preceding  one.  The  lectures 
deal  more  particularly  with  the  development  of  the  German  novel,  and  with  the 
drama  since  1840,  but  other  aspects  of  the  period  are  not  neglected.  The  class-room 
reading  is  in  the  drama  (Hebbel,  Otto  Ludwig,  Wildenbruch,  Sudermann,  Ger¬ 
hart  Hauptmann)  and  the  lyric  (Geibel) ;  the  outside  reading  is  taken  wholly  from 
modern  prose  fiction.  The  course  is  conducted  in  English. 

19.  German  literature  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries — Nibelungen- 
lied — Kudrun — Hartmann,  Der  arme  Heinrich — Wolfram,  Parzival — Walther  von 
der  Vogelweide — Translation  into  modern  German — Lectures  and  collateral  read¬ 
ing.  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  is  intended  to  give  the  student  a  reading  knowledge  of  Middle  High 
German,  and  to  acquaint  him  with  some  of  the  representative  works  of  mediaeval 
German  literature.  Incidentally,  exercises  in  translating  from  the  original  into 
the  modern  idiom  afford  practice  in  speaking  German;  but  members  of  the  class 
who  prefer  to  translate  into  English  are  at  liberty  to  do  so.  The  reading  of  the 
texts  is  supplemented  by  weekly  lectures,  in  German,  on  the  development  of  Ger¬ 
man  literature  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

20.  German  literature  and  art  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries — The 
mystic  mo vement— Meister  Eckhart;  Suso;  Tauler— First  climax  of  religious  sculp¬ 
ture— The  Marienlegenden.  Twice  a  week. 

The  lectures  in  this  course  deal  with  the  growth  of  individual  thought  and  feel¬ 
ing  in  religious  speculation,  art,  and  poetry,  which  marks  the  thirteenth  and  four¬ 
teenth  centuries  as  the  transition  period  from  mediaeval  to  modern  culture.  The 
collateral  reading  consists  of  selected  portions  of  the  mystic  literature  and  of  the 
legendary  and  didatic  poetry  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

21.  German  literature  and  art  in  the  fifteenth  century — The  religious  drama 


598 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


and  its  relation  to  religious  painting  and  sculpture  from  the  Van  Eycks  to  Diirer 
and  Vischer.  Twice  a  week. 

The  lectures  in  this  course  deal  with  the  principal  cyeles  of  the  Christian  legend 
and  their  treatment  in  the  religious  drama,  painting,  and  sculpture  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  collateral  reading  consists  of  selected  Christmas,  Easter,  and  pas¬ 
sion  plays. 

22.  German  literature  from  the  Reformation  to  the  classic  period  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century — Lectures,  reading,  and  theses.  Once  a  week. 

The  principal  topics  of  the  lectures  are:  Influence  of  the  Reformation  upon  Ger¬ 
man  literature;  the  beginning  of  a  reactionary  movement;  the  Thirty  Years’  War; 
preponderating  influence  of  foreign  culture;  sporadic  attempts  to  preserve  the 
national  character  of  the  language  and  literature — The  Sprachgesellschaften. 
First  Silesian,  Konigsherg,  and  second  Silesian  schools — Development  of  the 
novel — Eighteenth  century — Slow  growth  of  national  consciousness;  opponents 
of  the  Silesian  schools;  gradual  emancipation  of  literature  from  foreign  influence — 
Haller  and  Hagedorn;  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  and  Breitinger;  Klopstock,  Lessing, 
and  Wieland. 

The  most  important  works  of  this  period  are  read  and  discussed. 

23.  The  early  romantic  movement  in  Germany;  with  special  reference  to  its 
social  and  political  aspects— No valis — The  brothers  Schlegel — Tieck.  Twice  a 
week. 

The  lectures  in  this  course  trace  the  history  of  romanticism  and  its  relation  to 
German  public  life  from  the  last  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  national 
breakdown  in  the  Napoleonic  wars.  Every  member  of  the  course  is  expected  to 
make  a  special  study  of  some  one  author  of  the  period. 

24.  The  later  romantic  movement  in  Germany,  with  special  reference  to  its 
social  and  political  aspects — Arnim— Brentano — Fichte.  The  literature  of  the 
wars  of  Liberation  and  of  the  Restoration.  Twice  a  week. 

The  lectures  in  this  course  trace  the  history  of  romanticism  and  its  relation  to 
German  public  life  from  the  national  regeneration  following  the  catastrophe  of 
Jena,  through  the  wars  of  liberation,  and  the  restoration  epoch,  to  the  beginning 
of  young  Germany.  Every  member  of  the  course  is  expected  to  make  a  special 
study  of  some  one  author  of  the  period. 

III.  SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE. 

FOR  UNDERGRADUATES  AND  GRADUATES. 

25.  Modern  Danish  and  Norwegian  literature—  Holberg — Oehlenschlager— 
Ibsen — Bjcrnson  and  others — Practice  in  the  spoken  language — Lectures  on  the 
history  of  Scandinavian  literature.  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the  reading  and  discussion  of  important  works 
of  leading  Danish  and  Norwegian  authors  of  modern  times.  No  previous  knowl¬ 
edge  of  Scandinavian  is  necessary.  Groths  Dano-Norwegian  grammar  will  be 
used.  Johann  Storm’s  Dialogues  franfais  (Norwegian-French)  is  recommended. 


PRIMARILY  FOR  GRADUATES. 

26.  Icelandic  (Old  Norse) — Selections  from  the  Sagas  and  the  Elder  Edda. 
Three  times  a  week. 

The  object  of  this  course  in  the  first  half  year  is  to  give  a  reading  knowledge  of 
ordinary  saga  prose;  in  the  second  half  year  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Poetic 
Edda  is  read.  Noreen’s  Altislandische  und  altnorwegische  Grammatik;  Holthau- 
sen’s  Lehrbuch  der  altislandischen  Sprache,  Vol.  I  (Eleinentarbuch) ,  and  Vol.  II 
(Lesebuch);  Mogk’s  Gunnlaugssaga  Ormstungu;  Wilken's  Prosaische  Edda;  and 
Hildebrand’s  Aeltere  Edda,  are  used  as  text-books. 


IV.  GERMANIC  PHILOLOGY. 

PRIMARILY  FOR  GRADUATES. 

The  following  courses  are  intended  for  students  who  wish  to  devote  themselves 
to  the  philological  study  of  the  Germanic  languages  and  literatures:  Courses  27 
(Gothic),  29  (Old  Saxon),  33  (Germanic  mythology),  and  34  (Germanic  antiqui¬ 
ties),  are  of  a  more  general  character  and  will  be  found  equally  valuable  to  stu¬ 
dents  of  English  and  of  German.  Course  30  (Old  High  German), 31  (Middle  Low 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


599 


German),  85  and  38  (the  seminary  courses),  and  32  (history  of  the  German  lan¬ 
guage)  are  especially  designed  for  students  of  German. 

27.  Gothic — Introduction  to  the  study  of  Germanic  philology — General  Introduc¬ 
tion  and  phonology  .  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  should  be  taken  first  by  all  students  of  Germanic  philology,  since 
the  records  of  the  Gothic  language  that  have  been  preserved  are  older  than  those 
of  the  other  Germanic  dialects  and  represent  in  many  respects  the  most  archaic 
forms  of  Germanic  speech  accessible  to  us.  Braune’s  Gotische  Grammatik  and 
Heyne's  Ulfilas  are  used  as  text-books. 

28.  Introduction  to  the  study  of  Germanic  philology,  continued — Morphology — 
Etymology.  Three  times  a  week. 

29.  Old  Saxon — Introduction  to  Germanic  metrics.  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  Old  Low  German,  or  Old  Saxon,  and  its 
relations  to  Old  High  German  on  the  one  hand  and  Anglo-Saxon  on  the  other. 
Gallee’s  Altsachsische  Grammatik,  Sievers’s  Heliand,  Heyne’s  Kleinere  aitnieder- 
deutsche  Denkmaler,  and  Zangemeister-Braune’s  Bruchstiicke  der  altsachsischen 
Bibel  dichtung  are  used  as  text-books. 

30.  Old  High  German.  Half  course  (first  half  year).  Three  times  a  week. 

In  1899-1900;  to  be  given  in  1900-1901. 

Braune's  Althochdeutsche  Grammatik  and  the  same  author’s  Althochdeutsches 
Lesebuch  are  used  as  text-books. 

31.  Middle  Low  German.  Half  course  ( second  half  year) .  Three  times  a  week. 

This  course  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  Middle  Low  German  and  Middle  Nether¬ 
landish.  Lectures  are  given  on  the  literature  of  those  dialects,  and  especially  on 
the  Tiersage.  Liibben’s  Mittelniederdeutsche  Grammatik  nebst  Chrestomathie 
and  Martin’s  Reinaert  are  used  as  text-books. 

32.  History  of  the  German  language.  Three  times  a  week. 

The  object  of  this  course  is  to  give  a  systematic  presentation  of  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  German  language  from  the  time  of  the  earliest  records  to  the  present, 
with  special  reference  to  the  historical  explanation  of  living  forms.  Acquaint¬ 
ance  with  Gothic,  Old  Saxon,  Old  High  German,  and  Middle  High  German  is 
presumed. 

33.  Germanic  mythology.  Half  course  (first  half  year).  Three  times  a  week. 

34.  Germanic  antiquities.  Half  course  (second  half  year).  Three  times  a 
week. 

In  this  course  Germanic  life  is  treated  in  its  various  aspects  from  the  origins 
down  to  the  later  Middle  Ages.  The  course  is  chiefly  designed  to  furnish  a  com¬ 
mentary  on  the  most  important  allusions  to  public  and  private  life  in  the  princi¬ 
pal  works  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Old  Saxon,  Old  and  Middle  High  German,  and 
Icelandic  literatures. 

SEMINARY  COURSES. 


The  seminary  courses  have  two  purposes  in  view:  First,  to  make  a  thorough 
study  of  selected  works  with  special  reference  to  text  criticism  and  (in  courses  35 
and  36)  to  etymology  and  the  history  of  grammatical  forms;  second,  to  acquaint 
the  student  with  the  methods  of  linguistic  and  literary  research  through  original 
investigations  carried  on  by  him  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the 
instructor.  The  exercises  take  place  once  a  week  and  generally  last  an  hour  and 
a  half.  Occasionally  the  results  of  the  work  done  by  the  students  are  presented 
by  them  before  the  Modern  Language  Conference. 

35.  The  works  of  Hartmann  von  Aue. 

36.  Selected  topics  in  the  German  romantic  movement. 


TEACHERS’  COURSE. 

PRIMARILY  FOR  GRADUATES. 

37.  The  methods  and  equipment  of  a  teacher  of  German  in  secondary  schools. 
Lectures,  discussions,  required  reading,  and  illustrations  of  class  work.  Three 
times  a  week. 

Among  the  subjects  treated  in  the  lectures  and  discussions  are  the  following: 
The  adaptation  of  methods  to  the  age  and  previous  training  of  students;  the 
arrangements  of  courses  in  different  schools;  the  choice  of  text-books;  the  annota¬ 
tion  of  texts;  the  teachers’  sources  of  information;  the  disciplinary  and  practical 
value  of  the  study  of  German  and  its  relation  to  the  study  of  English.  Students 


600 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


taking  the  course  are  required  to  prepare  reports  on  grammars,  readers,  or  edi¬ 
tions  of  texts,  and  present  to  the  class  some  of  the  more  difficult  topics  in  grammar, 
syntax,  and  composition. 


ADDITIONAL  COURSES. 

The  attention  of  students  of  Germanic  languages  and  literatures  is  also  called 
to  the  following  courses: 


ENGLISH. 


Anglo-Saxon — Bright,  Anglo-Saxon  reader.  Half  course  (first half  year).  Three 
times  a  week. 

Anglo-Saxon — Beowulf.  Half  course  (second  half  year).  Three  times  a  week. 

Historical  English  grammar.  Half  course  (second  half  year).  Three  times  a 
week. 

Anglo-Saxon— Csedmon — Cynewulf.  Half  course  (second  half  year). 

English  literature  in  its  relation  to  German  literature,  from  1790  to  1830. 

ROMANCE  PHILOLOGY. 

General  introduction  to  linguistic  science — Phonetics — Lectures  on  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  change  in  language.  The  pronunciation  of  English,  French,  German,  and 
Latin.  Twice  a  week. 

Old  French—  Phonology  and  inflections — The  oldest  texts— La  Chanson  de  Rol¬ 
and — Chretien  de  Troyes — Aucassin  et  Nicolette.  Three  times  a  week. 

Provencal — Language  and  literature,  with  selections  from  the  poetry  of  the 
Troubadours.  Three  hours  a  week. 

COMPARATIVE  LITERATURE. 

The  origin  and  development  of  historical  epic  poetry  in  mediaeval  Europe. 
Half  course  (first  half  year).  Three  hours  a  week. 

The  origin  and  literary  history  of  the  Arthurian  legends  and  romances— Lec¬ 
tures,  special  investigations,  and  theses.  Three  hours  a  week. 

English  literature  in  its  relation  to  German  literature,  from  1790  to  1830. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

For  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  not  less  than  two  years,  at  least  one  of 
which  must  be  spent  in  residence  at  this  university,  devoted  to  advanced  studies, 
are  required  of  students  already  qualified  for  candidacy  for  the  degree.  The  fac¬ 
ulty  will,  in  estimating  the  amount  of  a  candidate's  study  for  the  degree,  give 
weight  to  advanced  work  done  in  the  graduate  department  of  another  university. 

The  period  of  residence  and  study  named  above  must  be  regarded  merely  as  a 
minimum  requirement.  The  requirement  of  time  is  wholly  secondary. 

The  degree  is  given,  not  for  the  mere  reason  of  faithful  study  for  a  prescribed 
time,  or  in  fulfillment  of  a  determinate  programme,  and  never  for  miscellaneous 
studies,  but  on  the  ground  of  long  study  and  high  attainment  in  a  special  branch 
of  learning,  manifested  not  only  by  examinations,  but  by  a  thesis,  which  must  be 
presented  and  accepted  before  the  candidate  is  admitted  to  examination,  and 
must  show  an  original  treatment  of  a  fitting  subject,  or  give  evidence  of  inde¬ 
pendent  research. 

The  special  requirements  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in  Germanic 
philology  will  necessarily  vary  according  to  the  special  line  of  work  chosen  by  the 
candidate.  In  a  general  way,  however,  it  may  be  said  that,  apart  from  the  thesis, 
which  may  treat  either  a  linguistic  or  a  literary  subject,  the  following  attain¬ 
ments  will  be  expected  from  a  candidate  whose  main  subject  is  German: 

1.  A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  German  literature  and  its  relation  to  the  polit¬ 
ical,  philosophical,  and  artistic  movements  of  German  national  life. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  German  language  and  its  general  relations 
to  the  early  Germanic  dialects,  including  a  reading  knowledge  of  Gothic,  Old  High 
German,  Middle  High  German,  and  two  of  the  following:  Old  Saxon,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  or  Old  Norse. 

3.  A  detailed  knowledge  of  some  special  field  within  the  range  of  subjects  indi¬ 
cated  under  1  and  2. 

4.  A  practical  command  of  modern  German. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


601 


In  the  case  of  a  candidate  who  offers  as  his  main  subject  some  other  G-ermanic 
language,  e.  g.,  Dano-Norwegian  or  Dutch,  these  requirements  will  be  modified 
accordingly. 

DEPARTMENTAL  LIBRARY. 

In  addition  to  a  large  collection  of  German  books  in  the  college  library,  the 
department  has  a  reading  room  in  the  Warren  Building  with  a  special  library  of 
about  500  volumes  and  a  number  of  German  periodicals.  The  same  building  con¬ 
tains  the  French  and  Romance  libraries  and  the  Child  Memorial  Library,  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  books  on  English  literature  and  philology,  which  are  also  accessible  to 
students  of  German. 


DEUTSCHER  YEREIN. 

The  Deutscher  Yerein,  a  student  organization  composed  of  graduates  and  under- 
raduates,  holds  meetings  of  a  social  character,  at  which  topics  relating  to  German 
fe  and  literature  are  discussed. 


MODERN  LANGUAGE  CONFERENCE. 

The  Modern  Language  Conference  is  composed  of  instructors  and  advanced  stu¬ 
dents  of  modern  languages  and  literatures.  Its  object  is  the  promotion  of  inde¬ 
pendent  research  and  of  closer  intercourse  between  instructors  and  students.  The 
conference  meets  at  regular  intervals  (usually  every  other  week)  throughout  the 
college  year  for  the  presentation  and  discussion  of  papers  of  general  interest. 

The  number  of  students  that  participate  in  the  different  courses  of  the  German 
department  amounts  to  1,200,  so  that  the  best  opportunities  for  instructing  in  Ger¬ 
man  are  afforded.  The  university  library,  the  “  Schier  endowment,”  and  the 
efforts  to  combine  a  “  German  museum  ”  with  the  university  are  referred  to  in  the 
third  part  of  this  work.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1901  the  funds  collected  for 
the  “museum”  amounted  to  about  $5,000.  After  the  board  of  trustees  advises 
the  application  of  $15,000  for  the  museum  out  of  the  recent  legacy  of  $50,000  from 
Henry  YMUard  to  the  university  the  idea  can  be  realized,  as  $20,000  will  suffice 
for  the  commencement. 


COLUMBIA. 

A  competent  German  judge,  who  published  his  impressions  of  American  uni¬ 
versities  in  1896,  says  of  Columbia  University  of  New  York,  into  which  King’s 
College,  founded  in  1754,  developed  after  the  Revolution,  that  “if  it  continues  to 
progress  in  the  same  proportion  as  during  recent  years,  it  will  outrival  Yale  and 
Harvard.” 1 

An  impartial  observer  can  not  fail  to  recognize  the  progress  that  has  been  made 
since  those  words  were  written.  It  is  manifested  exteriorly  in  the  magnificent 
buildings  in  the  metropolis  where  the  university  has  been  established  for  three 
years,  as  in  the  largely  increased  number  of  teachers  and  students.  Last  year, 
according  to  the  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  the  former  numbered  389,  the 
latter  3,888;  consequently  Harvard,  with  448  teachers  and  5,340  students,  is  the 
only  one  in  advance.  However,  as  in  the  meantime  Columbia  University  has 
united  with  the  “  Teachers’  College,”  the  entire  number  of  college  students,  grad¬ 
uate  students,  auditors,  students  of  Barnard  College  for  women,  and  the  Teachers’ 
College,  does  not  fall  far  below  the  large  figures  of  Harvard. 


Zimmer  mann,  Universities  in  the  United  States  of  America,  p.  83. 


602 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


The  following  statement 1  gives  an  interesting  view  of  the  hopeful  development 
of  this  institution  since  1898: 


Officers  and  students  of  Columbia  University. 


Students  primarily  registered  in— 

1898. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Year’s 

gain. 

Columbia  College . . . . . 

300 

312 

387 

446 

464 

18 

Freshmen . . 

99 

102 

129 

106 

124 

18 

Sophomores . . . 

61 

85 

89 

113 

95 

-18 

Juniors. . . . . . 

49 

55 

86 

89 

99 

10 

Seniors  . 

51 

48 

55 

93 

88 

-  5 

Specials . 

40 

°2 

28 

45 

58 

13 

Barnard  College  2 . 

154 

17 T 

202 

223 

292 

69 

Freshmen . 

21 

as 

43 

54 

82 

28 

Sophomores . . . - 

21 

29 

36 

38 

51 

13 

Juniors . . . 

22 

23 

23 

39 

39 

0 

Seniors . . . . 

21 

22 

24 

39 

52 

13 

Specials . . . 

69 

65 

76 

53 

68 

15 

Total  undergraduates . 

454 

489 

589~ 

669 

756 

87 

Faculty  of  political  science . 

59 

~64~ 

85~ 

118 

109 

-  9 

Faculty  of  philosophy . . . 

82 

112 

120 

108 

180 

72 

Faculty  of  pure  science . 

36 

44 

57 

53 

64 

11 

Barnard  college  2 . 

49 

61 

76 

71 

(3) 

(3) 

*  Total  nonprofessional  graduate  students  4 5.. 

226 

280 

338 

350 

353 

3 

Schools  of  applied  science . 

355 

404~ 

43T 

464 

546~ 

82 

First  year . 

105 

123 

128~ 

130 

153 

23 

Second  year  .. . . . 

88 

106 

106 

114 

132 

18 

Third  year . . . . . 

80 

74 

86 

111 

123 

12 

Fourth  year . . . 

63 

80 

75 

69 

99 

30 

Graduates4 . 

3 

8 

7 

3 

6 

3 

Specials . 

16 

13 

29 

37 

33 

4 

Law  school . 

340~ 

368 

343 

3 77~ 

427" 

50 

First  year . 

171 

135 

132 

166 

172 

6 

Second  year . . . 

100 

139 

103 

111 

151 

40 

Third  year . 

65 

92 

106 

99 

100 

1 

Specials . 

4 

o 

1 

1 

4 

3 

Medical  school . 

624~ 

739" 

697 

757~ 

75T 

-  6 

First  year . 

276 

222 

197 

226 

245 

19 

Second  year . . . 

158 

190 

162 

159 

190 

31 

Third  year .  . . 

152 

151 

178 

158 

148 

-10 

Fourth  year _ _ _ _ _ _ 

0 

143 

140 

173 

147 

—26 

Specials . t . . . 

22 

23 

20 

41 

21 

-20 

Unclassified . 

16 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Teachers’  College . . . 

First  year . . . . . . . 

196~ 

18 

317 

42 

448~ 

24 

l31 

—18 

Second  year . . . . 

20 

19 

30 

11 

Third  year . 

46 

80 

93 

13 

Fourth  year _ _ _ _ _ 

29 

48 

76 

30 

Graduates  4 . . . . . . . 

51 

92 

5 127 

3o 

Specials . . . . . ... _ 

32 

38 

40 

2 

Auditors  and  unclassified  students . 

58 

58 

Total  professional  students . 

1,319 

1,501 

|  1, 666 

1,915 

2,172 

257 

Auditors . . 

15 

23 

20 

—  2 

Students  at  summer  session  . . . . 

417 

417 

Extension  students,  Teachers’  College6 7 . 

470 

750 

721 

-29 

Total  registration . . 

4,439 

733 

Double  registration . . 

7 178 

178 

Grand  total  of  students . 

1,999 

2,260 

3,078 

3,706 

4,261 

555 

Officers . . 

426 

443 

471 

28 

Total  university  influence  8 . 

3,504 

4, 149 

4,732 

583 

1  From  the  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  December,  1800. 

2  Barnard  figures  are  those  for  the  end  of  the  academic  year,  except  for  1899  and  1900. 

3  From  October,  1900,  women  graduates  register  under  the  university  faculties. 

4  From  some  points  of  view  this  total  should  include  79  other  graduate  students  in  the  schools 
of  applied  science  and  in  Teachers’  College. 

5  Includes  54  graduates  primarily  registered  under  the  university  faculties, 

6  Extension  students  are  held  to  full  requirements  of  regular  courses  in  Teachers’  College. 

7  Of  students  registered  also  in  other  departments  summer  session  has  74;  Teachers’  College,  104. 

8  Including  608  pupils  in  Horace  Mann  school  and  63  in  experimental  school. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


603 


The  history  of  the  German  department  furnishes  the  explanation  of  the  immense 
stride  which  Columbia  University  took  under  the  presidency  of  Hon.  Seth  Low. 
This  history  actually  dates  back  to  the  time  when  the  new  university  appeared  as 
the  successor  of  the  suspended  King's  College.  In  the  autumn  of  1784  John 
Daniel  Gross  first  instructed  in  German,  and  continued  till  the  year  1795.  Again 
in  1880  and  1881  an  effort  was  made  to  introduce  German  instruction.  Profes¬ 
sors  Frederick  Shaeffer  and  William  Ernenputsch  made  the  attempt,  but  each 
resigned  at  the  end  of  the  term.  At  last  a  German,  Frederick  Gebhard,  hit  upon 
the  fundamental  procedure  for  procuring  justice  for  his  native  language.  He  put 
his  hand  in  his  own  well-filled  purse,  drew  out  $20,000,  and  commissioned  the 
trustees  of  the  university  to  make  use  of  the  interest  on  that  capital  to  pay  a  pro¬ 
fessor  of  the  German  language  and  literature,  and  under  no  circumstances  to 
apply  the  money  to  any  other  purpose.  The  “Gebhard  professorship”  was  filled 
April  3,  1843,  and  the  German  faculty  at  Columbia  dates  from  that  day. 

Until  the  year  1847  German  was  an  obligatory  study;  since  then  it  has  been® 
optional.1 

The  chair  of  German  was  at  that  time  filled  by  John  Louis  Tellkampf;  his  suc¬ 
cessor,  Henry  I.  Schmidt,  continued  in  office  till  1880.  Charles  Sprague  Smith 
was  next  called;  in  1881  an  assistant  was  given  to  him,  Hjalmar  Hjorth  Boyesen. 
After  the  Gebhard  professorship  was  given  to  the  last  mentioned  in  1882  the 
appointment  of  more  teachers  became  absolutely  necessary.  The  department 
in  1900  consisted  of  the  following  personnel:  William  H.  Carpenter,  Ph.  D.  (Frei¬ 
burg),  professor  of  Germanic  philology;  Calvin  Thomas,  A.  M.  (Michigan),  Geb¬ 
hard  professor  of  the  German  language;  William  A.  Hervey,  A.  M.  (Columbia), 
instructor  in  the  German  language  and  literature;  Rudolf  Tombo,  jr.,  Ph.  D. 
(Columbia),  tutor  in  the  German  language  and  literature;  Arthur  F.  J.  Remy, 
A.  M.  (Columbia),  tutor  in  the  German  language  and  literature;  Emil  A.  C. 
Keppler,  A.  M.  (Columbia),  assistant  in  the  German  language  and  literature. 

The  following  gentlemen  are  delegated  for  Barnard  College:  Rudolf  Tombo,  sr., 
Ph.  D.  (Rostock),  tutor  in  the  German  language  and  literature;  William  Alfred 
Braun,  A.  B.  (Columbia),  assistant  in  the  German  language  and  literature. 

The  personnel  of  teachers  has  doubled  in  the  last  three  years,  while  the  number 
of  pupils  has  increased  during  the  same  time  from  150  to  400  for  the  scholastic 
year  of  1900-1901. 

The  German  department  forms  a  section  of  the  faculty  of  philosophy,  which 
Pres.  Seth  Low  arranged  according  to  the  German  model  and  the  action  taken  by 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1890,  This  new  faculty  embraces  the  classic, 
oriental,  and  modern  languages,  as  well  as  comparative  philology.  Included 
among  the  strictly  philosophic  studies  there  is  also  a  chair  of  pedagogics,  which 
has  been  most  ably  filled  by  Prof.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler. 

President  Low’s  ideas  may  be  understood  from  his  speech  delivered  in  Balti¬ 
more2  the  22d  of  February,  1895,  on  the  nineteenth  anniversary  of  the  Johns  Hop¬ 
kins  University.  He  pertinently  remarks  that  a  university  in  the  American  sense 
is  something  different  from  what  is  thereby  understood  in  Europe,  and  that  in 
this  country  it  signifies  a  relatively  new  institution.  However,  the  highest  edu¬ 
cational  institutions  of  America  should  have  the  same  aim  as  the  German  uni¬ 
versities  (Hochschulen) ,  which  are  “so  powerful  an  instrument  for  the  service  of 
humanity.”  He  adds,  in  the  following  words: 

The  aim  which  the  German  university  has  set  before  itself,  and  which  it  has 
very  largely  realized  under  the  conditions  natural  to  German  life,  is  the  aim,  in 
my  judgment,  which  the  American  university  has  set  before  itself  and  which  it 
has  very  largely  realized  under  the  conditions  natural  to  American  life,  because, 

1  Carpenter,  “  The  Germanic  languages  and  literatures  at  Columbia  University.  ”  The  Colum¬ 
bia  University  Bulletin,  March,  1897,  pp.  82,  83. 

2  Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science,  Baltimore,  1898,  p.  5029. 


604 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


after  all  has  been  said,  the  world  is  ruled  by  its  thinkers,  and  civilization  is  car¬ 
ried  forward  by  the  patient  investigators  of  natural  laws;  the  lives  of  men  are 
largely  shaped  by  the  teachings  of  experience  as  revealed  by  historical  study,  and 
the  literature  of  men  is  enriched  by  every  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  literature 
and  language  of  the  past.  Nature's  craftsmen  in  all  these  directions  will  pro¬ 
duce  results  according  to  their  gifts  outside  of  a  university,  if  they  get  no  oppor¬ 
tunity  within  it.  But  the  history  of  Germany  clearly  shows  that  the  opportunity 
to  serve  mankind  along  such  lines  is  much  enlarged,  if  to  train  such  men  is  the 
chosen  aim  of  the  university;  in  part,  because  in  that  case  the  university  affords 
the  material  apparatus  by  the  aid  of  which  the  natural  thinker  or  investigator  can 
best  do  his  work,  and  most  of  all,  because  in  a  university  so  constituted  the 
atmosphere  of  the  place  and  the  spirit  of  the  men  who  work  there  are  friendly  to 
such  labors. 

The  observations  of  the  author  confirm  particularly  the  truth  of  the  closing 
remarks  with  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  German  department,  which  has  so 
favorably  developed  in  late  years,  although  the  number  of  German- American  stu¬ 
dents  is  very  small.  It  is  rather  the  Anglo-American  element  which,  with  com¬ 
paratively  modest  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  German,  is  doing  the  noteworthy 
work  of  culture  accomplished,  and  is  thus  opening  so  hopeful  a  future  to  American 
civilization. 

As  the  plan  of  study  has  already  received  explicit  mention,  we  need  only  add 
the  list  of  courses  held  at  Columbia  University  during  the  year  1900-1901. 

GERMAN. 

Course  A.  Elementary  course  in  three  sections.  Three  times  a  week. 

Course  1.  Longer  elementary  course.  Six  hours. 

Course  2.  Grammar,  reading,  and  composition.  Three  sections,  each  three 
times  a  week. 

Course  3.  Selected  works  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Lessing.  Texts,  chiefly  dra¬ 
matics  and  essays.  Three  times  a  week. 

Course  4.  Historical  prose.  Three  times  a  week. 

Course  5.  Scientific  German.  Three  times  a  week. 

Course  6.  History  of  German  literature  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  nineteenth 
century.  Twice  a  week. 

Course  7.  Goethe's  Faust,  first  and  second  part.  Lectures  and  recitations. 
Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  8.  Practice  in  speaking  and  writing  German.  Talks,  conferences,  and 
themes,  all  in  German,  upon  linguistic  and  literary  topics.  Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  9.  History  of  the  German  language.  Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  10.  Great  German  writers  (Schiller  and  Heine).  Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  11.  Old  High  German.  Lectures  and  texts.  Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  19.  Teacher's  course.  Lectures  upon  methods  of  teaching  and  cognate 
topics.  Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  20.  Geschiclite  der  deutschen  Litteratur  im  19.  Jahrhundert.  Vorles- 
ungen  in  deutscher  Sprache.  Two  hours  a  week. 

SCANDINAVIAN. 

Course  12.  Swedish:  Elementary  course  in  the  language,  with  miscellaneous 
reading  and  a  general  survey  in  lectures  of  the  history  of  Swedish  literature.  Two 
hours  a  week. 

Course  13.  Danish:  Elementary  course  in  the  language,  with  miscellaneous 
reading  and  a  general  survey  in  lectures  of  the  history  of  Danish  literature.  Two 
hours  a  week. 

Course  14.  Icelandic:  Elementary  course.  Two  hours  a  week. 

Course  15.  Icelandic:  Advanced  course.  The  Vdlsunga  Saga,  lectures  and  texts. 
Two  hours  a  week. 

DUTCH. 


Course  16.  Dutch:  Elementary  course  in  the  language  with  miscellaneous  read¬ 
ing,  and  a  general  survey  in  lectures  of  the  history  of  Dutch  literature.  Twice  a 
week. 

GOTHIC. 


Course  17.  Gothic.  Two  hours  a  week. 


GERMAN"  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


605 


GERMANIC  PHILOGY. 


Course  18.  General  introduction  to  Germanic  philogy. 
Twice  a  week. 


GERMANIC  SEMINAR. 


Lectures  and  exercises. 


Course  21.  Germanic  seminar.  Critical  study  of  the  Middle  Low  German, 
Reinke  de  Vos  (first  half  year),  arid  Young  Germany  (second  half  year). 

A  comparison  between  these  courses  and  those  of  Harvard  shows  that  German 
literature  receives  less  attention,  and  that  the  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Dutch  lan¬ 
guages  are  taught,  whereas  they  are  not  taught  at  Harvard.  An  equalization  is 
partly  brought  about  by  the  public  German  lectures,  which,  according  to  the 
action  taken  by  the  Johns  Hopkins,  have  been  held  for  five  years,  and  treat  of  the 
history  of  German  literature  and  other  subjects  of  general  interest. 

In  1898  and  1897  Prof.  Louis  von  Eltz  spoke  on  Streets  in  the  Middle  Ages 
and  Germany  after  the  Thirty  Years’  war;  Professor  Seibert  on  Johanna  Ambro¬ 
sias;  Professor  Thomas  on  Schiller;  J.  Winter  on  Heinrich  Heine,  and  the  author 
of  this  article  on  Fridtjof  Nansen  and  his  polar  expeditions.  In  the  year  1898 
these  lectures,  heretofore  separate  and  distinct,  were  extended  in  the  form  of  a 
series,  and  were  held  in  the  large  Schermerhorn  Hall.  In  March,  1898,  Dr.  Joseph 
Senner  spoke  on  The  immigration  question  in  America;  Rev.  Dr.  Gustav  Gott- 
heil  on  Schiller’s  Lay  of  the  Bell;  Prof.  Is.  Keller  on  The  modern  German  drama; 
Director  Heinrich  Conried  on  The  stage;  Louis  von  Eltz  on  Two  Austrian  poets, 
Franz  Grillparzer  and  Anastasius  Griin. 

The  lecturers  and  their  subjects  in  1899  were  as  follows:  Rev.  Dr.  Gustav  Gott- 
heil,  Goethe’s  Epilogue  to  Schiller’s  Bell;  Dr.  Julius  F.  von  Vesteneck,  Life  in  the 
Alps;  Dr.  Rudolf  Tombo,  German  etymology;  Rev.  Dr.  August  Ulmann,  The 
development  of  religious  thought  and  life  in  Germany;  Mr.  Henry  E.  Krehbiel, 
The  National  song  in  America;  Mr.  Louis  Yiereck,  A  trip  to  Alaska;  Mr.  Heinrich 
Conried  (manager  of  the  Irving  Place  Theater),  The  art  of  speaking;  Dr.  Rudolf 
Tombo,  Walther  von  der  Vogel weide. 

The  lecturers  and  their  subjects  in  1900  were  as  follows:  Rev.  Dr.  Gustav  Gott- 
heil,  At  the  commencement  of  the  century;  Mr.  Charles  A.  Bratter  (foreign  editor 
of  the  Staats-Zeitung) ,  Sins  of  speech  of  German- Americans;  Prof.  Franz  Boas, 
Myths  of  peoples  living  in  a  state  of  nature;  Dr.  Julius  Sachs,  The  intellectual  life 
of  German  universities  in  the  sixties;  Mr.  George  von  Skal  (managing  editor  of 
the  Staats-Zeitung),  Rights,  difficulties,  and  accomplishments  of  the  German- 
American  press;  Rev.  Dr.  August  Ulmann,  The  passion  play  at  Oberammergau, 
illustrated;  Mr.  Rudolf  Cronau,  Two  and  one-half  centuries  of  German  life  in 
America;  Mr.  Louis  Viereck  (late  member  of  the  German  Reichstag) ,  Recollec¬ 
tions  of  the  German  Reichstag;  Mr.  Sadakichi  Hartmann,  The  Japanese  theater; 
Emil  A.  C.  Keppler,  A.  M.,  Burger,  a  German  forerunner  of  William  Wordsworth. 

The  lectures  held  from  January  24  till  March  28,  1901,  were  as  follows:  Rev. 
Gustav  Gottheil,  Ph.  D.,  rabbi  of  Temple  Emanu-El,  Poetry  in  the  prose  of  life; 
Hans  M.  von  Kadich,  Ph.  D  ,  The  zoological  question  of  North  America;  Mr. 
Udo  Brachvogel,  Joseph  Victor  von  Schefifel’s  Lady  Aventure;  Mr.  Charles  A. 
Bratter,  foreign  editor  of  the  Staats-Zeitung,  The  editor  the  author’s  stepbrother; 
Ernst  Richard,  Ph.  D.,  German  student  life;  Mr.  Heinrich  Conried,  director  of 
the  Irving  Place  Theater,  The  modern  German  drama;  Max  F.  Blau,  Ph,  D. , 
Adelphi  College,  Heinrich  von  Kleist;  Rev.  August  Ulmann,  S.  T.  D.,  rector 
of  Trinity  School,  Lessing  and  his  times;  Louis  Viereck,  late  member  of  the 
German  Reichstag,  Recollections  of  Germany’s  great  time,  1870-71,  illustrated; 
Mr.  George  von  Skal,  editor  of  the  Staats-Zeitung,  Education  and  intelligence. 

The  Deutscher  Verein,  the  university  library,  the  endowments  for  German 
purposes,  and  German  stage  representations  of  the  classics  for  students  are 
spoken  of  in  the  third  part  of  the  book. 


606 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900*1901. 


YALE. 


Yale  University,  founded  in  1701,  enjoys  the  reputation  of  being  par  excellence 
the  school  of  scholars,  in  contrast  to  Harvard,  whose  students  play  so  important 
a  part  in  the  national  and  political  life  of  the  country.  While  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity  is  no  further  from  the  center  of  Boston  than  the  Columbia  from  the  City 
Hall  in  New  York,  Yale  is  situated  in  a  relatively  small  city  of  Connecticut — New 
Haven — which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  possessed  only  5,000 
inhabitants,  though  it  has  increased  to  over  100,000  during  the  last  one  hundred 
years.  Conditions,  therefore,  seem  in  many  respects  to  have  been  at  Yale  more 
favorable  to  closer  application  to  abstract  studies,  while  the  proximity  of  the 
large  city  of  Boston  favored  broader  points  of  view  at  Harvard. 

Under  President  Theodore  D.  Woolsey  (1846-71),  who  was  educated  in  Ger¬ 
many,  Yale  received  its  art  school  and  its  Sheffield  Scientific  School.  Under  Pres¬ 
ident  Timothy  Dwight,  who  likewise  studied  in  Germany  and  placed  a  high  value 
on  German  universities,  the  elective  system  was  adopted  in  1886.  The  fact  that 
the  present  president,  A.  T.  Hadley,  was  formerly  professor  of  German  at  the 
university  promises  well  for  the  German  department,  the  development  of  which 
is  similar  to  that  of  Harvard.  After  the  Franco-German  war  German  ceased  to 
be  treated  as  a  stepchild:  for  three  sessions  it  was  an  obligatory  study.  The  same 
is  the  case  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  where  a  candidate  for  a  bachelor's 
degree  must  pass  an  examination  in  German  or  French. 

The  personnel  of  teachers  is  large  and  consists  of  the  following  gentlemen, 
besides  the  head  professor,  Arthur  H.  Palmer:  Prof.  Gustav  Gruener;  the  profes¬ 
sors  extraordinary,  R.  N.  Corwin  and  Hans  Oertel;  and  the  instructors,  Dr.  Adams, 
Farr,  Eldridge,  Dr.  Carrington,  and  Lucjuiens.  These  instruct  at  both  institu¬ 
tions  in  language  and  literature. 

In  1900  the  number  of  students  who  pursued  the  course  in  German  were  about 
450  from  Yale,  400  from  the  Sheffield  school,  and  7  graduates  for  the  purpose  of 
promotion;  in  all  about  850  students  out  of  a  total  of  2,540,  consequently  a  very 
fair  proportion. 

Upon  his  induction  into  office  during  the  winter  session  of  1899-1900,  President 
Hadley  remarked,  in  his  inaugural  address,  that  athletic  exercises  should  not 
force  scientific  study  into  the  background.  This  opinion  harmonizes  with  the 
German  idea.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  he  will  enlarge  the  German  library,  which 
contains  only  8,000  to  10,000  volumes,  not  including  the  500  volumes  of  the  semi¬ 
nary  library.  The  Scandinavian  library  of  Count  Riant  is  supposed  to  be  the 
best  in  America. 

The  scope  of  this  essay  unfortunately  does  not  permit  a  complete  history  of  the 
German  department  or  a  detailed  account  of  the  course  of  study,  based  upon  the 
“Notes  on  the  development  of  instruction  in  the  modern  ftmguages  at  Yale,” 
including  inf ormation  on  the  subject  respecting  Princeton,  kindly  furnished  to  us 
by  Professor  Gruener.1 

It  were  wrong  to  fail  to  mention  a  most  prominent  student  that  Yale  has  given 
to  the  world,  Andrew  D,  White,  and  his  magnificent  address  delivered  June  26, 
1883,  to  his  classmates  on  the  thirtieth  anniversary  of  his  graduation,  especially  as 
his  words  seem  to  have  been  somewhat  forgotten  in  the  lapse  of  seven  years.  The 
following  is  from  this  memorable  speech,  which  he  entitled  “The  message  of  the 
nineteenth  century  to  the  twentieth:  ” 

The  great  thing  to  be  done  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  to  develop  above  all 
things  other  great  elements  of  civilization  now  held  in  check,  which  shall  take 


1The  point  of  view  that  Yale  can  not  possibly  be  behind  Harvard  in  what  it  offers  its  students 
seems  to  be  conspicuous  throughout  the  development  of  the  department  in  this  university. 
But  the  feature  of  conservatism,  which  George  Trumbull  Ladd  has  assigned  to  Yale  in  his  Essays 
on  the  Higher  Education,  is  easily  recognized. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  1IST  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


607 


their  rightful  place  in  the  United  States;  which  shall  modify  the  mercantile  spirit; 
which  shall  hold  it  in  check  while  stimulating  it;  which  shall  make  the  history  of 
our  country  something  greater  and  broader  than  anything  we  have  reached  or 
ever  can  reach  under  the  sway  of  mercantilism  alone.  What  shall  be  these  coun¬ 
ter  elements  of  civilization?  Monarchy,  aristocracy,  militarism  we  could  not 
have  if  we  would,  we  would  not  have  if  we  could;  what  shall  we  have? 

I  answer  simply  that  we  must  do  all  that  we  can  to  rear  greater  fabrics  of  phil¬ 
osophic  thought,  literary  thought — scientific,  artistic,  political  thought;  to  sum¬ 
mon  young  men  more  and  more  into  these  fields,  not  as  a  matter  of  taste  or  social 
opportunity,  but  as  a  patriotic  duty;  to  hold  before  them  not  the  incentive  of  mere 
gain  or  of  mere  pleasure  or  of  mere  reputation,  but  the  ideal  of  a  new  and  better 
civilization.  The  greatest  work  which  the  coming  century  has  to  do  in  this  country 
is  to  build  up  an  aristocracy  of  thought  and  feeling  which  shall  hold  its  own 
against  the  aristocracy  of  mercantilism.  I  would  have,  more  and  more,  the  appeal 
made  to  every  young  man  who  feels  within  him  the  ability  for  good  or  great  things 
in  any  of  these  higher  fields,  to  devote  his  powers  to  them  as  a  sacred  duty,  no 
matter  how  strongly  the  mercantile  spirit  may  draw  him, 

I  would  have  this  idea  preached  early  and  late,  that  the  man  who  has  powers 
fitted  for  this  higher  service,  for  the  discovery  or  proclamation  of  religious  truth 
or  scientific  truth,  for  literature,  for  science,  for  art,  is  false  to  himself  and  false 
to  his  country,  if  he  deliberately  put  his  talents  at  the  service  of  the  mercantile 
spirit. 

This  address  will  ever  be  a  fine  tribute  to  the  ideal  spirit  which  is  nurtured  in 
Yale.  Of  course,  the  aristocracy  of  thought  and  feeling  expected  of  the  new  cen¬ 
tury  is  not  limited  to  the  thought  that  emanates  from  Yale,  but  will  be  strength¬ 
ened  by  all  universities  in  which  study  is  pursued  in  the  spirit  of  German  idealism. 
It  can  not  be  denied  that  the  German  departments  in  this  sense  are  to  be  con¬ 
sidered  the  nurseries  of  an  incomparable  progress  in  culture.  Whoever  under¬ 
takes  to  write  a  history  of  American  culture  must  be  especially  mindful  of  them, 
because  they  are  the  most  important  means  of  uniting  German  idealism  with 
American  energy. 

Facts  concerning  the  course  of  study  as  it  was  conducted  until  1900  are  given  in 
the  following  extract  from  one  of  the  more  recent  catalogues: 

German — The  student  who  has  passed  the  admission  examination  in  German, 
may  continue  the  study  of  German  during  each  of  the  four  years  of  his  college 
course,  if  he  so  elect;  the  student  who  has  not  passed  the  admission  examination 
in  German  may,  if  he  desire,  begin  the  study  of  German  in  either  freshman  or 
sophomore  year,  and  pursue  it  for  four  or  for  three  years;  no  elementary  instruc¬ 
tion  in  the  language  is  given  to  the  juniors  or  seniors. 

The  courses  of  work  for  the  successive  years  may  be  outlined  as  follows:  During 
the  first  year  the  work  consists  of  German  grammar  ;  translation  of  easy  English 
phrases,  sentences,  and  connected  prose  into  German;  and  of  easy  German  prose 
into  English.  Constant  sight  translation  is  used  as  a  means  for  developing  and 
strengthening  the  student’s  vocabulary  and  for  freeing  him  from  dependence  upon 
the  lexicon  and  from  the  word-by-word  methods  which  its  use  encourages. 
Especial  care  also  is  devoted  to  pronunciation.  The  work  of  the  second  year  con¬ 
tinues  and  extends  that  of  the  first  year,  taking  up  the  translation  of  more  difficult 
German  prose,  both  with  previous  preparation  and  at  sight,  the  study  of  word- 
formation,  and  the  translation  of  more  difficult  English  prose  into  German. 
Throughout  the  two  years  the  aim  in  reading  German  is  to  cover  as  much  ground  as 
possible — from  500  pages  upward — in  the  belief  that  thereby  the  student  will 
acquire  more  command  of  the  language  than  when  a  smaller  amount  is  read  with 
rigid  attention  to  grammatical  details.  It  is  expected  that  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year  the  student  will  have  adequate  preparation  for  the  use  of  the  language 
in  his  work  in  other  braches  of  study.  Those,  therefore,  who  are  studying  Ger¬ 
man  solely  for  this  end  in  view  may  perhaps  discontinue  class  study  at  this  point; 
but  no  student  should  begin  the  language  unless  he  expects  to  devote  at  least  two 
years  to  its  study. 

For  the  remaining  years  the  courses  vary  from  year  to  year;  but  opportunity  is 
given  for  the  critical  study  of  works  of  leading  authors,  and  for  the  study  of  pe¬ 
riods  in  the  history  of  German  literature.  Advanced  courses  are  offered  also  in 
earlier  German  literature  and  in  the  historical  development  of  the  language. 

German  readings  are  given  by  the  instructors,  outside  of  the  regular  college 
work,  and  a  course  in  advanced  composition  is  given,  in  which  German  alone  is 
spoken.  German  is  constantly  read  aloud  in  the  class-room,  and  efforts  are  made 


608 


EDUCATION  EEPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  improve  the  student's  pronunciation  and  to  help  him  to  acquire  some  facility  in 
expressing  his  ideas  in  German.  But  it  is  not  a  leading  aim  in  the  instruction  in 
German  to  enable  the  student  to  converse  in  that  language.  Training  in  the 
ordinary  conversational  idiom  may  be  had  more  profitably  elsewhere  and  can  not 
form  any  considerable  part  of  the  class-room  work.  The  student  may  acquire  the 
language  as  a  tool  for  use  in  other  departments  of  study,  and  may  come  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  best  works  of  German  literature,  studying  their  form  and  contents, 
and  the  lives  and  environment  of  their  authors;  fluency  in  conversation  must  be 
acquired  where  the  conditions  are  more  fitted  to  the  object  which  they  are  to 
effect. 

In  1900  the  number  of  courses  were  9  for  beginners,  and  8  for  graduates,  besides 
a  weekly  course  of  two  hours  in  Swedish. 

CORNELL. 

The  latest  register,  which  reveals  plainly  the  transition  to  the  elective  system 
inaugurated  one  or  two  years  ago,  says,  concerning  the  aims  and  course  of  Ger¬ 
man  instruction,  as  follows: 

The  aim  of  the  first  two  courses  in  German,  besides  preparing  the  student  for 
progressive  and  independent  work,  is  to  afford  those  who  have  not  a  full  classical 
training,  some  grammatical  and  linguistic  discipline,  an  insight  into  the  relations 
between  German  and  English,  and  a  certain  degree  of  literary  culture. 

In  course  1  Joynes-Meissner’s  Grammar  and  Brandt’s  Reader  are  used,  accom¬ 
panied  by  exercises  in  writing  German  and  translation  at  sight.  Later  in  the  year 
easy  novels  or  plays  are  translated. 

In  course  2  standard  German  classics  are  translated,  and  special  attention  is 
paid  to  the  study  of  etymology  and  syntax,  and  to  reading  at  sight. 

The  later  work,  in  the  form-of  lectures  and  recitations,  includes  the  study  of 
German  history,  literature,  and  mythology;  and  courses  are  given,  varying  from 
year  to  year,  embracing  the  works  of  the  leading  authors.  Classes  are  also  formed 
in  composition  and  conversation,  and  recent  dramatic  literature  and  the  writings 
of  living  novelists  are  read.  Instruction  is  further  provided  in  Old  and  Middle 
High  German  and  other  Germanic  dialects. 

The  seminary  system  of  study  for  advanced  students  has  been  employed  in  the 
department  for  several  years  with  satisfactory  results.  To  different  members  of 
the  seminary  classes  different  portions  of  the  same  general  subject  are  assigned, 
with  references  to  the  proper  authorities  or  sources;  or  individual  members  pursue 
individual  courses  of  reading  under  the  supervision  of  the  professor  in  charge. 
Lectures  for  those  intending  to  be  teachers  are  also  given  on  class-room  methods 
and  theories  of  instruction  in  the  modern  languages;  and  generous  provision  has 
been  made  by  the  university  for  the  use  of  lantern  slides  for  illustrative  purposes. 
The  seminary  room  in  the  general  library  building  is  already  equipped  with  a 
good  working  library,  which  is  steadily  increasing  in  extent.  The  gift  to  the 
University  of  the  Zarncke  library  has  materially  enlarged  the  resources  of  the 
seminary  and  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 

Course  1,  which  can  not  be  taken  to  make  up  an  entrance  deficiency,  is  for  begin¬ 
ners  in  German. 

Course  2,  which  can  not  be  taken  to  make  up  an  entrance  deficiency,  is  other¬ 
wise  open  to  those  who  have  had  the  equivalent  of  course  1. 

Courses  3-19  are  open,  under  the  restrictions  hereafter  noted,  to  those  only  who 
have  had  at  least  the  equivalent  of  courses  1  and  2. 

Course  1,  and,  under  certain  restrictions,  courses  2,  3,  4,  and  5  are  open  to  fresh¬ 
men. 


COURSES  IX  GERMAN. 

1.  German  Grammar  and  Reader.  Three  weeks. 

2.  Schiller’s  Wilhelm  Tell,  Frey  tag’s  -Journalisten,  Goethe’s  Hermann  und  Doro¬ 
thea.  Three  weeks. 

3a.  Elem  ntary  German  composition  and  conversation;  translation:  trans¬ 
lation  into  Germa  of  selected  passages  adapted  from  German  originals,  and  con¬ 
versation  on  the  texts  thus  prepared.  One  week.  Open  to  those  who  have  had 
course  1  or  an  equivalent. 

3b.  Intermediate  course  in  German  composition  and  conversation.  Translation 
of  easy  English  extracts  into  German.  During  the  early  part  of  the  course  con- 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


609 


siderable  attention  will  be  given  to  conversation.  One  week.  Open,  by  applica¬ 
tion,  to  those  who  have  had  course  3a,  or  an  equivalent. 

3c.  Advanced  German  composition.  Those  intending  to  teach  German  are 
specialty  advised  to  elect  this  course.  One  week.  Open,  by  application,  to  those 
who  have  had  courses  8a  and  3b,  or  an  equivalent. 

4.  Heine's  Life  and  Works.  Selections  from  Heine’s  prose  and  poetry,  vrith  an 
examination  of  his  views  on  literature,  art,  politics,  and  religion;  and  some  study 
of  the  metrical  and  linguistic  characteristics  of  his  verse.  Three  weeks. 

5.  Goethe’s  Dramas.  Three  weeks. 

6.  Goethe's  Faust.  Parts  I  and  II.  Three  weeks. 

7.  German  Lyrical  Poetry  from  Luther  to  the  present  day.  Two  weeks. 

8.  Deutsche  Volkslieder.  Selections  from  songs  of  sentiment  and  of  religion,  of 
various  callings,  including  soldier  and  student  songs,  children’s  rhymes,  and 
legendary  and  narrative  ballads.  One  week. 

9.  Schiller's  Life  and  Works,  especially  his  dramatic  writings  and  correspond¬ 
ence  with  Goethe.  Three  weeks. 

10.  The  Modern  Novel  and  Drama,  illustrated  chiefly  by  the  works  of  Frevtagr 
Sudermann,  and  Hauptmann.  Three  weeks.  First  half  year. 

11.  German  Seminary.  The  history  of  German  literature.  Two  weeks. 

12.  Life  and  Writings  of  Richard  Wagner.  Selections  from  the  texts  of  Rich¬ 
ard  Wagner's  musical  dramas,  including  Der  Fliegende  Hollander,  Tannhauser, 
Lohengrin,  Parsifal,  Tristan  und  Isolde,  and  the  Nibelungenring,  with  a  study  of 
the  legendary  background,  and  with  illustrations  and  elucidations  from  Wagner’s* 
other  writings.  Three  hours  weekly. 

13.  The  Novel  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Mainly  historical.  SchefTel,  Frey- 
tag,  Flaufl.  Second  half  year.  Open  to  students  who  have  had  two  years  of 
German. 

14.  Middle  High  German.  Beginning  course.  Selections  from  Middle  High 
German  prose  and  poetry.  Two  hours  weekly. 

15.  Readings  from  Herder's  Cid  and  Klopstock’s  Messias.  First  half  year.- 
Two  weeks. 

10.  German  Seminary.  Middle  High  German  epic  and  lyric  poetry.  First: 
half  year.  One  week. 

17.  Lessing’s  Life  and  Writings.  Early  dramas  and  Nathan  der  Weise;  first 
half  year.  Prose  works,  art  and  criticism;  second  half  year.  Two  weeks. 

18.  German  Seminary.  History  of  the  German  language.  Methods  of  modern, 
language  study  and  teaching,  including  questions  of  pronunciation,  syntax,  ety¬ 
mology,  prose  composition,  German  chirography,  and  school  equipment.  Openr 
by  application,  to  those  intending  to  teach.  One  week. 

19.  Courses  (of  Middle  High  German )  are  given  like  the  courses  8, 12, 17,  and  18,.., 
not  during  the  current  year,  but  in  1901-2. 

Active  professors  are  the  following; 

Horatio  Stevens  White,  A.  B.,  professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature,, 
and  dean  of  the  university  faculty. 

Waterman  Thomas  Hewett,  A.  B.,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  the  German  language 
and  literature. 

George  Burridg©  Yiles,  A.  M.,  and  George  Maxwell  Howe,  A.  M.,  instructors  in. 
German. 

For  the  summer  courses  Prof.  Dr.  Herm.  Schoenfeld,  of  the  Columbian  Univer¬ 
sity  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  is  added. 

The  course  of  the  summer  courses  in  1901,  is  as  follows: 

COURSE  FOR  TEACHERS. 

A.  Methods  of  instruction  in  the  modern  languages;  recent  theories;  report  of 
the  ‘  ‘  Committee  of  Twelve.  ”  The  teacher’s  equipment:  A  discussion  of  representa- 
tive  works  for  linguistic  study,  histories  of  literature,  and  biographies;  text-books, 
dictionaries,  grammars,  and  commentaries. 

Introductory  phonetics  and  historical  grammar,  moot  points  in  pronunciation. 

Syntax  and  modern  German  verse.  Two  hours  a  week. 

TRANSLATION  COURSE. 

B.  Reading  and  interpretation  of  classical  works  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Less¬ 
ing,  comprising  those  more  often  read  in  advanced  classes.  The  choice  will  be 

ED  1901 - 39 


810 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


made  from  Goetz  von  Berlicbingen,  Iphigenie,  Tasso,  Die  Brant  von  Messina,  Die 
Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  Wallenstein,  and  Nathan  der  Weise.  Three  hours  a  week. 

C.  The  rapid  reading,  with  comment,  of  the  advanced  requirements  for  admission 
in  German,  Schiller's  Wilhelm  Tell,  Goethe  s  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  and  Less¬ 
ing’s  Minna  von  Barnhelm.  Sight  translation  will  be  practiced  on  certain  days 
in  the  week,  and  there  will  be  tests  of  reading  done  outside  the  class.  The  text¬ 
book  in  this  will  be  Freytag's  Yerlorene  Handschrift.  Daily  except  Saturday. 

D.  Lectures  in  German  upon  the  history  of  German  civilization  and  literature 
from  1750  to  the  present  time.  Daily  except  Saturday. 

E.  Practical  exercises  in  German  conversation  and  composition.  The  course 
will  be  conducted  entirely  in  German,  in  order  to  familiarize  the  student  with  a 
working  vocabulary.  Three  hours  a  week. 

In  what  spirit  this  university  is  conducted,  which,  as  has  been  stated  before,  was 
organized  by  Andrew  D.  White,  may  be  seen  from  the  following  quotation  taken 
from  an  oration  of  the  then  president  of  the  institution,  Charles  Kendall  Adams. 
The  oration  is  entitled  “  Washington  and  the  higher  education.”1 

There  is  something  in  the  persistency  and  the  nobility  of  Washington’s  thought 
on  the  subject  of  a  national  university  that  reminds  us  of  what  occurred  only  ten 
years  later  at  the  capital  of  one  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  Prussia  had  fallen 
under  the  contemptuous  displeasure  of  Napoleon;  had  been  humiliated  and  well 
nigh  destroyed.  Despoiled  of  her  fortresses,  robbed  of  half  her  territory,  her  army, 
even  for  purposes  of  defense,  reduced  to  a  handful  of  men,  to  her  more  than  to 
any  other  of  Napoleon’s  foes  it  had  been  permitted — 

“  To  read  the  book  of  fate,  * 

And  see  the  revolution  of  the  times 
Make  mountains  level,  and  the  continent, 

Weary  of  solid  firmness,  melt  itself 
Into  the  sea.” 

But  through  the  welter  of  that  sad  ruin  there  rang  out  the  clear  voice  of  a  phi¬ 
losopher,  proclaiming  that  the  only  gospel  of  salvation  for  Prussia  was  the  gospel 
of  education.  At  the  very  moment  when  French  bayonets  were  in  possession  of 
Berlin,  Fichte  lifted  up  his  voice  in  the  4 4  Reden  an  die  deutsche  Nation.” in  which 
throughout  the  elaborate  argument  of  14  lectures,  there  was  this  ever-recurring 
refrain:  “Education  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  can  be  rescued  from  our 
present  helpless  condition.”  The  keynote  of  that  appeal,  the  pathetic  eloquence 
of  which  resounded  throughout  Germany,  was  in  the  sentence:  “  I  hope  to  con¬ 
vince  Germans  that  nothing  but  education  can  rescue  us  from  the  miseries  that 
overwhelm  us.”  And  the  foundation  of  his  argument  was  laid  in  a  doctrine  which 
he  has  condensed  into  a  single  sentence.  44  Education,”  said  he,  44  education,  as 
hitherto  conducted  by  the  church,  has  aimed  only  at  securing  for  men  happiness 
in  another  life;  but  this  is  not  enough,  for  men  need  to  be  taught  how  to  bear 
themselves  in  the  present  life,  so  as  to  do  their  duty  to  the  State,  to  others,  and  to 
themselves.”  The  lectures,  which  were  little  else  than  an  eloquent  and  impas¬ 
sioned  elaboration  of  this  theme,  made  so  profound  an  impression  upon  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  especially  upon  the  Government,  that  a  commission  of  five  of  the  most  emi¬ 
nent  scholars  of  Prussia  was  appointed  to  elaborate  and  recommend  a  system  that 
would  embody  these  ideas.  Aii  grades  of  education  were  remodeled  and  reduced 
to  substantial  uniformity  of  system.  To  us,  in  this  discussion,  it  is  of  chief  inter¬ 
est  to  note  that  one  of  the  first  fruits  of  the  movement  was  the  founding  of  the 
university  at  Berlin,  a  university  which,  now  that  three-quarters  of  a  century 
have  passed,  brings  annually  together  for  the  most  advanced  learning  the  world 
can  give  more  than  5,000  of  the  most  intelligent  and  the  most  aspiring  young 
men  of  Germany.  It  would  be  easy  to  point  out  how  the  works  of  such  men 
as  Niebuhr  and  Ranke  and  Mommsen  and  Savigny  and  Boeckl  and  Virchow  and 
Helmholz  and  others  of  kindred  renown,  each  of  whom,  in  his  sphere,  has  stood 
at  the  very  pinnacle  of  human  knowledge,  have  inspired  the  thoughts  and  illumi¬ 
nated  the  paths  of  scholars  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  But,  fascinating  as  this 
theme  would  be,  it  would  be  more  to  our  purpose  to-day  to  contemplate  the  effect 
of  this  system  of  education  upon  the  German  people  and  the  German  nation.  It 
must,  however,  suffice  simply  to  say  that  it  has  taken  the  shattered  and  impover¬ 
ished  and  disheartened  Germany  of  1810  and  made  it  the  united  and  prosperous 
and  confident  Germany  of  the  present  day. 

The  present  president  is  Jacob  Gould  Schurman.  During  his  presidency  the 
New  York  State  College  of  Forestry  was  connected  with  the  university.  This  col- 

1  An  address  delivered  before  Cornell  University,  February  22, 1888,  p.  35. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


611 


lege,  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  Dr.  Fernow,  is  destined  to  introduce  Ger¬ 
man  science  of  forestry.  The  number  of  students  in  the  university  registered 
in  1900  was  2,270,  of  whom  nearly  one-fourth  participated  in  the  courses  in  German 
(1900-1901:  511).  The  summer  courses  were  attended  by  445  students.  Of  this 
number  only  42  took  part  in  the  only  two  German  courses.  During  the  current 
year  five  courses  in  German  will  be  offered,  and  Professor  Schoenfeld  is  added  as 
a  valuable  addition  to  the  faculty.  A  large  increase  in  the  number  of  students 
of  German  is  expected. 

Concerning  the  library  the  third  part  of  this  article  gives  information.  A  little 
pamphlet,  entitled  “What  profession  shall  I  choose?  How  to  fit  for  it?”  explains 
the  objects  of  the  university.  This  was  published  in  Ithaca  in  1884,  and  serves 
as  a  valuable  guide  to  students. 

PRINCETON. 

Although  the  third  oldest  seat  of  higher  learning  in  the  country,  this  institution 
is  one  of  the  youngest  universities,  having  received  the  title  on  its  one  hundred 
and  fiftieth  anniversary,  October  21,  1896.  Notwithstanding  that  the  number  of 
its  students  has  considerably  increased  (428  in  1880,  according  to  Thwing;  at  pres¬ 
ent,  1,196),  this  institution  is  twentieth  in  the  order  of  American  universities 
according  to  attendance.  The  large  participation  in  German  instruction  is  there¬ 
fore  the  more  encouraging.  The  German  department  has  two  divisions:  the  aca¬ 
demic,  in  which  Professors  Humphreys  and  Hoskins  and  Instructor  Beam  teach, 
and  the  school  of  sciences  (technical  school),  conducted  by  Professor  Huss  and 
Instructor  Priest. 

In  the  technical  school  German  is  obligatory  for  the  freshmen,  who  numbered 
117  in  the  year  1900,  and  for  the  sophomores,  of  whom  there  were  92  in  the  year 
1900.  From  then  on  German  is  optional,  and  about  one- fourth  of  all  the  students 
take  the  course. 

In  the  academic  department  in  1899-1900  eight  courses  were  held  for  elementary 
and  advanced  instruction  in  the  German  language,  six  in  the  history  of  German 
literature,  and  eight  in  Middie  High  German,  Old  High  German,  Old  Icelandic, 
and  historical  German  grammar.  Moreover  the  opportunity  was  offered  to  stu¬ 
dents  of  German  to  take  part  in  the  courses  in  Anglo-Saxon  (Beowulf)  and  Gothic 
held  in  the  English  seminary.  With  the  exception  of  the  absence  of  the  Scandi¬ 
navian  language  and  literature  the  course  of  study  resembles  that  of  Yale  and 
does  not  reach  the  present  position  of  Columbia.  In  the  school  of  science  ten 
courses  are  held  for  beginners  and  advanced  students  in  grammar,  composition, 
conversation,  scientific  monographs,  and  history  of  literature. 

UNIVERSITY  OE  PENNSYLVANIA. 

We  have  a  comprehensive  report  on  German  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
by  Professor  Learned,1  who  quotes  a  number  of  details  relative  to  the  eighteenth 
century.  This  most  competent  authority  makes  the  following  statements  con¬ 
cerning  the  development  of  German  study  in  the  nineteenth  century: 

The  revival  of  German  studies  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  begins  with 
the  researches  of  Samuel  Stedman  Haldeman,  professor  of  natural  history,  1850- 
1853,  and  professorof  comparative  philology,  1869-1880.  Professor  Haldeman  con¬ 
tributed  10  studies  on  conchology,  36  on  entomology,  7  on  geology  and  chemistry, 
7  on  archaeology,  32  on  philology,  and  28  on  other  subjects.  Of  the  32  contribu¬ 
tions  to  philology,  one  is  of  particular  importance  as  inaugurating  the  study  of 
German  dialects  in  America.  This  was  a  paper  entitled  “  On  the  German  vernacu¬ 
lar  of  Pennsylvania,”  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Philological 


1  Opening  of  tho  Beehstein  Germanic  Library.  Addresses,  pp.  33-58.  The  extract  is  note¬ 
worthy  as  being,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  only  detailed  authentic  account  of  the  development  of 
the  German  department  in  one  of  the  most  important  universities  of  the  country. 


612 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


Association  for  1889-1870,  read  also  before  tlie  Philological  Society  of  London, 
1870,  and  published  separately  with  prefatory  notice  by  A.  J.  Ellis,  under  the  title, 
Pennsylvania  Dutch.  A  Dialect  of  South  German  with  an  Infusion  of  English, 
Philadelphia,  1872.  It  was  the  instinct  and  experience  of  a  naturalist  that  led 
Professor  Haldeman  to  the  study  of  language  and  gave  his  researches  their  pecu¬ 
liar  value.  Tlie  relation  of  linguistics  to  etymology  attracted  him  in  particular 
and  stimulated  his  studies  On  the  Phonology  of  the  Wyandots  (1846),  On  Some 
Points  in  Linguistic  Ethnology,  Relations  between  the  Chinese  and  Indo-European 
Languages  (1858)  and  similar  subjects,  in  which  the  influence  of  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  seems  clearly  traceable.  At  the  time  when  Haldeman  was  writing  his 
study  on  Pennsylvania  Dutch,  dialect  study  in  Germany  was  still  in  the  forma¬ 
tive  stage.  Haldeman’s  Pennsylvania  Dutch  maybe  regarded  as  a  pioneer  study, 
first  in  American  dialectology,  and  secondly  in  comparative  study  of  modern  Ger¬ 
man  dialects. 

The  point  of  view,  and  at  the  same  time  the  importance  of  Professor  Haldeman’s 
study,  is  admirably  set  forth  by  Mr.  Alexander  J.  Ellis  in  his  prefatory  notice  to 
his  Early  English  Pronunciation  (published  in  1887),  as  follows: 

“  Sufficient  importance  does  not  seem  to  have  been  hitherto  attached  to  watch¬ 
ing  the  growth  and  change  of  living  languages.  We  have  devoted  our  philolog¬ 
ical  energies  to  the  study  of  dead  tongues  which  we  could  not  pronounce,  and 
have  therefore  been  compelled  to  compare  by  letters  rather  than  by  sounds,  and 
which  we  know  only  in  the  form  impressed  upon  them  by  scholars  of  various 
times.  The  form  in  which  they  were  originally  written  is  forever  concealed. 
The  form  in  which  they  appear  in  the  earliest  manuscripts  has  practically  never 
been  published,  but  has  to  be  painfully  collected  from  a  mass  of  various  readings. 
The  form  we  know  is  a  critical,  conjectural  form,  patched  up  by  men  distinguished 
for  scholarship,  but  for  the  most  part  entirely  ignorant  of  the  laws  which  govern 
the  change  of  speech.  The  very  orthography  is  mediaeval.  We  are  thus  enabled 
to  see  as  little-of  the  real  genesis  of  language  in  form,  in  sound,  in  grammatical 
and  logical  instruction — in  short,  in  the  real  truth  of  philological  investigation,  the 
relation  of  thought  to  speech  sound — as  the  study  of  a  full-grown  salmon  would 
enable  us  to  judge  of  the  marvelous  development  of  that  beautiful  fish.  Such 
studies  as  the  present  will,  I  hope,  serve  among  others  to  stimulate  exertion  in  the 
new  direction.  We  can  not  learn  life  by  the  study  of  fossils  alone.” 

Simultaneously  with  the  researches  of  Professor  Haldeman  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Dutch  his  colleague,  Oswald  Seidensticker,  professor  of  German  in  the  university, 
was  breaking  ground  in  another  field  of  German-American  culture— the  history 
and  literature  of  the  German  pioneer  in  America. 

As  early  as  1884  Professor  Seidensticker  published  a  paper  entitled  “Schiller  im 
Englischen.  ”  This  study  seems  to  have  served  only  as  the  door  to  a  more  attractive 
department,  for  his  studies  for  the  next  twenty  years  lay  chiefly  in  the  earlier 
period  of  German-American  history  and  literature,  and  it  was  only  toward  the 
end  of  his  career  that  he  once  more  published  a  paper  more  closely  related  to  the 
one  of  1884  under  the  title,  “  The  relation  of  English  and  German  literature  in 
the  eighteenth  century.” 

The  most  important  work  of  his  he  published  during  the  last  year  of  his  life 
(1893) .  It  is  entitled  The  First  Century  of  German  Printing  in  America,  1728-1830 
(Philadelphia) . 

The  value  of  this  work  for  the  study  of  American  culture  has  not  been  duly 
appreciated  beyond  a  limited  circle,  partly  because  most  Anglo-American  his¬ 
torians  have  been  inexcusably  slow  in  recognizing  the  importance  of  the  German 
element  in  the  growth  of  the  great  American  Republic.  Then,  too,  it  must  stand 
as  an  meriaceauie  retiection  upon  the  German- American’s  interest  in  his  own  his¬ 
tory  that  Der  deutsche  Pionier,  which  for  years  contributed  to  the  study  of  Ger¬ 
man  history  and  culture  in  America,  was  finally  allowed  to  be  discontinued  for 
want  of  even  a  modest  number  of  subscribers. 

The  German  in  America  has  played  his  part  most  nobly.  He  tills  to-day  our 
richest  farms  and  turns  the  skillful  hand  in  our  most  important  trades;  he  helps  to 
fight  our  battles  and  teaches  us  the  arts  of  war;  he  develops  American  industry 
and  controls  great  avenues  of  American  commerce;  he  teaches  us  the  value  of 
literature  and  supplies  us  with  a  new  education  and  a  new  science.  The  presence 
of  10,000,000  Americans  in  our  population  in  whose  veins  German  blood  flows 
justifies  the  study  of  the  traditions  of  this  sturdy  race.  It  is  in  emphasizing  the 
significance  of  such  facts  that  the  importance  of  the  work  of  Professor  Seiden¬ 
sticker  and  those  laboring  in  the  same  field  has  rendered  its  greatest  service. 

This  brief  survey  has  made  it  apparent  that  the  traditions  of  German  studies  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  have  been  at  each  revival  epoch  m  close  touch 
with  the  literature  and  science  of  the  fatherland,  and  have  fostered  truly  national 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


613 


American  ideals  by  investigating  the  cultural  problems  of  the  German  settler  in 
his  adopted  fatherland. 

With  this  heritage  of  German  traditions  it  remains  for  us  to  develop  our  resources 
in  accordance  with  the  most  enlightened  methods  of  the  new  science  of  linguistics, 
which  has  inaugurated  a  new  epoch  in  the  study  of  language  and  literature.  Here 
is  the  place  for  a  distinctly  American  school  of  Germanics.  The  conditions  and 
the  resources  are  here  for  such  an  enterprise.  Even  a  precedent  is  not  wanting, 
for  the  Institut”  of  Kunze  and  Helmuth  may  be  regarded  as  a  faint  prototype  of 
what  might  be  developed  in  the  more  distant  future. 

What  conditions!  Here  is  the  cradle  of  German  culture  in  America,  whence 
thousands  of  sturdy  pioneers  have  gone  forth,  breaking  new  paths  to  the  shore  of 
the  Pacific. 

The  speaker  closed  his  remarkably  interesting  lecture  with  the  following  expo¬ 
sition  of  his  scientific  working  plan: 

The  programme  justified  by  these  traditions  and  resources  is  ample  and  dis¬ 
tinctly  national  and  American: 

The  scientific  study  of  the  Germanic  dialects  of  America — PXigh  German  (Swiss, 
Suabian,  Bavarian) ,  Midland  German  (Frankish,  Saxon),  Low  German  (Platt  and 
Netherlandish),  Norse  (Swedish,  Danish,  Norwegian,  Icelandic).  All  of  these 
dialects  are  represented  as  living  speech  in  America. 

The  study  of  German  literature  in  America  (German  literature  written  here 
and  the  influence  of  the  literature  of  Germany  on  our  own ) . 

The  German  folk-lore  and  culture  of  America  (manners,  customs,  and  other 
forms  of  German  culture  in  American  life). 

These  subjects  lead  naturally  and  necessarily  to  the  comparative  study  of  Ger¬ 
manic  dialects  and  literatures  of  Europe  through  all  the  periods  of  their  history. 
Thus  we  may  justify  each  step  by  the  claims  of  our  national  cultural  genealogy. 

It  is  to  the  achievement  of  the  fullest  success  of  this  school  of  Germanics,  in  the 
estimation  not  only  of  contemporaneous  American  and  European  scho'ars,  but  in 
the  more  calm  and  severe  judgment  of  the  future,  that  we  invite  the  Germans  of 
the  city  of  Philadelphia  and  of  the  country  at  large  to  lend  their  interest  and 
cooperation  by  contributing  serial  publications,  books,  pamphlets,  and  other  mate¬ 
rial  relating  to  the  Germans  in  America. 

This  is  a  work  in  which  every  German- American  as  well  as  Anglo-American 
may  take  part  without  fear  of  encountering  social,  political,  or  race  prejudice  and 
with  the  consciousness  that  he  is  aiding  in  strengthening  the  bonds  which  unite  the 
two  great  cultures  of  modern  civilization.  Having  once  formed  such  an  alliance 
among  ourselves,  the  hearts  of  the  fatherland  will  respond  to  the  great  work  of 
preserving  the  history,  language,  literature,  and  culture  of  the  German  in  America. 

This  programme  has  meanwhile  become  to  a  good  degree  an  actuality.  The 
catalogue  for  the  current  year  enumerates  no  less  than  11  courses  for  graduate 
students  in  the  philosophical  faculty. 

The  graduate  courses  in  Germanic  philology  are  grouped  in  cycles  of  three  years, 
so  as  to  enable  the  student  to  pursue  his  studies  in  all  the  representative  periods  of 
Germanic  languages  and  literatures — Gothic,  Old  High  German,  Middle  High  Ger- 
mau.  New  High  German  (including  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and 
nineteenth  centuries).  During  the  cycle  of  three  years  at  least  one  seminary 
course  will  be  offered  in  each  one  of  the  more  important  periods.  The  Germanic 
seminary  devotes  three  hours  a  week  to  German  ballads.  Other  courses  include 
Old  Norse  poetry,  Gothic,  Middle  High  German,  as  well  as  seventeenth  century 
German;  also  introduction  to  Germanic  philology  and  Goethe  and  Schiller  (1794- 
1805).  An  especially  interesting  lecture  is  that  of  Professor  Learned  on  German 
literature  in  America,  in  which  the  literary  relations  of  Germany  and  America  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  with  special  reference  to  the  influence  of  German  litera¬ 
ture  on  Anglo-American  literature,  are  treated. 

Another  important  institution  is  the  Germanic  Association.  The  work  of  this 
association,  of  which  the  instructors  and  advanced  graduate  students  are  mem¬ 
bers,  is  an  essential  part  of  the  work  in  German.  An  original  paper  is  presented 
at  each  meeting.  This  may  be  followed  by  minor  communications. 

Lastly,  there  is  a  class  in  German  conversation.  Students  who  elect  German  as 


614 


EDUCATION’  EE  POET,  1900-1901. 


a  major  are  required  to  join  the  class,  unless  they  already  have  a  satisfactory  com¬ 
mand  of  colloquial  German. 

All  graduate  courses  are  given  by  Professor  Learned  and  by  the  instructor,  Dr. 
Daniel  B.  Shuinway;  the  elementary  instruction  in  the  college  is  entirely  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  department  sketched  in  the  foregoing. 

As  a  consequence  of  Learned's  extraordinary  efforts  in  developing  his  depart¬ 
ment,  the  fact  maybe  recorded  that  the  attendance  upon  the  German  courses  here 
is  now  about  325,  a  gain  of  something  over  100  in  the  last  two  years.  This  indicates 
a  gratifying  increase  in  the  interest  of  German  in  the  old  cradle  of  German  culture 
in  America.  The  elementary  instruction  in  German  is  conducted  by  Edward 
Charles  Wesselhoeft,  A.  M.,  instructor,  and  Ellwood  Comly  Parry,  assistant 
instructor. 

Concerning  the  very  extensive  German  book  treasures  in  Philadelphia,  the  next 
chief  part  of  this  article  will  give  the  required  information. 

Frequently  German  lectures  (in  the  vernacular)  are  held  in  the  university. 
Thus,  in  1897  Mr.  L.  Yiereck,  of  New  York,  spoke  on  “Political  parties  in  Ger¬ 
many,”  in  1900  on  “  Franz  Lieber,”  and  in  1901  on  “  Eemembrances  of  Germany's 
great  historical  times.”  Mr.  Conried,  stage  director,  read  a  lecture  in  1900  in 
German  on  the  “  German  stage  ”  and  on  Schiller’s  Das  Lied  der  Glocke. 

The  total  attendance  of  this  university  in  1901  was  2,573. 

JOHNS  HOPKINS. 

As  regards  scientific  publications,  no  American  university  deserves  to  be  men¬ 
tioned  with  greater  honor  than  the  Johns  Hopkins,  of  Baltimore.  Its  publications 
stand  out  alone  in  the  United  States  and  have  exerted  a  favorable  influence  on 
other  universities. 

This  judgment  of  a  competent  authority 1  dates  from  the  year  1895  and  has  lost 
none  of  its  weight  in  the  meantime.  What  the  institution  has  done  is  the  more 
meritorious,  as  its  financial  condition  has  been  precarious  since  its  foundation, 
and  the  legislature  of  Maryland  has  failed  to  follow  the  example  given  by  other 
States  in  their  liberal  support  of  the  universities  within  their  limits.2 

Although  this  university  is  not  a  generation  old  and  is  limited  to  two  faculties — 
a  philosophical  and  a  medical  faculty — it  can  boast  of  its  graduates  being  particu¬ 
larly  successful  academic  teachers,  as  may  be  learned  from  the  biographical  sec¬ 
tion  of  this  article.  Finally,  its  German  department  is  by  no  means  one  of  the 
largest — the  comparatively  small  total  attendance  would  make  this  an  impossibil¬ 
ity — though  it  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  country.  It  was  arrauged  by  Prof.  Her¬ 
man  Carl  George  Brandt,  who  taught  until  the  year  1882,  when  he  accepted  a  call 
to  Hamilton  College.  Since  then  it  has  been  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Henry 
Wood,  assisted  by  the  following  gentlemen: 

Dr.  B.  J.  Vos,  associate  professor  of  German. 

Dr.  T.  S.  Baker,  instructor  in  German. 

Mr.  Julius  Hofmann. 

The  work  done  by  the  German  department  is  mentioned  in  the  following  extract 
taken  from  the  twenty- third  annual  report  of  the  president: 

The  German  Seminary,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Wood,  met  three  times 
weekly  through  the  year.  The  subject  for  the  first  half  year  was  Goethe’s  Lyr¬ 
ical  Poems.  They  were  studied  chronologically  in  a  selection  designed  to  illustrate 
the  change  and  growth  in  Goethe’s  language  and  style.  Particular  attention  was 
devoted  to  the  Leipziger  Liederbuch,  the  lyrics  of  the  first  Weimar  period,  and 
the  productions  of  the  Balladenjahr  (1797).  The  poems  were  then  considered, 
singly  and  in  groups,  as  establishing  or  completing  modern  lyrical  types  in  litera¬ 
ture.  During  the  second  half  year  the  Nibelungenlied  was  studied.  The  first 


1  Zimmermann,  Universities  in  the  United  States,  p.  92. 

2  Compare  James  B.  Angell,  “  The  State  universities  of  the  West  ”  in  the  Studies  in  Historical 
and  Political  Science.  Baltimore:  1898. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


615 


sixteen  Aventiuren  (except  the  fourth,  eighth,  and  eleventh)  were  read,  together 
with  parts  of  Ayentinren  21,  25,  27,  28,  80,  83,  37,  38,  39.  The  text  of  JLachmann 
was  used  as  a  basis,  with  the  editions  of  Bartsch  and  Zarncke  for  the  plusstrophes 
of'MJ§S.  B  and  C.  The  selections  were  made  with  reference  to  the  special  subjects 
assigned  to  the  members  of  the  seminary.  The  chief  of  these  were:  Lachmann’s 
criteria  of  genuineness,  the  Kiir enberger  -  trophe  and  the  Mihelungen  poetry  of 
Austria,  Origins  of  the  Nibe!  ungen  meter,  Laistner's  Archetypus  der  Nibelungen, 
Boltzmann  and  the  MS.  C,  Plusstrophes  and  modern  criticism,  the  Siegfried  myth, 
Dietrich  of  Bern  in  Nibelungenlied  und  Klage. 

The  Germanic  Society,  which  is  composed  of  the  director  of  the  seminary  and 
the  instructors  and  graduate  students  in  German,  held  sixteen  meetings  during  the 
year,  in  an  evening  session.  Besides  reviews  and  reports,  the  following  papers 
were  read,  some  of  them  presenting  completed  investigations  and  others  giving 
preliminary  results  of  studies  still  in  progress:  Early  German  Versions  of  the  Bible; 
the  first  person  plural  imperative  in  German;  the  close  of  Goethe's  Tasso  as  a  lit¬ 
erary  problem;  Poe’s  House  of  Usher  and  its  German  source;  early  editions  of 
German  works  appearing  in  America:  the  Gothic  u-declension. 

Professor  Wood  gave  a  course  in  Gothic  and  the  elements  of  comparative  Ger¬ 
man  grammar,  twice  weekly,  through  the  year.  Braune's  Gotische  Grammatik 
was  studied,  after  which  parts  of  Ulfilas  and  the  Skeireius  were  interpreted,  with 
Bernhardt's  larger  text  as  a  basis.  Streitberg's  Urgermaniscbe  Grammatik  was 
read  entire,  and  was  accompanied  by  practical  exercises  designed  to  illustrate  the 
principles  of  sound-change  and  word-formation  for  the  several  Teutonic  languages. 

A  class  in  Old  Saxon,  conducted  by  Professor  Wood,  met  twice  weekly,  during 
the  first  half-year.  The  Heliand  was  read,  with  the  editions  of  Sievers  and  Piper 
as  a  basis.  Particular  attention  was  given  to  recent  aspects  of  the  Praefatio,  as 
tending  to  solve  questions  of  source,  scope,  and  authorship  of  the  poem.  Corre¬ 
spondence  between  Old  Saxon  and  English  syntax  were  studied,  with  special 
reference  to  their  application  to  text  criticism.  The  Genesis  fragments  were  also 
read. 

A  course  in  Schiller’s  dramas,  weekly  through  the  year,  was  given  by  Professor 
Wood.  All  the  plays  were  read,  including  the  fragments  “Demetrius”  and  “  Die 
Malteser.”  Schiller’s  earlier  pieces  were  compared  with  the  classicizing  and  Sene- 
can  variety  of  the  Elizabethan  drama,  and  the  similarities  noted  were  also  pointed 
out  in  the  case  of  Lessing’s  “Emilia  Galotti.”  Schiller's  later  tragedies  were  then 
studied,  as  uniting  elements  of  classicism  and  romanticism  in  the  establishment  of 
new  tendencies  for  the  modern  drama.  Particular  attention  was  devoted  to  Wal¬ 
lenstein  and  Demetrius  as  the  two  most  characteristic  examples  of  the  new  type. 

The  other  work  of  Professor  Wood  was  devoted  to  instruction  in  language  and 
literature  in  the  undergraduate  major  and  minor  course. 

Professor  Vos  taught  two  hours — modern  Dutch,  Middle  High  German,  and  his¬ 
tory  of  German  literature  in  the  eleventh  century.  Besides,  he  gave  a  number  of 
lectures  to  undergraduates. 

Dr.  Baker  gave  a  graduate  course  on  the  German  novel  in  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  period  studied  was  from  the  Robinsonaden  to  Jean  Paul.  Much 
attention  waV  given  to  foreign  influence,  and  parti<!ularly  to  Rousseau  and  the 
English  contemporary  novelists.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  Dr.  Baker  gave 
undergraduate  and  special  courses. 

Mr.  Hofmann  met  a  class  of  graduates  for  scientific  reading  twice  a  week.  He 
also  conducted  a  class  in  conversational  German  weekly  through  the  year. 

To  complete  this  account  the  following  extract  from  the  Register  for  1898-99 
may  serve: 

In  the  German  Seminary,  in  which  the  graduate  instruction  centers,  nearly 
equal  attention  is  devoted  to  German  literature  and  German  philology.  To  enter 
upon  the  work  of  the  seminary  in  literature  the  student  should  possess  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  German  equivalent  to  that  imparted  in  the  undergraduate  courses  herein¬ 
after  mentioned,  supplemented  by  private  readings.  For  the  seminary  work  in 
philology  it  is  desirable  in  addition  that  preliminary  courses  in  Gothic  and  Middle 
High  German  should  be  first  completed,  and  these  may  be  taken  with  advantage 
by  the  student  immediately  upon  entering.  All  graduate  students  of  German  are 
required  to  share  in  both  the  philological  and  literary  work,  and  to  direct  their 
efforts  to  the  attainment  of  broad  results  which  may  serve  as  the  foundation  of 
scientific  work  and  of  successful  teaching;  but  the  seminary  and  the  allied  grad¬ 
uate  courses  are  believed  to  offer  also  sufficient  opportunity  and  encouragement 
for  the  prosecution  cf  chosen  lines  of  work,  whether  on  the  linguistic  or  literary 
side,  in  accordance  with  individual  capacity  and  bent.  In  this  way  opportunity 
for  independent  research  is  afforded  within  the  framework  of  organized  effort 


016 


EDUCATION  REPORT  1900-1901. 


directed  toward  the  attainment  of  results  which  concern  the  seminary  as  a  whole 
and  toward  which  each  member  is  expected  to  contribute  his  share. 

The  subjects  selected  for  the  seminary  during  recent  years  have  been  as  follows: 
1894-95 ,  Minnesangsfruhling,  German  literature  in  the  eighteenth  century;  1895- 
96,  Goethe  a  d  Schiller  (1786-1805),  Walther  von  der  Vogel weide;  1896-97,  Goethe's 
Faust,  Parzival;  1897-98,  Goethe's  Lyrical  Poems,  Nibelungenlied;  1898-99,  Storm 
and  stress  and  early  romanticism,  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide. 

The  Germanic  Society,  which  meets  fortnightly,  supplements  the  work  of  the 
German  Seminary;  before  it  are  presented  not  only  reports  on  articles  in  current 
journals,  but  also  successive  results  of  studies  by  the  members.  The  chief  object 
of  the  society  is  to  foster  and  guide  the  aptitude  for  more  sustained  individual 
investigation  than  the  seminary  proper  offers  scope  for.  Lists  of  the  papers  pre¬ 
sented  and  discussed  are  given  in  the  yearly  reports. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  the  seminary  (three  meetings  a  week)  other  advanced 
courses  are  given.  For  example,  in  1838-99  Professor  Wood  gave  courses  in 
Gothic  and  Old  Norse  (Sagas).  Dr.  Vos  conducted  classes  in  Middle  High  Ger¬ 
man,  Vondel,  and  Middle  Dutch,  and  lectured  on  the  history  of  rhyme.  A  course 
on  contemporary  German  drama  was  given  by  Dr.  Baker. 

The  undergraduate  courses  in  German  are  conducted  chiefly  by  Associate  Pro¬ 
fessor  Vos,  aided  by  Dr.  T.  S.  Baker,  with  such  other  assistance  as  may  from  time 
to  time  be  required.  A  course  in  elementary  German  is  given  for  candidates  for 
matriculation  who  have  entered  with  Greek.  This  is  followed  by  the  regular  work 
in  German  during  the  first  college  year,  a  course  required  of  all  undergraduates. 
Nearly  equal  portions  of  the  German  drama  and  of  German  literary  prose  are 
read.  Private  readings  and  weekly  exercises  in  prose  composition  supplement 
the  class  readings. 

Undergraduates  in  Group  VII  who  elect  German,  or  undergraduates  in  any  of 
the  seven  groups  who  substitute  German  at  this  point  in  their  course,  pursue  the 
study  during  a  second  year.  The  readings  from  the  classical  period  are  continued 
in  texts  of  greater  difficulty,  and  instruction  is  given  in  the  history  of  German 
literature  and  in  the  writing  of  German  prose. 

An  elective  course  (rapid  reading  of  contemporary  literature)  is  offered  to  under¬ 
graduates  who  have  completed  the  work  in  German  of  the  first  college  year.  A 
second  elective  in  scientific  readings  is  open  to  undergraduates  who  are  preparing 
to  enter  the  medical  school. 

Classes  are  also  provided  in  conversational  German  and  in  historical  and  sci¬ 
entific  readings  for  graduates  who  lack  the  ability  to  read  the  language  at  sight. 

It  seems  that  the  interest  in  the  study  of  German  does  not  make  such  constant 
progress  here  as  in  other  universities.  This  is  plainly  seen  from  the  following 
statistics,  taken  from  the  president’s  annual  report: 


1893-94. 

1894-95. 

1895-96. 

1896-97. 

1897-98. 

Total  mi  m  "her  of  enrolled  students  . 

522 

589 

598 

520 

641 

Number  participating  in  German  courses-- . 

103 

152 

167 

139 

170 

According  to  a  circular  of  April,  1900,  there  were  only  105  students  taking  Ger¬ 
man.  namely,  in  the  German  Seminary,  11;  Germanic  Society,  14;  Gothic,  5;  Old 
Norse,  6;  beginnings  of  German  classicism,  10;  modern  German  grammar,  9; 
history  of  rhyme  in  Middle  High  German,  7;  English  influence  on  German  lit¬ 
erature  in  the  eighteenth  century.  6;  history  of  German  literature,  14;  minor 
course  A,  89;  minor  course  B  (Goethe),  14;  elementary  German,  6;  scientific  read¬ 
ings,  8;  reading  in  contemporary  German  literature,  5;  historical  readings,  4;  oral 
exercises,  6. 

Since  of  the  total  number  enrolled,  to  wit,  649  students  in  the  last  scholastic  year, 
252  attended  the  medical  faculty,  there  were  still  more  than  one-fourth  of  the 
remaining  students  enrolled  in  German.  The  romance  languages  had  only  an 
attendance  of  78,  equaling  one-fifth  of  the  total  number. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN. 

An  account  has  already  been  given  of  the  foundation  and  history  of  this  uni¬ 
versity.  President  Dr.  James  B.  Angell  holds  a  position  similar  to  that  of  Presi- 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


617 


dents  Eliot  and  Gilman.  He  was  supported  in  his  labors  by  B.  A.  Hinsdale, 
professor  of  pedagogics,  latety  deceased,  who  made  a  special  study  of  German 
influences  on  the  organization  of  the  American  educational  system.  Consequent! y, 
despite  the  painful  loss  of  Professor  Hench,  the  grow  th  of  the  German  department 
Las  been  extraordinary.  With  a  total  of  3,813  students  the  German  attendance  is 
second  largest;  about  700  literary  students  each  semester  and  100  engineer  students, 
according  to  a  report  from  the  ordinary,  February  13,  1901. 

The  teachers  for  the  year  1900  were  as  follows:  Max  Winkler,  Ph.  D.,  acting 
professor  of  German;  George  Eempl,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  English  philology  and 
general  linguistics;  Ernst  H.  Meuse! ,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  German; 
Tobias  Biekhoff,  Ph.  D.,  Warren  W.  Florer,  Ph.  D.,  Edwin  C.  Roedder,1  Ph.  D., 
Ewald  Boucke,  Ph.  D.?  Jonathan  A.  C.  Hildner,  Ph.  D.,  instructors  in  German. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  corps  of  teachers  of  this  faculty  is  composed  exclu¬ 
sively  of  graduates  with  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy. 

The  courses  are  more  numerous  than  at  most  universities,  and  are  as  follows: 

First  and  second.  Elementary  courses.  Pronunciation,  grammar,  and  easy 
reading,  with  practice  in  speaking  and  writing  German. 

Third.  Modern  prose,  narrative  and  dramatic,  with  practice  in  speaking  and 
writing  German. 

Fourth.  A  drama  of  Lessing,  Goethe,  or  Schiller,  with  collateral  prose  reading, 
and  practice  in  speaking  and  writing  German. 

Fifth  and  sixth.  (Each  during  one  session.)  Third  year  electives:  (a)  Goethe’s 
Goetz  von  Berlichingen,  and  Die  Leiden  des  jungen  Werthers;  Schiller’s  Die  Rau- 
ber;  (b)  Schiller’s  Wallenstein,  with  extracts  from  the  history  of  the  Thirty  Years’ 
War;  (c)  Schiller's  philosophic  writings;  (d)  Goethe’s  Iphigenie,  Tasso,  and  Her¬ 
mann  nnd  Dorothea;  (e)  Lessing's  Nathan,  Anti-Goeze,  and  The  Education  of  the 
Human  Race;  ,(f)  Laokoon;  (g)  German  composition;  (h)  German  themes;  (i) 
scientific  prose;  (k)  historical  prose;  (1)  Klee’s  German  mythology,  with  supple¬ 
mentary  reading. 

Seventh  and  eighth.  Goethe’s  Faust,  Parts  I  and  II. 

Ninth.  Introduction  to  Middle  High  German. 

Tenth,  Methods  of  teaching  modern  foreign  languages. 

Eleventh.  Modern  German  sounds. 

Twelfth.  German  syntax. 

Thirteenth  and  fourteenth.  History  of  German  literature. 

Fifteenth  and  sixteenth.  German  romanticism. 

Seventeenth  and  eighteenth.  German  civilization.  Lectures  and  readings  from 
Frey  tag’s  Biider  aus  der  deutschen  Vergangenheit. 

Nineteenth.  Old  High  German. 

Twentieth.  The  Middle  High  German  Folk-epic. 

Twenty-first.  Proseminary  in  modern  German  literature.  The  storm  and  stress 
movement. 

Twenty-second.  The  literature  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Twenty-third.  Proserninary  in  Old  High  German. 

Besides,  there  are  courses  in  Gothic  (phonology  and  morphology,  the  epistles, 
Ulfilas),  Scandinavian  (the  ancient  Edda  and  Old  Icelandic),  and  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  five  courses  for  engineers  are  of  an  elementary  character  and  are  all  con¬ 
ducted  by  John  Dieterle,  A.  B.,  instructor  in  German. 

Professor  Winkler  writes  concerning  the  work  of  the  year  1901:  “  The  graduate 
work  of  the  department  is  promising.  This  year  we  have  about  fifteen  students 
working  for  the  master's  or  doctor’s  degree.” 

The  German  library  is  very  small.  Of  a  total  of  more  than  100,000  volumes, 
from  6,000  to  7,000  are  German,  and  952  of  these  belong  to  the  Goethe  collection. 

1  Since  called  to  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 


618 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900=1901. 


Some  very  interesting  facts  concerning  the  latter  are  given  further  on  under  the 
head  of  “Silent  universities.”  The  total  number  of  students  in  1900  was  3,700. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO. 

This  university,  founded1  July  1, 1891,  was  formally  opened  October  1,  1892,  by 
exercises  in  the  Cobb  Lecture  Hail,  in  the  presence  of  an  audience  of  GOO.  Although 
the  youngest  among  the  14  leading  universities  of  the  country,  it  has  quickly 
acquired  an  influential  position  among  higher  institutions,  owing  to  its  excellent 
management  and  the  large  financial  resources  at  command.  The  best  choice  was 
made  in  the  selection  for  professorships  and  some  of  the  chairs  are  filled  by 
Germans. 

A  most  prominent  scholar  gained  for  the  university  was  Dr.  Hermann  Eduard 
von  Holst.  Born  June  19,  1841,  in  Livonia,  he  emigrated  as  a  young  man  to 
America,  “where  he  engaged  in  literary  and  editorial  work  in  New  York.”  In 
1872  he  was  called  to  the  newly  founded  University  of  Strasburg  as  professor  of 
history,  and  two  years  later  to  the  chair  of  modern  history  at  the  University  of 
Freiburg.  From  there,  in  1892,  he  assumed  his  present  duties,  which,  unfortu¬ 
nately,  he  has  been  compelled  to  give  up  on  account  of  his  health.  We  shall  men¬ 
tion  only  his  chief  work,  translated  under  the  title:  The  Constitutional  and  Political 
History  of  the  United  States  (Die  Verfassung  und  Democratic  der  Vereinigten 
Staaten  von  America). 

A  contributor  to  the  “  Westen,”  and  a  journalist  whose  articles  always  contain 
reliable  information,  has  recently  published  the  following  graphic  account  of  the 
work  and  arrangement  of  the  German  department  at  the  University  of  Chicago.2 

The  fourteenth,  the  department  of  Germanic  languages  and  literatures,  is 
equipped,  with  an  excellent  corps  of  teachers.  The  ever  more  widely  spreading 
conviction  that  no  profound  study  in  any  branch  of  science  is  possible  without 
reading  the  chief  German  works  on  the  subject  in  the  original  has  made  students 
understand  the  necessity  of  knowing  German. 

The  few  current  phrases  that,  learned  parrot-like,  formerly  satisfied  an  American 
conversant  with  English  alone  are  insufficient  for  present  times;  the  teacher  of 
conversation  who,  without  any  phiiologic  or  literary  preparation,  undertakes  pri¬ 
vate  instruction  can  only  in  exceptional  instances  meet  the  want  of  pleasure¬ 
seeking  tourists.  Let  us  throw  the  mantle  of  charity  over  the  average  work  of 
private  schools.  The  so-called  high  schools,  which  are  far  from  carrying  out  their 
varied  programme,  and  make  the  strangest  concessions  to  their  half-grown  and 
mentally  immature  pupils  respecting  the  selection  of  their  favorite  studies,  were 
recently  characterized  in  strong  and  appropriate  terms  in  the  Illinois  Staats  Zei- 
tung  as  follows: 

“  Very  little  is  taught  and  learned,  but  it  is  always  better  than  nothing.  Ger¬ 
man  instruction  in  our  schools  is  a  weak  branch  of  public  education,  *and  this 
branch  bears  but  a  few  green  twigs.  The  Germans  of  Chicago  request  our  school 
boards  to  lead  more  sap  to  this  branch,  that  it  may  grow  and  blossom.” 

Under  such  conditions,  which,  however,  give  no  occasion  for  despair,  and  which 
educated  Germans  should  and  could  more  zealously  endeavor  to  ameliorate,  the 
work  of  a  university  is  altogether  different  from  what  it  is  elsewhere.  *  *  * 

Poor  results  would  be  obtained  by  beginning  at  the  “top,”  burdening  freshmen 
(Fuchsen)  with  philological  investigations  or  lectures  on  the  history  of  literature. 
The  way  must  be  cleared:  reading  must  be  taught;  etymology,  grossly  neglected — 
I  speak  from  long  experience— can  not  be  cursorily  reviewed,  but  must  be  studied 
again  from  the  very  beginning;  in  the  course  of  about  two  full  college  years  good 
results  may  be  attained  by  all  who  persevere— more  talented  students  may  succeed 
in  less  time.  Whoever  thinks  that  the  main  work  is  to  be  done  by  pupils  makes  a 
great  mistake.  It  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  teacher,  who,  not  bound  or  handicapped 


1  The  original  University  of  Chicago  was  chartered  in  1857,  and  continued  in  existence  until 
1886,  when  a  series  of  financial  difficulties  caused  its  discontinuance.  About  two  years  later 
John  D.  Rockefeller  and  Prof.  Wm.  R.  Harper,  of  Yale,  united  their  efforts  to  reestablish  the 
institution.  The  present  charter  dates  from  September  10, 1890,  Professor  Harper’s  entrance 
into  office  from  July  1, 1891.  The  total  endowments  of  John  D.  Rockefeller  alone  amount  to 
more  than  $10,000,000. 

2  The  “  Westen  ”  of  February  4, 1900. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


619 


by  any  school-board  regulation,  must,  in  accord  with  prominent  examples,  invent 
by  his  own  ingenuity  a  thoroughly  scientific  and,  at  the  same  time,  successful  and 
agreeable  method  of  instruction. 

After  a  freshman  has  been  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  principles  of  grammar, 
acquired  facility  in  translation,  retranslation,  and  composition,  and  has  had 
his  ear  and  pronunciation  cultivated  by  German  dialogue,  the  more  difficult  senior 
courses  are  accessible  to  him.  Upon  completion  of  these,  the  stndent  in  the 
“  graduate  courses”  can  devote  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  three  years  to 
some  special  Germanic  study. 

If  the  candidate  is  preparing  for  a  final  examination,  he  must,  of  course,  pursue 
some  studies  in  associated  departments,  as  in  English,  the  Romance  languages, 
comparative  philology,  history,  history  of  culture,  etc. 

The  aim  set  before  Germanic  students  at  the  University  of  Chicago  is  not  low. 
“Kaffeekranzchen,”  with  obligato  declamations  from  little  books  bound  hired, 
teas  at  which  writers  on  fashion  are  discussed,  are  lacking;  neither  are  opportu¬ 
nities  for  small  talk  afforded  to  those  with  social  inclinations.  A  whoiesome, 
earnest  effort  is  manifested  thoroughly  to  learn,  so  as  to  be  able  to  teach,  the  Ger¬ 
man  language,  its  history,  development,  and  relation  to  other  languages,  and 
German  literature  from  the  beginning  to  the  present  day. 

How  is  this  result  obtained?  By  a  faculty  of  six  teachers,  each  of  whom  has 
studied  in  Germany  and  at  the  leading  American  universities.  The  German 
department  of  the  university  can  boast  that  every  member  has  passed  his  doc¬ 
tor’s  examination  with  honor  and  does  not  owe  his  position  or  promotion  to  favor. 

Prof.  Starr  Willard  Cutting  is  at  the  head  of  the  department.  He  is  assisted 
by  Messrs.  Hans  M.  Schmidt- War tenberg,  Gamillo  von  Klenze,  Paul  Oskar  Kern, 
Philip  S.  Allen,  Hermann  Benjamin  Almsredt,  and,  during  the  summer  quarter, 
by  Richard  Hoehdorfer,  professor  in  Wittenberg  College  and  director  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  department  there. 

A  department  library  of  about  4,000  volumes  is  accessible  to  the  students.  It  is 
an  advantage  which  can  not  be  too  highly  estimated  that  students  have  free  access 
to  the  bookshelves  and  to  all  the  works,  and  can  thus  do  more  than  become  familiar 
with  their  names  in  the  catalogues,  or  with  the  contents  of  a  few,  after  wasting 
time  waiting  at  a  librarian’s  desk. 

The  library  is  receiving  constant  additions.  Even  if  not  complete,  all  that  is 
most  important,  and  even  more  than  this,  has  been  acquired  during  the  seven  years 
that  the  university  has  been  in  existence.  *  *  * 

To  refute  any  deduction  from  what  has  been  said  that  the  Department  may 
be  thought  to  be  insufficiently  equipped  with  works  of  reference  and  journals,  I 
shall  mention  the  periodicals  and  other  serial  collections  which  seem  to  be  the 
more  important.  They  are: 

Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Philologie;  Zeitschrift  fiir  deutsches  Alterthum;  Lite- 
raturblatt  fiir  germanische  und  romanische  Philologie;  Herrig's  Archiv  fur  das 
Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen;  Schnorr’s  Archiv  fiir  Literaturgeschichte;  Bei- 
trage  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprache  und  Literatur;  Quellen  und  For- 
schungen;  Germania;  Jahresberichte  fur  neuere  deutsche  Literaturgeschichte; 
Jahresbericht  der  germanischen  Philologie;  Archiv  for  nordisk  Filologi;  Nordisk 
Tidskrift  for  Filologi;  Americana,  Germanica;  Journal  of  Germanic  Philol¬ 
ogy;  Deutsche  Literaturzeitung;  Literarisches  C6ntralblatt;  Horse  Belgicse  (von 
Fallersleben) ;  Vierteljahrsschrift  fiir  deutsche  Literatur;  Euphorion;  Zeit¬ 
schrift  fiir  vergleichende  Literaturgeschichte  und  Renaissance-Literatur;  Neues 
Jahrbuch  fiir  deutsche  Sprache  (von  der  Hagen);  Weimarisches  Jahrbuch  fiir 
deutsche  Sprache  (Hoffmann  und  Schade) ;  Aretin's  Beitrage;  Deutsches  Spracli- 
wort  (Max  Moltke);  Anzeiger  fiir  deutsche  Yorzeit;  Alemannia;  Die  deutschen 
Mundarten  (Frommann);  Jahrbuch  fiir  nieder deutsche  Sprachforschung;  Corre- 
spondenzblatt  des  Vereins  fiir  niederdeutsche  Sprachforschung;  Deutsche  Rund¬ 
schau;  Zeitschrift  des  Allgemeinen  deutschen  Sprachvereins ;  Zeitschrift  fiir 
deutsche  Sprache  (Sanders) ;  Zeitschrift  fiir  den  deutschen  Unterricht;  Neues  phi- 
lologisches  Centralblatt;  Deutsche  Revue;  Westermanirs  Monatshefte;  Beilage 
zur  Allgemeinen  Zeitung;  Magazin  fiir  Literatur;  Allgemeine  deutsche  Bio¬ 
graphic;  Bibliothek  der  gesammten  Nation  alii  teratur  ( Quedlinhnrg  und  Leipzig); 
Bibliothek  des  literarischen  Vereins  in  Stuttgart;  Deutsche  Nationalliteratur 
(Kiirschner) ;  Bibliothek  der  altesten  deutschen  Literaturdenkmaler  (Paderborn 
und  Munster) ;  Denkmale  des  Mittelalters  (Hattemer);  Denkmaler  deutscher  Poesie 
(Miillenhoff  und  Scherer);  Deutsche  Dichtungen  des  Mittelalters  (Bartsch); 
Deutsche  Classiker  des  Mittelalters  (Pfeiffer);  Neudrucke  deutscher  Literatur- 
werk8;  Deutsche  Literaturdenkmaler  des  achtzehnten  Jahrhunderts  (Seuffert); 
Bibliothek  alterer  Schriftwerke  der  deutschen  Schweiz  (Bachtold  und  Vetter); 
Elsassi3che  Literaturdenkmaler  (Martin  und  Schmidt). 


620 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Besides  these  there  are  considerably  over  a  hundred  similar  journals  in  other 
departments. 

From  teachers  and  helps  accessible  to  students  we  pass  to  the  courses. 

The  school  year  is  divided  into  quarters;  elementary  courses  are  reviewed  in 
each  quarter;  the  higher  courses  are  given  on  an  average  once  or  twice  a  year; 
seminarj^  courses  sometimes  include  several  quarters,  and  are  likewise  repeated 
periodically  during  the  three  years’  graduate  course. 

1.  JUNIOR  COLLEGE  COURSES. 

German  grammar,  exercises  in  translation  and  speaking  (110  lessons  in  the 
course). 

Continuation  of  this  course— syntax,  memorizing  of  an  extensive  vocabulary, 
written  notes  (55  lessons  in  the  quarter). 

Moderately  difficult  exercises  in  style  and  German  composition  (55  lessons  in 
the  quarter). 

Studies  in  German  prose — extracts  from  works  on  history,  philosophy,  and 
natural  science. 

Modern  comedies  combined  with  exercises  in  conversation  (55  lessons  in  the 
quarter) . 

2.  SENIOR  COLLEGE  COURSES. 

Modern  German  lyrics  and  ballads;  Schiller's  Wilhelm  Tell;  Deutsche  Auf- 
satze  und  Stilubungen — a  course  intended  primarily  for  teachers,  or  students 
who  purpose  to  become  teachers.  It  consists  of  oral  and  written  criticism  of 
brief  daily  themes  upon  subjects  suggested  by  the  instructor.  Discussions  of  Ger¬ 
man  synonyms  and  of  the  peculiarities  of  everyday  verb  usage  find  practical 
application  in  the  translations  and  composition  work  of  the  class. 

Heine's  prose  and  poetry;  recent  German  drama.  A  discussion  of  recent  ten¬ 
dencies  in  German  literature,  as  manifested  in  representative  dramas  of  Suder- 
mann  and  Hauptmann. 

Grillparrer;  Lessing  as  dramatist;  Goethe's  period  of  classical  sympathies; 
Goethe’s  life  and  works. 

3.  GRADUATE  COURSES. 

Lessing  as  critic.  Seminar;  Lenau.  German  life,  literature,  and  plastic  art 
from  1300  to  1550  A.  D.;  outline  study  of  German  literature;  Gothic:  Old  High 
German:  Old  High  German  literature;  Middle  High  German;  the  Nibelungen- 
lied:  Old  Horse;  Old  Saxon.  Seminar:  Phonetical  investigation.  Introduction 
to  Germanic  philology. 

After  a  brief  survey  of  the  aims  of  scientific  language  study  and  the  history  of 
German  philology  the  main  problems  of  general  Teutonic  phonology  and  mor¬ 
phology  will  be  briefly  discussed.  Open  to  students  that  have  had  courses  in 
Gothic  and  Old  High  German. 

Seminary:  Researches  in  the  history  of  language  and  phonetics,  making  use  of 
texts  from  the  literature  of  the  Reformation. 

These  were  the  courses  for  the  school  year  1899-1900.  As  before  remarked,  the 
higher  courses  are  changed  every  year  in  a  cycle  of  three  years.  Lectures  which 
were  not  held  this  year  are  announced  for  the  two  following  years.  It  would  be 
taking  owls  to  Athens  if  we  should  do  more  than  mention  that  the  completion  of 
definite  courses  admits  to  higher  courses.  If  a  lower  course  falls  in  autumn  and 
the  higher  in  spring,  the  latter  must  be  arranged  for  the  following  year. 

We  may  add  to  this  account  that  students  of  the  German  department  are  par¬ 
ticularly  advised  to  study  old,  early  middle,  and  later  middle  English  (in  the 
fifteenth  course)  and  Sanskrit  (general  introduction  to  the  study  of  Indo-European 
comparative  philology) . 

This  university  was  among  the  first  to  promote  popular  education  by  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  summer  courses  and  university  extension.  A  full  account  of  the  visit 
of  the  German  ambassador,  Dr.  von  Hoileben,  is  given  farther  on.  Among  the 
graduates  who  have  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  as  many  as  6,  up 
to  the  year  1899,  selected  a  Germanistic  theme  for  their  thesis.  An  interest  in  the 
study  of  German  has  therefore  been  greatly  encouraged.  The  total  number  of 
students  in  1900  was  3,774. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


621 


NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY. 

This  -university,  founded  by  the  Methodists  in  1851,  at  Evanston,  Ill.,  a  small 
city  12  miles  north  of  Chicago,  on  Lake  Michigan,  enjoys  a  large  attendance  (in 
1900,  2,200  students  of  both  sexes).  According  to  the  catalogue  for  1899-1900,  the 
German  department  has  eleven  courses  for  each  of  the  two  sessions.  The  teachers 
were:  James  T.  Hatfield,  professor  of  German  language  and  literature;  George  O. 
Curme,  professor  of  Germanic  philology;  Henry  Cohn,  associate  professor  of 
German. 

The  following  courses  were  held  during  the  first  session:  Elementary  German, 
courses  1-4.  (1)  Lessing’s  Minna  von  Barnhelm  and  Emilia  Galotti;  Schiller’s 

Kabale  und  Liebe;  Goethe’s  Hermann  und  Dorothea;  German  composition.  (2) 
Goethe’s  Life  and  Works,  1749-1790.  (3)  Goethe’s  Life  and  Works,  1790-1832. 

(4)  Hymns  and  national  songs.  (5)  Advanced  group,  subject  to  change.  (6) 
Rapid  reading  of  standard  prose  works.  (7)  Colloquial  German.  (8)  Advanced 
German  composition.  (9)  Modern  German  drama.  (10)  Gothic.  (11)  Old  High 
German. 

During  the  second  session:  (1)  and  (2)  Similar  to  those  of  the  first  session. 
(3)  Schiller’s  Life  and  Works.  (4)  The  romantic  movement  and  the  Swabian 
school.  (5)  to  (9)  Similar  to  those  of  the  first  session.  (10)  Comrjarative  gram¬ 
mar  and  Old  Saxon.  (11)  Middle  High  German. 

Courses  (2) ,  (7) ,  and  (8)  should  be  included  by  all  who  intend  to  become  teachers 
in  secondary  schools. 

The  German  courses  were  attended  by  about  100  pupils  of  the  preparatory  school 
and  300  students. 

The  associations  founded  by  Professor  Cohn,  the  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  and  the 
Literatur  Yerein,  deserve  a  special  mention.  Whereas  so  important  a  university 
as  Harvard  has  not  yet  introduced  public  German  lectures  to  promote  interest  in 
German,  they  have  been  held  in  the  Literatur  Yerein  regularly  since  1893.  As 
they  number  over  40,  we  can  not  mention  all,  but  quote  only  the  following:  Prof. 
Karl  Knortz  (Evansville):  “National  songs  and  popular  traditions.”  Professor 
Hatfield:  “The  debt  of  young  Americans  to  Francis  Lieber.”  Wilhelm  Yocke 
(Chicago):  “The  Boers;”  “The  German  soldier  in  the  American  civil  war;” 

The  relations  between  Germany  and  America.”  J.  H.  Dietz  (Chicago) :  “  Freili- 
grath  and  the  poetry  of  the  period  of  ’48.”  L.  Yiereck  (New  York):  “Fridtjof 
Nansen  and  the  investigation  of  the  north  pole.”  Dr.  A.  Fischkin  (Chicago): 
“  The  poetry  of  misery.”  William  Jensen:  “The  Mennonites.”  Miss  Margaret 
J.  Mayr:  “  Johanna  Ambrosius.”  Dr.  G.  A.  Zimmermann:  “Goethe  and  Napo¬ 
leon.”  Sigmund  Zeisler:  “  Hauptmann’s  Yersunkene  Glocke.” 

In  addition,  memorial  celebrations  for  Lessing,  Schiller,  Goethe,  Platen,  and 
Hans  Sachs  have  been  held. 

Besides  these  lectures,  German  theatricals  and  recitations  play  an  important 
part.  At  the  commencements  of  the  German  department  a  short  German  play  is 
given,  and  German  poems  are  recited  interspersed  with  music.  As  all  the  edu¬ 
cated  Germans  of  Chicago  support  these  agencies,  there  has  never  been  a  lack 
of  assistants  or  an  audience. 

On  March  21,  1900,  Professor  Cohn  died  suddenly.  On  February  13,  1901,  Pro¬ 
fessor  Hatfield  wrote  to  the  author  concerning  the  changes  occasioned  thereby 
in  the  department: 

Professor  Cohn’s  death  has  been  a  heavy,  almost  irreparable,  loss  for  us;  never¬ 
theless,  the  work  is  going  on  as  usual,  unchanged,  two  young  men,  Dr.  Martin 
Schtitze  and  Mr.  Georg  Edward,  having  taken  his  place  as  instructors.  Dr. 
Schiitze  studied  in  Freiburg  and  Rostock,  taught  in  Pennsylvania/,  and  received 
his  doctor’s  degree  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  A  noteworthy  article  by 
him  on  Hauptmann’s  Die  versunkene  Glocke  was  published  in  Yolume  III  of 
Americana  Germanica.  Mr.  Edward  studied  in  Giessen,  devoted  himself  to  liter- 


622 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ary  work,  and  has  published  a  number  of  articles  in  German  newspapers  and 
periodicals.  The  attendance  of  our  department  has  remained  unchanged.  W e  look 
back  upon  a  healthy  development  and  note,  especially  in  recent  years,  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  maturer  students.  At  the  same  time  we  are  receiving  increasing  recogni¬ 
tion  in  foreign  countries,  particularly  Germany.  The  most  important  works  that 
have  been  recently  produced  by  our  department  are:  Wesley’s  Translations  of  Ger¬ 
man  Hymns  and  various  Goethe  Studies.  A  larger  work  on  “The  influence  of  the 
American  Revolution  upon  German  literature.”  by  Miss  Elfrieda  Rochbaum,  will 
appear  in  the  next  number  of  the  Americana  Germanica. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN. 

Since  the  year  1893  Dr.  Charles  Kendall  Adams,  former  professor  of  history  at 
the  University  of  Michigan,  and  from  1885  to  1893  the  successor  of  Andrew  D. 
White  as  president  of  Cornell,  has  been  at  the  head  of  this  university,  founded  in 
1848.  His  labors  have  already  been  referred  to.  It  may  be  inferred  that  under 
a  man  like  him  the  German  department  has  made  ample  progress.  In  how 
encouraging  a  manner  this  development  has  taken  place  may  be  understood  by 
a  glance  at  the  plan  of  study  for  the  second  session  of  1901,  which  comprises  as 
many  as  thirty  German  courses.  These  are  partly  required  courses  (9)  and  partly 
elective  (21). 

Required  courses  are: 

1.  Grammar  and  prose  readings. 

2.  Lessing’s  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  German  composition  and  prose  readings. 

8.  Practice  in  speaking  and  writing  German. 

4.  Schiller’s  Wilhelm  Tell.  Prose  composition. 

5.  Schiller’s  Maria  Stuart.  Prose  composition. 

6  and  8.  Dippold’s  German  Science  Reader. 

7.  Scientific  Monographs. 

9.  Ratzel’s  Deutschland.  Light  reading  and  composition. 

Elective  courses  are: 

A.  GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

10.  Go3the’s  Iphigenie  and  Tasso. 

11.  Goethe's  Egmont. 

12.  Dramatic  reading.  Ludwig  Auzengruber  and  other  modern  dramatists. 

13.  Hauptmann's  Die  versunkene  Glocke.  )  For  students  who  have  had  three 

14.  German  lyrics  and  ballads.  f  years  of  German. 

15.  Readings  illustrating  the  history  of  German  civilization. 

16.  German  novels. 

17.  Goethe's  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit. 

18.  Syntactical  exercises.  Compositions  and  themes. 

19.  Goethe's  Faust.  Second  part. 

20.  Teachers’  course.  A  critical  study  of  the  report  of  the  committee  on  mod¬ 
ern  languages  with  lectures  and  reports  on  methods  of  teaching  modern  foreign 
languages. 

21.  General  survey  of  the  development  of  German  language  and  literature. 

22.  The  German  romantic  movement. 

23.  Studies  in  modern  German  literature.  Hebbel,  Ludwig,  Keller,  Fontane, 
Liliencron.  Sudermann,  Hauptmann.  Richard  Dehmel,  and  Juengstes  Deutschland. 
Lectures,  exercises  in  literary  criticism,  and  reports  on  Adolf  Bartels,  Die 
deutsche  Dichtung  der  Gegenwart. 

B.  GERMAN  PHILOLOGY. 

24.  Introduction  to  Middle  Pligh  German.  Lectures  and  recitations.  Nibe- 
lungenlied. 

25.  Advanced  Middle  High  German.  Hartmann  von  Aue’s  Der  arme  Heinrich, 
with  lectures  on  the  Court  Epic. 

26.  Studies  in  etymology. 

27.  Germanic  mythology.  Klee’s  Deutsche  Mythologie.  Lectures  and  collat¬ 
eral  reading. 

28.  Studies  in  the  langnage  and  literature  of  the  sixteenth  centnry. 

29.  Philological  seminary. 

a.  Middle  High  German  division.  Wolfram’s  Parzival. 

30.  b.  Old  Saxon  division.  Heliand,  ed.  Behaghel. 


GERMAN  .INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


628 


To  these  may  be  added  lectures  held  by  Julius  E.  Olson,  professor  of  the  Scan¬ 
dinavian  languages  and  literatures,  in  his  own  department,  6  courses  in  Modern 
and  Old  Norse,  so  that  there  are  38  courses  in  all,  a  number  not  exceeded  in  any 
other  university,  and  justifying  the  large  corps  of  11  teachers. 

The  department  of  Scandinavian  languages  is  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  as 
follows: 

This  department  offers  instruction  in  all  of  the  Scandinavian  languages  (Nor¬ 
wegian,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Old  Norse) .  From  one  year's  instruction  in  Modern 
Norse  the  student  is  expected  to  be  able  to  read  both  Norwegian  and  Danish 
authors,  as  Norway  and  Denmark  have  practically  the  same  literary  language. 
Courses  1  and  2  are  devoted  principally  to  Norwegian  authors,  but  additional 
instruction  in  Danish  and  Swedish  literature  is  offered  to  students  desiring  to 
pursue  these  branches  beyond  the  limits  of  the  prescribed  courses. 

Since  the  death  of  Professor  Rosenstengel,  November  12,  1900,  Dr.  Ernst  Karl 
Johann  Heinrich  Yoss,  assistant  professor  of  G-erman  philology,  has  been  at  the 
head  of  the  department.  He  has  furnished  the  following  information  on  its 
present  status: 

From  the  list  of  German  lectures  for  the  second  session.  1901,  you  will  see  that 
two  new  teachers  have  been  added,  Dr.  Roedder ,  former  instructor  at  the  State  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Michigan,  and  Mr.  Lessing.  The  department  is  at  present  in  charge  of 
the  following  teachers.  (Next  year  there  will  be  a  professor  of  German  literature 
besides.  The  department  was  already  divided  during  the  lifetime  of  Professor 
Rosenstengel,  who  taught  history  of  German  literature  while  I  conducted  the 
lessons  in  philology. ) 

Prof.  Dr.  E.  Yoss,  acting  professor  of  German;  Prof.  Miss  Susan  Adelaide 
Sterling,  M.  L.;  Mr.  Frederick  William  Meisnest,  B.  L.;  Mrs.  Abbie  Fiske  Eaton, 
M.  L.;  Dr.  Edwin  C.  Roedder,  A.  M.;  Mr.  Lessing,  instructors;  Miss  Sabena  Mil¬ 
dred  Herfurth,  M.  L.,  assistant  instructor;  Miss  Yeerhusen,  assistant  instructor; 
Mr.  Handschin,  fellow;  Mr.  Eckelmann,  graduate  scholar  in  German  philology. 

For  the  last  three  years  the  citizens  of  Madison  have  offered  a  graduate  scholar¬ 
ship  of  §250  annually,  and  last  year  the  Germans  of  Sheboygan  founded  a  second 
graduate  scholarship  for  three  years  that  gives  the  holder  $300  a  year.  On  Janu¬ 
ary  1,  1899,  the  university  received  about  $3,500  from  the  German- Americans  of 
Milwaukee  for  a  Germanic  seminary  library,  that  has  been  collected  with  the 
greatest  care  and  will  soon  be  dedicated. 

For  the  last  three  years  the  Pabst  Theatrical  Society,  in  Milwaukee,  has  pre¬ 
sented  a  classic  drama  in  Fuller’s  Opera  House,  under  the  auspices  of  the  German - 
istic  Society  of  the  university.  This  year  Minna  von  Barnhelm  was  given  on 
March  14. 

During  recent  years  valuable  books  have  been  presented  to  the  German  depart¬ 
ment  by  Dr.  Balz,  of  Milwaukee;  Julius  Zehnter,  Theodor  Herfurth,  and  H. 
Schmedmann,  of  Madison;  the  late  Professor  Rosenstengel,  and  the  correspond¬ 
ent.  The  well-known  firm  of  Brockhaus,  in  Leipzig,  which  furnished  the  books 
for  the  German  philological  seminary  library,  made  the  generous  offer  of  pre¬ 
senting  the  library  with  all  of  their  numerous  editions  that  could  be  made  use  of. 
The  works  given  by  this  firm  represent  a  money  value  of  at  least  $500. 

W e  cherish  the  hope  of  making  the  German  department  here  one  of  the  leading 
in  the  States,  and  count  upon  the  active  support  of  the  unusually  strong  German 
population. 

When  we  consider  that  this  university  has  only  of  late  years  developed  from  a 
college  or  high  school  to  its  present  importance,  this  report  must  necessarily  be 
regarded  as  most  encouraging.  Unfortunately  there  is  no  later  report  of  the 
attendance  at  German  courses  than  that  furnished  in  1898  to  the  German  Teachers’ 
Association,  when  the  number  of  German  students  amounted  to  560.  With  a  total 
of  2,400  students,  at  least  COO  to  700  should  take  German. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA. 

At  the  Chicago  Exposition  the  tastefully  arranged  educational  work  exhibited  by 
the  State  of  Minnesota  excited  deserved  attention.  The  university,  founded  in 
1868  in  Minneapolis,  numbered  3,225  students  in  1900. 


824 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  teachers  of  German  and  Scandinavian  are:  John  G.  Moore,  B.  A.,  profes¬ 
sor  of  German;  Olaus  J.  Breda,  professor  of  the  Scandinavian  languages  and  lit¬ 
eratures;  Matilda  J.  Wilkin,  assistant  professor  of  German;  Charles  M.  Andrist, 
M.  L.,  instructor  in  French  and  German;  Carl  Schlenker,  B.  A.,  instructor  in 
German. 

Courses  are  divided  into — (a)  German  for  undergraduates,  6  courses;  (b)  Ger¬ 
man  for  graduates,  4  courses;  (c)  Scandinavian  languages  for  undergraduates,  3 
courses;  (d)  Scandinavian  languages  for  graduates,  1  course. 

The  German  courses  for  undergraduates  include  “advanced  subjects  in  litera¬ 
ture  and  criticism,”  like  Lessing’s  Laocoon.  The  four  graduate  courses  last  year 
were:  (1)  Life  and  works  of  Luther;  (2)  Old  High  German;  (3)  seminary  (Goethe’s 
Faust,  II);  and  (4)  teachers’  seminary  (historical  German  grammar;  methods  of 
modern  language  instruction) .  The  course  in  Old  High  German  was  given  by  Dr. 
Frederick  Klaeber,  assistant  professor  of  English. 

For  the  scientific  and  literary  course  as  much  knowledge  of  German  and  French 
as  can  be  acquired  in  two  years  is  required.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  must  have  a  reading  knowledge  of  German  andv  French.  The  total 
attendance  of  the  German  courses  was  from  400  to  500. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

The  personnel  of  teachers  at  the  State  University  of  California  in  1900  consisted 
of  the  following  gentlemen:  Albin  Putzker,  M.  A.,  professor  of  the  German  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature;  J.  Henry  feenger,  Ph.  D.,  associate  professor  of  German; 
Frederick  L.  Wharff,  Ph.  B.,  instructor  in  German;  Martin  A.  M.  Centner,  assist¬ 
ant  in  German;  Henry  E.  G.  Ongerth,  graduate  of  the  University  of  Vienna, 
reader. 

The  courses  were  divided  into — (1)  preliminary  courses  for  freshmen  and  sopho¬ 
mores;  (2)  intermediate  courses,  primarily  for  sophomores  and  juniors;  (3) 
advanced  courses,  primarily  for  juniors  and  seniors;  (4)  courses  for  seniors  and 
graduates;  (5)  graduate  courses. 

The  courses  for  beginners  include  an  introduction  to  scientific  German.  In  the 
intermediate  courses  the  latter  forms  a  chief  subject  of  instruction,  for  which  the 
works  of  Dubois-Reymond  are  made  use  of.  Special  reading  is  assigned  to  stu¬ 
dents  in  connection  with  the  course,  principally  from  Virchow  and  Holtzendorf’s 
collection.  In  the  advanced  courses  Goethe’s  and  Lessings  works  are  explained, 
and  Middle  High  German,  Old  High  German,  Old  Saxon,  and  Gothic  studied.  In  a 
special  course  of  difficult  prose,  books  like  Bluntschli's  Doctrine  of  the  Modern 
State  and  Von  Sybel’s  Rise  of  Europe  against  Napoleon  I  are  discussed,  with  oral 
interpretation  in  German.  In  the  courses  for  seniors  and  graduates  separate 
sections  of  the  history  of  German  literature  receive  special  attention. 

Last  year  the  following  courses  were  announced  as  graduate  courses:  (a) 
Historical  German  grammar,  a  study  of  the  development  of  Modern  High 
German;  (b)  Goethe's  Faust;  (c)  special  study. 

The  catalogue  says  of  course  (c) :  “  The  instructors  in  German  hold  themselves 
ready  to  assist  and  advise  competent  graduates  who  may  propose  plans  of  special 
study  which  meet  the  approval  of  the  department.” 

Professor  Senger  writes,  concerning  the  attendance:  “  During  the  last  session 
500  students  took  part  in  these  lectures  and  exercises;  this  number  has  been 
increased  during  the  present  session.” 

The  proposed  introduction  of  obligatory  German  admission  examinations  is 
likely  to  increase  the  attendance  of  German  courses  to  a  great  extent.  The 
principle  already  obtains:  Credit  toward  a  degree  is  not  given  for  less  than  two 
years’  work  in  German.  The  total  attendance  of  the  university  is  given  at  3,216. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


625 


THE  LELAND  STANFORD  JUNIOR  UNIVERSITY. 

Although  this  university — formally  opened  to  students  October  1, 1891— can  not 
look  back  upon  an  existence  of  ten  years,  it  has  gained  a  high  reputation  under  the 
excellent  management  of  President  David  Starr  Jordan,  and  according  to  latest 
reports  numbers  an  attendance  of  about  1,400.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  this 
institution  has  been  obliged  to  compete  with  the  large  State  University,  twenty 
years  older  and  numbering  an  attendance  of  3,000,  this  success  is  the  more  brilliant. 
In  no  small  measure  is  it  due  to  the  excellent  work  of  the  German  department, 
directed  for  nearly  nine  years  by  Prof.  Julius  Goebel,  who  has  four  assistants. 

The  courses  are  divided  into  the  preparatory  studies  of  the  elementary  and  second 
years,  third-year  German,  and  the  graduate  courses.  The  annual  register  of  last 
year  contains  the  following  remarks  on  the  thirteen  courses  for  undergraduates: 

The  aim  of  the  elementary  classes  in  this  department  is  to  give  the  student  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  German  grammar  and  to  enable  him  to  acquire  facility  in 
reading  German.  The  more  advanced  classes  take  up  the  study  of  the  poets  and 
writers  of  the  classical  period,  and  it  is  intended  to  offer  by  the  reading  and  inter¬ 
pretation  of  these  authors  an  equivalent  for  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages  to 
those  not  taking  Latin  or  Greek  in  their  university  course. 

A  course  of  German  syntax  affords  opportunity  for  composition  and  exercises  in 
style  to  those  who  take  the  course  of  advanced  German  composition. 

Last  year  the  nine  graduate  courses  were  as  follows: 

Middle  High  German;  Nibelungenlied;  Old  High  German  and  Old  Saxony 
Heliand;  Old  Norse;  Edaa;  Gothic;  comparative  German  grammar;  German  sem¬ 
inary  (“young  Germany ”  and  its  influence  on  German  literature,  life,  and  politics 
of  the  nineteenth  century). 

The  register  says  of  the  aim  of  the  graduate  courses: 

The  graduate  courses  in  German,  for  which  a  thorough  linguistic  preparation  is 
required,  are  intended  especially  for  students  who  will  make  the  teaching  of  Ger¬ 
man  their  later  profession.  Careful  attention  is  given  to  the  linguistic  as  well  as 
to  the  literary  training  of  the  student,  aiming  at  a  comprehensive  insight  into  the 
historical  growth  of  the  Germanic  languages  and  literatures.  The  scientific 
methods  of  original  and  critical  research  are  taught  and  practiced  in  the  seminary. 
Such  students  as  have  given  satisfactory  proof  of  their  ability  as  independent 
investigators  will  De  admitted  to  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.,  after  having  presented  a 
thesis  containing  a  contribution  to  science  and  having  fulfilled  the  other  require¬ 
ments  prescribed  by  the  university. 

Professor  Goebel  wrote  to  the  author  of  this  article  concerning  the  condition  of 
affairs  in  the  spring  of  1900: 

The  German  department  of  our  university  is  one  of  the  largest.  Of  about  1,200 
students  more  than  one-half  study  the  German  language  and  literature,  most  of 
them,  of  course,  to  make  use  of  the  language  as  a  scientific  instrument  to  aid  in 
prosecuting  their  other  studies,  although  a  large  number  are  educating  themselves 
to  be  German  teachers.  Of  these  I  require  a  thorough  philologic  education — 
Gothic,  Norse,  Old  and  Middle  High  German — as  well  as  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
German  literature. 

To  give  you  an  idea  of  the  number  of  students  that  are  making  a  serious  study 
of  German  philology  and  literature,  I  may  mention  that  during  this  session  I 
explained  Goethes  poems  to  70  students,  Gudrun  to  20,  Heliand  to  10,  and  Ulfilas 
to  18.  Twenty  advanced  students,  namely,  those  designing  to  take  the  register  or 
doctors’  examination,  followed  the  exercises  of  the  Germanistic  seminary.  I  have 
four  assistants. 1 

The  reason  that  I  am  able  to  conduct  so  profound  German  studies  is  that,  six  years 
ago,  I  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  excellent  private  library  for  the  university,  the 
only  one  in  America,  of  Rudolf  Hillebrand,  my  teacher  and  friend. 

1In  the  eighth  register  (1898-99)  only  the  following  are  mentioned:  James  Owen  Griffin,  pro¬ 
fessor  of  German;  Karl  G.  Rendtorff,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  German;  Alfred  Francis 
William  Schmidt,  instructor  in  German.  The  name  of  the  fourth  assistant  could  not  be  ascer¬ 
tained. 


ED  1901- 


40 


626 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


At  the  close  of  a  speech  delivered  at  the  end  of  December,  1897,  before  the  Cali¬ 
fornia  Teachers’  Association,  President  Jordan  remarked:  “German  stands  at  all 
the  gates  of  culture  and  exacts  its  toll  from  all  who  would  enter.”  The  develop¬ 
ment  of  Stanford  University  confirms  his  words.  The  youngest  institutions  are 
modern  in  their  organization  and  therefore  cultivate  German  with  extraordinary 
ze  al. 

THE  COLUMBIAN  UNIVERSITY. 

The  capital  possesses  three  schools  which  deserve  the  name  of  universities  in 
their  graduate  departments.  These  three  universities  appeal,  however,  to  different 
constituencies  and  to  different  circles  of  students. 

The  Columbian  University  is,  according  to  its  charter  and  foundation,  a 
Protestant  institution  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word.  Georgetown  University 
was  founded  as  a  college  in  1788,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
through  the  efforts  of  the  first  archbishop  of  Baltimore,  John  Carroll.  In  1815  it 
was  chartered  by  Congress  as  a  university,  and  in  18*38  authorized  by  the  Holy 
See  to  confer  the  highest  theological  and  philosophical  degrees.  The  Catholic 
University,  founded  but  twelve  years  ago,  is  the  papal  university  of  America  par 
excellence,  and  was  intended  as  a  graduate  school  only.  It  stands  under  the 
chancellorship  of  Cardinal  Gibbons  of  Baltimore. 

As  the  two  great  Catholic  universities  scarcely  afford  any  space  to  Germanic 
scholarship,  they  do  not  call  for  further  consideration  in  this  connection.  The 
Columbian  University,  on  the  other  hand,  has  in  the  course  of  the  last  ten  years 
allotted  to  the  study  of  the  Germanic  language  and  literature  a  place  and  value 
equal  to  those  of  any  other  branch  of  scholarship.  While  German  is  still  elective 
in  the  college,  it  is  obligatory  in  the  Corcoran  Scientific  School,  and  no  degree  can 
be  obtained  there  or  in  the  graduate  school  without  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of 
that  language.  , 

Among  the  professors  of  the  Columbian  University  there  are  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  scholars  and  scientists  of  the  country,  who,  while  standing  at  the  head  of 
the  scientific  Government  bureaus,  and  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Smithsonian  Insti¬ 
tution,  etc.,  also  devote  their  energies  to  the  various  departments  of  the 
university. 

The  headship  of  the  department  of  Germanic  language  and  literature  rests 
with  Prof.  Hermann  Schoenfeid,  Ph.  D.,  assisted  by  the  instructors  Reed  Paige 
Clark,  A.  M.,  and  C.  S.  Hyde,  A.  M.  The  courses  in  the  college  and  the  Corcoran 
Scientific  School  are  adapted  to  the  various  needs  of  academic  and  technical  or 
scientific  students,  and  are  as  follows: 

THE  COLUMBIAN  COLLEGE. 

GERMANIC  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

Instruction  in  this  department  has  as  its  primary  object  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  grammar  and  familiarity  with  the  literature  and  history,  with  such  prac¬ 
tice  in  conversation  as  shall  serve  as  a  stimulus  in  the  furtherance  of  this  object. 

German  grammar  is  studied  during  the  first  three  years  of  the  course,  wdth  its 
principles  illustrated  from  the  class  readings  and  written  exercises. 

1.  The  deeper  aspects  of  grammar;  accurate  training  in  phonetics  and  transla¬ 
tion  into  German:  conversation;  readings  from  the  best  German  prosaists  and 
poets;  Whitney's  German  Grammar;  selected  texts.  Three  hours. 

2.  Advanced  course  in  German  syntax;  extensive  translation  into  German; 
selected  advanced  prose;  classical  reading  and  literature;  elements  of  German 
history.  Three  hours, 

3.  Study  of  the  principal  difficulties  of  the  language:  idioms,  synonyms;  Ger¬ 
man  essays;  literature  of  the  second  German  Bliiteperiode;  German  history  and 
science;  extensive  reading  from  the  classics.  Three  hours. 

4.  Elements  of  philology;  survey  of  German  literature  and  its  relation  to  the 
other  Germanic  peoples;  history  of  the  old  and  the  new  German  Empire;  further 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


627 


classical  reading  in  Goethe’s  Fanst;  introduction  into  the  Nibelungen  Lied  and 
the  Gudrun  Saga;  introduction  to  Gothic.  Three  hours. 

CORCORAN  SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOL. 

GERMAN. 

1.  Accurate  training  in  elementary  grammar;  pronunciation  and  translation 
from  English  into  German;  exercise^  in  conversation;  readings  from  the  easier 
German  prosaists  and  poets.  Two  hours. 

2.  More  extended  course  in  German  syntax  and  principal  difficulties  of  the  lan¬ 
guage,  idioms,  etc. ;  extensive  translations  into  German;  selected  stories;  Gore’s 
Science  Reader,  fourth  edition,  alternating  with  Brandt  and  Day’s  Science  Reading; 
one  or  two  classics.  Two  hours. 

3.  Study  of  idioms,  synonyms,  and  Sander’s  Hauptschwierigkeiten  derdeutschen 
Sprache;  special  preparation  for  scientific  professional  work;  Helmholtz  on 
Goethe's  work  in  natural  history  (edition  of  Seidensticker) ;  Humboldt’s  Kosmos; 
critical  studies  of  German  classics;  lectures  on  German  literature.  Two  hours. 

4.  A  special  course  in  German  training  for  advanced  students  in  the  historic 
and  economic  departments;  Schoenfeld’s  German  Historical  Prose,  Ranke  (edited 
by  H.  Shoenfeld),  and  the  standard  works  of  German  historians  and  economists 
will  be  read.  Two  hours. 

5.  An  elective  course  in  German  conversation  will  be  instituted  from  the  start 
and  conducted  with  systematic  gradation  for  students  of  all  grades. 

The  work  in  the  two  undergraduate  departments  being  done  by  the  professor  in 
charge  only  in  the  most  advanced  classes,  ample  time  is  left  him  for  a  careful  pre¬ 
paration  of  graduate  students  in  German,  who  are  trained  especially  in  literature 
and  history. 

GRADUATE  SCHOOL. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE. 


1.  The  Literature  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  Braune’s  Neudrucke  Deutscher 
Literaturwerke.  Humanism  and  Reformation,  with  special  reference  to  Italian 
and  French  infiuences.  Historical  basis  after  Voigt,  Janssen,  Ranke,  Burckkart, 
L.  Geiger. 

2.  Literary  awakening  in  Germany  in  the  time  of  Frederick  the  Great;  critical 
study  of  the  literary  centers — Leipzig,  Zurich,  Berlin.  The  Storm  and  Stress 
Period  and  the  youthful  works  of  Schiller  and  Goethe;  critical  investigation  of 
Klopstock’s  Odes;  the  first  three  cantos  of  Messias, 

3.  History  of  the  Second  Classical  Period.  Lessing’s  Laokoon,  Dramaturgie, 
Literaturbriefe:  A  study  of  German  Critique.  Detailed  investigation  into  Schil¬ 
ler’s  and  Goethe’s  works.  Literary  Germany  at  the  death  of  Goethe  (1832). 

These  alternate  with  courses  concerning  the  older  phases  of  the  language. 

GERMAN  HISTORY. 

1.  The  emerging  of  the  Germanic,  Romanic,  and  Slavic  races  in  European  his¬ 
tory.  The  migration  of  peoples.  The  evolution  of  European  States  to  the  rise  of 
the  Hapsburg  House.  (Selections  from  the  historical  sources  will  be  read  and 
interpreted. ) 

2.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  from  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  to  the  death  of  Maxi¬ 
milian  I  (1519),  with  special  reference  to  Kuiturgeschichte,  and  the  first  attempts 
at  church  reform. 

3.  History  of  the  Renaissance  and  Reformation. 

Special  courses  may  be  arranged,  after  consultation,  with  graduate  students. 

However,  no  more  than  three  of  the  courses  designated  are  given  in  any  one 
semester.  The  need  of  an  instructor  in  Germanic  philology  is  urgently  felt,  and 
such  an  appointment  will  be  made  as  soon  as  the  means  of  the  department  will 
permit. 

The  incalculable  prestige  which  German  thought,  culture,  and  civilization  enjoy 
in  this  university  becomes  manifest  when  it  is  considered  that  in  the  department 
of  philosophy,  conducted  by  the  excellent  Hegel  scholars,  Dr.  Sterrett  and  Dr. 


628 


EDUCATION.  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Harris,  six  courses  out  of  ten  deal  directly  with  German  philosophy  pure  and 
proper,  besides  two,  philosophy  of  history  and  history  of  philosophy,  which  ipso 
facto  include  the  wide  range  of  German  thought. 

Mr.  Schoenfeld’s  lectures  and  writings  1  on  the  traces  and  influences  of  foreign, 
especially  Slavonic,  |elements  upon  German  history  and  literature  have  cultivated 
a  field  heretofore  untouched  in  American  universities. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  INDIANA. 

“The  Indiana  Seminary,”  founded  in  1820,  was  raised  to  a  “college”  in  1828, 
and  by  resolution  passed  by  the  State  legislature  to  a  “university  ”  in  1838.  It  is 
situated  in  Bloomington.  The  institution  has  been  lifted  to  a  high  level  during 
the  last  ten  years.  A  certain  knowledge  of  the  German  language  and  literature 
(Lessing,  Schiller,  and  Goethe)  is  required  for  admission.  The  number  of  pupils 
increased  from  144  in  the  year  1884,  and  321  in  1880,  to  1,050  in  1899;  220  profited 
by  the  thirteen  courses  of  the  German  department,  conducted  by  the  follow¬ 
ing  teachers:  Prof.  Gustaf  E.  Karsten,  director;  Dr.  Carl  Osthaus,  professor 
extraordinary;  Dr.  Eugene  Leser,  Roy  H.  Perring,  and  Philipp  Seiberth.  A 
course  in  introduction  to  German  dialects,  often  lacking  elsewhere,  is  held  for 
advanced  students.  The  active  interest  manifested  by  the  educated  Germans 
of  Indiana  toward  the  work  of  the  German  department  is  remarkable.  At 
the  close  of  the  year  1896,  upon  invitation  of  Professor  Karsten,  nine  German 
citizens  of  Indianapolis  contributed  so  generously  to  the  foundation  fund  of  the 
Journal  of  Germanic  Philology  that  the  able  editor  could  begin  serious  work. 
By  their  support  of  the  journal  these  contributors  deserve  the  greatest  credit, 
worthy  of  sincere  appreciation,  for  the  advancement  of  the  German  language. 


WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY. 

Located  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  this  university  was  founded  in  1826  as  Western 
Reserve  College.  The  undergraduate  department  is  now  known  as  Adelbert  Col¬ 
lege.  The  graduate  school  was  established  in  1892.  The  degrees  of  master  of  arts 
and  doctor  of  philosophy  are  conferred.  All  courses  open  to  graduate  students 
are  considered  graduate  courses.  The  College  for  Women  is  a  department  of  the 
university,  and  women  are  admitted  to  the  graduate  school  on  the  same  terms  as 
mem 

Under  President  Charles  F.  Thwing  the  number  of  students  of  German  has 
greatly  increased.  Prof.  R.  W.  Deering,  who  graduated  at  Leipzig  in  1889,  is  at 
the  head  of  the  German  department.  Prof.  Charles  Harris,  who  in  1883  likewise 
graduated  at  Leipzig  as  doctor  of  philosophy,  is  one  of  the  teachers,  besides 
Instructor  Edward  Meyer,  who  graduated  as  doctor  of'  philosophy  at  Heidelberg, 
1896. 

The  following  graduate  courses  were  announced  for  1899: 

Deering:  Gothic,  Old  German  Literature,  Old  German  Life,  Old  High  German, 
Lessing  and  the  classic  German  drama,  Faust. 

Harris:  The  Romantic  School,  History  of  German  Literature,  Middle  High 
German,  Modern  German  Grammar. 

Meyer:  Oldest  German  Poetry,  German  Religious  Epics,  The  National  Epic, 
Modern  German  Social  Drama,  The  Court  Epic. 

The  attendance  at  the  German  courses  was  rather  large  in  1898  (120  out  of  700) 
and  has  since  increased. 


1  One  of  these,  Higher  Education  in  Russian,  Austrian,  and  Prussian  Poland,  appeared  in  the 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  1896. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


629 


VANDERBILT  UNIVERSITY. 

In  1872  representatives  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  from  Tennes¬ 
see,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Arkansas,  undertook  to  establish  a 
university,  and  it  was  in  response  to  this  movement  that  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  of 
New  York,  gave  $500,000  to  found  such  an  institution.  This  happened  in  1878, 
and  before  his  death  he  had  raised  his  donation  to  $1,000,000,  which  was  increased 
about  $500,000  by  his  son  William  and  grandson  Cornelius.  The  income  of  the 
university  amounts  to  over  $100,000.  The  courses  are  open  to  women  as  well  as 
men,  and  there  is  an  average  attendance  of  700,  under  a  faculty  of  80  instructors. 

The  German  department  is  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  A.  R.  Kohlfeld,  Professor 
of  German  Languages  and  Literatures,  who  graduated  at  Leipzig  in  1888  and  has 
since  been  teaching  modern  languages  at  the  university. 

In  the  sixth  annual  edition  (1898-99)  of  the  “Graduate  Courses”1  the  following 
graduate  courses  are  given: 

Storm  and  Stress. 

The  Romantic  School  and  Young  Germany. 

Gothic. 

Old  Saxon. 

Historical  German  Grammar  and  Literature. 

Essays  in  German. 

WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY. 

The  Wesleyan  University,  located  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  is  the  oldest  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  colleges.  It  was  located  in  1829,  in  consequence  of 
an  offer  made  by  the  city  of  Middletown  to  a  joint  committee  of  the  New  York 
and  New  England  conferences.  The  offer  consisted  of  two  large  stone  buildings, 
together  with  a  subscription  of  $18,000  toward  an  endowment  fund  of  $40,000. 
With  this  insufficient  endowment  it  is  not  astonishing  that  this  institution, 
although  opened  in  the  year  1881,  has  seldom  had  a  larger  attendance  than  that  of 
last  year,  287  male  and  60  female  students,  instructed  by  28  teachers.  There  are 
only  two  teachers  in  the  German  department,  Prof.  A.  B.  Faust,  of  whom  a 
biographical  sketch  follows,  and  Mr.  Ford,  who  teaches  the  elementary  branches. 
There  were  only  eight  courses  in  all,  two  of  which  were  for  advanced  students, 
and  treated  German  literature  in  general  and  the  history  of  the  German  novel  in 
particular.  If,  in  spite  of  the  unfavorable  general  conditions,  as  many  as  175 
students  pursue  the  German  courses,  the  result,  that  could  be  attained  but  by  few 
other  institutions,  must  be  considered  extraordinary.  At  all  events,  Professor 
Faust  may  regard  this  result  with  great  pride. 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY. 

In  consequence  of  insufficient  endowment,  the  old  Brown  University,  founded 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  1764,  has  been  in  rather  an  unfavorable  position  in  contrast 
with  the  numerous  finely  equipped  colleges.  Conditions,  however,  may  have 
changed,  as  John  D.  Rockefeller  presented  $250,000  to  the  institution  last  year, 
under  the  condition  that  it  should  be  added  to  a  contribution  short  of  a  million 
from  another  quarter.  This  condition  was  fulfilled,  and  so  Mr.  Rockefeller  has 
endowed  the  institution  with  the  said  amount.  A  favorable  result  is  expected. 
The  German  seminary  library  contains  many  publications,  including  periodicals 
and  philological  works,  also  special  collections  in  Middle  High  German  and  New 
High  German  literature. 

Alonzo  'Williams,  professor  of  German  languages  and  literatures,  directs  the 
German  department.  The  lectures  for  graduates  treat:  Faust,  Parts  I  and  II, 


Chicago.  The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1898,  p.  38. 


630 


EDUCATION  EE  PORT,  1900*1901. 


History  of  German  Literature,  Middle  High  German  in  three  different  courses 
(Court  Epics,  Minnesingers),  Gothic,  Old  High  German,  German  Mythology, 
German  Philology,  and  Old  Norse. 

According  to  the  latest  reports,  the  university  numbers  75  teachers  and  888 
students.  How  many  attended  the  German  courses  could  not  be  definitely 
ascertained. 

NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY. 

New  York  University  was  founded  in  the  year  1831,  and  is  progressing  to  an 
encouraging  degree,  despite  the  competition  of  Columbia  University.  While  the 
latter  controls  a  sum  of  about  $17,000,090,  and  an  annual  income  of  $920,000,  the  for¬ 
mer  possesses  about  $3,600,000  and  a  corresponding  income.  Thanks  to  the 
munificence  of  different  citizens  of  New  York,  the  finances  are  constantly  improv¬ 
ing,  and  so  the  institution  i3  able  to  do  progressively  more  and  better  work.  Until 
his  death,  Mr.  Oswald  Ottendorfer  made  great  sacrifices  to  equip  the  German 
library  properly,  which  contains  about  9,000  volumes  and  has  a  good  assortment 
of  collected  works  and  periodicals.  Mr.  Herman  Bidder  offers  an  annual  prize  to 
the  student  of  the  German  department  who  renders  the  best  work  on  a  subject 
selected  from  German  literature.  Last  year  the  theme  was:  “On  the  influence 
of  German  literature  on  the  Hainbund  of  Gottingen. ” 

Grerman  instruction  includes  elementary  instruction  for  beginners  as  well  as 
graduate  courses  in  language,  literature,  and  purely  philological  branches. 
Besides  Professor  McLouth,  who  is  at  the  head  of  the  department,  Prof.  Abram  S. 
Isaacs  and  Instructor  Ernst  Mannhardt  teach  German.  About  10  per  cent  of  the 
1,800  students  in  all  attend  the  German  courses.  Last  year  several  lectures  on 
interesting  subjects  from  the  history  of  German  literature  treated  specially  of 
Griilparzer,  Lenau,  the  German  novel,  the  German  ballad,  and  the  origin  and 
development  of  the  German  national  song.  A  favorable  horoscope  may  be  defined 
for  the  further  development  of  the  German  department  of  this  university. 

The  summer  school  for  Germanic  languages  is  a  new  arrangement  which  has 
received  special  mention  elsewhere.  The  freshman  entrance  examination  prizes 
deserve  a  mention.  A  prize  of  $100  is  given  to  the  freshman  passing  the  best  sup¬ 
plementary  examination  in  Section  A;  also  given  to  the  freshman  passing  the 
best  supplementary  examination  in  Sections  B  or  C.  Further  details  are  given  in 
the  university  catalogue. 

HAMILTON  COLLEGE. 

Hamilton  College,  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  is  one  of  the  oldest  educational  institutions 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  having  been  opened  in  1812;  the  only  older  ones  are 
Columbia  University,  opened  in  1754  as  King's  College,  and  Union  College,  in 
Schenectady,  opened  in  1795. 

In  the  last  fifty  years  this  college  has  had  an  almost  uniform  attendance  of  155 
to  160  students,  at  present  instructed  by  18  teachers.  Proper  attention  is  given  to 
German  and  a  special  prize  (the  Munson  prize)  is  offered  to  the  students;  the  win¬ 
ner  receives  a  considerable  sum  of  money.  German  is  a  required  study  for  three 
terms  beginning  with  the  third  term  of  the  freshman  year  for  classical  students, 
continuing  as  an  elective  to  the  end  of  the  college  course,  and  culminating  in  the 
Munson  prize  examination.  The  prospectus  defines  the  aim  of  German  instruc¬ 
tion  to  be  “familiarity  with  German  literature,  German  life,  and  German 
thought,”  and,  at  the  same  time,  “a  philological  and  practical  knowledge  of  the 
German  language.”  That  this  is  not  a  mere  question  of  words,  is  substantiated 
by  the  fact  that  one  of  the  most  excellent  educators  in  the  country,  Dr.  Herman 
Carl  Georg  Brandt,  has  been  in  charge  of  the  German  studies  for  the  past  eight¬ 
een  years.  Dr.  Brandt  likewise  conducts  seminary  courses  for  the  students.  In 
the  year  1800,  Lessing  was  studied.  The  third  term  of  the  senior  year  included 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


631 


Middle  High  and  Sixteenth  Century  German.  For  admission,  a  two  years’ course 
in  French  and  no  German,  or  a  year’s  course  in  French  and  German,  or,  finally,  a 
two  years’  course  in  German,  is  required.  The  attendance  at  the  German  courses 
is  50  to  60  for  each  school  year. 

WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY. 

In  the  year  1900,  Dr.  Otto  Heller  wrote  to  the  author  of  this  work  the  following 
letter  of  information  on  the  conditions  of  this  university,  founded  in  St.  Louis  in 
1853,  and  now  attended  by  1,989  students: 

Seven  years  ago  I  was  called  to  the  chair  of  German  languages  and  literatures, 
founded  by  the  munificence  of  Mr.  Adolphus  Busch.  My  first  duty  was  to  raise  my 
study  to  the  same  rank  as  the  other  disciplinary  branches,  and  1  succeeded  in  a 
short  time.  The  elective  system  obtains  at  this  university.  Despite  the  fact  that 
only  a  small  number  of  students,  namely,  the  freshmen  who  did  not  study  Ger¬ 
man  in  the  preparatory  school  and  studied  French  in  the  first  year  of  college,  are 
required  to  take  German,  so  many  of  their  own  will  attend  the  German  courses 
that  more  than  half  of  the  total  attendance  are  on  my  list.  This  active  interest  is 
due,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  favorable  location  of  the  university.  Our  students, 
for  the  most  part,  are  of  German-Ameriean  extraction.  In  my  opinion  St.  Louis 
is,  for  this  reason  alone,  most  suitable  for  a  school  of  German.  *  *  *  Every 
year  I  hold  a  series  of  public  lectures  on  German  literature,  partly  in  the  Ger¬ 
man  and  partly  in  the  English  language.  During  the  last  few  years,  the  attend¬ 
ance  has  been  so  encouraging  that  the  university  hall  has  proved  too  small.  The 
receipts  are  added  in  total  to  the  library  fund. 

For  the  present  I  am  giving  instruction  in  the  college  and  the  school  of  engi¬ 
neering  alone,  but  I  hope  to  receive  an  assistant  in  the  near  future.  At  the  inter¬ 
mediary  schools  connected  with  the  university  (Smith  Academy,  Manual  Training 
School,  Mary  Institute)  there  are  five  teachers,  men  and  women. 

Of  the  five  courses  which  I  am  conducting  this  year,  three  are  intended  for 
Anglo-Americans.  In  one  (sketch  of  the  history  of  German  literature  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  present)  I  unite  advanced  xlnglo- Americans,  mostly  in  the 
two  highest  years,  and  German- Americans  who  are  just  beginning  the  study  of 
Middle  High  German.  The  majority  of  these  are  in  the  first  year.  The  language 
of  instruction  is  German.  Finally,  in  this  year,  I  read,  exclusively  to  German- 
Americans,  Goethe’s  metrical  works.  A  full  term  of  three  lessons  a  week  is  given 
to  Faust.  When  my  time  and  students’  preparation  permit  a  philological  course 
is  read,  and  Gothic,  Old  High  German,  Middle  High  German,  and  history  of  lan¬ 
guage  are  studied. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA. 

According  to  the  census  of  1890,  the  State  of  Nebraska  numbered  a  few  over 
1,000,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  72,618  were  born  in  Germany  and  46,321  in  Scan¬ 
dinavia.  The  Germanic  element,  therefore,  can  hardly  be  called  strong.  Never¬ 
theless,  the  German  department  of  the  State  University,  located  at  Lincoln,  has 


attained  a  rather  large  attendance  in  the  school  year  1899-1900. 

The  beginners’  class  numbered . . . . _  _ . 250 

The  second  year _ • _ _ _ _ _ _ _  175 

The  lectures  on  the  classics _ _ _ _  74 

The  normal  course _ 7 _ _ _ _ . _ _ _  14 

The  other  higher  courses,  as  Old  High  German,  Scandinavian,  etc . . .  41 


Total-. _ _ _ _  554 

Forty-two  per  cent  of  the  total  attendance — 1,411  men  and  women — therefore, 
took  German  courses. 

In  the  last  school  year  twenty  German  courses  were  given.  In  the  lower  classes 
language  lessons  were  held  and  a  few  easy  hooks,  among  them  Frau  Sorge,  by 
Sudermann,  were  read.  The  study  of  literature  is  begun  after  students  have 
acquired  sufficient  knowledge  to  understand  the  ethical  and  aesthetic  character  of 
the  classics.  As  a  rule,  polite  literature  is  taken  up  in  the  third  and  fourth  years. 
A  two  hours’  lecture  on  “  The  German  language,  its  development  and  construe- 


632 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


tion,”  was  designed  especially  for  Germans  wlio  desired  to  make  a  study  of  their 
mother  tongue.  The  lectures  on  the  classic  writers — Lessing,  Schiller,  and 
Goethe — were  particularly  well  attended.  Great  interest  was  likewise  manifested 
in  the  literature  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Besides,  Sudermann,  Hauptmann, 
Max  Kretzer,  Bertha  von  Suttner,  Fontane,  Wildenhruch,  Scheffel,  etc.,  were 
eagerly  studied.  Some  devoted  themselves  to  purely  philological  branches. 

The  personnel  of  teachers  consisted  of  the  following:  Laurence  Fossler,  A.  M., 
professor  of  the  Germanic  languages;  Hans  Christian  Peterson,  Ph.  D. ,  instructor 
in  the  Germanic  languages;  Amanda  Henrietta  Heppner,  A.  B.,  instructor  in 
German. 

WITTENBERG  COLLEGE. 

Wittenberg  College,  which  was  opened  at  Springfield,  Ohio,  in  1845,  has  ten 
male  and  two  female  teachers  for  160  male  and  94  female  students.  An  elemen¬ 
tary  knowledge  of  German  grammar  and  the  ability  to  construe  simple  German 
sentences  and  read  easy  prose  at  sight  are  required  for  admission.  German  instruc¬ 
tion  in  the  “college  ”  is  conducted  by  Prof.  ft.  Hochdcrfer  and  Instructor  Wilson, 
the  latter  of  whom  has  entire  charge  of  the  German  in  the  “  academy.”  Heine’s 
Harzreise,  for  instance,  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  German  literature  read 
regularly.  The  well-known  work  by  Prof.  Kuno  Francke,  Social  Forces  in 
German  Literature,  serves  for  private  study.  A  two  hours’  lecture  on  German 
civilization  was  introduced  last  winter  by  Professor  Hochddrfer  for  senior  and 
graduate  students. 

The  fifty-third  annual  catalogue  says  of  the  purpose  of  the  eleven  German 
courses: 

The  chief  aim  of  the  freshman  and  sophomore  courses— for  which  a  thorough  and 
ready  knowledge  of  the  formal  elements  of  grammar  is  an  essential  prerequisite — is 
to  develop  idiomatic  expression  and  vocabulary  by  making  the  students  acquainted 
with  model  products  of  German  style  and  literature,  and  by  oral  and  written 
composition  work.  The  latter  furnishes  the  primary  test  for  a  student’s  fitness  to 
enter  upon  the  advanced  junior  and  senior  electives,  which  aim  at  a  study  of  liter¬ 
ary  masterpieces  as  embodiments  of  national  ideas,  and  as  contributions  to  ruling 
tendencies  of  thought.  In  judging  the  students  ultimate  standing  considerable 
stress  is  laid  upon  idiomatic  utterance  and  stylistic  ability. 

Some  of  the  advanced  courses  are  held  in  the  German  language. 

UNIVERSITY  OE  MISSOURI. 

The  State  University  of  Missouri,  located  at  Columbia,  Boone  County,  began 
its  lectures  April  4,  1841.  It  is  coeducational  and  at  present  numbers  1,200  stu¬ 
dents,  male  and  female.  The  German  department  is  quite  important,  and  is  in 
charge  of  Prof.  B.  F.  Hoffmann.  The  attendance  is  about  200.  Professor  Hoff¬ 
mann  holds  the  following  graduate  courses:  Middle  and  Old  High  German,  Ger¬ 
man  literature  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  life  and  works  of 
Schiller,  Goethe,  and  Lessing. 

Institutions  for  Women. 

Among  the  institutions  designed  for  women  exclusively,  Radcliffe  College,  con¬ 
nected  with  Harvard,  whose  teachers  are  likewise  emplo57ed  there,  and  Barnard 
College,  which  holds  a  similar  position  with  relation  to  Columbia  University,  rank 
preeminent,  since  they  profit  by  all  the  advantages  of  these  prominent  universities. 
Others  deserving  of  mention  are  Yassar  College,  BrynMawr  College,  the  Woman’s 
College  of  Baltimore,  and  Wellesley  College. 

VASSAR  COLLEGE,  POUGHKEEPSIE,  N.  Y. 

German  instruction  was  introduced  here  at  the  opening  of  the  college  in  the  year 
1886.  The  first  German  professorship  w7as  held  by  Miss  Caecilie  Kapp,  the  sister  of 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


633 


Frederick  Kapp.  The  progress  of  the  German  department  is  manifested  by  the  fact 
that,  whereas  in  the  year  1889-1880,  only  75  students  took  German,  this  number 
has  since,  under  the  excellent  management  of  Professor  (Miss)  Herholz,  risen 
until  during  the  current  year  it  amounts  to  250,  out  of  a  total  attendance  of  600. 
In  consequence,  two  assistants,  Misses  Eeinecke  and  Rartelmann,  have  been 
appointed.  Eoth  were  born  in  Germany.  The  library  contains  30,000  volumes, 
of  which  about  5,000  are  German.  Every  year  $200  to  $300  are  set  aside  for  the 
purchase  of  German  books.  German  enjoys  such  favor  that  it  is  the  language  for 
conversation  during  recreation.  The  German  Society,  founded  in  1900,  presents 
German  dags.  In  February,  1901,  Minna  von  Bar nh elm  was  studied,  and  is  to  be 
given  at  commencement.  On  November  10, 1900,  Schiller’s  birthday  was  celebrated 
with  memorial  addresses,  recitations,  and  songs. 

The  German  elementary  courses  are  required  for  those  who  enter  without  any 
knowledge  of  German.  Besides  these  there  are  fifteen  elective  courses,  including 
language,  literature,  and  the  history  of  literature.  The  following  is  the  pro¬ 
gramme  for  the  two  courses  devoted  to  scientific  German: 

Course  L — Scientific  German,  Gore;  Science  Reader  or  Brand  and  Day’s  Scien¬ 
tific  German;  Cohn  on  Bacteria;  Muller,  Electrical  Machines.  First  semester  (2). 

Course  J. — A.  Lang,  Characteristics  of  the  Methods  of  Research  of  Lamark  and 
Darwin;  Von  Baer,  Which  is  the  Right  Understanding  of  Animate  Nature;  Koi- 
liker,  The  Present  Position  of  Morphological  Studies.  Second  semester  (2). 

Great  attention  is  given  by  the  seniors  to  Faust  studies  and  the  “novel  course,” 
which  is  devoted  to  the  more  prominent  authors  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In 
February  of  the  current  year  Director  Conried  delivered  an  interesting  lecture 
in  German  on  the  German  stage. 

BRYN  MAWR  COLLEGE. 

Last  year  this  college,  which  was  opened  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  in  1885,  had  24 
male  and  17  female  teachers  for  its  322  students.  Besides  its  director,  Prof. 
Plermann  Collitz,  Dr.  Albert  Haas,  professor  extraordinary,  and  Miss  Rose  Cham¬ 
berlin  teach  in  the  German  department.  A  certain  knowledge  of  German  gram¬ 
mar  and  the  ability  to  translate  at  sight  from  German  into  English  are  conditions 
for  admission.  Those  students  who  pass  an  admission  examination  in  Greek  are 
exempted  from  this  in  the  beginning,  but  they  are  required  to  pass  the  German 
examination  if  they  desire  to  receive  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts.  To  afford  the 
necessary  advantage,  elementary  courses  in  German  have  been  introduced;  upon 
completion  of  these,  students  are  admitted  to  the  course  in  German  conversation, 
which  is  as  popular  here  as  among  the  students  of  Vassar  College.  Those  who 
pass  the  admission  examination  take  a  two  years’  course  devoted  to  an  introduction 
into  the  history  of  German  literature  (in  the  first  year,  ancient  literature  to  Klop- 
stock;  in  the  second  year,  classic  and  modern  literature),  and  a  thorough  study  of 
several  masterpieces  of  German  literature,  and  to  perfecting  their  practical  knowl¬ 
edge  of  German.  Those  who  have  been  successful  in  this  course  and  pass  the 
baccalaureate  examination  are  admitted  to  the  graduate  courses;  these  require 
three  years  and  claim  to  attain  the  same  end  as  the  philosophic  course  at  German 
universities.  Accordingly,  those  who  have  studied  in  this  division  three  years, 
and  whose  theses  have  been  accepted  as  having  scientific  value,  receive  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy,  if  they  pass  the  final  written  and  oral  examination.  A 
condition  is  that  graduates  must  spend  at  least  two  years  at  Bryn  Mawr.  A  fel¬ 
lowship  in  Germanic  and  Teutonic  philology,  amounting  to  $525,  and  several 
scholarships  have  been  offered. 

The  German  department  was  organized  by  Professor  Collitz  in  1886  and  has 
since  been  successfully  continued.  The  earnestness  with  which  philological  stud¬ 
ies  are  pursued  is  best  shown  by  the  fact  that  several  students  of  Bryn  Mawr  have 


634 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


distinguished  themselves  by  publications  of  a  technical  nature.  The  following 
works  have  proceeded  from  the  seminary  for  Germanic  philology  in  Bryn  Mawr: 
Caroline  T.  Stewart:  The  Nominative  Singular  of  Weak  Substantives  in  Old  High 
German,  1887  (published  in  Bezzenberger  s  Contributions  to  the  Knowledge  of 
Indo-Germanic  languages,  vol.  28).  Dorothy  W.  Lyon:  The  hymn  “Christe,  qui 
lux  es  et  dies,”  and  its  German,  Dutch,  and  English  Translations,  1898  (published 
in  the  nineteenth  volume  of  the  American  Journal  of  Philology). 

A  characteristic  of  Bryn  Mawr  College  is  the  so  called  “  senior  orals,”  namely, 
examinations  ‘‘to  test  the  students'  ability  to  read  French  and  German  at  sight,” 
which  are  held  during  tha  course  of  the  last  year  before  the  conferring  of  degrees, 
consequently,  a  kind  of  graduate  examination  in  modern  languages  in  addition  to 
the  admission  examination.  Not  only  those  who  make  a  special  study  of  modern 
languages,  but  all  students  who  desire  to  receive  the  A.  B.  degree,  must  pass  this 
examination. 

THE  WOMAN’S  COLLEGE  OF  7  ALTIMORE. 

This  college  was  founded  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  year  1885, 
and  was  opened  in  September,  1888. 

The  department  of  German  language  and  literature  is  directed  by  Dr.  Hans 
Froelicher,  who  is  assisted  by  his  wife,  Dr.  Frances  Froelicher.  It  seeks  to  bring 
the  student  into  close  touch  with  the  character  and  genius  of  the  German  nation 
by  means  of  exact  study  of  its  language  and  historical  and  critical  study  of  its 
literature.  The  work  is  planned  with  a  view  to  having  courses  of  an  elementary 
and  introductory  character  precede  courses  calling  for  individual  and  independent 
intellectual  effort  on  the  part  of  the  student.  The  historical  succession  of  epochs 
and  of  writers  in  all  the  courses  (excexot  the  beginners’  course)  forms  the  natural 
outline  of  the  work.  Social  conditions  and  events  in  political  history  are  consid¬ 
ered  wherever  they  bear  on  the  subject  of  study.  The  influence  of  foreign  litera¬ 
ture  is  traced,  and  incidentally  affords  glimpses  into  the  comparative  study  of 
literatures.  Throughout  the  course,  however,  the  study  of  historical  matters  is 
subordinated  to  that  of  literature  as  literature.  Courses  of  lectures  are  given  for 
the  purpose  of  supplementing  the  critical  study  of  authors  and  literary  units,  the 
literary  and  philosophic  import  of  which  forms  the  main  object  of  the  work.  A 
certain  elementary  knowledge  of  German  and  the  understanding  of  500  pages  of 
German  literature  are  required  for  the  A.  B.  degree. 

Besides  the  beginners’  course,  the  following  five  courses  for  advanced  students 
were  held  last  year: 

I.  The  course  in  postclassical  literature  of  the  nineteenth  century,  in  which 
Sealsfield  was  likewise  discussed. 

II.  The  course  in  Middle  and  Old  High  German,  connected  with  the  history  of 
German  literature  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

III.  The  course  in  the  German  drama  in  general  and  the  critical  study  of  the 
classical  drama. 

IY.  The  course  in  epic  and  lyric  poetry. 

Y.  A  special  course  in  Schiller  and  Goethe,  giving  special  attention  to  Faust. 

An  excellent  opportunity  is  thus  afforded  to  learn  and  appreciate  German  liter¬ 
ature.  No  one  can  complete  the  above  courses  without  understanding  to  a  certain 
degree  the  thought  and  feeling  of  the  most  prominent  German  authors. 

WELLESLEY  COLLEGE. 

Wellesley  College,  located  at  Wellesley,  Mass.,  was  opened  in  1875  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  furnishing  to  young  women  advantages  and  facilities  for  a  liberal  educa¬ 
tion.  The  college  confers  the  degrees  of  master  of  arts  and  bachelor  of  arts.  The 
work  of  graduate  students  is  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  appointed  from 
the  faculty  of  the  college. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


635 


The  following  courses  were  announced  for  1899: 

I.  Carla  Wenkebach,  professor  of  German  language  and  literature.  German 
mythology  and  W olsungensaga ;  theory  of  the  drama;  history  of  German  litera¬ 
ture;  Lessing  as  dramatist  and  critic;  Goethe's  Faust,  I  and  II;  German  seminary. 

II.  Margarethe  Muller,  associate  professor  of  German.  Goethe’s  life  and  works; 
German  prose;  historical  and  other  novels;  Middle  High  German;  Schiller  as  phil¬ 
osopher  and  writer  on  aesthetics. 

III.  Louise  C.  M.  Habermeyer ,  instructor  in  German.  Translation  from  German 
into  English  (advanced) ;  nineteenth  century  authors. 

IV.  Elsbeth  Muller,  instructor  in  German.  Grammar  and  composition 
(advanced). 

There  are  at  present  69  teachers  for  the  TOO  students.  The  attendance  of  the 
German  courses  was  a  fair  percentage  of  the  total. 

II.  Public  Secondary  Schools. 

Otir  proper  business  is  improvement. — Daniel  Website 

It  is  beyond  all  dispute  that  the  condition  of  American  intermediate  education 
is  chaotic  and  unsatisfactory.  As  yet  no  results  have  been  realized  from  the  report 
of  the  committee  of  ten.  Whereas  the  existing  educational  system  is  beyond 
compare  and  progresses  uninterruptedly  from  year  to  year  in  the  higher  institutions 
of  learning,  the  schools  designed  partly  to  prepare  their  students  for  college,  and 
partly  as  “  people's  colleges,”  to  give  a  general  education  to  all  classes,  suffer  for 
the  want  of  a  uniform  system  to  which  they  might  properly  conform. 

Independent  of  parochial  institutions  and  certain  other  private  schools,  which 
will  receive  special  mention,  the  following  binds  of  schools  prepare  for  college: 

I.  True  preparatory  institutes,  including  the  well-known  “academies”  of  the 
Northeast,  that  have  corps  of  excellent  teachers. 

II.  Preparatory  schools  of  colleges,  instituted  to  supply  the  want  of  good  pre¬ 
paratory,  institutes.  They  are  under  the  direction  of  the  teachers  of  the  respective 
colleges  and  drill  their  pupils  so  as  to  become  excellent  freshmen. 

III.  City  high  schools  similar  to  the  formerly  popular  Latin  schools  of  Germany, 
and  designed  for  those  who  have  completed  the  grammar-school  course. 

High  schools  are  of  comparatively  recent  date,  and  increased  in  number  to  any 
great  extent  only  during  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Until  now 
they  have  prospered  best  where,  as  ip  Michigan,  they  are  under  State  supervision 
and  stand  in  a  positive  relation  with  the  State  university.  As  before  stated,  since 
1870  a  high-school  diploma  admits  to  the  university  without  further  examination. 
A  similar  arrangement  has  been  introduced  in  Minnesota,  and  other  States  seem 
to  be  following  the  same  lines.  Since  German  has  become  an  integral  part  of 
instruction  and  competes  successfully  with  Greek,  the  administration  of  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  intermediate  schools  must  hinge  on  a  promotion  of  German  studies. 

The  complaint  that  America  lacks  gymnasia,  in  which  students  in  Germany 
and  Austria  are  prepared  for  the  university,  is  the  dominant  vein  of  thought  in 
all  addresses  and  articles  by  American  educators  who  have  had  the  opportunity  of 
studying  these  schools  where  they  exist.  Hon.  J.  D»  Phiibrick,  of  Boston,  declared 
in  the  department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
January  30,  1874: 

There  is  no  public  high  school  in  America,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
New  York  College,  where  the  course  of  education  is  equal,  either  in  extent  or 
thoroughness,  to  that  of  a  gymnasium  or  a  Realschule  in  Vienna.  The  teaching 
staff  in  these  institutions  is  composed  of  professors  who  are  more  nearly  on  a  par, 
in  respect  to  learning  and  culture,  with  the  professors  in  American  colleges  than 
with  the  teachers  of  onr  high  schools.  In  respect  to  knowledge  of  the  science  and 
art  of  education  they  are  quite  superior  to  the  American  college  professors.  They 
have  not  only  received  a  university  education,  but  tbey  are  also  required  to  pass 
through  a  course  of  pedagogical  training  in  the  university  seminaries  established 
for  the  purpose. 


636 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  courses  of  study  in  the  gymnasium  and  the  Realscliule  alike  extend  over  the 
period  of  eight  years,  the  pupils  entering  at  10  or  11  years  of  age  and  graduating 
at  13  or  19. 

In  respect  to  equipment,  including  apparatus  and  libraries,  they  are  vastly  supe¬ 
rior  to  the  American  high  schools.  In  one  of  the  youngest  of  these  institutions, 
which  is  not  yet  provided  with  a  building  for  its  use,  the  apparatus,  none  of  which 
is  for  ostentation,  but  all  for  use,  has  cost  26,000  gulden,  a  sum  equivalent  to  more 
than  the  same  number  of  dollars  spent  here.  Several  of  the  buildings  which  have 
been  recently  erected  for  the  schools  are  qnite  superior  to  any  high-school  edifice 
which  has  as  yet  been  erected  in  this  country.  The  tution  is  not  gratuitous,  but  it 
is  very  cheap,  not  exceeding  $15  a  year  for  such  people  as  have  the  means  to  pay, 
while  meritorious  pupils  who  are  not  able  to  pay  this  sum  are  provided  for  by 
charity  funds  and  in  other  ways.  But,  after  all ,  yon  may  ask,  are  not  these  schools, 
with  such  comprehensive  courses  of  study  and  such  accomplished  professors,  small 
establishments?  Far  from  it.  Some  of  the  largest  have  nearly  30  professors  each 
and  six  or  seven  hundred  pupils,  the  aggregate  number  of  their  professors  being 
about  375  and  the  total  number  of  their  pupils  being  no  less  than  5,500.  This  num¬ 
ber  of  boys  and  young  men  is  at  least  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  boys  receiving 
secondary  education  in  the  public  high  schools  of  the  15  largest  cities  in  America. 
Besides  these  public  secondary  schools  there  are  others  which  are  denominational 
or  private.  The  Protestants  have  a  very  large  and  excellent  school  for  both  sexes, 
although  of  a  somewhat  lower  grade. 

Such  is  the  superiority  of  Vienna  over  American  cities  in  one  of  the  principal 
departments  of  public  instruction. 1 

The  attempts  made  in  America  to  imitate  German  gymnasia  have  all  failed,  as 
they  were  destined  to  do,  since  the  country  needs  American  institutions  and  can 
not  make  use  of  the  European.  One  would  suppose  that  the  many  colleges,  all  of 
which  can  hardly  develop  into  universities,  would,  where  sufficient  intermediate 
schools  do  not  exist,  provide  preparatory  classes  which  would  supply  the  lack  of 
secondary  schools  in  a  comparatively  easy  way. 

In  an  interesting  lecture  on  “Overwork  in  public  schools,”2  delivered  some  time 
since  before  an  audience  of  teachers,  President  Wiliiam  De  Witt  ITyde,  of  Bowdoin 
College,  explained  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  high  schools  can  not  attain  the 
same  results  as  the  German  gymnasia  and  Realschulen.  He  said: 

Investigations  in  the  high  schools  of  Boston,  Providence,  and  Fitchburg  show 
that  the  average  time  spent  in  study  and  recitation  during  the  five  days  of  the 
forty  weeks  of  a  school  year,  is  seven  hours  and  a  quarter,  of  which  two  hours  and 
a  quarter  are  spent  outside  the  school.  This  is  much  less  than  the  eight  and 
five-tenths  hours  for  scholars  from  14  to  16,  and  the  nine  and  three-tenths  hours 
for  scholars  from  17  to  19,  which  is  the  limit  in  the  German  gymnasium. 

A  very  simple  arithmetical  computation  shows  that  pupils  in  American  high 
schools  work  7iX  200=1,450  hours,  while  those  of  German  gymnasia  work 
9x240=2,160  hours  on  the  average,  consequently  nearly  50  per  cent  more  during 
a  school  year.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  preparation  for  college  is  here 
so  often  insufficient,  and  that  modern  language  instruction  is  treated  in  a  step¬ 
motherly  fashion  for  the  mere  want  of  time. 

Another  weighty  reason  why  German  instruction  in  particular  prospers  no  bet¬ 
ter  in  public  high  schools  was  explained  by  Professor  Ferren,  of  Allegheny  High 
School,  in  a  very  interesting  address  delivered  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Associa¬ 
tion  of  the  Teachers  of  German  in  Pennsylvania.3 

The  study  of  the  German  language,  he  said,  resembles  a  long  bridge,  which 
must  be  “crossed,  not  merely  entered  upon,”  if  the  end  is  to  be  reached.  And  he 
proceeds: 

But  why  is  it  that  so  many  able  pupils  derive  so  little  benefit  from  the  study  of 
German  in  our  high  schools.  We  teachers  must  take  part  of  the  blame  upon  our- 

1  Address  by  Hon.  J.  D.  Pbilbrick,  of  Boston,  on  “Systems  of  public  instruction  in  European 
and  American  cities  compared,”  page  63. 

8  Paper  read  July  8,  1886,  at  the  fifty-seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Instruction. 

3  The  meeting  was  held  April  9,  1898.  The  full  text  of  the  address  was  published  in  Volume  II, 
No.  2,  of  the  Americana  German ica. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


687 


selves,  and  may  hold  our  superiors  in  office  and  the  public  school  system  accounta¬ 
ble  for  the  rest.  Too  many  of  us  are  so  utterly  devoid  of  an  “intellectual 
conscience”  that  we  consent  to  teach  most  anything  under  the  sun,  whether  we 
are  qualified  or  not.  Some  of  us  make  ourselves  believe  that  we  know  German 
because  we  have  a  number  of  stock  phrases  at  our  command  and  have  read  a  few 
hundred  pages  of  text.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  many  of  us  are  totally 
unfit  to  lead  others  across  the  bridge,  because  wTe  have  never  crossed  it  ourselves. 
Hence,  one  of  the  first  duties  devolving  upon  this  association  is  to  set  a  higher 
standard  for  high-school  teachers  of  German.  Let  us,  like  good  Germans,  live  up 
to  this  principle,  even  though  it  should  mean  annihilation  to  us.  Patere  legem 
quam  ipse  tulisti.  W  e  must  insist  that  no  one  shall  be  permitted  to  teach  Ger¬ 
man  in  a  high  school  who  does  not  know  his  subject  thoroughly.  But  this  is  not 
all — scholarship  alone  will  not  suffice— pedagogical  ability  is  equally  indispensa¬ 
ble,  and  it  is  a  fatal  mistake  for  scholars  to  regard  it  as  a  minor  matter  or  as  some¬ 
thing  that  will  take  care  of  itself.  Pedagogical  problems  are  so  numerous  and 
intricate  in  a  high  school  that  it  will  require  the  lion's  share  of  a  teacher’s  time  to 
solve  them.  Whoever  shirks  this  part  of  his  work — be  it  to  enjoy  more  leisure  or 
to  prepare  for  some  other  vocation— is  a  traitor  to  his  cause.  .  Such  persons  in 
particular  are  guilty  of  that  most  heinous  pedagogical  crime  of  hurrying  over  the 
elements  at  a  breakneck  speed.  The  great  curse  of  language  study  in  this  country 
is  the  deplorable  ignorance  of  the  elements. 

Too  many  of  our  language  courses  are  topheavy;  we  need  more  good  teachers 
at  the  base;  otherwise  the  entire  structure  will  collapse  someday.  I  never  could 
understand  why  so  many  trained  men  who  might  become  useful  and  prominent  in 
high-school  work — and  have  a  clear  conscience  besides— prefer  to  eke  out  a  miser¬ 
able  existence  in  some  college  or  university.  We  need  a  dictator  to  tell  some 
people  that  are  overplaced  where  they  belong.  The  high  school  is  not  taken  seri¬ 
ously  enough.  To  obtain  the  best  results  in  the  high  school  we  must  have  teachers 
trained  in  their  special  departments;  teachers  loyal  to  their  task,  and  willing  to 
devote  their  lives  to  the  building  up  of  our  public  school  system.  *  *  * 

But  there  are  still  further  reasons  why  the  high  school  does  not  accomplish  more 
in  German.  Although  these  do  not  reflect  so  directly  upon  us  teachers,  yet  an 
organized  effort  on  our  part  will  do  much  to  remove  them.  Among  others  there 
is  the  mistaken  notion  that  a  high-school  course  in  German  should  attempt  no 
more  than  to  satisfy  the  entrance  requirements  of  an  average  college.  No  one 
who  is  at  heart  a  public  school  man  can  uphold  such  a  view  in  the  face  of  all  sta¬ 
tistics  on  the  subject.  If  the  German  courses  in  our  public  schools  shall  not  be  a 
farce,  then  time  enough  must  be  given  to  them  so  that  definite  and  lasting  results 
can  be  obtained  by  the  end  of  the  high-school  course.  This  I  think  can  be  accom¬ 
plished,  provided  German  runs  through  the  high-school  course  as  an  elective  for 
four  years  with  5  recitations  per  week,  making  a  total  of  800  periods.  I  do  not  main¬ 
tain  that  even  at  the  end  of  this  time  the  pupils  will  have  reached  the  desired  goal, 
but  they  will  certainly  be  so  near  to  it  that  all  who  wish  to  reach  it  independently 
of  a  teacher  can  do  so  without  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  time  and  energy.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  confine  ourselves  to  short  courses  of  two  years  or  less,  expecting 
the  colleges  to  supplement  these,  then  most  of  the  public  money  spent  on  German 
instruction  will  be  wasted,  since  only  a  small  minority  will  derive  any  benefit  at 
all  from  it.  By  attempting  to  do  more  in  German  than  our  colleges  require  for 
entrance  we  are  not  opposing  these  institutions,  but  are  merely  doing  our  duty  by 
that  large  majority  that  will  never  go  to  college.  In  proof  of  this  I  quote  the  fol¬ 
lowing  from  Commissioner  Harris's  latest  report  on  secondary  schools  in  the 
United  States: 


Public  high  schools  of  Pennsylvania. 


Males. 

Females. 

Total  enrollment . . 

Percentage  of  total  male 

lege,. . . . 

Punils  taking  German _ 

and  female  enrollment  preparing  for  col- 

37. 5 

13 

1,488 

62.5 

5.2 

2,559 

*  *  *  Several  months  ago  I  sent  out  about  GOO  letters  of  inquiry  concerning 
the  study  of  German  in  our  public  high  schools.  Thus  I  learned  that  fully  100 
reputable  high  schools  distributed  over  74  cities  had  four  years  of  German.  In 
Pennsylvania  there  are  but  5  of  these,  Philadelphia  being  conspicuous  for  its 


638 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


absence.  I  give  a  list  of  the  cities,  but  omit  the  names  of  the  individual  high 
schools: 


Akron,  Ohio. 

Albany,  N.  Y. 
Allegheny,  Pa. 
Altoona,  Pa. 

Appleton,  Wis. 

Austin,  Tex. 

Baltimore,  Md. 
Belleville,  Ill. 
Binghamton,  N.  Y 
Boston,  Mass. 
Brooklyn,  1ST.  Y. 
Canton,  Ohio. 

Chicago,  Ill. 
Ghiilicothe,  Ohio. 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 
Columbus,  Ohio. 

Corry,  Pa. 


Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. 
Covington,  Ky. 
Crownpoint,  2nd. 
Davenport,  Iowa. 
Dayton,  Ohio. 
Denver,  Colo. 
Detroit,  Mich. 
Duluth.  Minn. 

Elgin,  Ill. 

El  wood,  Ind. 

Erie,  Pa. 

Evansville,  Ind. 

Port  Wayne,  Ind. 
Gloucester,  Mass. 
Grand  Island,  Nebr. 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Helena,  Mont.  (3£). 
Hamilton,  Ohio. 
Hammond,  Ind. 


Houston,  Tex. 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Jacksonville,  Ill. 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 

La  Crosse,  Vfis. 
Lafayette,  Ind. 
Lima,  Ohio. 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Montclair,  1ST.  J. 
Newark,  N.  J. 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
Omaha,  Nebr. 
Oshkosh,  Wis. 
Oswego,  N.  Y. 
Peoria,  111. 

Pueblo,  Colo. 

Quincy,  Ill. 
Richmond,  Ind. 
Saginaw,  E.  S.,  Mich. 


Saginaw,  W.  S.,  Mich. 
Sacramento,  Cal. 
South  Bend,  Ind. 
South  Salem,  Ohio. 
Springfield,  Ill. 
Springfield,  Ohio. 

St.  Cloud,  Minn. 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Titusville,  Pa. 

Toledo,  Ohio. 
Trenton,  N.  J. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Wausau,  Wis. 
Worcester,  Mass. 
Youngstown,  Ohio. 


Tli©  lecturer  advocated  at  the  close  of  his  paper: 

1.  To  introduce  German  into  as  many  high  schools  as  possible. 

2.  To  insist  on  four  years  of  German  in  the  high  schools  wherever  circumstances 
will  permit. 

3.  To  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  work  in  our  own  and  other  departments  by 
limiting  the  number  of  subjects  assigned  to  each  teacher. 

4.  To  set  a  higher  standard  for  high-school  teachers  of  German  by  requiring 
them  to  pursuo  special  post-graduate  courses. 

5.  To  give  German  its  proper  place  as  an  elective  in  the  high-school  curriculum. 

6.  To  encourage  the  Latin-German  group,  since  this  will  raise  the  standard  of 
our  department,  and  will  enable  more  pupils  to  enter  college. 

7.  To  found  a  national  association  for  teachers  of  German. 


As  far  as  the  secondary  schools  of  New  York,  in  i>articular,  are  concerned,  the 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York  has  for  the  past  few  years  been  undergoing  a 
process  of  change  into  a  high-grade  college.  It  may  therefore  be  a  mistake  to  class 
this  institution  among  the  intermediate  schools.  Encouraging  attention  is  given 
to  German  instruction,  directed  by  Professor  Werner. 

In  the  school  year  1901,  two  sessions,  the  attendance  at  German  instruction  was: 

I.  Classical  course  ( German  elective  only  in  the  last  year) ,  12  seniors. 

II.  Scientific  course  and  mechanical  course:  Subfreshmen,  100;  freshmen,  190; 
soiihomores,  165;  juniors,  122;  hence,  a  total  of  about  600  pupils. 

Dr.  Monteser  writes  concerning  the  conditions  in  the  high  schools  of  New  York 
City,  in  existence  about  five  years: 


I  fear  that  I  can  reply  but  imperfectly  to  your  inquiry  on  the  j)resent  status  of 
the  development  of  German  instruction  in  the  high  schools  of  New  York.  I  have 
exact  information  only  on  the  conditions  of  the  De  Witt  Clinton  High  School, 
where  I  am  engaged.  The  conditions  at  the  Cooper  High  School  are  about  the 
same  in  general.  Very  little  German,  however,  is  taught  at  the  high  school  for 
girls  (Wadleigh).  *  *  *  The  full  German  course  with  us  continues  four  years, 
with  four  periods  a  week.  Besides,  we  have  a  three  years’  course  which  begins  in 
the  second  year  and  has  five  periods  a  week,  and  another  three  years’  course  with 
four  periods  the  first  and  two  periods  each  the  second  and  third  years.  The  last 
mentioned  is  intended  for  those  pupils  who  study  both  classic  languages,  and  is, 
therefore,  that  division  of  the  high  school  which  corresponds  to  the  German  gym¬ 
nasium,  while  the  first-mentioned  courses  correspond  to  the  realsehule  and  real- 
gymnasium,  The  first  year  of  all  courses  is  devoted  chiefly  to  giving  an  excellent 
foundation  in  grammar;  later,  reading,  translation,  composition,  and,  to  some 
extent,  conversation  form  the  subject  matter  of  instruction.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  years  pupils  read  works  like  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  Tell,  and  Hermann  und 
Dorothea. 


V/hat  is  to  be  gathered  from  this  interesting  letter,  to  wit,  the  lack  of  persons 
fully  informed  on  the  present  state  of  affairs,  is  explained  by  the  well-known 
maxim  of  Goethe,  particulary  applicable  to  secondary  schools: 

Nothing  is  constant  but  change. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


639 


May  the  Proteus  of  American  intermediate  schools  soon  assume  the  definite 
shape  specially  desirable  for  the  interests  of  providing  well-prepared  freshmen  for 
universities  and  the  elevation  of  German  instruction. 

III.  Public  Primary  Schools. 

Ohio’s  former  metropolis,  Cincinnati,  in  the  year  1840,  in  pursuance  of  the  school 
law  of  1889  for  the  State  of  Ohio,  introduced  elementary  schools  with  two  lan¬ 
guages,  and  was  the  first  city  to  take  this  step.  Ohio  was  followed  by  Indiana 
and  Wisconsin.  In  most  other  States  the  choice  was  left  open  to  city  communi¬ 
ties  to  what  extent  a  foreign  language  should  be  introduced  or  discontinued  in 
their  public  schools.  The  consequence  is  that  in  St.  Louis,  for  instance,  where 
German  instruction  flourished  to  such  an  extraordinary  degree  during  the  bril¬ 
liant  period  of  Dr.  Harris's  superintendence,  it  has  been  altogether  suspended, 
whereas  in  New  York  and  Chicago  the  attempts  to  discontinue  it  have  been  made 
futile  only  by  the  combined  opposition  of  American  intelligence  and  the  national 
spirit  of  German- Americans. 

Director  Dapprich  1  has  thus  reported  on  the  present  state  of  affairs: 

Whereas  the  two  languages  have  an  equal  rank  in  the  schools  of  Cincinnati,  in 
other  cities  English  is  placed  far  above  German.  In  Baltimore  the  English- 
German  schools  enroll  more  than  8,000  pupils  under  city  control,  and  sufficient 
attention  is  given  to  German;  there  is  no  attendant  expense,  as  the  class  teachers 
conduct  German  instruction  and  no  extra  outlay  is  necessary.  Conditions  are 
the  same  in  Belleville,  Ill.,  where  more  than  half  of  the  public-school  teachers  are 
prepared  to  teach  German.  The  same  may  be  said  of  many  other  cities.  This 
arrangement  is  the  only  right  one  for  the  rational  study  of  German  and  its  con¬ 
tinuance  as  a  branch  in  public  schools.  The  effort  should  be  made  to  extend  this 
system  to  all  city  schools.  We  on  this  side  of  the  ocean  find  it  incomprehensible 
that  teachers  in  Germany  are  not  required  to  learn  at  least  one  foreign  modern 
language,  for  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  no  one  will  be  considered  educated 
unless  he  can  speak  and  write  two  languages  fluently. 

The  tendency  toward  the  realization  of  this  ideal  is  very  strong  among  American 
teachers.  An  epoch  in  this  direction  was  marked  by  the  report  of  the  committee 
of  ten  to  the  National  Educational  Association  in  1894.  Prof.  Charles  H.  Grand- 
gent,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  chairman  of  the  section  for  modern  languages,  reported: 

Wherever  thoroughly  competent  teachers  can  be  secured  we  are  of  the  opinion 
that  there  should  be  introduced  into  the  grammar  schools  an  elective  course  in  Ger¬ 
man  or  French,  open  to  all  pupils  who  have  arrived  at  the  fourth  year  from  the 
end.  It  is  supposed  that  the  average  boy  or  girl  will  reach  this  stage  at  the  age  of 
10.  We  make  the  above  recommendation  not  with  a  view  to  separating  at  such 
an  early  period  the  scholars  who  are  likely  to  enter  a  high  school  or  college  from 
those  who  are  to  receive  only  elementary  instruction,  but  in  the  firm  belief  that 
the  educational  efforts  of  modern-language  study  will  be  of  immense  benefit 
to  all  who  are  able  to  pursue  it  under  proper  guidance.  It  will  train  their  mem¬ 
ory  and  develop  their  sense  of  accuracy;  it  will  quicken  and  strengthen  their  rea¬ 
soning  powers  by  offering  them  at  every  step  problems  that  must  be  immediately 
solved  by  the  correct  applications  of  the  results  of  their  own  observation:  it  wall 
help  them  to  understand  the  structure  of  the  English  sentence  and  the  real  mean¬ 
ing  of  English  words;  it  will  broaden  their  minds  by  revealing  to- them  modes  of 
thought  and  expression  different  from  those  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed. 
The  study  of  Latin  appears,  it  is  true,  to  present  the  same  advantages,  but  living 
languages  seem  to  us  better  adapted  to  grammar-school  work,  both  on  account  of 
the  greater  ease  with  which  they  can  be  taught  and  learned  and  because  of  their 
closer  relation  to  the  interests  and  ideas  of  to-day. 

The  following  statement  of  the  extent  of  German  instruction  in  American  cities, 
furnished  by  the  committee  of  the  German  Teachers’  Association,  may  be  appended 
to  this  general  investigation. 2 


1  Dr.  Muller,  German  Schools  and.  German  Instruction  in  Foreign  Countries,  pp.  346  and  347. 

2  The  tables,  which  are  taken  from  pages  43  to  45  of  the  pamphlet  The  Present  Position  of  Ger¬ 
man  Instruction  in  the  Schools  of  the  United  States,  contain  several  errors  that  have  been  cor¬ 
rected  here  as  far  as  possible.  It  is  astonishing  that  the  percentage  of  pupils  studying  German 
in  cities  where  German  is  not  taught  in  the  public  elementary  schools  is  not  much  below  that 
of  cities  where  public  German  instruction  receives  “  no  special  encouragement.”  In  such  cases 
parents  must  prefer  private  schools  which  afford  ample  opportunity  for  learning  German. 


640 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

I.  Cities  in  ivhich  German  receives  special  attention . 


City. 

Population. 

1  Per  cent  Her¬ 

man. 

Pupils. 

Study  G 

erman. 

In  private 

schools. 

In  public 

schools. 

Total  num¬ 

ber. 

In  private 

schools. 

In  public 

schools. 

Total. 

Per  cent. 

New  Braunfels,  Tex . 

2, 000 

99 

a  20 

240 

360 

120 

240 

360 

100 

Tell  City,  ind . 

3,600 

95 

125 

500 

625 

120 

500 

620 

96 

Belleville,  Ill . 

18,000 

70 

1, 055 

2, 779 

3,834 

960 

2,026 

2, 986 

71 

New  Ulm,  Minn . 

4,800 

90 

340 

684 

1,024 

330 

575 

905 

90 

Carlstadt,  N.  J-. . 

2, 600 

90 

122 

517 

637 

122 

486 

608 

95 

Erie,  Pa . . . 

50,000 

27 

3,000 

7,651 

10, 651 

1,985 

4,830 

6, 715 

66 

Milwaukee,  Wis . . 

250,000 

66 

19,093 

32,027 

51, 120 

10,525 

21, 190 

31,715 

02 

Cincinnati,  Ohio . 

360, 000 

40 

16, 793 

42, 789 

58, 582 

10, 760 

17,287 

28, 047 

50 

Cleveland,  Ohio . 

340, 000 

40 

15,000 

50,454 

65, 454 

8,041 

17,643 

25, 684 

40 

Evansville,  Ind . . 

60, 000 

27 

3,000 

7,483 

10,483 

1,365 

2,480 

3,845 

36 

Hamilton,  Ohio. . - . 

25, 000 

30 

1, 250 

3,267 

4, 517 

450 

1,017 

1,467 

32 

Columbus,  Ohio . 

120, 000 

20 

3, 529 

17,369 

20,589 

1,580 

3,980 

5, 560 

22 

Dayton,  Ohio . 

80,000 

30 

3,800 

10, 982 

14, 782 

1,320 

2,203 

3,523 

25 

Saginaw,  Mich . . . 

18,000 

30 

400 

4. 200 

4,600 

250 

1,130 

1,380 

33 

Baltimore,  Md.. . 

550, 000 

23 

17,400 

75,610 

93, 010 

7,250 

8,450 

15, 700 

10 

Indianapolis,  Ind . 

150, 000 

19 

2, 241 

27,662 

29,903 

1,861 

4,537 

5, 398 

18 

II. — Cities  in  which  German  receives  no  special  encouragement. 


City. 

d 

o 

+3 

3 

o 

Ph 

Per  cent  Ger¬ 
man. 

Pupils. 

Study  German. 

In  private 
schools. 

In  public 
schools. 

Total  num¬ 
ber. 

In  private 
schools. 

In  public 

schools. 

Total. 

Per  cent. 

New  York,  N.  Y . . 

1, 800, 000 

38 

50,000 

261,326 

311, 326 

18,240 

60,000 

78,240 

25 

Buffalo,  N.  Y._. . . 

350, 000 

40 

19,082 

52, 157 

71,239 

5,030 

7,030 

12, 160 

17 

Hoboken,  N.  J . 

54,000 

56 

1,500 

8,119 

9,619 

870 

980 

1,850 

20 

Sheboygan,  Wis _ _ 

22,000 

55 

1,307 

3, 445 

4, 752 

1,870 

744 

2, 614 

55 

Davenport,  Iowa  .  -  - . 

31,000 

46 

1.200 

5,485 

6, 685 

3*0 

3,400 

3, 740 

56 

Chicago,  Ill . . . . . 

1, 600, 000 

37 

91,041 

213, 825 

304, 888 

25,3*0 

31, 768 

57,108 

19 

Denver,  Colo . . . 

150,000 

13 

1,450 

21, 280 

22, 730 

530 

2,861 

3,391 

15 

Lancaster,  Pa, . 

38,000 

22 

500 

5, 745 

6, 245 

980 

580 

1,560 

25 

Akron,  Ohio . . 

33,000 

26 

1,500 

5,810 

7,310 

750 

75 

825 

11 

Toledo,  Ohio . 

115, 000 

38 

4,500 

16, 724 

21,224 

1,868 

1, 932 

3,800 

18 

La  Crosse,  Wis . . 

30,000 

35 

935 

5, 120 

6,055 

893 

560 

1,453 

25 

Houston,  Tex . 

45,000 

15 

500 

4,218 

5,018 

350 

816 

1,166 

20 

III. — Cities  in  which  German  is  not  taught  in  the  public  elementary  schools. 


City. 

Population. 

Per  cent  German . 

Pupils. 

Study  German. 

In  private 
schools. 

I11  public 
schools. 

Total  num¬ 
ber. 

In  private 
schools. 

In  public 
high  schools. 

Total. 

' 

Per  cent. 

St.  Louis,  Mo . 

600, 000 

37 

25,000 

73, 529 

98,529 

16, 850 

16, 998 

17 

Detroit,  Mich . 

275,000 

46 

13,671 

34, 756 

48,427 

7,180 

250 

7,430 

15 

Newark,  N.  J. . 

215, 000 

36 

9,  915 

30, 575 

40, 490 

5,180 

500 

5, 680 

14 

Louisville,  Ky . 

200,000 

22 

8,000 

24, 855 

32, 855 

4, 530 

150 

4.680 

14 

St.  Paul,  Minn. . . 

150, 000 

32 

7,000 

22, 329 

29,329 

2, 180 

443 

2,628 

9 

Allegheny,  Pa . . 

110,000 

32 

5,000 

18, 969 

23, 969 

2, 560 

150 

2,710 

11 

Brooklyn,  N.Y . . 

1,100,000 

26 

40,000 

146, 429 

1S6, 429 

7,150 

960 

8, 110 

5 

Peoria,  Ill . 

55,000 

26 

1,400 

7,962 

9,362 

1,020 

150 

1,170 

12 

Dubuque,  Iowa . . . 

42, 000 

39 

2,400 

5,301 

7,701 

1, 850 

175 

2,025 

30 

Quincy,  Ill . . . 

34, 000 

38 

2.500 

4, 617 

7,117 

1,640 

80 

1,720 

24 

Rochester,  N.Y . . . 

160,000 

32 

5;  827 

22,518 

28,345 

2, 180 

448 

2,628 

9 

Pittsburg,  Pa . 

275, 000 

27 

2,300 

30, 783 

53, 783 

7,128 

160 

7,288 

13 

GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


641 


NEW  YORK  CITY. 

The  following  instructive  facts  on  the  introduction  of  German  instruction  in 
the  city  of  New  York  were  given  at  a  German  mass  meeting  held  March  18,  1875, 
in  Cooper  Institute:1 

Recognizing  the  merits  of  the  study  of  modern  languages  and  their  advantage 
for  practical  life,  the  school  commissioner  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1854,  intro¬ 
duced  an  optional  one-year  course  in  the  highest  grade  of  the  grammar  schools.  In 
the  year  1870,  chiefly  because  qf  the  increasing  importance  of  the  German  element  in 
civil  society  and  commercial  interests,  German  was  introduced  as  a  regular  branch 
of  public  instruction  in  all  the  eight  grades  of  grammar  schools  wherever,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  school  trustees  of  the  respective  wards,  there  was  sufficient 
demand  for  it.  In  consequence,  till  the  close  of  the  year  1873,  German  was  taught 
as  a  regular  branch  to  19,396  pupils  in  464  classes,  in  contrast  with  the  limited 
optional  course  in  French  in  the  two  highest  grades,  which  was  pursued  by  1,609 
pupils  in  50  classes.  The  result  was  that  in  the  fall  of  1874  1,180  of  the  1,200 
students  at  the  Female  Normal  College  studied  German,  while  only  20  took  the 
French  course. 

On  December  16,  1874,  Commissioner  Brown  presented  a  report  from  the  com¬ 
mittee  on  course  of  study  and  schoolbooks  to  the  board  of  education  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  as  follows: 

*  *  *  Pupils  attending  German  private  schools  have  in  large  numbers  left 
those  schools  to  connect  themselves  witii  the  public  schools,  and  in  this  way  not  only 
has  our  system  of  public  instruction  been  made  more  popular,  but  it  has  become 
more  effective  as  a  means  of  Americanizing  the  citizens  of  foreign  birth  and  their 
children,  who  constitute  so  large  a  part  of  our  population,  by  bringing  them  in 
immediate  and  daily  contact  with  the  children  of  Anglo-American  birth,  and  under 
such  educational  and  moral  influence  which  tends  to  make  them  a  thoroughly 
homogeneous  part  of  our  nation.  •  The  more  effective  this  department  of  instruc¬ 
tion  is  made  the  more  successful  will  our  system  be  in  this  respect  and  the  more 
nearly  shall  we  approach  to  that  desirable  consummation  of  bringing  under  the 
influence  of  our  common  schools  the  children  of  all  classes  of  our  people  as  well  as 
of  every  nationality  and  creed.  The  importance  of  this  consideration  will  be 
obvious  in  view  of  the  fact  that  at  least  11,000  German  pupils  are  in  daily  attend¬ 
ance  at  the  Catholic  parochial,  Lutheran,  and  German  private  schools. 

The  report  proceeds  to  state  the  result  of  investigations  in  12  of  the  larger  and 
a  few  of  the  smaller  cities.  Among  other  things,  it  says: 

In  St.  Louis  the  number  of  pupils  of  the  public  grammar  schools  studying  Ger¬ 
man  was,  in  1871-72,  10,246  out  of  a  total  number  of  29,138,  or  35.2  per  cent:  in 
1872-73  the  number  rose  to  12,055  out  of  a  total  number  of  31,009,  or  38.9  per  cent. 
The  increase  w  s  chiefly  in  the  number  of  Anglo-American  pupils,  who  in  1871-72 
numbered  1,356  and  in  the  following  year  3,190.  Hence  the  board  of  education 
gradually  introduced  German  into  a  large  number  of  schools,  and,  for  children  of 
German  parentage,  into  all  the  graces  of  the  schools,  from  the  lowest  grade  of  the 
primary  department  up  to  the  highest.  Owing  to  the  increased  demands  of  Anglo- 
American  parents,  it  was  in  1871  introduced  into  the  lower  classes  for  all  pirpils. 

The  report  then  refers  to  conditions  in  Ohio,  already  mentioned,  and  of  which 
a  fuller  account  will  be  given,  and  concludes  with  Kentucky: 

In  Louisville  the  total  number  of  pupils  of  public  schools  was,  in  1872-73,  9,367; 
the  number  in  German  classes,  6,547,  against  6,216  in  1871-72  and  5,713  in  1870-71. 
It  is  taught  in  the  schools  of  all  grades.  The  study  is  very  popular,  and,  as  in  St. 
Louis,  Cleveland,  and  Cincinnati,  there  is  no  opposition  to  it.  ~ 


1  Compare: 

I.  The  German  Language  in  the  Public  Schools.  Addresses  delivered  at  the  mass  meeting  in 
Cooper  Institute,  New  York,  March  18, 1875. 

II.  The  German  Language  as  a  Regular  Branch  of  Public  Instruction. 

ED  1901- 


41 


642 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  reports  of  the  superintendents  and  boards  of  education  of  the  cities  in 
which  instruction  in  German  has  been  for  some  time  a  part  of  the  regular  course 
of  studies  unanimously  recognize  the  importance  of  this  study.  The  president  of 
the  board  of  education  of  Louisville,  in  his  last  annual  report,  remarks:  “As  to 
the  utility  of  the  study  of  German  in  a  community  like  our  own,  or  in  any  com¬ 
munity,  there  can  be  but  one  opinion.” 

From  Commissioner  Brown’s  report  we  can  understand  that  his  successor,  Her¬ 
ring,  who,  in  unison  with  Commissioner  Baker,  desired  to  abolish  the  “ornamen¬ 
tal  branches,”  of  which  German  was  one,  encountered  violent  opposition.  The 
protest  meeting  of  March  18,  1875,  was  called  to  order  by  Mr.  M.  Ellinger.  The 
chief  speakers  were  Clark  Bell,  who  spoke  in  English;  Ex-Governor  Ed.  Salomon; 
Prof.  Felix  Adler,  and  Carl  Gaepp.  Letters  of  approval  were  sent  by  Bayard 
Taylor  and  Andrew  D.  White.  The  communication  of  the  former  is  given  in  his 
biographical  sketch.  The  latter  wrote: 

I  need  hardly  state  that  I  fully  agree  with  you  in  keeping  German  as  a  regular 
study  in  our  public  schools.  Years  ago  I  expressed  myself  in  favor  of  the  motion, 
and  time  has  only  strengthened  my  view.  I  could  give  reasons  for  my  opinion,  but 
I  shall  refrain  from  doing  so  and  mention  but  one  tact.  If  every  year  hundreds  of 
our  best  young  men  find  it  to  their  interests,  at  great  expense  of  money,  trouble, 
and  time,  to  travel  in  Germany  in  order  to  learn  the  German  language,  it  would 
be  a  ruthless  waste  of  what  we  possess  if  we  should  allow  this  language  to  die  out 
among  the  thousands  who  have  its  first  elements  and  could  acquire,  for  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  commerce  and  national  education,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  it  by  some 
continued  exercise  in  our  schools. 

The  resolutions  adopted  unanimously  at  the  meeting  were: 

Since,  according  to  the  opinion  of  pedagogical  authorities,  instruction  in  a  for¬ 
eign  language  given  simultaneously  with  that  in  the  native  tongue  is  the  most 
valuable  means  to  develop  the  mind  of  the  young  and  the  native  language  can  be 
best  learned  by  comparison  with  another; 

Since  the  German  language  possesses  all  the  qualities  necessary  for  this  purpose, 
a  fact  recognized  in  the  report  of  the  superintendents  of  the  public  schools  of  this 
city,  as  well  as  by  the  school  authorities  in  other  cities  where  German  has  been 
introduced  into  the  public  schools; 

Since  German  is  the  language  spoken  by  a  large  percentage  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  and  of  this  city,  on  account  of  which  direct  practical  advan¬ 
tages  accrue  from  its  introduction  as  a  regular  branch  of  study  in  public  schools; 

Since,  as  experience  proves,  German  instruction  in  public  schools  draws  a  large 
number  of  children  of  German- American  parents  that  would  otherwise  receive 
their  education  in  private  or  parochial  schools,  whereby  the  difficult}'’  of  identify¬ 
ing  the  future  generation  of  German  extraction  with  our  relations  and  institu¬ 
tions  and  educating  a  people  of  harmonious  national  sentiments  and  American 
patriotism  is  sensibly  increased; 

Since  a  former  school  board,  with  a  proper  appreciation  of  these  facts,  amended 
the  by-laws  so  that  German  shall  be  recognized  as  a  regular  branch  wherever 
public  opinion  so  demands: 

Be  it  resolved,  That  the  citizens  of  this  city,  assembled  without  regard  to  party 
or  other  distinctions,  learn  with  astonishment  and  regret  that  certain  member's 
of  the  present  school  board  are  endeavoring  to  change  the  course  of  study  in  our 
public  schools  by  excluding  instruction  in  the  German  language; 

Be  it  resolved ,  That  we,  as  citizens  and  taxpayers,  most  emphatically  protest 
against  these  measures  designed  to  exclude  and  curtail  German  instruction  in 
public  schools; 

Be  it  resolved,  That  we  fully  indorse  the  report  of  last  year's  committee  on 
studies,  submitted  to  the  school  board,  and  are  convinced  that  the  adoption  of 
the  regulations  therein  recommended  will  prove  an  amelioration  of  the  educa¬ 
tional  method  tested  by  practical  experience; 

Be  it  resolved,  That  we  consider  every  effort,  under  pretext  of  economy,  to 
insure  the  development  of  our  public  schools,  in  that  not  only  language  instruc¬ 
tion  but  other  branches  that  exert  a  refining  influence  on  youthful  minds  are 
excluded,  as  ill  ad  vised  and  unworthy  of  the  genius  of  our  times  and  the  country 
and  city  in  which  we  live; 

Be  it  resolved,  That  as  the  institutions  of  our  country  are  based  upon  a  thorough 
and  liberal  education  of  all  citizens,  our  public  schools,  to  fulfill  their  purpose, 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


643 


must  afford  instruction  that  will  insure  a  thorough  and  equal  education  to  chil¬ 
dren  of  the  poor  and  the  rich,  of  the  native  born  and  immigrants  alike; 

Be  it  resolved ,  That  a  copy  of  these  resolutions,  as  expressive  of  the  opinion  of 
this  assembly,  be  presented  to  the  president  of  the  school  board  by  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  president. 

W e  regret  not  to  be  able  to  give  the  excellent  addresses  delivered  on  this  occa¬ 
sion.  The  effect  of  the  speeches  and  resolutions  was  that  the  attempts  to  abolish 
German  instruction  were  futile.  On  the  contrary,  upon  motion  of  Commissioner 
Klamroth,  it  was  decided  to  appoint  an  assistant  superintendent  whose  special 
duty  was  to  be  the  supervision  of  modern  language  instruction.  Prof.  Alexander  J. 
Schem  was  appointed  to  this  position,  and  has  filled  it  most  successfully. 

Since  then  German  instruction  in  the  public  schools  of  New  York  has  attained  a 
position  which  it  is  hardly  likely  ever  to  relinquish.  The  above-mentioned  pro¬ 
portion— 25  per  cent— of  pupils  studying  German  seems  to  be  far  too  small,  espe¬ 
cially  when  we  take  into  consideration  that,  at  present,  only  491,203  of  the  total 
number  of  733,418  children  of  school  age  are  registered  in  public  schools,  and  about 
40,000  between  6  and  8  years  of  age  grow  up  without  any  schooling  whatever. 

In  the  “  first  annual  report  of  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  to  the  board  of 
education  for  the  year  ending  July  31, 1899,”  Superintendent  William  H.  Maxwell 
remarks  (p.  119)  on  German  instruction: 

The  German  language  is  taught  for  all  who  care  to  study  it.  The  result  is  that 
children  are  subjected  to  an  amount  of  pressure  in  the  Manhattan  schools  that  is 
practically  unknown  in  the  other  boroughs.  The  remedy  is  not  to  take  shop  work 
and  German  out  of  the  schools,  but  to  extend  the  schedule  time  to  eight  years,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  make  provision  by  which  bright  children  who  can  accomplish 
the  work  in  less  time  may  be  permitted  to  do  so. 

The  extension  of  German  instruction  is  particularly  necessary  in  Brooklyn, 
where  only  5  per  cent  of  the  pupils  study  German,  though  at  least  one- quarter  of 
the  population  is  of  German  extraction. 

CLEVELAND, 

Though  written  twenty-five  years  ago,  the  able  article  on  the  development  of  Ger¬ 
man  instruction  in  Cleveland,  published  by  Max  Horwitz  in  the  Deutsche  Rund¬ 
schau  (Yol.  IY,  pp.  249-252),  has  lost  none  of  its  worth.  A  glance  at  the  tables 
given  shows  that  Cleveland  is  one  of  the  cities  in  which  German  instruction 
receives  special  attention. 

The  author  writes: 

It  would  be  going  too  deep  into  the  subject  to  give  the  exact  data  as  to  how 
German  instruction  was  introduced  in  each  city  that  has  introduced  it.  Cleve¬ 
land,  which  deservedly  boasts  of  being  the  first  city  in  the  United  States  in  this 
respect,  may  serve  as  an  example. 

German  instruction  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  obligatory  in  Cleveland.  A  new 
school  law  passed  by  the  legislature  of  Ohio  May  1,  1873,  reads: 

“It  shall  be  the  duty  of  school  commissioners  to  see  that  the  German  language 
is  taught  in  all  the  public  schools  of  the  State  where  it  is  requested  bona  fide  by 
seventy-five  citizens,  residents  of  the  district  in  question,  who  represent  not  fewer 
than  forty  pupils,  and  the  pupils  want  to  learn  German  and  English  at  the  same 
time;  provided  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  so  understood  as  to  prevent 
said  commissioners  from  having  German  or  other  languages  taught  in  the  said 
schools,  and  provided  that  ail  branches  of  study  which  are  taught  in  the  public 
schools  shall  be  taught  in  the  English  language.” 

Divested  of  its  technical  form  of  expression  this  law  contains,  besides  a  restric¬ 
tion  in  favor  of  English  as  the  language  of  instruction,  the  regulation  that  com¬ 
missioners  may  introduce  German  instruction  whenever  they  see  fit  to  do  so,  but 
must  introduce  it  whenever  the  relatives  of  forty  children  in  one  district  so  request. 

In  pursuance  of  this  law  the  school  commissioner  of  Cleveland  resolved  that  all 
the  pupils  in  elementary  classes  must  study  German  if  at  least  eighty  request 
it.  The  class  is  separated  into  two  divisions,  and  is  conducted  by  an  English  and 
a  German  teacher,  who  instruct  alternately  on  the  same  day.  Of  the  twenty-two 


644 


EDUCATION  REPORT  1900-1901. 


periods  a  week,  eleven  are  given  to  English  and  eleven  to  German.  The  following 
table  is  taken  from  the  order  of  study: 


Subject. 

English. 

German. 

Arithmetic . . . . . 

Hrs.  Mins. 

3  00 

2  00 

2  30 

2  30 

1  00 

Hrs.  Mins. 

Object  lessons _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

OOOQO 

coeoeooco 

NNNHN 

Reading _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Orthography . . . . . . .  _ . 

Writing . . . . . . . . . . 

Singing . 

11  00 

11  00 

While  arithmetic  is  taught  only  in  the  English  language,  which  is  most  proper 
for  obvious  practical  reasons,  and  is  expressly  required  by  the  State  law  in  all 
classes,  even  the  highest  to  which  the  above  order  of  time  applies,  singing  is 
taught  only  in  German.  As  much  as  Americans  may  disagree  with  them  on 
other  subjects  they  consider  music  the  special  invincible  right  of  Germans.  It 
may  be  mentioned  here  as  a  curious  occurrence  that  on  the  occasion  of  the  last 
great  German- American  Sangerfest  held  in  Cleveland  in  June,  1874, 1,500  children, 
representing,  besides  German,  the  Irish,  Scandinavian,  Italian,  French,  and  negro 
elements,  sang  Die  Wacht  am  Rhein  with  a  very  distinct  xironunciation  from 
beginning  to  end  in  German. 

Of  a  total  public-school  attendance  of  10,362  during  the  year  1873  3,572  pupils 
studied  German.  Of  these  2,435  were  children  of  German,  1,137  children  of  English 
parentage.  The  success  thus  attained  is  encouraging  to  Germans.  The  superin¬ 
tendent  of  German  instruction,  L.  R.  Klemm,  appointed  by  the  city,  says:1 

“Of  the  244  pupils  of  the  A  grammar  classes  that  were  examined  to  enter  the 
high  school  135  had  studied  German  one,  two,  or  three  years;  123  of  these  135 — a 
little  over  91  per  cent — passed.  Of  the  other  109  who  had  not  studied  German 
only  85 — not  quite  78  per  cent — passed.  Although  the  success  of  this  entire  exam¬ 
ination  depended  upon  the  results  of  the  examinations  in  arithmetic  and  English 
grammar,  the  pupils  who  took  German  carried  off  the  prize  from  those  whose 
ambition  did  not  rise  above  a  ‘common  English  education,'  even  though  they  had 
more  time  to  give  to  the  studies  specified.'’ 

And  that  is  not  all.  Germans  are  not  satisfied  with  demanding  the  opportunity 
for  their  children  to  learn  German.  They  show  Americans  why  their  children 
likewise  should  have  a  share  in  German  instruction.  In  the  words  of  a  zealous 
champion  in  Cleveland,  that  carry  a  greater  weight  since  he  speaks  in  an  official 
capacity,  many  a  prejudice  is  thereby  removed  that  under  other  circumstances 
would  have  disturbed  the  friendly  relations  between  the  two  nations.  It  is  not 
enough  that  Germans  should  learn  English.  They  do  it  without  reluctance, 
although  they  clearly  realize  that  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  them  to  do  so 
in  large  cities,  as  they  can  live  In  peace  and  harmony  without  it.  Newspapers 
printed  in  their  native  tongue  inform  them  of  all  that  they  need  to  know  in  poli¬ 
tics  and  social  life.  They  find  enough  German  shopkeepers  from  whom  they  can 
make  their  purchases,  and  in  social  intercourse  they  need  not  mix  against  their 
will  with  persons  that  speak  a  language  foreign  to  them;  and  still  they  learn  Eng¬ 
lish  simply  because  they  easily  adapt  themselves  to  the  customs  of  others  and  are 
not  so  foolish  as  to  dream  of  forming  a  state  within  a  state.  It  is  perfectly  natural 
that  they  not  only  assimilate,  but  endeavor  to  impart.  They  think  that  this 
Republic  is  a  crucible  in  which  all  the  nationalities  of  the  earth  are  represented, 
and  since  they  are  one  of  the  three  predominant  components  of  the  mixture  they 
desire  not  only  to  increase  the  quantity,  but,  what  is  of  more  account,  to  exert  an 
influence  on  the  quality.  They  think  that  they  possess  attributes  capable  in  fus¬ 
ing  the  mass  of  giving  the  new  mixture  a  greater  value;  to  that  end  it  must  give 
them  pleasure  that  their  English-speaking  fellow-citizens  are  learning  German. 

CHICAGO.2 

Upon  motion  of  Lorence  Brentano,  a  member  of  the  school  board  at  the  time, 
German  instruction  was  introduced  in  Chicago  in  1865,  by  way  of  experiment,  in 

1  Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education;  Cleveland,  1874. 

5  According  to  the  article  of  Dr.  G-.  A.  Zimmermann,  superintendent  of  modern  languages,  in 
the  Pedagogical  Monthly,  Volume  I,  No.  I,  pp.  46  and  47. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


645 


the  Washington  school.  Madame  Panline  M.  Reed,  a  highly  educated  woman,  was 
the  first  German  teacher.  Upon  her  transfer  to  the  high  schools,  in  1866,  she  was 
succeeded  by  Miss  Caroline  McFee.  At  that  time  115  pupils  studied  German. 
The  experiment  did  not  fall  through,  and  the  school  board  declared  it  to  be  “  a 
perfect  success.”  In  view  of  this  circumstance,  it  was  resolved  that  in  future,  in 
all  districts  where  the  parents  of  at  least  150  pupils  desired  that  their  children 
should  learn  German,  German  instruction  should  be  introduced.  Consequently 
it  was  at  once  introduced  into  four  schools — the  Moseley,  the  Franklin,  the  New¬ 
berry,  and  the  Wells.  In  the  following  years  seven  other  schools  were  added  to 
the  list.  At  the  close  of  the  school  year  1870-71  4,297  pupils,  1,411  in  secondary 
and  2,856  in  primary  grades,  studied  German. 

The  great  fire  that  transformed  the  flourishing  city  of  Chicago  into  a  mass  of 
smoking  ruins  naturally  affected  German  instruction  unfavorably.  After  Chicago 
had  recovered  from  the  blow  the  school  board  resolved,  in  the  year  1878,  to  appoint 
a  superintendent  of  German  instruction.  Miss  Regina  Shauer  was  selected.  At 
the  same  time  the  system  of  dividing  German  classes  into  definite  grades  was 
inaugurated;  previously  the  teachers  had  acted  according  to  their  individual 
judgment. 

When,  in  July,  1877,  uj>on  motion  of  the  well-known  attorney,  Mr.  W.  Vocke, 
Dr.  G.  A.  Zimmerxnann  was  ifiaced  at  the  head  of  German  instruction,  1,912  pupils 
in  18  schools  were  studying  German  under  16  teachers.  Interest  in  German  was 
at  that  time  dormant  among  the  people  at  large.  After  great  effort  on  his  part, 
Dr.  Zimmermann  succeeded  in  rousing  it.  He  made  various  changes  in  method, 
discarded  a  grammar  of  400  pages  and  replaced  it  with  a  practical  primer.  The 
consequence  was  a  decided  change  for  the  better.  In  the  year  1880  German  was 
taught  in  12  additional  schools  and  three  high  schools.  The  number  of  teachers 
had  risen  to  28  and  the  number  of  pupils  to  8,981.  Four  years  later  10,696  pupils, 
in  43  schools,  were  being  instructed  in  German  by  73  teachers.  When,  in  the  year 
1885,  German  instruction  was  again  introduced  into  the  third  and  fourth  grades, 
the  number  of  pupils  rose  to  29,440,  that  of  teachers  to  143. 

Through  the  annexation  of  different  suburbs  in  the  year  1890,  German  was 
introduced  into  26  additional  schools;  207  teachers  were  required  to  instruct  the 
34,801  pupils,  and  Dr.  Zimmermann  received  an  able  assistant  in  Miss  M.  I. 
Purer.  German  instruction  gained  the  height  of  its  vogue  in  the  year  1892-93; 
44,270  pupils  and  242  teachers  worked  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Zimmermann. 
Then  came  a  sudden  change.  In  consequence  of  financial  embarrassment,  the 
school  board  was  forced  to  curtail  expenses,  and  German  instruction  was  restricted 
to  the  higher  grades  with  a  resulting  diminution  of  100  teachers  and  20,000  pupils. 
However,  all  the  teachers  received  positions  as  English  teachers. 

Since  then  the  number  of  teachers  and  pupils  has  again  steadily  increased. 
According  to  last  year's  report  40,003  pupils  were  registered  for  German  instruc¬ 
tion.  Of  these  15,020  were  of  German  and  12,195  of  Anglo-American  parentage; 
the  parents  of  12,788  were  of  other  nationalities.  Instruction  was  given  by  210 
teachers.  In  the  high  schools  2,481  pupils  studied  German,  1,310  French,  and  12 
Spanish. 

For  some  time  it  seemed  as  though  the  encouragement  given  by  this  report  was 
not  to  be  sustained.  A  motion  was  made  to  abolish  German  instruction  on  account 
of  lack  of  funds,  and  this  proposition  was  supported  by  even  the  Times-Herald. 
But  in  pursuance  of  the  decided  attitude  of  the  German  press  and  the  different 
German  associations  the  retrogressive  measure  was  not  carried  out.  At  present 
there  are  42,000  pupils  under  215  teachers  in  elementary  schools,  and  in  high  schools 
3,000  pupils  under  27  teachers.  These  figures  were  never  reached  before,  and 
including  pupils  of  private  schools  are  almost  equal  to  the  number  of  pupils 
studying  German  in  the  borough  of  Manhattan. 


646 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 

EVANSVILLE,  IND. 


The  following  report  is  interesting  from  the  very  fact  that  its  representation  of 
the  condition  of  affairs  is  no  different  from  that  of  the  others  given.  The  author, 
Karl  Knortz,  superintendent  of  German,  published  the  report  in  his  recent  pamph¬ 
let  on  German  Nationality  in  the  United  States  (Hamburg,  1898).  In  it  he  says: 

In  many  of  the  numerous  cities  and  villages  of  the  East  and  West  settled  by 
Germans  German  is  a  branch  of  study  in  the  public  schools;  as  children  are  left 
free  to  choose  for  themselves,  it  depends  chiefly  upon  the  popularity  of  the  teacher 
and  his  methods  whether  they  take  up  the  study  or  not.  In  some  States  of  the 
Union,  as  in  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  and  Indiana,  German  instruction,  under  certain 
conditions, is  regulated  bylaw.  It  is  deeply  to  be  regretted  that  comparatively  so 
few  German- American  children  profit  by  this  advantage,  and  that  their  parents 
attach  so  little  importance  to  the  preservation  of  their  native  language.  I  shall 
cite  but  one  example:  My  place  of  residence,  Evansville,  has  about  60.000  inhab¬ 
itants,  of  whom  80,000  are  said  to  be  of  German  extraction.  The  public  schools 
are  attended  by  7,000  pupils;  as  German- Americans  usually  have  more  children 
than  Anglo-Americans,  it  would  be  supposed  that  at  least  4,000  children  would 
study  German  in  the  public  schools;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  number  is 
only  2,500,  and  900  of  these  are  of  English  parentage.  Nor  is  the  proportion  more 
encouraging  in  other  cities.  In  view  of  the  circumstance  that  of  all  German  born 
pupils  of  public  schools  only  11  per  cent  speak  German  to  their  parents  at  home, 
the  sad  fact  long  since  recognized  that  the  German  nationality  of  America  can 
only  be  preserved  by  constant  immigration  from  the  fatherland  is  confirmed  anew. 
Only  where  thoroughly  educated,  energetic,  and  discreet  teachers,  appreciative  of 
the  cultural  value  of  the  German  language,  . are  in  charge  of  German  instruction 
in  public  schools  its  condition  is  prosperous  and  its  result  encouraging.  Where 
this  is  not  the  case  the  number  of  pupils  studying  German  rapidly  decreases. 

IY.  Normal  Schools. 

The  teacher  who  does  not  feel  himself  or 
herself  an  apostle  with  an  important  human 
mission,  but  looks  upon  the  teaching  profes¬ 
sion  as  a  mere  means  of  making  a  living,  had 
better  seek  some  other  occupation— Thorn  as 
Davidson. 

The  various  agencies  for  training  teachers  in  the  United  States  are  enumerated 
by  Hinsdale  as  follows:1  Normal  schools  and  colleges,  teachers’ training  classes, 
teachers’  institutes,  summer  schools,  university  extension  lectures,  teachers’  read¬ 
ing  circles,  chairs  of  education  in  colleges  and  universities,  and  teachers’  colleges. 

Despite  these  manifold  opportunities  for  a  normal  education  it  is  unfortunately 
still  the  case  that  (on  the  authority  of  Boone)  out  of  every  four  teachers  only  one 
on  an  average  is  S37stematically  trained  for  his  profession.  Max  Horwitz  2  pre¬ 
sents  this  side  of  the  teacher  question,  and  especially  the  deficiency  in  number  of 
German  teachers,  in  the  following  graphic  statement: 

The  most  important  question  of  the  hour  is  the  teacher  question.  Where  are 
we  to  get  teachers?  There  is  an  extraordinary  deficiency  of  proper  teachers. 
First  of  all,  male  teachers  are  displaced  and  even  excluded  by  women.  However 
much  Germans  in  America  are  opposed  to  the  instruction  of  girls’  and  boys’  classes 
exclusively  by  women,  and  however  much  the  German  members  of  the  school 
boards  are  of  the  same  opinion,  nothing  remains  for  them  to  do  but  to  adapt  them¬ 
selves  to  circumstances.  Although  they  make  the  effort  of  gaining  concessions 
in  their  behalf,  they  can  not  venture  to  attack  a  fundamental  principle  of  the 
American  educational  system,  which  consists  in  giving  teachers’  positions,  with 
the  exception  of  the  position  of  principal,  to  women.  America  is  the  country  of 
championship  for  the  rights  of  women.  To  their  efforts  and  to  the  actual  fear 
which  Americans  feel  for  women,  and  try  in  vain  to  conceal  under  the  cover  of 
esteem,  is  to  be  ascribed  the  fact  that  no  effort  has  been  made  to  give  teachers’ 
positions  to  men.  Such  an  attempt  would  provoke  an  immediate  siege  of  the  ses- 


1  Monographs  on  Education  in  the  United  States,  No.  8,  page  1. 

2  In  the  article  quoted  above  from  the  deutsche  Rundschau,  Volume  IV,  pages  255  and  258. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS.  647 

sion  hall  by  hundreds  of  women,  who  would  not  depart  until  their  “  holy  rights  ” 
had  been  guaranteed. 

Independent  of  that  fact,  not  enough  male  teachers  could  be  found  in  America 
to  replace  the  women.  It  does  not  occur  to  an  American  to  study  until  his  twen¬ 
tieth  year  in  order  to  obtain  a  position  that  pays  $600  a  year,  with  the  prospect  of 
slow  increase.  He  decides  to  “run  his  chances,”  and  tries  his  luck  elsewhere. 
Germans,  therefore,  are  required  to  adapt  themselves  to  these  conditions.  If  they 
desire  to  have  German  introduced  in  public  schools,  they  must  accept  the  compro¬ 
mise  of  female  teachers.  The  city  of  Milwaukee  is  the  only  excejffion  in  all 
America.  Whereas  all  positions  in  all  schools  are  held  by  female  teachers,  who 
receive  from  $500  to  $700,  according  to  seniority,  in  Milwaukee  German  is  taught 
exclusively  by  men,  whose  salary  the  first  year  amounts  to  $1,000.  German 
female  teachers,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  female  teachers  of  German  in  pub¬ 
lic  schools,  however,  are  not  few.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  other  than  Ger¬ 
man  children  are  to  -be  taught,  and  consequently  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
English  language  is  indispensable;  otherwise  bad  English  Would  counteract  the 
good  to  be  effected  by  German  instruction  among  German  children.  Hence, 
women  who  have  immigrated  from  Germany  are  for  the  most  part  unsuitable, 
and  young  women  of  German  parentage  who  have  attended  American  public 
schools  and  studied  German  privately  are  almost  exclusively  depended  upon.  For 
reasons  difficult  to  determine,  the  number  of  young  women  among  Germans  who 
devote  themselves  to  teaching  is  insignificant,  so  insignificant  that  now  and  then 
more  vacancies  occur  in  schools  than  there  are  teachers  to  fill  them.  In  most 
cases,  even  if  they  pass  a  good  examination,  candidates  have  had  no  experience 
whatever  in  teaching.  This  must  be  acquired  in  practice,  as  there  is  no  seminary 
for  German. 

In  most  cities  where  the  school  superintendent  is  not  a  German,  the  examina¬ 
tion  of  German  teachers  is  held  by  the  German  members  of  the  school  board. 
Candidates  are  examined  in  English  and  German;  they  are  required  to  write  a 
translation  from  one  language  into  the  other,  analyze  what  they  have  translated, 
and  are  finally  required  to  answer  some  questions  orally.  A  few  years  since  the 
author  attended  an  examination  in  a  Y/estern  city:  there  were  six  candidates,  and 
it  continued  two  hours.  The  women  were  allowed  to  converse,  assist  one  another, 
and  correct  one  another's  mistakes.  The  committee  on  examinations  consisted  of 
three  gentlemen,  who  were  all  exemplary  citizens,  bnt  could  not  write  a  German 
letter  of  twenty  lines  without  a  mistake.  No  reproach  is  intended,  but  it  is 
important  to  gain  a  clear  view  of  the  situation. 

Since  the  above  article  was  written  conditions  have  very  much  improved;  but 
the  main  evil  spoken  of  has  not  been  remedied.  It  is  encouraging  to  note  that 
educators  are  making  a  zealous  effort  to  have  positions  filled  by  only  competent 
teachers,  and  to  root  out  the  evil  of  having  dilettantes  following  the  profession  for 
want  of  a  better  means  of  livelihood  and  giving  it  up  when  something  better  is 
offered  to  them.  During  recent  decades  the  teaching  profession  has  begun  to 
develop  a  worthy  membership,  which  recognizes  its  honorable  vocation;  and  it 
would  be  an  injustice  to  deny  that  women  have  done  their  full  part  toward  the 
elevation  of  the  profession. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  New  England  educators1  A.  E.  Winship  gave  utterance 
to  the  views  of  American  teachers  who  prosecute  their  labors  in  the  spirit  of  the 
motto  of  Thomas  Davidson,  and  closed  his  address  with  the  following  golden  text: 
“As  the  teacher  is,  the  school  is;  as  the  school  is,  the  child  is;  as  the  child  is,  the 
world  is.” 

These  words  indicate  the  same  ideals  to  which  German  educators  aspire,  and. 
the  motives  which  prompt  them  in  their  work — motives  whose  weight  in  forming 
a  cultured  people  has  been  recognized  since  the  Austro-German  war  of  1866,  which 
gave  rise  to  the  pregnant  words:  “  German  teachers  won  the  battle  of  Sadowa.” 

Whether  wisely  or  not,  the  results  of  the  effort  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  Ger¬ 
man  instruction  has  been  introduced  in  normal  schools  must  be  omitted.  But  it  is 
a  positive  fact  that  German  is  taught  in  many  institutions,  and  that  the  students 
take  a  great  interest  in  it.  The  average  number  of  students  in  the  Normal  College 


The  American  Institute  of  Instruction.  See  the  annual  reports  of  proceedings. 


648 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  New  York  City  registered  in  1899  was  2,560;  the  number  of  students  studying 
German  in  June,  1899,  was  303. 1 

According  to  Hinsdale’s  article  on  “The  training  of  teachers,”  page  13,  German 
has  been  taught  at  the  oldest  normal  schools  in  existence  for  upward  of  sixty  years. 
Students  of  normal  institutions  connected  with  universities  (as  the  Teachers’  Col¬ 
lege  of  New  York  City,  with  Columbia  University  since  1898)  have  every  opportu¬ 
nity  of  attending  all  the  courses  of  the  German  department.  The  programmes  of 
study  of  the  different  colleges  and  universities  have  specified  the  numerous  Ger¬ 
man  courses  that  have  the  value  of  German  seminaries  and  are  designed  for  normal 
training. 

A  few  items  relative  to  the  attendance  on  German  instruction  in  normal  schools 
were  given  by  Professor  Ferren  at  the  meeting  of  the  German  teachers  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  April  9,  1898: 

A  few  words  aboutOerman  in  our  normal  schools  will  not  be  out  of  place  here. 
In  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Ohio,  and  several  other  States  the  normal  schools 
accept  a  thorough  training  in  German  as  a  substitute  for  Latin.  In  answer  to  cir¬ 
cular  letters  sent  to  130  of  these  schools,  I  find  that  25  per  cent  of  the  principals 
insist  on  Latin,  while  the  remaining  75  per  cent  are  willing  to  accept  German  as 
an  equivalent.  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  most  of  the  normal  school  principals 
in  this  State  are  in  favor  of  permitting  a  choice  between  the  two  and  would  vote 
to  have  the  present  State  law  modified  to  that  effect.  The  demands  made  upon 
normal  students  are  such  that  there  is  hardly  time  to  study  both  languages  thor¬ 
oughly.  Hence  it  is  thought  best  to  learn  one  of  them  well  rather  than  obtain  a 
smattering  of  both.  But  the  standard  of  our  normal  schools  is  anything  but  uni¬ 
form.  For  instance,  in  Massachusetts  the  normal  preparatory  course  coincides 
with  the  high-school  course,  which  makes  a  Latin-German  group  possible.  Let 
us  hope  that  Pennsylvania  also  may  soon  require  a  high-school  diploma  represent¬ 
ing  four  years  of  work  for  admission  to  the  normal  schools.  At  any  rate,  the  atti¬ 
tude  of  these  schools  toward  German  is  too  important  to  be  overlooked.  Normal 
graduates  with  a  thorough  training  in  German  could  make  good  use  of  it,  even  if 
they  were  never  asked  to  teach  it,  and  could  do  much  to  further  our  cause  in  com¬ 
munities — and  there  are  such — where  the  old  Know  Nothing  spirit  still  prevails. 

Let  us  see  what  united  effort  will  do  for  this  State.  Each  one  of  us  should 
endeavor  to  have  something  placed  to  his  credit  before  the  next  meeting.  We 
must  try  to  make  a  better  showing  in  the  next  official  Report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  and  of  our  State  superintendent. 

The  speaker  added  that  in  Pennsylvania  only  18.4  per  cent  of  the  candidates  for 
teaching  study  German;  in  New  Jersey  the  proportion  is  27.2  per  cent,  and  in 
Maryland  full}7  31  per  cent. 

From  what  has  been  said  we  may  confidently  affirm  that  the  momentary  need  of 
German  teachers  is  relatively  no  greater  than  that  of  thoroughly  trained  teachers 
in  general.  From  the  increased  attendance  in  recent  years  in  the  German  depart¬ 
ments  of  universities,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  course  of  time  a  qualitatively 
and  quantitatively  sufficient  supply  will  satisfy  the  growing  demand  for  German 
teachers.  This  expectation  is  the  more  justifiable,  as  the  effect  of  the  resolutions 
of  the  “entrance-examination  board”  in  regard  to  the  position  of  German  in  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  shows  that  the  percentage  of  pupils  studying  German  has  risen 
more  rapidly  than  was  formerly  the  case.2 

The  German -American  normal  schools  play  no  unimportant  part  in  the  training 
of  German  teachers.  Director  Dapprich,  of  the  National  German-American  Nor¬ 
mal  Seminary,  mentions  five:3 

I.  The  National  German-American  Normal  Seminary  (Milwaukee). 

II.  The  Catholic  Normal  School  of  St.  Francis,  Wis. 

III.  The  Lutheran  Normal  School  in  Addison,  Ill. 


1  Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Normal  College,  for  the  year  ending  December  31, 1899 
New  York,  1900,  p.  30. 

2  Compare  the  data  given  in  Part  I  and  in  the  closing  section  of  this  part. 

8  German  Schools  in  Foreign  Countries,  p.  347. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


649 


IY.  The  Lutheran  Normal  School  in  Seward,  Nebr. 

Y.  The  Lutheran  Normal  School  in  Elmhurst,  Ill. 

The  first-mentioned  institution  deserves  special  consideration,  not  only  because 
of  the  announcement  made,  but  because  of  its  great  influence  despite  its  modest 
size.  Its  history  illustrates,  at  the  same  time,  the  action  of  the  German  Teachers’ 
Association,  which  purposes  to  advance  “mere  teachers  of  language  to  become 
representatives  of  German  methods  and  agents  of  German  culture  in  America.” 

In  the  year  1874,  at  the  fifth  annual  meeting,  it  was  unanimously  resolved  to 
establish  the  seminary  on  the  foundation  of  the  present  high  status  of  the  art 
and  science  of  education.  A  special  “  Seminarverein  ”  was  constituted  to  pro¬ 
mote  the  agitation  and  collect  a  “German  national  subscription  fund”  of  $50,000 
tc  $103,000.  The  first  general  meeting  was  held  in  Milwaukee  in  1877,  and, 
though  it  possessed  not  much  more  than  one- fifth  of  the  prospective  large  “national 
fund,”  the  opening  of  the  institution  was  set  for  September  1, 1878.  The  “  German- 
English  Academy”  in  Milwaukee  offered  a  suitable  building  for  the  beginning  of 
the  normal  courses.  According  to  the  prospectus,  this  institution  aims  to  edu¬ 
cate  thorough  and  zealous  teachers,  able  to  teach  in  German  as  well  as  in  English, 
familiar  with  the  most  recent  progress  in  pedagogics,  and  trained  to  present  their 
own  knowledge  to  pupils  in  an  appropriate  manner.  For  this  purpose  the  school 
is  provided  with  the  best  trained  teachers,  excellent  appliances  for  instruction  and 
accommodations,  and  a  model  school  in  the  flourishing  German-English  Academy. 
By  its  connection  with  the  athletic  training  school  of  the  Nordamerikanischer 
Turnerbund,  students  enjoy  the  advantage  of  perfecting  themselves  in  all  branches 
of  physical  culture.  There  is  likewise  a  normal  course  for  kindergartners. 

In  the  years  1878  to  1830  there  were  500  applications,  of  which  only  119  could  be 
considered.  The  majority  of  the  applicants  could  not  support  themselves  during 
the  three  years  required  for  their  training.  The  rejection  of  applicants  on  account 
of  lack  of  means  was  the  more  painful  to  the  directors  of  the  institute,  as  there 
were  seldom  more  than  twelve  students  during  the  time  specified;  the  results 
obtained  with  these,  however,  were  very  satisfactory.  Professor  Rosenstengel,  of 
the  State  University  of  Wisconsin,  asserted  that  “nearly  all  the  students  are  prac¬ 
tically  educated  teachers,  familiar  with  school  and  educational  methods,  thor¬ 
oughly  acquainted  with  the  knowledge  needed  in  their  profession,  and  fully  imbued 
with  the  necessary  enthusiasm.  All  are  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the  preservation 
of  the  German  language  and  the  dissemination  of  German  pedagogics,  and  most 
of  them  are  filled  with  a  spirit  of  the  purest  devotion  to  the  great  tasks  of  modern 
education.  ” 

Such  circumstances  necessitated  the  foundation  of  a  scholarship,  and  an  appeal 
to  Germans  received  a  rather  favorable  response.  After  the  Woman's  Association 
of  Cleveland  and  the  members  of  the  Seminarverein  set  the  good  example,  New 
York  contributed  large  amounts.  This  city  formed  the  central  association  of  the 
normal  school  foundation  of  New  York  and  vicinity,  which  contributed  $2,000  in 
individual  amounts  to  the  fund;  the  Hermann  Uhl  memorial  fund,  founded  by 
Madame  Anna  Ottendorfer  in  New  York,  contributed  $10,000. 

In  the  year  1888  the  German-English  Academy  turned  over  all  its  property  free 
of  cost  to  the  institution,  which  assumed  the  mortgage  debts;  thus  it  came  into 
possession  of  a  building  of  its  own.  The  efforts  of  Director  J.  Keller  to  remove  the 
school  to  New  York,  where  it  could  enjoy  a  larger  attendance,  were  consequently 
in  vain.  Mr.  Keller  resigned  and  Mr.  Emil  Dapprich  at  once  succeeded  him,  in 
1888.  The  annual  attendance  of  the  seminary  since  its  establishment  has  averaged 
86  to  39. 

The  financial  condition  of  the  institution  is  very  satisfactory,  its  property  amount¬ 
ing  to  $140,000  in  1900.  Every  year  a  benefit  play  is  given  in  the  Pabst  Theater  of 
Milwaukee  for  the  scholarship  fund.  The  students  collected  a  fine  herbarium 


650  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1800-1901. 

of  5,000  plants  in  28  books  for  the  department  of  education  at  the  last  Paris 
Exposition. 

The  programme  of  action  followed  by  Mr.  Dappricb  is  short  and  expressive: 
“  The  preservation  and  care  of  the  German  language,  the  promotion  of  national 
education,  and  the  dissemination  of  sensible  pedagogical  ideas/’ 

On  his  visits  to  the  seminary  in  the  years  1897  and  1900  the  author  received  the 
impression  that  this  excellent  programme  was  being  successfully  carried  into 
effect. 

Y.  Parochial  Schools. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  the  German  Teachers’  Association,  nearly  half  of 
all  pupils  studying  German  belong  to  Catholic,  Lutheran,  or  Evangelical  parochial 
schools.  Although  it  is  impossible  to  give  these  the  attention  which  they  deserve, 
they  can  not  pass  altogether  unnoticed. 

In  the  first  place,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  parochial  schools  two  hundred 
years  ago  first  introduced  German  instruction  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  proud  structure.  This  honor  can  never  be  taken  from  them,  and  their  tradi¬ 
tions  will  not  be  lost  in  never  so  long  a  course  of  development. 

Superintendent  Knortz  has  given  a  not  very  alluring  account  of  the  present 
condition  of  parochial  schools  in  his  article  on  German  Nationality  in  the  United 
States.  His  views  are  of  great  interest,  even  if,  as  a  former  speaker  of  a  free  reli¬ 
gious  society,  he  may  not  have  regarded  affairs  impartially.  He  writes: 

German  parochial  schools  are  found  in  all  parts  of  America  where  orthodox 
German  communities  exist.  Religion  forms  the  main  branch  of  study  and  is 
taught  in  German,  consequently  pupils  join  the  German  parish  of  their  parents. 
More  German  is  taught  in  parochial  than  in  public  schools  and  less  time  is  given 
to  English.  Very  little  is  done  for  the  spread  of  German  literature  and  science, 
and  as  the  teachers  have  for  the  most  part  been  educated  in  synod  seminaries,  and 
are  prejudiced  against  the  classical  writers  of  Germany,  the  greatest  attention  is 
given  to  the  study  of  the  catechism  and  Bible  history.  Parochial  schools,  there¬ 
fore,  are  of  minor  importance  from  the  poin-  of  view  of  general  culture.  The 
ministers  educated  here  have  no  sympathy  for  German  literature,  and  since  they 
are  more  American  at  heart  than  German,  it  costs  them  little  effort  to  conduct 
religious  services  in  English  instead  of  German.  Their  excuse  is  that  the  English 
language  is  better  understood  by  the  rising  generation,  and  is  consequently  pref¬ 
erable. 

The  Missouri  Synod,  a  fifty- year-old  organization  of  strict  Lutheran  congrega¬ 
tions  in  the  States  of  Indiana,  Ohio,  New  York,  Illinois,  Missouri,  etc.,  claims  the 
merit  of  unremitted  and  decided  action  for  the  preservation  of  German  nation¬ 
ality. 

There  is  an  unusually  large  number  of  well- organized  higher  educational  insti¬ 
tutions  of  the  Lutheran  church  in  America  for  the  education  of  ministers  and 
teachers.  Among  them  ate  a  theological  seminary  in  St.  Louis,  a  theological 
seminary  in  Springfield,  Ill. ,  a  complete  gymnasium  in  Fort  W ayne,  Ind.,  another 
in  Milwaukee,  an  under  gymnasium  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  in  Concordia,  Kans.,  and 
in  Neperan,  N.  Y.,  a  normal  school  in  Addison,  Ill.,  the  lower  division  of  a  nor¬ 
mal  school  in  Seward,  Nebr.,  and  the  Walther  College,  of  St.  Louis,  named  after 
the  renowned  scientific  and  religious  champion  of  this  German  church  organiza¬ 
tion,  Prof.  Charles  Ferdinand  William  Walther  (born  in  Saxony  in  1811,  emi¬ 
grated  in  1889,  and  died  in  St.  Louis  in  1887).  Sixty  highly  educated  professors 
are  engaged  at  these  schools. 

Y^ithin  the  districts  of  the  Missouri  Synod  there  are,  besides,  19  charitable 
institutions,  orphan  asylums,  homes  for  the  aged,  hospitals,  etc.  Its  own  pub¬ 
lishing  house,  with  an  immense  printing  establishment,  in  St.  Louis  provides 
devotional  and  instructive  works  and  has  become  noted  in  the  whole  Lutheran 
world  by  its  beautiful  edition  of  the  complete  works  of  Luther. 

Among  the  conditions  which  govern  admission  to  the  synod  and  control  a  con¬ 
tinuance  of  association,  the  constitution  mentions:  The  sole  use  of  the  German 
language  in  regulations.’’  In  the  spirit  of  its  constitution,  the  Missouri  Synod 
states  in  one  of  its  recent  announcements:  “  We  exhort  a'l  German  Lutheran  par¬ 
ents  to  afford  their  children  every  possible  opportunity  to  acquire  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  our  beloved  mother  tongue  by  sending  them  to  German  schools  and 
by  speaking  the  German  language  at  home.” 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


651 


In  this  spirit,  likewise,  the  higher  and  other  schools  are  conducted.  With  just 
pride  the  Lutheran  Rundschau  states  in  one  of  its  recent  numbers: 

“  Much  is  said  of  the  duty  of  German  nationality  in  behalf  of  the  culture  of  the 
American  people.  Among  those  who  have  labored  most  zealously  for  fifty  years  to 
fulfill  this  duty,  the  German  church  of  America  ranks  first  and  the  Missouri  Synod 
stands  forth  preeminent.  What  it  has  done,  and  continues  to  do,  for  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  German  manner  and  nature  in  the  best  and  noblest  sense  of  the  terms 
deserves  general  esteem  and  recognition.  Its  congregations,  teachers,  and  minis¬ 
ters  are  German-— even  those  of  the  second  and  third  generations  living  in  this 
country — and  by  German  religious  services,  as  well  as  by  German  instruction  in 
schools,  German  consciousness,  Geiman  thought  is  preserved,  harbored,  and  nur¬ 
tured  among  them.  The  synod  provides  in  a  truly  German  way  for  the  spread  of 
German  education,  without  degenerating  into  bigotry  and  with  a  full  considera¬ 
tion  of  the  demands  which  the  peculiar  relations  of  this  country  make  upon  it. 
Most  of  the  numerous  journals  edited  by  it  or  published  within  the  limits  of  its 
jurisdiction  appear  in  the  German  language  and  contribute,  in  every  respect, 
toward  the  preservation  of  German  method  and  thought.” 

All  this  sounds  very  encouraging,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  already  evening 
worship  in  several  communities  is  conducted  in  English  and  that  the  Missouri 
Synod  is  a  fully  armed  opponent  of  all  intellectual  progress  which  is  not  in  har¬ 
mony  with  the  inexorably  strict  doctrine  of  its  church.  The  German  nationality 
of  that  organization  is  therefore  nothing  more  than  extreme  Lutheranism. 

The  General  Synod,  a  union  of  less  strict  Lutherans,  on  the  other  hand,  believes 
that  the  exclusive  use  cf  the  German  language  jeopardizes  their  infinence;  and, 
consequently,  so  that  its  ministers  shall  lose  no  hearers,  it  commands  them  to  use 
the  English  language  in  churches  and  Sunday  schools  wherever  children  have  lost 
the  knowledge  of  German. 

In  the  official  organ  of  the  synod,  the  Lutheran  Church  Friend,  published  in 
Chicago,  a  minister  in  a  small  city  of  Nebraska  writes  under  the  date  March 
19,  1896: 

“As  far  as  the  language  is  concerned,  it  is  a  general  fact  that  children  want  to 
speak  English,  and  when  they  attend  English  day  schools  they  do  not  even  learn 
to  understand  German  properly.  Even  when  German  is  spoken  in  the  family 
children  have  only  the  barest  knowledge  of  the  language,  of  literature,  and  of 
religion,  and  if  they  understand  it  lose  all  interest,  because  they  can  not  express 
themselves  fluently.  The  consequence  is  that  children  attend  other  schools  and 
gatherings  and  are  lost  to  their  own  church. 

“  I  am  sincerely  sorry  to  be  obliged  to  make  such  comments.  I  know  families 
in  which  disagreements  have  risen  between  parents  and  children  on  this  very 
account. 

“  The  parents  desired  to  remain  German  and  be  faithful  to  their  own  church, 
but  the  children  felt  a  greater  attraction  toward  other  churches  simply  because  of 
the  language.  In  other  cases  German  children  become  careless  in  regard  to  reli¬ 
gion,  as  though  Christianity  were  meant  only  for  old  persons.  As  excellent  as  it 
is,  and  as  correct  as  its  doctrine  may  always  have  been,  German  church  work  is 
not  practical  for  the  rising  generation  in  America.  We  shall  be  a  factor  as  long 
as  the  older  generation  survives.  After  it  has  departed  German  churches  will  he 
a  thing  of  the  past. 

“  If  our  communities  would  occasionally  hold  services  in  English,  so  as  not  to  leave 
the  impression  that  Lutheranism  and  German  nationality  are  identical,  the  young 
would  be  much  more  closely  united  with  them  and  be  a  surer  element  of  the 
church.  -Versatility  of  language  is  one  of  our  very  advantages.  The  Lutheran 
Church  is  represented  in  75  languages  or  dialects.  Then  wrhy  should  we  adherp  so 
religiously  to  German?  Where  it  is  understood  and  properly  used  the  German 
language  is  magnificent — I  may  say  incomparable  in  it's  magnificence,  but  where 
such  is  not  the  case  disputes  and  command  avail  nothing.  Thou  shalt  speak  Ger¬ 
man!  The  truth  is  that  children  born  and  raised  in  America  do  not  love  German. 
Then  why  should  we  torment  ourselves?  Our  churches  are  not  dealing  with  Ger¬ 
man  nationality,  but  with  Christianity.” 

The  German  Catholics  of  America  have  frequently  referred  to  the  advantages 
which  they  have  gained  by  preserving  German  nationality  in  their  parochial 
schools,  founded  and  sustained  at  a  great  sacrifice  of  money.  The  Catholic  Church 
in  America  is  chiefly  under  the  influence  of  Irish  bishops,  who  have  no  predilection 
for  the  German  language.  It  often  happens  that  a  parish  established  by  Germans 
is  placed  in  charge  of  an  English-speaking  Irish  priest  -without  the  Germans  mak¬ 
ing  any  objection.  Any  opposition  would  be  unavailing,  as  each  bishop  is  the 
lawful  owner  of  the  churches  and  schools  within  his  diocese  and  can  close  them 
at  any  time. 


652 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


In  May,  1897,  the  Pope  issued  the  following  ordinances: 

“I.  American-born  children  whose  parents  speak  a  language  other  than  English 
are  not  bound,  after  they  are  grown,  to  be  members  of  the  same  parish  to  which 
their  parents  belong.  They  have  the  right  to  attach  themselves  to  a  parish  in 
which  the  language  of  the  country,  English,  is  spoken. 

“II.  Catholics  not  born  in  America,  but  conversant  with  the  English  language, 
have  the  right  to  attach  themselves  to  a  parish  in  which  the  English  language  is 
made  use  of,  and  can  not  be  compelled  to  subject  themselves  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
a  pastor  whose  church  has  been  built  for  those  who  make  use  of  a  foreign  language.” 

From  this  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  intention  of  Rome  is  to  make  English 
the  sole  language  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  America  as  soon  as  possible. 

Parishes  making  use  of  a  foreign  language  are  only  supported  temporarily,  and 
will  be  suppressed  as  soon  as  the  conditions  which  made  their  foundation  necessary 
will  have  changed. 

These  ordinances  provoked  great  resentment  among  the  German  Catholics  of 
several  cities,  and  they  protested  strongly  against  them  in  meetings.  At  a  meet¬ 
ing  of  German  Catholics  held  in  June,  1897,  in  Detroit.  Mich.,  the  following  reso¬ 
lutions  were  adopted: 

“The  German  Catholics  of  Michigan  are  faithful,  law-abiding  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  ready  to  sacrifice  life  and  property  for  this  Republic.  As  loyal  citi¬ 
zens  of  these  free  States  wTe  protest  against  all  measures  which  are  prejudicial  to 
the  German  language,  German  customs,  German  faithfulness  and  honor. 

“At  the  same  time  we  raise  a  loud  protest  against  the  presumptuous  attempts 
of  certain  Catholic  nativists  to  lower  Germans  to  Catholics  of  second  grade, 
divide  their  parishes,  and  gradually  absorb  them. 

“A  systematic  suppression  of  the  German  language  and  German  thought  is  a 
^constant  menace  to  the  Catholic  Church  in  America,  which  has  developed  to  a  high 
degree  of  prosperity  through  European  immigration.  We  consider  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  a  false,  unjustifiable  nativism  into  religion  a  fatal  error,  that  portends  the 
worst  consequences  for  the  continuance  and  development  of  the  church.” 

The  personal  impressions  of  the  author  have  been  that  those  who  superintend 
the  schools  are  more  concerned  about  the  preservation  of  the  German  language 
than  would  be  supposed  from  the  report  of  Knortz.  During  one  of  my  Western 
trips1  I  went  to  the  town  of  Waverly,  which  has  about  4,000  inhabitants  and  is  the 
county  seat  of  Bremer  County,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  of  Iowa.  The 
prairies  between  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  are,  in  general,  not  more  attractive 
than  the  heath  of  Liineburg.  The  valley  of  the  Red  Cedar  River,  however,  affords 
a  pleasant  break  to  the  endless  monotony,  and  so  the  friendly  town  of  Waverly 
leaves  the  impression  on  the  traveler  who  has  reached  the  hills  that  border  the 
river’s  course  as  being  an  oasis  in  the  desert.  A  very  broad  avenue  cuts  through 
the  towrn.  Following  this  to  the  northwestern  end  of  the  city,  we  come  to  a  group 
of  buildings  surrounded  by  beautiful  grounds,  the  foremost  structure  bearing  the 
inscription  “  Wartburg  College,”  in  large  letters.  I  visited  the  school,  and  Director 
F.  Lutz  kindly  conducted  me  through  it.  The  institution  is  partly  an  “academy  ” 
for  general  study  and  partly  a  “seminary”  for  such  members  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church  as  desire  to  become  teachers.  If  they  are  to  continue  in  the 
service  of  the  synod  at  least  five  years  they  enjoy  a  reduction  of  expenses  to  the 
astonishingly  low  terms  of  $2  a  week  for  board  and  $40  a  year  for  lodging, 
instruction ,  heat,  and  light.  As  regards  German  instruction,  the  prospectus  states: 

The  German  language  may  justly  be  considered  the  key  to  all  possible  classical 
treasures  of  science  and  literature.  Besides,  a  knowledge  of  German  is  just  as 
practical  for  the  purposes  of  a  business  man  as  for  those  of  a  man  of  letters.  A 
young  man  who  is  able  to  speak  German,  together  with  the  language  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  enjoys  great  advantages  over  his  competitors,  whatever  his  occupation  may 
be.  The  institution  offers  special  advantages  to  those  who  intend  to  make  a  thor¬ 
ough  study  of  German.  German  is  taught  as  a  living  language;  that  is  to  say, 
pupils  learn  not  only  to  read  and  write  it  correctly,  but  to  speak  it.  Besides  gram¬ 
mar,  orthography,  composition,  and  translations  from  English,  great  stress  is  laid 
upon  reading  the  best  German  authors. 


1  The  account  which  follows  is  taken  from  an  article  by  the  author  in  a  New  York  paper  of 
November  25, 1900. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


653 


This  programme  can  certainly  be  approved,  and  the  reputation  which  the  “  Wart- 
burg  ”  enjoys  beyond  the  limits  of  the  State  is  well  deserved.  I  also  visited  Prof. 
August  Engelbrecht,  the  head  teacher  next  to  the  director,  and  a  member  of  the 
board  of  administration,  Pastor  Br.  Lobeck,  in  Knittel.  With  both  of  these  gen¬ 
tlemen  I  found  true  German  thought,  and,  what  is  to  be  doubly  appreciated  in 
this  temperance  State,  true  German  hospitality.  Such  Lutheran  communities 
adhere  strongly  to  German  nationality.  In  the  city  of  Clinton,  Iowa,  there  is 
another  “  Wartburg  College,”  conducted  on  the  same  lines. 

From  Deindorfer’s  History  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of  Iowa  (Chicago, 
1897)  we  learn  that  there  are  different  kinds  of  Lutheran  parochial  schools.  Very 
few  are  open  the  whole  year.  Most  of  them  are  open  only  during  the  winter  ses¬ 
sion,  and  the  instruction  given  is  little  more  than  a  preparation  for  confirmation. 
The  author  states  (page  271):  “  The  schools  are  accordingly  mostly  attended  for 
two  or  three  winters  by  the  older  children  that  are  going  to  be  confirmed.  Instruc¬ 
tion  is  limited  to  the  most  necessary  branches,  and  much  time  is  given  to  religion.” 
As  a  matter  of  course  such  schools  can  do  little,  but  German  institutions  like  the 
“  Wartburg  ”  are  of  the  same  significance  to  them  as  were  the  castles  of  the  Mid¬ 
dle  Ages  to  feudal  life. 

According  to  the  investigations  of  the  German  Teachers’  Association,  Carbolic 
schools  have  almost  twice  as  many  pupils  (193,627)  as  have  the  Lutheran  (85,934) 
and  the  Evangelical  (19,880).  As  Zimmermann  states,1 2 *  Catholic  colleges  have 
given  a  proper  degree  of  attention  to  modern  languages  from  early  times.  He 
says  of  the  St.  Louis  University,  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.:  “The  college  was  recognized 
as  a  State  university  in  February,  1833, 9  and  received  all  the  usual  privileges. 
The  Jesuits  responded  so  unreservedly  to  modern  demands  that  they  admitted 
students  unacquainted  with  the  classical  languagesto  the  academic  grades.  Most 
Catholic  colleges,”  Zimmermann  continues,  “have  a  scientific  course  of  four  years. 
The  first  three  years  correspond  to  the  first  three  years  of  the  classic  course, 
although  modern  languages,  natural  sciences,  and  bookkeeping  take  the  place  of 
the  classical  languages.” 

German  instruction  accordingly  possesses  a  firm  support  in  Catholic  parochial 
schools.  German  Catholics  in  this  country  have  repeatedly  announced  their  firm 
purpose  not  to  give  up  their  mother  tongue.  As  a  companion  to  the  resolutions 
adopted  by  the  Catholics  of  Michigan  in  1897,  the  resolutions  passed  by  the  Union 
of  the  Catholic  Associations  of  Illinois  deserve  to  be  mentioned: 

Our  love  for  our  adopted  country  is  not  lessened  by  our  clinging  to  German 
methods  implanted  in  us  by  God  himself.  It  rather  enables  ns  to  give  our  service 
more  unselfishly  to  our  glorious  Republic  in  all  things  affecting  its  prosperity. 
As  peaceable  citizens  we  desire  peace  and  despise  from  the  depth  of  our  hearts 
the  instigations  of  a  mercenary  press  that  is  endeavoring  to  separate  friendly 
nations. 

As  the  representatives  of  30,000  Catholic  German  men  of  this  State  we  hereby 
declare  that  the  honor  of  the  German  name,  the  preservation  and  care  of  the 
German  language  and  the  justifiable  interests  of  the  German  element  in  the  United 
States  are  and  ever  will  be  dear  to  our  hearts.  It  is  always  the  German  Catholic 
who  is  first  assailed  by  the  machinations  of  nativists,  and  stands  in  the  front  line 
of  battle  when  there  is  question  of  the  equal  rights  granted  to  all  citizens  by  the 
Constitution. 

In  this  struggle  we  are  one  with  the  German  Catholic  State  organizations  of 
all  other  States  of  the  Union,  and  we  are  glad  when  other  German- American 
associations  unite  with  us. 

German  Catholics  in  this  country  are,  therefore,  sure  to  be  the  last  to  give  up 
German  instruction.  When  it  is  no  longer  continued  in  public  schools  they  will 
provide  for  it  in  their  own  parochial  schools. 


1  Chapter  on  Catholic  Schools  in  his  treatise  on  Universities  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

2  St.  Louis  University  was  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  Missouri  by  an  act 

of  December  28, 1832.  This  evidently  is  what  the  author  means.— Ed. 


654  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

VI.  Association  Schools  and  Private  Schools  Founded  by  Individuals. 


In  proportion  as  German  was  introduced  into  public  schools,  elementary  and 
intermediate,  German  schools  founded  by  German  associations  and  individuals 
steadily  decreased.  Their  number  has  rapidly  lessened  in  the  last  ten  years.  At 
present  there  are  hardly  more  than  a  few  hundred  throughout  the  States.  Knortz, 
Dapprich,  and  many  others  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  illiberality  of  wealthy 
German- Americans  has  more  to  do  with  the  decadence  of  German  private  schools 
than  the  change  in  the  public-school  curriculum.  To  quote  again  from  the  article 
by  Dapprich:  “Intelligent  persons  of  means,  who  foolishly  spend  large  sums  of 
money  on  luxury,  lend  their  children  to  overcrowded  public  schools  to  save  the 
moderate  tuition  fee  of  a  private  school.5’ 

These  censurable  motives  may  be  true  in  single  instances;  on  the  whole,  how¬ 
ever,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  intelligent  parents  send  their  children  to  public  schools 
from  principle,  and  therefore  strive  more  earnestly  to  have  German  instruction 
introduced  and  the  “Quincy  methods  ’5  adopted.  The  reasons  why  sons  of  foreign- 
born  citizens  should  attend  American  schools  have  already  been  given.  Specifi¬ 
cally  German  schools  in  this  country  are  only  justifiable  where  public  schools  do 
not  give  what  parents  have  a  right  to  expect,  and  do  not  pay  sufficient  attention 
to  German. 

According  to  the  investigations  of  the  teachers’  association,  only  35  private 
schools  had  100  pupils  and  more;  of  these  but  8  had  an  attendance  of  200  or  more. 
The  871  schools  reported  in  the  statistics  had  an  average  attendance  of  only  21  or 
22.  Consequently,  German  schools  of  this  order  in  America  have  no  further  pros¬ 
pects;  the  possibilities  of  the  development  of  German  instruction  in  American 
schools,  on  the  other  hand,  are  practically  unlimited. 

From  a  consideration  of  European  influences  on  the  formation  of  American 
educational  conditions,  it  is  evident  that  Americans  regard  everything  foreign 
with  a  certain  mistrust;  in  single  instances  this  is  more  or  lesa  justifiable.  How¬ 
ever,  they  willingly  accept  all  progress  which  proceeds  from  the  Old  World  after 
it  has  been  adjusted  to  American  conditions  by  suitable  intermediaries.  The  self- 
consciousness  of  a  great  nation  is  not  hurt  by  the  circumstance  that  what  has 
been  done  by  other  nations  in  the  way  of  culture  is  in  this  way  assimilated,  but 
it  resents  being  taught  by  others.  The  fact  is  thus  understood  that  German 
schools  in  America  are  losing  ground,  though  the  demand  for  German  instruction 
is  steadily  increasing.  The  schools  of  the  German  immigrants  had  a  great  cultural 
mission  to  perform,  but  in  the  main  this  work  has  been  done;  and  so  teachers 
of  German  schools  will  help  the  cause  of  German  instruction  decidedly  more  if 
they  give  their  energies  to  American  schools. 

Besides,  the  American  and  the  German  comprehension  of  the  main  purpose  of 
schools  is  sometimes  essentially  different.  Public  schools  are  intended  to  educate 
their  pujiils  for  practical  life,  and  not  to  spread  higher  education.  Therefore  it 
is  important  to  follow  the  American  maxim,  “practical  above  all,5’  more  than  the 
estimable  German  motto,  “always  thorough.” 

The  following  are  particularly  flourishing  German  schools:  Hoboken  Academy, 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  in  existence  forty  years,  present  director  Dr.  Kaiser;  the  Beacon 
Theological  German-English  School,  the  German-English  Presbyterian  School,  the 
German-English  School,  and  the  First  Ward  German-English  School,  in  Newark, 
N.  J. ;  the  Adelphi  Academy,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  the  School  of  Free  Congregations, 
and  the  Concordia  Seminary,  in  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  the  General  German  School,  in  Law¬ 
rence,  Mass. ;  the  Normal  Seminary,  in  Addison,  Ill. ;  the  Proseminary,  in  Spring- 
field,  Ill.,  and  Concordia  College  and  German-English  Academy,  in  Milwaukee. 
The  last-mentioned  institution  celebrates  its  fiftieth  anniversary  this  year  and  has  a 
long  life  before  it.  Ail  these  institutions  have  a  full  force  of  excellent  teachers, 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


655 


and  their  many  graduates  are  interested  in  their  continuance  and  provide  for 
attendance. 

Among  smaller  German  schools  the  author  became  well  acquainted  with  Hert- 
zog’s  German- American  School,  in  Philadelphia,  from  occasional  visits.  The  object 
of  this  school  is  to  furnish  a  thorough  and  practical  German  and  English  education. 
The  school  comprises  three  departments,  the  primary,  intermediate,  and  senior. 
The  term  of  study  in  each  of  these  departments  is  two  years.  The  course  of 
instruction  embraces  object  lessons,  German  and  English  (reading,  orthography, 
comparative  grammar,  composition,  elocution,  literature),  French,  arithmetic, 
history,  geography,  natural  history,  algebra,  geometry,  penmanship,  drawing, 
and  singing. 

As  this  school  has  been  prospering  for  twenty-five  years  it  must  supply  a 
deeply  felt  want.  Of  all  the  important  cities  in  America  Philadelphia  pays  the 
least  attention  to. German-, ■  excepting,  of  course,  the  university.  If  there  were  a 
large  opening  for  German  private  schools  anywhere,  one  would  suppose  it  to  be  in 
that  city;  but  such  is  not  the  case.  There  is  but  one  large  female  school  (Miss 
Stevens's  School,  in  Germantown),  and  that  numbers  200  pupils. 

YU.  Summer  and  Night  Schools,  Kindergartens,  and  Instruction  in 
Athletics,  Singing,  and  Manual  Training. 

According  to  Professor  von  Holst,  Chautauqua  is  the  greatest  wonder  in  America, 
except  Niagara  Falls. 

Chautauqua  is  a  place  on  Lake  Chautauqua,  in  southwestern  New  York.  It  is 
a  popular  educational  resort  during  the  months  of  July  and  August  for  several 
thousand  people,  who  go  there  from  all  parts  of  the  country  to  hear  lectures  and 
music,  to  attend  class  courses  of  instruction,  to  enjoy  college  life  and  open  air. 
Chautauqua  is  a  well-nigh  deserted  village  during  nine  months  in  the  year,  but  in 
the  summer  season  it  has  a  cottage  and  hotel  population  ranging  from  8,000  to 
19,000  people,  it  is  a  kind  of  educational  Bayreuth  for  the  people. 

Herbert  B.  Adams,  in  the  monographs  on  education  in  the  United  States,  thus 
describes  this  wonderful  summer  school,  which  has  been  formed,  in  connection 
with  a  former  Methodist  camp  meeting,  on  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots  on  earth. 
We  must  refer  to  it  because  German  is  taught  in  its  college  of  liberal  arts.  The 
central  school,  25  j^ears  old,  and  the  800  branches  established  in  nearly  all  the 
States  of  the  Union,  have  a  44  School  of  modern  languages,”  as  has  likewise  the 
Catholic  Summer  School  of  America,  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  on  Lake  Champlain. 
The  peculiarly  American  4 4  Chautauqua  idea,”  promoted  by  a  monthly  magazine, 
The  Chautauqua!!,  includes  the  study  of  modern  languages,  and  has  probably 
made  a  large  number  of  persons  acquainted  with  German  language  and  literature. 
President  Harper,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  was  for  some  years  principal  of 
the  Chautauqua  central  school. 

Many  universities,  as  Harvard,  Cornell,  Columbia,  and  New  York,  have  insti¬ 
tuted  summer  schools.  The  courses  of  study  of  these  university  summer  schools 
also  include  German.  It  seems  that  ample  opportunity  is  thereby  afforded  to 
Americans  to  become  familiar  with  German  literature,  which  is  the  main  purpose 
of  the  study  of  German ;  pupils  are  required  to  have  an  elementary  knowledge  of 
the  language  before  entering. 

The  course  of  study  of  the  summer  school  of  New  York  University  in  the 
department  of  Germanic  languages  may  serve  as  an  example: 

In  this  department  work  is  arranged  to  meet  the  wants  of  two  classes  of  stu¬ 
dents — those  who  desire  to  get  or  to  broaden  a  somewhat  elementary  knowledge  of 
German,  and  those  who,  already  possessing  a  good  knowledge  of  the  modern  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature,  desire  to  increase  this  by  a  study  of  some  qf  the  older  Ger¬ 
manic  dialects,  or  by  a  careful  investigation  of  some  important  literary  period. 
This  last  class  of  work  is  especially  for  teachers  of  German.  All  courses  five 
hours  weekly. 


656 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


For  the  first  the  following  courses  are  arranged: 

Beginners'  course  in  German. — The  work  in  this  course  will  comprise  a  rapid 
survey  of  the  important  parts  of  the  grammar,  the  reading  of  some  easy  and  inter¬ 
esting  stories,  and  as  much  practice  in  conversation  as  the  time  allows. 

Advanced  course  in  German. — The  work  in  this  course  will  comprise  a  careful 
study  by  the  students  of  some  piece  of  classical  literature,  and  lectures  by  the  pro¬ 
fessor  upon  the  literary  period  immediately  concerned.  This  year  selection  may 
be  made  by  the  class  from  the  following:  Goethe’s  Tasso,  Gotz  von  Berlichingen; 
Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  Emilia  Galotti;  Schiller's  Jungfrau  von  Orleans 
and  Maria  Stuart. 

As  much  time  as  possible  will  be  given  to  conversation.  The  leading  methods 
of  teaching  modern  languages  will  be  discussed  and  illustrated. 

For  the  second  the  following  courses  are  arranged: 

Elementary  course  in  Gothic. — Daily  recitations  from  Braune’s  Gotische  Gram- 
matik  and  reading  of  selections  from  the  Gospels. 

Elementary  course  in  Old  High  German. — Daily  recitations  from  Braune’s 
Althochdeutsche  Grammatik  and  readings  from  Braune’s  Althochdeutsches 
Lesebuch. 

Elementary  course  in  Middle  High  German. — Daily  recitations  from  Paul’s  Mit- 
telhochdeutsche  Grammatik  and  reading  of  Der  Arme  Heinricli. 

Advanced  course  in  modemi  German  prose. — Two  of  the  important  novels  that 
have  appeared  during  the  last  ten  years  will  be  read  and  discussed. 

What  summer  schools  afford  to  the  middle  classes,  night  schools  give  to  the  work¬ 
ing  classes  free  of  cost.  They  are  supported  partly  by  cities  and  partly  by  asso¬ 
ciations.  The  German- American  School  Association  of  New  York,  for  instance, 
aims  to  preserve  the  German  language  in  the  city  of  New  York  by  promoting 
German  instruction  and  supporting  German  classes  for  children  of  impecunious 
German- Americans.  Among  the  associations  which  thus  promote  German  instruc¬ 
tion  among  the  people,  German  athletic  associations  rank  first  in  order.  Besides 
devoting  themselves  to  physical  development,  they  pay  great  attention  to  “mental 
culture,”  and  support  classes  therefor  that  are  held  in  their  own  halls;  at  night  for 
adults  and  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays  for  children.  The  large  Philadelphia  Ath¬ 
letic  Association  supports  a  Saturday  school  of  several  classes  in  Philadelphia,  and 
the  turners  of  Southwark  have  introduced  a  similar  institution  for  Sundays.  In 
New  York  similar  schools  founded  by  athletic  associations  exist. 

German  labor  unions  support  the  same  kind  of  German  schools  in  different 
places;  one  of  their  Sunday  schools  is  located  in  Philadelphia.  A  competent  judge 
states  that  “laborers  of  all  kinds  and  every  degree  of  education  instruct,  well  or 
badly,  as  the  case  may  be,  young  American- born  Germans  in  the  most  necessary 
branches  of  study.” 

Nearly  all  of  these  schools  possess  small  German  libraries,  by  means  of  which 
their  pupils  can,  in  the  course  of  time,  acquire  some  knowledge  of  German  litera¬ 
ture.  The  desire  for  learning  is  generally  much  stronger  among  the  laboring 
than  among  the  middle  and  higher  classes,  which  strive  after  the  “  mighty  dollar  ” 
alone  and  make  all  things  else  subservient  to  that  interest. 

As  far  as  kindergartens  are  concerned,  Froebel’s  celebrated  prophecy,  in  his 
standard  work  on  education  (page  333),  that  his  system  would  be  thoroughly 
understood  and  properly  appreciated  only  in  America,  is  being  verified  to  a  greater 
extent  every  year.  Americans  are  much  more  enthusiastic  over  “  kindergarten- 
ing”  than  the  Germans  themselves,  among  whom  the  “nemo  propheta  in  patria” 
is  again  confirmed.  Boone  states,  in  his  remarkable  essay,  The  Renewal  of  Life, 
that  Mrs.  Carl  Schurz  opened  the  first  kindergarten  in  America,  in  Watertown, 
Wis.,in  1855.  Through  her  Miss  Elizabeth  Peabody  became  acquainted  with  the 
idea,  and  followed  her  example  in  Boston  in  1860.  However,  it  was  only  after 
she  had  learned,  in  Germany,  to  know  the  methods  applied  there  and  had  seen  the 
results  thereby  attained  that  the  editress  of  the  Kindergartner  Guide  became  the 
pioneer  of  this  system  of  pedagogics  in  America,  as  was  Madam  von  Marenhollz- 
Biilow  its  champion  in  Germany.  Kindergartens  have  existed  in  Hoboken  since 
1861,  and  in  Ney/  York  since  1864.  Dr.  Harris  exerted  his  efforts  to  introduce 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


657 


them  in  St.  Louis,  and  published  an  interesting  account  in  his  reports  for  18TG  and 
1877  on  the  results  of  the  kindergarten  in  St.  Louis.  At  present  kindergartens  are 
firmly  established  in  all  parts  of  the  country  and  are  enjoying  steadily  increasing 
favor. 

Special  praise  is  due  to  American  pedagogical  literature  for  its  untiring  and 
energetic  promotion  of  Froebel’s  ideas.  This  is  done  in  the  full  consciousness  that 
German  methods  of  instruction  are,  in  this  way,  brought  into  American  schools. 
The  following  stateihents  from  the  preface  with  which  Dr.  Harris  introduces 
Hailmann’s  translation  of  Friedrich  Froebel’s  Education  of  Man  serve  as  a  proof: 1 

This  work  of  Froebel  admits  us  into  his  philosophy  and  shows  us  the  funda¬ 
mental  principles  upon  which  he  based  the  kindergarten  system.  His  great  word 
is  inner  connection .  There  must  be  an  inner  connection  between  the  pupil’s  mind 
and  the  objects  which  he  studies,  and  this  shall  determine  what  to  study.  There 
must  be  an  inner  connection  *  *  *  within  the  soul  that  unites  the  faculties  of 
feeling,  perception,  phantasy,  thought,  and  volition,  and  determines  the  law  of  their 
unfolding.  Inner  connection  is  in  fact  the  law  of  development,  the  principle  of 
evolution,  and  Froebel  is  the  educational  rl  Corner  who  has  done  more  than  all  the 
rest  to  make  valid  in  education  what  the  Germans  call  the  “  developing  method.” 

It  was  logical  to  expect  that  the  educational  system  which  was  so  ready  to  accept 
kindergartens  would  make  room  for  German  manual  training  instruction  in 
public  schools.  Wherever  it  has  been  introduced,  it  has  succeeded  so  well  that  it 
may  be  justly  considered  a  permanent  feature  of  the  American  educational  system. 
In  the  years  1867  and  1868  Andrew  D.  White  made  a  study  of  German  industrial 
schools  with  a  view  to  their  introduction  in  America,  a  step  which  has,  in  the 
meantime,  been  successfully  taken.  It  may  be  opportune  to  mention  that  Steuben 
himself  recommended  the  founding  of  the  military  school  at  West  Point,  though 
he  did  not  live  long  enough  to  see  it  carried  out. 

Athletics,  which  have  attained  a  stage  of  perfection  in  the  college  gymnasiums 
in  decided  contrast  to  the  modest  German  beginnings,  and  for  which  Americans 
are  to  be  envied,  are  an  essential  outcome  of  German  influence  on  American  edu¬ 
cation.  The  fame  of  these  improvements,  which  deserve  to  be  imitated  by  Europe, 
can  not  be  taken  from  America  ;  still  the  impulse  of  their  action  undoubtedly 
proceeded  from  Germany. 

Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson  expresses  himself 2  on  this  point  as  follows: 

The  history  of  modern  gymnastic  exercises  is  easily  written.  It  is  proper  to 
say  modern,  for,  so  far  as  apparatus  goes,  the  ancient  gymnasiums  seem  to  have 
had  scarcely  anything  in  common  with  our  own.  The  first  institution  on  the 
modern  plan  was  founded  at  Schnepfenthal,  near  Gotha,  in  1785,  by  Salzmann,  a 
clergyman  and  the  principal  of  a  boys’  school.  After  eight  years  of  experience 
his  assistant,  Gutsmuths,  wrote  a  book  upon  the  subject,  which  was  translated 
into  English  and  published  at  London  in  1799  and  at  Philadelphia  in  1800,  under 
the  name  of  Salzmann  s  Gymnastics.  No  similar  institution  seems  to  have  existed 
in  either  country,  however,  till  those  established  by  Voelckers  in  London  in  1824, 
and  by  Dr.  Pollen  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1826.  *  *  *  It  is  the  Germans  and 
the  military  portions  of  the  French  nation  chiefly  who  have  developed  gymnastic 
exercises  to  their  present  elaboration,  while  the  working  out  of  their  curative 
applications  was  chiefly  due  to  Lingg,  a  Swede.  In  the  German  manuals — such, 
for  instance,  as  Eiselen’s  Turnubungen — are  to  be  found  nearly  all  the  stock  exer¬ 
cises  of  our  institutions. 

A  practical  educator,  Superintendent  Philbrick,  of  Boston,  expressed  himself 
concerning  the  introduction  of  gymnastic  training  in  the  following  manner: 

For  more  than  sixty  years  gymnastic  training  has  constituted  a  prominent  ele¬ 
ment  in  Prussian  school  education.  Jahn,  the  great  early  promoter  of  physical 
training  in  Prussia,  is  now  justly  reckoned  among  the  benefactors  of  his  country, 
and,  in  recognition  of  the  benefits  of  his  labors,  a  noble  statue  has  been  erected  to 

1  Friedrich  Froebel,  The  Education  of  Man,  translated  by  W.  N.  Hailmann,  superintendent  of 
public  schools  at  Laporte,  Ind.  The  International  Education  Series,  No.  II. 

2  In  his  Outdoor  Topics,  p.  142-U3. 

ED  1901 - 42 


058 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


! 


his  honor  in  Berlin.  In  Berlin  gymnastics  have  been  longer  and  more  generally 
cultivated,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other  city.  In  that  city  there  has  existed  for  a 
long  time  a  large  and  well-appointed  government  establishment  for  the  training 
and  preparation  of  teachers  of  gymnastics  for  the  public  schools.  Although 
Vienna  has  been  comparatively  tardy  in  adopting  this  educational  improvement, 
she  now  probably  surpasses  all  other  cities  in  respect  to  liberality  of  provision  for 
gymnastics.  In  every  recently  erected  school  edifice,  whether  for  elementary  or 
secondary  schools,  the  spacious  and  lofty  gymnastic  hall,  with  adjacent  ward¬ 
robes  and  other  accommodations,  is  provided.  There  are  at  present  110  special 
teachers  of  gymnastics  constantly  employed  by  the  city  in  'public  schools.  The 
educational  authorities  of  Vienna  are  fully  justified  in  their  large  expenditures 
for  the  physical  training  in  view  of  the  acknowledged  advantages  which  have 
been  derived  from  it  in  northern  Germany. 


i 


In  speaking  of  physical  training  in  the  German  schools,  Matthew  Arnold  says: 
“The  teachers  (of  gymnastics)  profess  to  have  adapted  their  exercises  with  pre¬ 
cision  to  every  age  and  to  all  stages  of  a  boy’s  growth  and  muscular  development. 
If  boys  have  long  work  hours  or  if  they  work  hard,  gymnastics  probably  do  more 
for  their  physical  health  in  the  comparatively  short  time  allotted  to  recreation  than 
anything  eise  could.  In  England  tlm  majority  of  public-school  boys  work  far  less 
than  the  foreign  schoolboy,  and  forums  majority  the  English  games  are  delight¬ 
ful;  but  for  the  few  hard  students  with  us  there  is  in  general  nothing  but  the  ‘  con¬ 
stitutional,’  and  this  is  not  so  good  as  the  foreign  gymnastics.” 

In  the  German  and  Austrian  schools  gymnastic  training  is  not  provided  for 
boys  alone.  Girls  also  receive  the  benefit  of  regular  physical  exercises  especially 
adapted  tc  the  different  stages  of  their  muscular  growth.  I  have  long  been  im¬ 
pressed  with  the  lamentable  defect  of  our  city  systems  of  schools  in  respect  to 
physical  education.  After  seeing  what  has  been  done  for  this  essential  branch  of 
education  in  Vienna  and  Berlin,  our  own  deficiency  in  this  respect  seems  tenfold 
more  glaring.  A  radical  reform  is  needed.  Fourteen  years  ago  I  began  my  efforts 
to  introduce  into  all  grades  of  the  Boston  schools  “  a  thorough  system  of  physical 
training  as  a  part  of  school  culture.”  Some  progress  has  been  made  in  this  direc¬ 
tion.  For  some  years  the  programme  has  required  daily  physical  exercises  in  the 
schools,  but  as  yet  our  provisions  for  physical  education  are  very  inadequate.  So 
far  as  I  know,  there  is  not  a  single  special,  thoroughly  qualified  teacher  of  gym¬ 
nastics  employed  by  any  city  in  America.  To  my  mind,  nothing  is  more  certain 
than  that  the  highest  success  in  intellectual  education  can  be  reached  only  by  the 
aid  of  the  most  thorough  system  of  physical  training.1 


Twenty-seven  years  have  passed  since  Philbrick  delivered  this  speech,  and  in 
that  time  athletic  instruction  in  schools  has  made  great  progress.  In  many  States 
German  societies,  in  union  with  the  German  press,  are  striving  for  its  introduc¬ 
tion,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  California  their  efforts  recently  have  been 
successful.  Much  work  remains  to  be  done  before  the  physical  development  of 
the  young  throughout  the  country  will  approach  the  ideal  of  ‘  ‘  mens  sana  in  corpore 
sano,”  as  in  most  colleges.  Even  many  New  York  schools2  lack  advantages  for 
athletics  or  conduct  the  exercises  in  localities  without  proper  hygienic  arrange¬ 
ments. 

Finally  we  come  to  singing,  that  may  boast  of  unquestionable  German  origin. 
Knortz  states : 3 


The  introduction  of  athletics  and  music  in  public  schools  is  due  exclusively  to 
German- Ameiicans.  Before  the  immigration  of  1848  Americans  considered  the 
study  of  music  an  unpardonable  waste  of  time.  At  the  present  day,  however,  all 
cities  have  their  singing  societies  that  frequently  excel  the  German,  because  Ger¬ 
mans  usually  join  such  societies  for  social  amusement,  whilst  Americans,  without 
exception,  become  members  only  to  study  music. 

Many  of  the  teachers  of  athletics  and  singing  have  been  educated  in  the  German- 
American  Normal  Seminary  of  Milwaukee,  which  has  an  excellently  conducted  nor¬ 
mal  course  in  athletics.  Instruction  for  the  most  part  is,  therefore,  in  charge  of 


1  From  an  address  by  Hon.  J.  D.  Philbrick,  of  Boston,  on  “Systems  of  public  instruction  in 
European  and  American  cities  compared,”  given  at  the  meeting  of  the  department  of  superin¬ 
tendence  of  the  National  Educational  Association  at  Washington,  January  30, 1874. 

2  For  instance,  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  which  will  not  have  a  gymnasium  until  it 
occupies  its  prospective  new  building. 

3  Das  Deutschthum  in  den  Ver.  Staaten,  pages  77  and  78. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


659 


German  teachers.  Consequently  it  is  not  to  he  wondered  at  if  American  school 
children  sing  German  songs.  It  has  often  occurred  that  at  large  reunions  of  sing¬ 
ing  societies  and  similar  occasions  all  the  school  children  have  sung  Die  Wacht  am 
Rhein  in  public  with  great  applause.  By  singing  songs  in  German,  English- 
speaking  children  acquire  a  small  German  vocabulary.  At  a  German  teachers’ 
meeting  a  teacher  told  the  author  that  he  always  taught  his  English-speaking 
pupils  how  to  sing  a  number  of  easy  German  songs,  and  with  the  few  words  thus 
remembered  he  was  able  to  advance  them. 

Independently  of  the  schools  mentioned,  many  opportunities  are  afforded  for 
learning  German,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Berlitz  schools  of  modern  languages.  To 
what  extent  the  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,  which  was  incorpo¬ 
rated  in  1883  as  the  Chautauqua  University,  the  Correspondence  University, 
Ithaca,  1883,  and  numerous  similar  educational  agencies,  devote  themselves  to 
the  German  language  and  literature,  could,  unfortunately,  not  be  ascertained. 

Ylil.  Statistics  of  German  Instruction. 

The  “committee  for  the  care  of  German,”  appointed  by  the  German- American 
Teachers’  Association,  has  recently  published  the  following: 1 

Number  of  pupils  studying  German  in  the  schools  of  the  United  Stales. 


Universities. 

Public  high 
schools. 

Public  elemen¬ 
tary  schools. 

Catholic 

schools. 

Number. 

Pupils. 

Number. 

Pupils. 

Number. 

Pupils. 

Number. 

Pupils. 

New  York  and  New  Jersey _ 

15 

2,750 

150 

8,448 

5 

68, 500 

56 

15, 703 

Ohio . . . . 

12 

1.076 

67 

3, 885 

27 

59, 119 

128 

30, 680 

Illinois. . . . 

8 

1.152 

43 

3,872 

35 

34, 206 

135 

24  339 

Northwest . . . . . 

11 

2, 178 

113 

6,223 

7 

5, 380 

250 

34  824 

Wisconsin . . 

4 

775 

52 

3,157 

8 

24, 904 

176 

26,963 

Pennsylvania  . . 

5 

350 

46 

4,027 

3 

5, 754 

90 

21,214 

Indiana . . . . 

5 

449 

26 

1,608 

3 

•  8,417 

92 

14, 146 

Southeast . . 

7 

456 

43 

3, 543 

1 

8, 400 

48 

13, 408 

Michigan . . . . . 

4 

630 

69 

3,380 

2 

1,030 

36 

8,  750 

New  England _ _ _ _ 

10 

3, 120 

90 

4, 516 

5 

436 

Southwest . . . 

5 

310 

22 

1,275 

40 

4, 450 

22 

2, 200 

West . 

7 

1, 452 

18 

1,736 

2 

2, 507 

8 

904 

Total . . . 

93 

14, 698 

739 

45, 670 

143 

231,673 

1, 046 

1 

193,627 

Lutheran 

schools. 


Evangelical 

schools. 


Primary  and 
secondary  pri¬ 
vate  schools. 


Total. 


New  York  and  New  Jersey 

Ohio  . . . . 

Illinois _ ,  _  _ . _ 

Northwest . . . . 

Wisconsin . . . . 

Pennsylvania . . 

Indiana. . 

Southeast  . 

Michigan _ _ _ 

New  England . 

Southwest . . . 

West . . 

Total . . 


89 

67 

263 

579 

168 

24 

96 

39 

121 

13 

57 

15 


5,284 
5,093 
20,625 
22,320 
10,891 
1,512 
6, 850 
2,340 
7,852 
735 
1,898 
536 


L7 

137 

202 

34 

8 

22 


644 
557 
4. 366 
7,031 
983 
203 
734 


4. 129 
614 
481 
138 


195 

38 

34 

84 

20 

81 

8 

141 

10 

110 

84 

66 


4, 767 
823 
776 
1,993 
573 
2, 734 
298 
2,532 
175 
2,503 
883 
653 


532 

356 

655 

1,246 

462 

258 

252 

279 

292 

246 

247 
123 


106, 102 
101.  333 
89, 336 
79, 949 
68. 246 
35, 794 
32, 502 
30. 679 
25, 946 
11.294 
Hi  535 
7, 926 


1,531 


85, 934 


536 


19,880 


871 


18, 690 


4,946 


601, 172 


1  The  Present  Position  of  German  instruction  in  the  Schools  of  the  United  States  (no  date). 


660 


EDUCATION  KEPOET,  1900-1901, 


These  statistics  suffer  from  the  same  fundamental  defect  that  vitiates  all  efforts 
in  this  direction,  to  wit,  incomplete  data.  Furthermore,  although  the  investiga¬ 
tions  were  made  only  about  two  or  three  years  ago,  such  progress  has  since  been 
made  that  the  figures  given  are  far  too  small  to  show  present  conditions.  We 
shall  endeavor  to  add  an  estimate  to  these  statistics  that  corresponds  better  with 
the  position  of  the  subject  at  the  close  of  the  century. 

The  term  “  universities  ”  in  the  above  table  includes  colleges  also.  The  com¬ 
mittee  refers  to  93  “universities,”  of  which  only  the  following  83  are  mentioned 
by  name  in  the  pamphlet  (pages  46  and  47 ) : 


nstitutions  of  learning. 

Students 

Professor. 

of 

German. 

Kuno  Fran  eke . 

1,100 

A.  H.  Palmer . 

750 

W.  H.  Rosenstengel _ 

560 

W.  G.  Stoughton . 

510 

Albin  Putzker . 

500 

Julius  Goebel . 

491 

F.  J.  Holzwarth . 

450 

Laurence  Fossler . 

430 

Willard  Humphreys . 

407 

John  G.  Moore . 

400 

F.  S.  White . 

400 

Marshall  L.  Perrin  . . 

360 

Chas.  Bundy  Wilson . 

350 

Carla  Wenckebach . 

318 

Adolph  Werner . 

300 

G.  L.  Swiggett . . 

300 

Starr  W.  Cutting . 

300 

W.  W.  Davies . 

260 

Otto  Heller . . 

250 

J.T.  Hatfield. . 

250 

Gust.  E.  Karsten . 

240 

M.  D.  Learned . 

210 

Henry  B.  Longden . 

210 

W.  H.  Carruth . 

200 

Ernst  Eggers . 

190 

Ben.  F,  Hoffman  . . 

187 

L.  A.  Rhoades . 

175 

Geo.  M.  Wahl . 

175 

Albert  B.  Faust . 

175 

Ottilie  Herholz . . 

175 

Francis  A.  Wood _ _ 

150 

Wm.  H.  Carpenter . . 

150 

Chas.  E.  Fay . . 

150 

A.  F.  Ernst. . 

150 

W.  E.  Simonds . 

110 

Wilbert  Ferguson . . 

130 

Hans  Froelicher  .. . 

130 

Henry  Wood . 

125 

Gertrude  Gingrich . 

125 

Chas.  Harris . . . 

120 

Sylvester  Primer . . 

114 

Carl  D.  F’ehr . 

110 

John  S.  Nollen. . . 

108 

H.  Krumdiek . 

105 

John  Straub . . 

104 

A.  R.  Hohlfeld  . . 

100 

Lewis  J.  Huff . 

95 

Marie  A.  K.  Hoadley . 

94 

Geo.  W.  Schmidt . 

90 

F.  W.  Stellhorn . 

89 

Chas.  F.  Reeves . 

85 

Law.  A.  McLouth . 

80 

J.  Ranno  Deiler. . 

80 

Joseohine  Johnson . . 

80 

Myra  Baker  . . 

75 

Carl  Michel . 

70 

Professor  Emerson . 

70 

Gerh.  J.  Zepter . 

68 

Location  of  institution. 


Cambridge,  Mass . . 

New  Haven,  Conn. . . 

Madison,  Wis . 

Hanover,  N.H . 

Berkeley,  Cal . . 

Stanford  University,  Cal 

Syracuse,  N.  Y . 

Lincoln,  Nebr . 

Princeton,  N.  J . . 

Minneapolis,  Minn  . . 

Ithaca,  N.  Y . . 

Boston,  Mass . . 

Iowa  City,  Iowa . 

Wellesley.  Mass . . 

New  York,  N.  Y  . . 

Lafayette,  md . . 

Chicago,  Ill . 

Delaware,  Ohio . . 

St.  Louis,  Mo . . . 

Evanston,  Ill. . . 

Bloomington,  Ind . . 

Philadelphia,  Pa . 

Greencastle,  Ind . 

Lawrence,  Kans . 

Columbus,  Ohio . 

Columbia,  Mo . 

Champaign,  Ill . . 

Williamstown,  Mass . . 

Middletown,  Conn . . 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. . 

Mount  Vernon,  Iowa. ... 

New  York,  N.  Y . 

Tufts  College,  Mass . . 

Watertown.  Wis - 

Galesburg,  Ill . . 

Bloomington,  Ill . 

Baltimore,  Md . 

Do . 

Wooster,  Ohio . 

Cleveland,  Ohio . 

Austin,  Tex. . 

State  College,  Pa . 

Grinnell,  Iowa . 

University  Place,  Nebr  . 

Eugene,  Oreg . ... 

Nashville,  Tenn . 

Burlington,  Vt . . . 

Swarthmore,  Pa . 

Lake  Forest,  Ill. . 

Columbus,  Ohio . . 

Seattle,  Wash . 

New  York,  N.  Y . 

New  Orleans,  La. . 

Westerville,  Ohio . 

Fayette,  Iowa . 

Ada.  Ohio . . 

Charlottesville,  Va . 

Des  Moines,  Iowa . 


Name  of  institution. 


Harvard . 

Yale . 

State  University . 

Dartmouth  College . 

State  University . . 

Leland  Stanford  Junior 
University. 

Syracuse  University . 

State  University . 

Princeton  University . 

State  University . . 

Cornell-. . . . 

Boston  University - 

State  University . 

Wellesley  College . 

College  of  the  City . 

Purdue  University . 

University  of  Chicago _ 

Wesleyan  University . 

Washington  University. . . 
Northwestern  University 

Indiana  University . . 

University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. 

De  Pauw  University . 

University  of  Kansas . 

Ohio  State  University _ 

University  of  the  State  of 
Missouri. 

University  of  Illinois . 

Williams  College . . 

Wesleyan  University . 

Vassar  College . 

Cornell  College . . 

Columbia  College . 

Tufts  College . 

Northwestern . 

Knox  College _ _ _ 

Illinois  Wesleyan  Univer¬ 
sity. 

Woman’s  College  of  Balti¬ 
more. 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Wooster  University . 

Western  Reserve  Univer¬ 
sity. 

University  of  Texas. . 

Pennsylvania  State  Col¬ 
lege. 

Iowa  College . 

Nebraska  Wesleyan  Uni¬ 
versity. 

University  of  Oregon . 

Vanderbilt  University _ 

University  of  Vermont.. . 

Swarthmore  College . . 

Lake  Forest  University. . . 

Capital  University. . . 

University  of  Washington 

New  York  University _ 

Tulane  University _ 

Otterbein  University _ 

Upper  Iowa  University... 
Ohio  Normal  University. . 

University  of  Virginia _ 

Drake  University . . 


GEEMAN  INSTBUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


661 


Number  of  students  of  German  in  higher  institutions  of  learning — Continued. 


Location  of  institution. 

Name  of  institution. 

Professor. 

Students 

of 

German. 

University  of  North  Car¬ 
olina. 

Walter  D.  Toy. 

60 

Mabel  Eddy 

60 

56 

Kate  Cranz  _ _ 

G.  A.  Hoffmann. 

50 

50 

University  of  Tennessee.. 
University  of  Alabama ... 

University  of  Georgia _ 

Denison  University . 

Southwestern  University. 
University  of  Utah _ _ _ 

J.  B.  Henneman _ 

ffrti.A.  Parker 

50 

50 

Athens,  Ga  _ _ 

John  Morris _  _ 

Granville,  Ohio _ 

W.  A.  Chamberlin _ 

40 

Georgetown,  Tex  _ 

R.  F.  Young . 

36 

Salt  Lake  Citv,  Utah 

Geo.  R.  Mathews _ 

36 

Columbia.  S.  C . 

South  Carolina  College ... 

Edw.  S.  Jovnes. . . 

30 

Laramie, Wyo  _.  _  ... 

University  of  Wyoming .. 
Washington  and  Lee  Uni¬ 
versity. 

Heidelberg  . . . 

Irene  M.  Morse _ 

28 

Lexington,  Ya _ _ 

W.  S.  Currell . 

25 

Tiffin,  Ohio _ 

Alf.  K.  Zembrod . . . 

25 

Salem,  Oreg  - 

Willamette  University .. . 
Lincoln  . . . . 

Minnie  F rickey . . . . 

24 

Lincoln,  111 _ 

C.  Everett  Conan . . . 

15 

Williamsburg,  Va _ 

College  of  William  and 
Mary. 

Cumberland  University . . 
Fisk  University . 

Chas.  E.  Bishop . . 

20 

Lebanon,  Tenn  _  _ 

J.D.  Hinds . . 

20 

Nashville,  Tenn _ 

C.  W.  Dunn . 

20 

Urbana,  Ohio _  _ 

Urbana  University _ _ 

S.  Alice  Worcester  . . 

18 

Lewisburg,  Pa _ 

Bu^knell  University  . . 

F.  Loomis . . 

Lexington,  Va  _ _ 

Military  Institute _ 

T.  M.  Semmes _ _ 

12 

Blacksburg,  Ya, _ _ _ 

Virginia  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College. 
Richmond  College . . 

T.  P.  Campbell . . 

Richmond,  Va  .  .  . . 

F.  W.  Boatwright- 

16 

Lecompton,  Kans _ 

Lane  University . 

R.  W.  Bahner . . . 

10 

The  ten  institutions  may  have  been  omitted  on  account  of  the  small  number  of 
their  students,  those  mentioned  numbering  14,365  of  the  total,  14,698.  However, 
this  inference  is  only  a  hint  for  determining  the  important  point  as  to  how  many 
were  not  mentioned  because  they  have  no  German  department,  or  were  omitted 
only  because  no  answer  was  received. 

As  regards  the  83  given,  the  attendance  of  the  following,  as  ascertained  by  the 
author  from  more  recent  reports,  differs  from  that  stated  above: 


Report  fig¬ 
ures. 

Later  fig¬ 
ures. 

Differ¬ 

ence. 

Harvard  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1,100 

750 

1,200 

750 

+100 

Yale  . . . . . 

Wisconsin  University _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

560 

560 

California  University 

500 

550 

+  50 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University . . . 

494 

600 

+106 

Nebraska  University . . . . . . . 

430 

554 

+124 

Princeton  University . _ . . . . 

407 

407 

Minnesota  University _ _ _ _ 

400 

450 

+  50 

Cornell  University . . . . . . . 

400 

511 

+111 

University  of  Chicago . . . . . 

300 

400 

+100 

+150 

W  ashington  University . . . . . 

250 

400 

Northwestern  University . . . 

250 

400 

+150 
+115 
-4-  75 

University  of  Pennsylvania  . . 

210 

325 

Vassar  College.. _ _ _ 

175 

250 

Columbia  College . . . . . . 

150 

400 

+250 
—  20 

Johns  Hopkins  University . . . . . . . 

125 

105 

New  Y  ork  University . . . . . 

80 

160 

+  80 

This  statement  includes,  with  the  exception  of  Michigan,  the  13  most  important 
and  4  other  first-grade  institutions.  In  them  the  former  number  amounted  to 
6,581;  the  revised  number  amounts  to  8,122,  consequently  an  increase  of  1,541,  or 
almost  24  per  cent. 

In  the  report  the  University  of  Michigan,  with  800  students  studying  German; 
Columbian  University,  with  108;  and  Hamilton  College,  with  45,  are  not  men¬ 
tioned. 

The  total,  953,  together  with  the  above  difference  of  1,541,  added  to  the  report 
number  of  14,698,  makes  a  present  total  of  17,192  students  of  German  for  96  colleges 
and  universities. 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


662 

As  these  98  institutions  are  undoubtedly  the  largest  in  the  country,  not  too  high 
a  number  should  be  estimated  for  the  others;  but  as  there  are  four  times  that 
number  of  institutions,  a  total  of  7,800  additional  students  of  German  is  hardly 
too  optimistic  an  estimate.  The  consequent  result  would  be  25,000  students  of 
German  for  the  first-grade  institutions  of  the  country,  a  supposition  that  can  not 
be  very  far  from  the  truth. 

There  are  official  statistics  for  secondary  schools.  During  the  last  seven  years, 
from  1891-92  to  1897-98,  the  number  of  pupils  taking  German  increased  almost 
continuously,  and  justifies  the  greatest  hopes  for  the  future. 

According  to  official  statements  of  the  total  number  of  all  secondary  students, 
the  per  cent  taking  German  has  been  as  follows: 


1891-93. 

1893-93. 

1893-94. 

1894-95. 

1895-96. 

1896-97. 

1897-98. 

Iii  public  high  schools . . 

10.43 

11. 93 

11.77 

11.40 

13 

13.43 

13.35 

In  private  high  schools  and 
academies . 

14. 45 

15.63 

15.35 

16.07 

17.46 

18.84 

18.45 

This  increase  is  considerable,  and  doubly  remarkable  because  of  its  undeniable 
tendency.  The  absolute  number  of  German  pupils  in  public  and  private  second¬ 
ary  schools  amounted,  in  1897-98,  to  78,994,  and  must  now  be  at  least  100,000. 
German  has  attracted  more  pupils  than  French,  which  numbered  only  58,165 
pupils  for  the  year  1897-98.  Excepting  the  South,  where,  especially  in  Louisiana, 
French  traditions  obtain,  German  is  preferred  decidedly  above  French,  although 
in  some  institutions  the  case  is  reversed. 

The  author  is  not  able  to  revise  further  the  statistics  of  the  German- American 
Teachers’  Association  given  above;  independent  of  the  data  obtained  for  elementary 
schools,  all  material  is  wanting.  The  fact  that  the  statistics  of  the  Teachers’  Asso¬ 
ciation  give  for  Chicago,  for  instance,  31,385  pupils  of  public  schools  studying  Ger¬ 
man,  wffiereas  we  learn  from  competent  authority  that  the  number  is  close  to  45,000, 
proves  that  the  association’s  figures  referring  to  elementary  schools  should  be  in 
reality  very  much  larger. 

The  statistics  of  the  Teachers’ Association  cost  very  much  money,  and  still  more 
trouble,  without  producing  corresponding  results.  “The  figures,”  as  Director 
Dapprich,  who  was  chairman  of  the  committee,  writes,  “can  make  no  claim  to 
being  complete,  as  a  large  number  of  school  authorities  did  not  send  the  infor¬ 
mation  requested.  If  we  had  received  the  full  number  of  reports,  the  total  num¬ 
ber  of  pupils  studying  German  would  have  far  exceeded  a  million.” 

Although  over  1,000,000  out  of  a  total  attendance  of  more  than  15,000,000  is  not 
much,  it  is  always  a  number  that  can  not  be  considered  a  “  quantite  neglige- 
able.”  The  fact  is  most  important  that  the  tendency  is  toward  increase,  and  that 
the  number  of  students  studying  German,  especially  at  higher  institutions,  is 
rapidly  growing.  We  can,  therefore,  say  that  even  now  the  attendance  at  Ger¬ 
man  instruction  is  not  unfavorable. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  progress  of  German  instruction  in  Canada  is  parallel 
with  that  in  the  United  States.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Ontario  Educa¬ 
tional  Association,  the  number  of  pupils  studying  different  languages  in  the  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  of  Ontario  has  been  as  follows: 


Pupils. 

Pupils  studying— 

French. 

Greek. 

German. 

I860  . 

4,546 
7, 451 
13, 910 
33,301 

1,346 
3,850 
5, 464 
13, 866 

558 

769 

1,100 

1,456 

1870.. . . . 

re  233 
859 
6,288 

1880 . . 

1898.  . . . 

a  1871. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


663 


The  progress  made  by  German  instruction  in  Ontario  is  relatively  greater  than 
in  the  United  States,  but  this  branch  of  learning  has  a  promising  future  in  both 
countries. 

PART  III.— THE  FUTURE  OF  GERMAN  INSTRUCTION. 

This  part  of  the  work  treats  of  those  agencies,  institutions,  and  persons  upon 
which  and  whom  the  future  of  German  instruction  in  a  great  measure  depends. 
Libraries,  associations,  periodicals  and  other  means  for  the  promotion  of  German 
instruction  come  under  consideration,  as  well  as  the  leading  teachers  and  profes¬ 
sors,  of  whom  biographical  sketches  are  given.  Finally,  the  effects  of  close  appli¬ 
cation  to  Germanic  studies  and  extensive  converse  with  all  branches  of  German 
science  on  shaping  the  international  relations  between  Germans  and  Americans 
seemed  deserving  of  the  greatest  possible  attention.  It  is  most  fortunate  that  the 
present  diplomatic  representative  of  the  United  States  in  Germany  is  a  man  whom 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  Berlin,  deemed  worthy  to  admit  as  a  member,  while 
the  representative  of  Germany,  in  Washington,  is  a  man  who  has  considered  it 
his  duty  personally  to  study  the  excellent  work  done  by  American  universities. 

I.  ‘‘Silent”  Universities. 

The  best  university  is  the  best  collection  of 
books.— Thomas  Carlyle. 

Libraries  form  so  important  an  element  of  the  American  educational  system 
that  no  treatise  on  any  educational  subject  can  ignore  them.  If  America  had 
none  other,  it  would  deserve  the  claim  of  being  a  land  of  culture  of  the  first  rank 
on  account  of  its  public  libraries,  which  afford  every  inhabitant,  without  distinc¬ 
tion  of  age,  rank,  or  sex,  at  all  times,  free  of  cost,  the  opportunity  to  supply  the 
deficiencies  of  his  school  education  and  acquire  new  treasures  of  knowledge. 
Libraries  form  the  most  important  supplement  to  the  existing  school  system,  and 
happily  minister  in  equal  degree  to  the  wants  of  all  who  are  not  totally  ignorant, 
and  have  the  will  to  rise  to  a  higher  intellectual  plane. 

The  question  as  to  how  American  libraries  affect  German  instruction  is  readily 
answered.  A  library  that  is  not  designed  exclusively  for  the  purpose  of  enter¬ 
tainment  is  simply  inconceivable  without  German  books;  it  must  contain  a 
larger  or  smaller  percentage  of  them  under  all  circumstances. 

Proofs  can  readily  be  adduced.  More  than  thirty  years  since,  the  renowned 
English  scholar,  Professor  Huxley,  made  the  following  remark.1 

Ask  a  man  who  wants  to  study  a  subject  deeply  and  thoroughly,  he  it  historical, 
philosophical,  philological,  physical,  literary,  or  theological,  whether  if  he  desires 
to  master  any  abstract  study — excepting,  perhaps,  political  economy  and  geology, 
which  are  specifically  Anglican  sciences— he  is  not  obliged  to  read  six  times  as 
many  German  as  English  books? 

It  may  be  that  in  the  meantime  conditions  have  somewhat  changed  to  the  dis¬ 
advantage  of  German  scientific  literature,  but  by  no  means  have  they  altered  the 
fact  that  German  books  are  simply  indispensable  for  any  kind  of  scientific  work. 
This  is  verified  by  the  fact  that  every  year  approximately  as  many  German  as 
English  and  French  books  together  are  put  on  the  market. 

In  the  year  1892  there  appeared  in  the  United  States  4,862  books;  in  England, 
6,254;  in  France,  13,132,  and  in  Germany,  26,000.  The  German  Empire  there¬ 
fore  almost  equals  in  this  respect  the  two  English  speaking  .countries  and  France. 
Besides,  its  literary  productiveness  is  decidedly  on  the  increase  (in  1898  there 
appeared  23,739  new  books) ,  and,  moreover,  numerous  German  books  are  produced 
from  year  to  year  in  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  other  countries. 

1  Quoted  by  Charles  Phelps  Taft,  in  his  noteworthy  lecture  “  The  German  university  and  the 
American  college.” 


664 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


To  speak  of  libraries,  therefore,  means  to  speak  of  institutions  in  which  certain 
collections  of  German  books  are  to  be  found.  For  this  reason  a  few  words  must 
be  devoted  to  the  phenomenal  development  of  American  libraries. 

According  to  the  well-known  work  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  in 
1876,  Public  Libraries  in  the  United  States  of  America,  Their  History,  Condition, 
and  Management,  there  were  in  this  country,  in  1793,  35  libraries  with  75,000  vol¬ 
umes;  in  1859, 1 2  1,297  libraries  with  4,280,836  volumes;  in  1875,  3,682  libraries  with 
12,276,694  volumes.  This  number  has  greatly  increased  in  the  meantime.  In  the 
year  1891  official  statistics1’  state  the  number  of  libraries  with  more  than  1,000  vol¬ 
umes  to  be  3,803,  with  31,187,354  volumes;  while  in  1900  the  Report  of  the  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Education  shows  that  the  number  of  libraries  of  1,000  volumes  and 
over  had  increased  to  5,383,  and  the  total  number  of  volumes  to  44,591,851. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  one  man  alone — Andrew  Carnegie — has  within  a 
short  space  of  time  given  $13,454,865  for  the  foundation  of  public  libraries  in 
America  and  Scotland.  He  says: 

The  result  of  my  own  study  of  the  question,  “What  is  the  best  gift  which  can  be 
given  to  a  community,”  is  that  a  free  library  occupies  the  first  place,  provided  the 
community  will  accept  and  maintain  it  as  a  public  institution,  as  much  a  part  of 
the  city  property  as  its  public  schools,  and,  indeed  pm  adjunct  to  these.  It  is,  no 
doubt,  possible  that  my  own  personal  experience  may  have  led  me  to  value  a  free 
library  beyond  all  other  forms  of  beneficence.  When  I  was  a  working  boy  in 
Pittsburg,  Colonel  Anderson,  of  Allegheny — a  name  I  can  never  speak  without 
feelings  of  devotional  gratitude— opened  his  little  library  of  400  books  to  boys. 
Every  Saturday  afternoon  he  was  in  attendance  at  his  house  to  change  books.  No 
one  but  he  who  has  felt  it  can  ever  know  the  intense  longing  with  which  the 
arrival  of  Saturday  was  awaited,  that  a  new  book  might  be  had.  My  brother  and 
Mr.  Phipps,  who  have  been  my  principal  business  partners  through  life,  shared 
with  me  Colonel  Anderson's  precious  generosity,  and  it  was  when  reveling  in  the 
treasures  which  he  opened  to  us,  that  I  resolved,  that  if  ever  wealth  came  to  me, 
that  it  should  be  used  to  establish  free  libraries  that  other  poor  boys  might  receive 
opportunities  similar  to  those  for  which  we  were  indebted  to  that  noble  man.3 

In  view  of  the  facts  that  men  like  Carnegie  are  continually  providing  for  the 
increase  of  libraries,  that  in  recent  times  States  and  communities  are  attach¬ 
ing  great  importance  to  their  foundation  and  improvement  (in  the  year  1891  the 
State  of  New  York,  for  instance,  increased  the  number  of  books  in  its  public 
libraries  to  335,000,  and  in  18984  to  1,755,000),  and  finally,  that  through  the  efforts 
of  Melvil  Dewey,  traveling  libraries  have  been  introduced,  it  may  be  admitted 
that  about  40,000,000  books  in  public  libraries  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  American 
people. 

How  many  out  of  this  large  number  are  either  printed  in  German  or  translated 
from  German  originals?  A  close  investigation  of  this  most  interesting  subject 
would  make  too  great  a  digression.5  An  approximate  estimate  can  not  even  be 
made,  as  most  libraries  keep  no  statistics  of  the  language  in  which  the  books  that 
they  contain  are  printed.  However,  from  data  that  others  have  verified,  personal 
investigations  of  the  author,  and  information  given  by  librarians  and  other  com¬ 
petent  persons,  a  few  points  may  be  given  in  answer  to  the  question. 

Benjamin  Franklin  is  the  founder  of  public  libraries  in  America.  The  Phila¬ 
delphia  Library  Company  originated  in  the  year  1732  and  became  operative  through 
the  members  of  the  Junto  Club,  each  of  whom,  as  well  as  nonmembers  that  desired 
to  make  use  of  the  library,  paid  a  certain  fee  (subscription  library).  The  original 
collection  consisted  of  only  English  books;  in  proportion  as  German  literature  was 

1  Compare  William  T.  Rhees,  Manual  of  Public  Libraries,  Institutions,  and  Societies  in  the 
United  States  and  British  Provinces  of  N  orth  America.  Philadelphia,  1859. 

2  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular  of  Information,  1893,  No.  7. 

3  The  Gospel  of  Wealth,  and  Other  Timely  Essays,  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  p.  27. 

4Compare  Schultze,  Free  Public  Libraries,  pp.  54  and  67. 

6Schultze  (p.  69)  quotes  the  value  of  books  brought  annually  from  Europe  to  the  United 
States  at  12,860,000  marks.  The  most,  of  course,  come  from  Germany.  . 


GERMAlf  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


665 


introduced  into  Pennsylvania,  German  books  may  have  been  added.  On  account 
of  the  scanty  knowledge  of  German  among  Anglo-Americans,  translations  of  good 
German  works  were  frequently  introduced  toward  the  close  of  the  colonial  period. 

To  a  noteworthy  article  on  “Early  influence  of  GermAii  literature  in  America  ” 1 
Frederick  H.  Wilkens  adds  “A  list  of  the  translations  of  German  literature  that 
were  printed  in  the  United  States  before  1826,”  which,  without  any  claim  to  com¬ 
pleteness,  contained  the  titles  of  187  works.  Besides  Goethe  and  Schiller,  we  find 
the  names  of  Campe,  Gessner,  Klopstock,  Kotzebue,  L.  L.  Sturm,  J.  G.  Zimmer- 
mann,  J.  H.  Zschokke,  Lessing,  Schlegel,  Wieland,  La  Motte  Fouque,  Cliamisso, 
and  Pestalozzi.  Kotzebue  outrivaled  all  other  authors  with  32  works. 

In  the  same  proportion  that  it  became  customary  to  study  German  literature  and 
science  in  the  original  German,  books  were  more  largely  imported.  The  before- 
mentioned  beginnings  of  a  collection  of  German  books  in  the  Harvard  College 
library  no  doubt  formed  the  first  German  book  collection  of  any  importance  in 
the  whole  country.  This  is  at  present  estimated  at  about  150,000  volumes.2  The 
German  department  has  besides  a  specially  select  seminary  library  at  command. 
Moreover,  Ferdinand  Freiligrath’s  library,  a  private  one,  and  the  German  collec¬ 
tion  of  the  Boston  Public  Library,  the  greatest  in  the  world  of  its  kind,  with  700,000 
volumes,  afford  unusually  abundant  material. 

The  city  of  New  York  can  likewise  boast  of  possessing  most  valuable  treasures 
of  German  books,  that  probably  may  exceed  those  of  Boston  and  Cambridge  in 
number.  Large  collections  are  contained  in  the  Astor,  Lenox,  Columbia  Univer¬ 
sity,  and  Ottendorfer  libraries,  and  New  York  University  possesses  a  consid¬ 
erable  number  of  German  works.  One-half  million  volumes,  of  which  200,000 
are  German,  being  nearly  as  many  as  English,  are  contained  in  the  Astor  Library 
alone,  according  to  information  given  the  author  by  the  librarian, 
f  The  library  of  the  Columbia  University  contains  one  of  the  most  important  col¬ 
lections  of  German  books,  as  over  65,000  of  the  270,000  volumes  are  German. 
Like  all  American  libraries,  it  is  divided  into  a  reference  department  for  general 
use  and  the  main  collection  of  books.  The  first,  which  is  located  in  the  large 
cupola  hall,  contains  about  10,000  volumes,  of  which  probably  500  to  1,000  are 
German,  including  the  latest  edition  of  Meyer’s  Konversations-Lexikon;  the 
Deutsche  Rundschau,  complete  in  about  100  volumes;  a  collection  of  German  clas¬ 
sics  and  prominent  works,  as,  for  instance,  Simplicius  Simplicissimus;  a  number 
of  histories  of  literature  (Brandes,  Principal  Tendencies  in  the  Literature  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century),  grammars,  dictionaries,  and  similar  works  of  reference. 
Each  of  the  divisions  contains  the  principal  works  of  social  and  political  literature, 
as  The  Capital,  by  Marx;  historical  works  on  music,  mathematics,  mineralogy, 
paleontology,  and  the  different  special  sciences.  Several  valuable  atlases  complete 
this  store. 

The  library  proper  contains  the  best  bibliographical  works,  to  determine  the  old 
and  the  new  titles.  The  large  lexicons  of  Heinsius  and  Kayser,  with  all  supple¬ 
ments;  the  complete  catalogue  of  editions  of  German  publishers,  the  Hinrichs 
catalogue,  the  Leipzig  general  German  bibliography,  and  periodicals,  as  the  Cen- 
tralblatt  fur  Bibliothekswesen,  the  Petzold  Zeitschrift,  the  Serapeum,  and  the 
Auzeiger  fur  Bibliotheken  Journal,  hardly  omit  any  work  of  importance.  Should 
it  be  the  case,  however,  the  numerous  journals  on  German  literature,  as  the 
Literarische  Central bl a tt,  the  Gottingen  Notices,  the  Journal  for  Comparative 
History  of  Literature,  Euphorion,  the  Journal  for  the  German  Language,  Iler- 
rig’s  Records  for  the  Study  of  Modern  Languages,  the  yearbooks  for  literature, 
and  many  others,  afford  the  opportunity  of  learning  of  the  existence  of  any  work 
in  question. 

For  general  information  on  G-erman  thought  and  action  all  the  well-known 


1  Americana  G-ermanica,  III,  No.  2,  page  163. 

2  From  a  communication  from  Thomas  J.  Kiernan,  superintendent  of  circulation. 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


666 

Konversations-lexikons  are  at  hand,  besides  such  encyclopedias  as  those  of  Zedler 
and  Ersch  und  Gruber,  and  the  large  economic  technical  encyclopedia  of  Krunitz,  in 
250  volumes.  This  division  likewise  contains  the  reports  of  the  Berlin  and  the  Vienna 
academies  of  sciences,  the  scientific  associations  of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Gottingen, 
and  Prague,  and  numerous  other  learned  societies  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Halle, 
Hamburg,  Wurzburg,  etc.  The  Preussischen  Jahrbucher,  the  Kc'nigsberg  Alt- 
Preussische  Monatsschrift,  the  Prussian  Provincial  Journal,  and  many  popular 
journals,  like  Ueber  Land  und  Meer  and  the  Gartenlaube,  deserve  to  be  mentioned. 
The  next  division  contains  a  most  comprehensive  literature  on  mathematics  and  the 
natural  sciences.  No  important  German  journal  devoted  to  mathematics,  physics, 
astronomy,  chemistry,  agricultural  chemistry,  mineralogy,  geology,  zoology, 
anthropology,  or  meteorology  is  missing.  We  shall  mention  only  as  examples 
Poggendorf’s  Annals  and  the  Crelle  Journal,  consisting  at  present  of  about  120 
vo^mes.  In  the  following  division  we  find  an  astonishingly  complete  collection 
of  transactions  of  the  different  parliamentary  bodies  in  Germany,  from  the  Bunde¬ 
stag  to  the  German  Reichstag  (the  official  stenographic  report),  as  well  as  the 
separate  landtags  of  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wurtemberg,  etc.  Here  we  pass 
on  to  the  large  politico- juristic  division,  which  is  composed  about  one-tliird  of 
German  books. 

The  section  of  statistics  and  political  economy  contains  all  the  important  works 
of  reference,  particularly  the  statistics  of  the  German  Empire,  the  journal  of  the 
Prussian  bureau  of  statistics,  the  corresponding  publications  of  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
Austria,  and  Switzerland,  the  well-known  yearbooks  of  national  economy  and 
statistics  by  Hildebrand  and  Konrad,  Hoitzendorff’s  Yearbooks  of  Legislation  and 
Statistics,  Faucher’s  Quarterly  on  Political  Economy,  the  Tiibinger  Zeitschrift, 
the  publications  of  the  Association  for  Social  Politics,  the  reports  of  factory 
inspectors,  Schanz’s  Finanz-Archiv,  Bolimert’s  Arbeiter-freund,  and  others, 
besides  the  social  economic  writings  of  Roscher,  Ad.  Wagner,  Schaffle,  Eugen 
Duhring,  Marx,  Lassalle,  Eapp,  etc.  Books  and  pamphlets  on  the  social  question, 
care  of  the  poor,  socialism,  and  kindred  subjects  are  numerous. 

In  the  division  for  law  and  government  we  find  the  complete  works  of  Holtzen- 
dorff,  the  waitings  of  Ihering,  Gneist,  Labandi,  Zopfl,  and  Thudichum;  Waitz, 
Deutsche  Verfassuagsgeschishte;  Moser's  Deutsches  Staatsrecht  in  50  volumes; 
Grunhut’s  Journal  of  Private  and  Public  Law,  Aegidi's  Staats-Archiv,  the 
Journal  of  Comparative  Jurisprudence  since  1877,  the  Criminal  Journal,  the 
Judgment  Hall,  and  a  large  collection  of  literature  on  the  law  of  punishment 
and  criminal  process.  The  most  prominent  names  among  authorities  on  Roman 
law  are  all  reijresented,  as  Savigny,  Puchta,  Gluck,  Vangerow,  and  Windscheid. 
We  likewise  find  the  authorities  on  canon  law,  Hinschius  and  Phillips, 
besides  the  transactions  of  the  German  jurist  sessions,  the  laws  of  the  German 
Empire  and  those  of  Prussia  since  1810,  the  decisions  of  the  superior  and  present 
imperial  courts,  Hirth’s  Annals,  the  Journal  of  the  History  of  Law,  and  the  New 
Pitaval.  To  these  are  added  numerous  works  on  commercial  law  and  science, 
railroads,  and  state  and  communal  government. 

In  the  next  division  we  find  a  special  collection  of  works  on  the  woman  question 
and  a  selection  of  tales,  folk-lore,  and  legends,  literature  on  geography  and  geol¬ 
ogy,  anthropology,  ethnology,  and  history.  The  latter  collection  is  especially 
large.  It  contains  over  5,000  volumes,  including  the  works  of  Ranke,  Droysen, 
Von  Sybel,  Schlosser,  and  all  other  noted  historians,  the  well-known  universal 
histories,  and  a  Bismarck  collection  of  about  150  volumes.  The  Miinchener  histo- 
risch-politische  Blatter,  in  119  volumes,  occupy  considerable  space,  as  do  also  the 
works  of  A.  von  Humboldt,  Bastian,  Baumgarten,  Billow,  the  Globus,  the  Aus- 
land,  and  the  Stimmen  aus  Maria  Laach.  There  are  also  many  biographies, 
memoirs,  atlases,  and  much  church  history  matter,  as,  for  instance,  Martin 
Luther's  works  and  the  reports  of  many  councils. 

The  last  division  is  that  of  the  philological  seminary,  containing  about  10,000 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


667 


German  books.  Most  of  the  prominent  German  antbors  are  represented,  the  most 
important  by  several  editions  of  their  works;  and  many  works  on  the  history  of 
literature,  philology,  philosophy,  psychology,  psychiatry,  and  pedagogics  are  at 
hand.  There  are,  besides,  large  special  collections  of  Schiller  (about  250  volumes) , 
Kant  (about  700  volumes),  and  Goethe  (about  1,300  volumes).  The  Goethe  col¬ 
lection  is  the  largest  outside  of  Germany. 

The  Germanic  collection  of  the  New  York  University  numbers  about  10,000 
volumes,  including  dictionaries — especially  the  German  Dictionary  of  the  Grimm 
brothers,  grammars,  and  works  on  the  history  of  literature.  The  history  division 
contains  the  Yearbook  of  the  Historical  Collection  of  the  Imperial  House  of  Aus¬ 
tria,  in  25  volumes,  deserving  of  special  mention,  as  only  three  copies  are  extant. 
The  northern  division  contains  the  Old  Northern  Runic  Monuments  of  Scandi¬ 
navia  and  England,  by  George  Stephens,  a  book  of  interest  as  representing  the 
life  work  of  a  most  conscientious  investigator.  In  an  article  on  this  collection, 
recently  published  by  Dr.  A.  Kluge,  he  says:  “The  remarkable  collection  of  jour¬ 
nals  owned  by  the  university,  which  numbers  about  125  volumes  and  is  consid¬ 
ered  the  best  in  America,  represents  considerable  capital.  Deserving  of  special 
mention  is  the  very  important  Dutch  journal,  De  Gids  (The  Guide),  published  in 
Amsterdam  since  1837  and  enjoying  the  largest  circulation.  It  is  a  monthly, 
devoted  principally  to  belles-lettres,  and,  under  the  management  of  Potgieter  and 
Bakhuizen,  in  the  beginning  exercised  great  influence  on  the  development  of  mod. 
ern  Dutch  literature;  even  in  face  of  strong  competition  it  continues  to  hold  a 
commanding  position.  The  work,  including  the  numbers  from  1837  to  1897,  is 
bound  in  120  volumes.  Besides  these  and  many  other  collections,  as  the  library  of 
the  Literarischen  Verein,  in  218  volumes;  the  Literarische  Anzeiger,  in  11  vol¬ 
umes,  etc.,  the  university  possesses  a  gem  in  a  separate  chromotype  copy  of  the 
Genaer  Liederhandschrift  (manuscript  of  Jena  songs),  the  original  of  which  is 
in  the  university  library  in  Jena.  There  are  only  140  copies  of  this  work  extant, 
30  of  which  are  printed  only  on  one  side.  According  to  the  list  of  subscribers, 
only  two  copies  are  in  America.” 

The  library  of  the  Cornell  University  consisted  originally  of  but  14,000  volumes 
of  the  former  private  library  of  Prof.  Charles  An  then,  but  became  an  important 
German  collection  through  the  purchase,  in  1868,  of  the  celebrated  collection  of 
Franz  Bopp,  the  Berlin  philologist.  The  Bopp  collection  contains  many  German 
works  on  Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  that  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  other 
American  library.  Out  of  his  own  means  President  Andrew  D.  White  formed  a 
collection  of  German  literature,  and  purchased  scientific  works  on  each  Euro¬ 
pean  visit  out  of  the  library  fund.  In  1871  various  German  journals  and  works 
on  mathematics  were  acquired  through  an  endowment  to  the  library  from  one  of 
the  trustees,  William  Kelley.  Through  the  acquisition  of  the  celebrated  collection 
of  Prof.  Friedrich  Zarncke,  the  number  of  German  books  was  increased  at  one 
time  by  about  13,0.00  to  14,000  volumes.  The  largest  addition,  however,  was  the 
gift  of  President  White,  who  generously  presented  to  the  university  his  library  of 
over  30,000  volumes,  about  10,000  pamphlets,  and  numerous  manuscripts.  A  very 
interesting  account  of  the  most  noteworthy  editions  contained  in  this  collection, 
selected  with  unusual  intelligence  and  representing  the  industry  of  a  generation,  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Beitriigen  zur  amerikanischen  Liter atur-  und  Kultur-geschichte, 
by  E.  P.  Evans,  page  216. 

“It  is  surprising  what  unique  works  on  German  history  of  culture  have  found 
their  way  to  the  somewhat  isolated  city  of  Ithaca,  which  possesses  among  other 
literature  a  surprisingly  large  number  of  works  on  magic  and  witchcraft.  One 
specimen  discussed  a  few  years  since  by  the  librarian,  Prof.  George  Lincoln  Burr, 
is  a  facsimile  of  the  original  copy  of  the  book,  De  Vera  et  Falsa  Magia,  com¬ 
posed  by  Cornelis  Loos  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  for  which  the 
author  was  imprisoned  and  prosecuted  under  criminal  law.  The  printing  of  this 


668 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


treatise  was  begun  in  Cologne  in  1592,  when  the  manuscript,  fortunately  only  a 
duplicate,  was  confiscated  and  destroyed.  By  a  happy  accident  the  original  of 
the  official  reports  of  the  sessions  of  the  inquisition  against  Dr.  Frederick  Flache, 
the  companion  in  suffering  of  Cornells  Loos,  was  added  to  this  facsimile.  This 
manuscript,  supposed  to  be  lost,  was  preserved  to  posterity  by  Mr.  White,  he  hav¬ 
ing  discovered  it  in  a  second-hand  bookstore  in  Berlin,  the  owner  having  no 
suspicion  of  its  value.  Since  Mr.  Burr  has  been  in  office  he  has  made  the  greatest 
effort  continually  to  increase  the  German  library.  As  three  or  four  thousand 
books  are  added  every  year,  he  estimates  (January,  1901)  the  number  of  volumes 
at  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  thousand.” 

In  Philadelphia,  the  library  of  the  German  Association  of  Pennsylvania,  deserves 
the  first  mention.  It  dates  back  to  the  year  1817,  and  though  containing  only 
thirty  to  forty  thousand  volumes,  is  a  most  important  mine  of  German- American 
literature.  Since  March  21,  1896,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  has  possessed  a 
very  fine  German  library.  Prof.  Dr.  H.  Schoenfeld  thus  speaks  of  it:1 

The  library  of  the  late  Reinhold  Bechstein  of  Rostock  was  acquired  in  bulk 
through  the  efforts  of  Professor  Learned,  and,  with  its  archival,  well-arranged 
material,  represents  the  nucleus  of  the  so-called  Bechstein  collection,  which  has 
been  largely  increased  and  supplemented  by  the  purchase  of  other  valuable  works. 
At  present  it  contains  about  15,000  volumes  and  3,000  pamphlets,  representing  the 
best  periodicals,  works  of  reference,  and  seriate  collections,  comprising  works  on 
philology  and  literature,  dialectology,  antiquities,  culture,  and  folk-lore;  Gothic, 
Northern,  Old,  and  Middle  High  German;  rare  old  prints,  like  Henssler’s  folio 
edition  of  Hans  Sachs,  and  contemporaneous  editions  of  Luther's  works,  with  the 
reformer’s  autograph;  a  complete  series  of  periodicals  devoted  to  Germanic  sub¬ 
jects,  and  about  fifty  complete  series  of  publications  of  learned  associations— as, 
for  instance,  the  library  of  the  literary  society  in  Stuttgart.  To  these  are  added 
the  treasures  that  have  been  collected  in  America  itself  on  the  subject  of  American 
Germanism. 

Although  German  scientific  work  in  Pennsylvania  has,  in  reality,  never  ceased 
since  the  times  of  Pastorius,  the  German  pioneer,  a  more  decided  tone  has  been 
given  to  the  study  of  German  since  Prof.  Samuel  Stedman  Haldeman,  professor 
of  comparative  philolog.y  at  the  university  from  1869  to  1880,  published,  among 
his  32  contributions  to  philology,  his  article  on  the  German  vernacular  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  in  the  transactions  of  the  American  Philological  Association  (1869-70). 
With  this  publication  begins  the  study  of  German  dialectology  in  America.  In 
the  words  of  Learned,  “It  is  a  pioneer  study  in  American  dialectology  and  the 
comparative  philology  of  German  dialects.”  At  the  sam&time  another  excellent 
German  scholar,  Oswald  Seidensticker,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  history  of  Ger¬ 
man- American  culture — the  history  and  literature  of  German  pioneers  in  America. 
A  list  of  his  numerous  writings  on  this  subject,  that  deserve  to  be  studied  by  every 
educated  German,  are  contained  in  a  smali  book  published  on  the  occasion  of  the 
opening  of  the  Bechstein  Germanic  Library.2 

!  Besides  this  library,  the  following  collections  are  accessible  to  any  inquirer 
from  the  vicinity:  The  library  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania,  with  a 
fine  collection  of  individual  Germano-  American  a;  the  library  of  the  Philadelphia 
Turngeuieinde,  the  works  of  which  refer  principally  to  the  history  of  athletics 
in  America;  the  collection  of  the  Mount  Airy  Lutheran  Seminary,  which  con¬ 
tains  many  documents  on  the  development  of  Lutheran  communities  and 
schools  in  America;  the  collection  of  Judge  Samuel  J.  Pennypacker,  containing 
many  German  editions  published  in  Pennsylvania  in  the  eighteenth  century;  the 
collections  of  the  Lutheran  seminary  in  Gett}rsburg  and  the  Moravians  in  Beth¬ 
lehem  and  Nazareth;  finally,  the  collection  already  mentioned  of  Mr,  Abraham  A. 
Cassell  in  Harleysville,  Montgomery  County. 

Whoever,  therefore,  desires  to  devote  his  attention  to  German-American  studies 


1-1  The  importance  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  for  German  culture  and  history.”  In 
the  Pedagogical  Record,  vol.  38, 1898,  No.  10. 
a  Opening  of  the  Bechstein  Germanic  Library,  Univei’sity  of  Pennsylvania,  1896. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


669 


must  seek  his  material  in  Philadelphia.  In  New  York  and  Boston  a  far  greater 
number  of  English  translations  and  books  imported  from  Germany  are  to  be 
found. 

In  Baltimore  there  were  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighties  several  libraries, 
including  the  magnificent  Peabody  Library,  numbering  over  200,000  volumes,  and 
the  Johns  Hopkins  University  library,  with  30,000.  At  that  time,  Prof.  Herbert 
B.  Adams,  whose  labors  in  so  many  directions  have  contributed  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  university,  initiated  the  effort  to  acquire  the  library  of  his  deceased  teacher 
at  Heidelberg,  Prof.  John  Caspar  Bluntschli,  for  the  university.  As  the  well-to-do 
Germans  of  Baltimore  considered  the  advancement  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  a  duty  of 
honor  and  shared  the  desire  to  raise  the  library  to  a  good  standing,  they  succeeded, 
owing  to  the  efforts  of  Professor  Raddatz,  professor  of  German  at  the  Baltimore 
City  College,  in  raising  the  necessary  fund  by  subscription.  On  December  20, 1882, 
an  impressive  celebration  was  held  in  the  large  hall  of  the  university,  after  which 
Col.  F.  Raine,  in  the  name  of  the  donors,  presented  the  Bluntschli  library  to 
President  Gilman.  In  his  reply  the  latter  remarked  that  America,  was  indebted 
to  Germany  for  three  things:  I.  The  many  works  contributed  in  the  different 
branches  of  science.  II.  The  impulse  given  to  the  promotion  of  education.  III. 
The  many  excellent  men  that  have  come  to  America,  so  many  of  whom  have 
taught  in  American  schools.  President  Gilman  closed  his  effective  speech  with 
the  words,  “Ad  illuminandas  gentes,  Germania.” 

To  speak  of  the  other  addresses  would  lead  us  beyond  our  scope.  One  fact,  how¬ 
ever,  is  incontestable— though  the  Bluntschii  library  is  small  (3,000  volumes), it  is 
very  valuable.  Moreover,  it  has  in  the  meantime  been  considerably  enlarged.  In 
1884  the  widow  of  Dr.  Francis  Lieber  presented  her  husband’s  wmrks,  together 
with  many  valuable  unprinted  manuscripts,  to  the  library.  In  1887  the  Swiss 
Government  made  a  larger  gift.  In  recent  years  the  German  library  has  received 
an  annual  sum  of  $1,000,  presented  by  a  German- American  of  high  standing  on 
condition  that  his  name  be  withheld. 

The  University  of  Michigan  furnishes  a  classic  illustration  that  many  of  the 
much- vaunted  State  universities  suffer  from  the  same  difficulties  which  the  Johns 
Hopkins  encountered,  viz,  insufficient  means  for  forming  a  German  library.  In 
December,  1885,  Professor  Calvin  Thomas,  at  that  time  assistant  professor  of  Ger¬ 
man  at  that  university,  addressed  the  following  interesting  letter  to  Dr.  Hermann 
Kiefer,  of  Detroit.  Only  the  introduction  and  conclusion  are  omitted: 

Our  State  university  is  suffering  greatly  from  the  need  of  a  Goethe  library,  and 
the  question  I  would  ask  is  this,  Whether,  if  the  many  wealthy  and  educated  Ger¬ 
mans  of  this  State  were  acquainted  with  the  conditions  of  the  case,  they  might 
not  be  expected  to  supply  this  need?  I  need  not  say  much  of  the  importance  of 
Goethe  in  the  intellectual  life  of  modern  times.  Every  year  increases  the  interest 
in  the  great  German  poet.  An  immense  amount  of  literature  relating  to  him  has 
already  come  into  existence,  and  this  literature  is  constantly  and  rapidly  increas¬ 
ing.  To  quote  the  words  of  Hermann  Grimm:  “From  now  on  there  is  a  science 
called  Goethe.”  How  deeply,  then,  is  the  fact  to  be  deplored  that  of  this  Goethe 
literature  the  library  of  the  great  State  university  of  Michigan  possesses  next  to 
nothing.  Moreover,  unless  assistance  comes  from  without  there  can  be  no  speedy 
improvement  of  this  condition  in  the  future.  The  common  belief  is  that  an  edu¬ 
cational  institution,  supported  by  the  large  and  rich  State  of  Michigan,  is  entirely 
relieved  of  all  necessity  of  private  support.  This  view  is,  unfortunately,  unjusti¬ 
fiable.  The  total  amount  which  the  library  committee  has  been  able  to  expend 
for  “German literature ”  during  the  last  ten  years  is  $400  in  round  numbers.  That 
is  an  average  of  $40  a  year.  Anyone  who  knows  anything  at  all  of  the  demands 
of  a  large  library  realizes  at  a  glance  that  nothing  can  be  done  with  such  means. 
Under  such  conditions  it  can  be  understood  why  we  have  not  been  able  to  procure 
a  Goethe  collection,  for  with  the  little  at  our  command  we  have  been  obliged  to 
provide  for  all  German  literature  from  the  time  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  above  is  not  to  be  construed  as  though  I  design  to  accuse  the  State  of  illib- 
erality.  Nor  should  there  be  any  suspicion  of  mismanagement  of  the  money 


670 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


appropriated.  Justly  and  conscientiously  we  do  what  we  can,  but  with  $40  a  year 
very,  very  little  can  be  effected.  It  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  the 
library  possesses  no  particular  income.  Like  the  university,  it  is,  for  the  most 
part,  supported  by  special  appropriations  of  the  legislature;  the  “  general  fund  ” 
of  the  institution  does  not  suffice  to  pay  the  daily  necessary  expenses.  What  hap¬ 
pens  when  the  legislature  seems  to  act  rather  liberally  toward  us?  Last  winter 
the  members  in  Lansing  appropriated  $10,000  for  the  university  library.  This  has 
every  appearance  of  being  a  considerable  amount.  At  all  events,  I  do  not  think 
that  much  larger  appropriations  are  to  be  expected  in  the  future.  Now,  let  us 
see  what  action  was  taken.  The  sum  mentioned  is  not  intended  for  one  year,  but 
for  two  years;  consequently,  $5,000  for  one  year.  Of  this  amount  the  medical  and 
law  departments  receive  $1,500;  $1,200  are  spent  for  binding  and  subscriptions  to 
periodical  literature.  The  remaining  $2,300  are  divided  among  about  twenty-  three 
professors  of  the  academic  department,  each  of  whom  has  an  equal  right  to  nave 
the  wants  of  his  own  branch  satisfied.  One  of  these  twenty-three  is  the  professor 
of  “modern  languages,”  by  which  are  understood  French,  German,  Italian,  and 
Spanish;  other  modern  languages  are  usually  ignored.  From  this  you  see  what 
an  insignificant  part  of  the  $10,000  appropriation  is  and  can  be  applied  for  Ger¬ 
man  literature,  and  still  no  injustice  has  been  committed. 

The  possible  rejoinder  may  be  made  that  every  other  department  of  the  library 
is  as  poorly  provided  for  as  that  of  German  literature;  why,  therefore,  complain? 
Even  were  such  the  case,  there  would  be  great  reason  for  complaint,  in  my  estimation. 
But  such  is  not  the  case,  because  so  many  other  departments  have  been  supported 
by  private  gifts.  In  1870,  for  instance,  Mr.  Philo  Parsons,  of  Detroit,  enriched  the 
department  of  political  sciences  by  the  gift  of  the  valuable  library  of  the  late  Pro¬ 
fessor  Rau,  of  Heidelberg  (about  4,000  volumes  and  5,000  pamphlets).  During 
1883-1885  Mr.  James  McMillan,  of  Detroit,  gave  $7,000  for  a  Shakespeare  library. 
Another  gentleman,  whose  name  is  not  to  be  published,  presented  $3,500  to  the 
university  for  the  purchase  of  historical  works.  Another  anonymous  gift  of  $300 
has  just  been  received  by  the  department  of  English  literature.  Not  long  since 
the  mathematical  division  received  $500  from  the  well-known  German  manufac¬ 
turer,  Mr.  Hegeler,  of  Lasalle,  Ill.,  and  so  on,  for  this  chapter  is  by  no  means 
completed.  The  department  of  German  literature  alone  seems  to  have  gained  no 
such  friends.  Shall  this  reproach  continue  to  exist?  If  a  practical  man  should 
ask  what  we  really  want,  my  answer  is  as  foPows:  We  want  about  $6,000,  $1,000 
to  be  spent  at  once  for  the  beginning  of  a  Goethe  library,  and  the  rest  to  be  loaned 
at  interest,  the  yearly  income  from  this  capital  to  be  applied  to  the  completion  of 
this  library.  The  fund  might  be  called  “  the  German -American  Goethe  fund.” 
By  a  Goethe  library  I  understand,  of  course,  in  the  first  place,  the  works  of 
Goethe, i.  e.,  the  different  editions  of  his  works,  his  correspondence, etc.;  secondly, 
biographical,  critical,  and  explanatory  matter;  thirdly,  historical,  mythological, 
and  other  material  that  throws  any  light  whatever  on  the  writings  of  Goethe 
(there  are,  for  instance,  1,500  volumes  of  Faust  literature) ;  fourthly,  illustrations 
of  Goethe’s  works  in  copperplate  and  steel  engravings,  etc.;  fifthly,  after  the 
most  necessary  books  of  the  above-mentioned  classes  have  been  procured,  our 
library  should  include  the  works  of  other  authors  (such  as  Herder,  Schiller,  the 
Romanticists)  who  stood  in  intellectual  relation  with  Gcethe  and  may  be  consid 
ered  precursors,  cooperators,  opponents,  or  continuators  of  his  intellectual  action. 
In  this  way  the  library  would  gradually  develop  into  an  ample  collection  of  the 
most  important  literary  treasures  of  Germany. 

Is  it  possible  for  any  part  of  this  air  castle  to  be  built  upon  solid  ground?  I 
apply,  first,  to  Germans,  because  in  reality  it  is  a  German  affair.  From  whom 
else  should  help  come?  In  the  execution  of  such  a  design  German  patriotism  can 
erect  a  beautiful  memorial  for  all  time.  But  why  should  this  memorial  be  given 
to  Ann  Arbor?  With  the  prevailing  American  sectarianism  and  the  consequent 
division  of  higher  educational  interests,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  Germans  of  Michi¬ 
gan  have  every  reason  to  stand  by  the  State  university.  More  than  1,000  German 
students  have  studied  there.  It  is  the  only  institution  in  the  whole  Northwest 
where  German  young  men  and  women  can  receive  intellectual  food  to  some  extent 
similar  to  that  received  in  the  large  universities  of  Germany.  Originally  this 
university  was  as  far  as  practicable  modeled  after  the  German  standard.  * 

Finally,  in  order  to  show  that  the  plan  which  I  have  outlined  is  not  a  thing 
unheard  of,  I  mention  the  fact  that  not  long  since  the  German  citizens  of  Balti¬ 
more,  or  rather  some  among  them,  bought  the  large  library  of  the  renowned  Pro¬ 
fessor  Bluntschli  and  presented  it  to  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

The  letter  was  published  in  the  German  papers  of  Michigan  and  attained  its 
purpose.  The  Goethe  library  now  numbersAbout  1,000  volumes.  Thus  Professor 
Thomas  was  enabled  to  begin  his  special  study  of  Goethe,  which  he  has  since  con- 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


671 


tinned  with  much  success.  Moreover,  it  proves  that  not  only,  as  the  poet  says, 
evil  deeds  must  ever  produce  evil,  but  that  the  same  can  be  said  of  what  is  good. 

As  a  counterpart  of  the  measure  of  Professor  Thomas,  we  may  cite  the  follow¬ 
ing  appeal,  published  last  year  in  the  German  press  of  St.  Louis  by  Professor  Otto 
Heller.  It  reads: 

GERMAN  STUDENT  LIBRARY. 

Dear  Sir:  Upon  my  acceptance  of  the  chair  of  the  German  language  and  liter¬ 
ature  at  the  Washington  University  I  recognized,  seven  years  ago,  that  one  of  my 
most  immediate  and  most  important  duties  was  to  acquire  as  complete  a  German 
student  library  as  possible  for  the  university.  Conditions  were  such  that  fora 
long  time  I  could  not  count  upon  any  contributions  worthy  of  mention  from  the 
university  fund,  and  so  was  obliged  to  promote  the  undertaking  partly  by  the 
efforts  of  the  German  public  and  partly  by  the  receipts  from  public  lectures  which 
I  have  delivered  every  year  since  1894  for  this  purpose.  With  a  feeling  of  gratifi¬ 
cation  I  thank  the  Germans  of  St.  Louis  for  their  attendance  at  these  lectures, 
which  alone  enabled  me  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  large  library  contemplated. 
In  one,  of  course,  rather  limited  branch  our  German  department  library  contains 
a  fine  selection  of  scientific  works  and  reliable  works  of  reference;  but  only  a  very 
modest  beginning  has  been  made. 

On  account  of  the  unpropitious  times,  which  have  brought  so  many  similar 
efforts  to  a  standstill  and  prevented  the  agitation  of  a  new  project,  I  have  with¬ 
held  from  making  a  public  appeal  until  now. 

In  the  meantime  the  academic  study  of  German  in  the  United  States  has  attained 
not  only  an  estimable,  but  a  brilliant  position.  At  Harvard,  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  University  of  Chicago,  the  Northwestern  University,  and  all 
others  situated  in  localities  with  a  rather  large  German  population  German  libra¬ 
ries  have  been  acquired  at  a  great  expenditure  of  money,  which,  in  my  estimation, 
are  calculated  more  than  all  articles  of  German  scholars  in  English  periodicals  to 
reconcile  within  the  quiet  rhythm  of  time  the  violently  antagonistic  minds  of  two 
leading  nations. 

Since  I  have  finally  resolved,  with  jmur  kind  cooperation,  to  plead  for  general 
support  for  the  realization  of  my  plan,  I  think  that  1  am  justified  in  giving  a  full 
explanation  of  the  purpose  of  the  large  German  library  which  I  have  in  view. 
The  library  is  intended  to  furnish  students,  especially  those  of  German  extraction, 
with  a  tangible  means  for  the  systematic  study  of  the  German  language  and  litera¬ 
ture  from  the  beginning  to  independent  research.  It  is,  furthermore,  designed  to 
lighten  and  oftentimes  even  to  make  possible  the  scientific  work  of  authors  and 
scholars  within  this  district,  and  thus  and  in  other  ways  help  preserve  German 
culture  in  our  midst  by  making  an  important  educational  instrument,  German 
literature  in  all  its  branches,  accessible  to  every  inquiring  mind. 

The  sum  of  money  required  is  considerable.  I  also  know  that  German  chari¬ 
table  institutions,  the  German  stage,  and  many  other  praiseworthy  objects  have 
well-founded  and  prior  claims  for  support,  and  I  have  not  the  least  thought  of 
depriving  them  of  public  assistance.  Still  I  hope  that  I  do  not  deceive  myself 
when  I  believe  that  in  their  position,  which  exposes  German- Americans  to  ever- 
increasing  attacks,  a  greater  spirit  of  sacrifice  among  individuals  will  promote  the 
execution  of  my  project. 

In  this  hope  I  hereby  request  all  who  encourage  this  undertaking  to  forward 
their  contribution  of  whatever  amount,  from  50  cents  upward,  to  me  as  soon  as 
possible,  or  to  send  it  to  the  office  of  the  Westliche  Post  for  me.  As  soon  as 
recei  ved  the  money  will  be  deposited  in  the  university  treasury  and  the  amount 
will  be  published  weekly  in  the  columns  of  the  Westliche  Post. 

The  name  of  each  contributor  and  the  books  purchased  by  his  gift  will  be  noted 
on  specially  printed  tickets.  The  university  office,  in  union  with  a  committee  of 
German- American  citizens  selected  by  the  first  fifty  contributors,  will  control  the 
fund. 

Professor  Heller  earned  by  this  appeal  only  $350. 

Chicago  possesses  several  important  libraries.  On  June  1,  1900,  the  Chicago 
Public  Library  contained  21,813  German  volumes,  not  including  several  thousand 
bound  volumes  of  German  periodicals  and  works  of  art  and  an  indefinite  number 
of  pamphlets.  Since  then  about  five  or  six  thousand  volumes  have  been  added,  so 
that  the  entire  number  of  German  books  is  at  least  25,000. 1 


1  The  author  received  written  information  on  this  point  from  Mr.  E.  F.  L.  Gauss,  assistant 
librarian  of  the  Public  Library,  in  February,  1901. 


672  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

There  are,  in  addition,  the  two  university  libraries.  That  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  is  quite  large. 

The  Rudolf  Hildebrand  library  of  the  Stanford  University  has  already  been 
referred  to. 

With  the  best  intentions  it  was  impossible  to  ascertain  the  size  of  German  libra¬ 
ries  in  other  cities  within  the  limited  space  of  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  author. 
Moreover,  such  an  investigation  is  hardly  practicable  without  the  collective  work 
of  an  association  interested  in  the  purpose. 

Independent  of  the  large  German  libraries  in  all  important  cities  and  higher  edu¬ 
cational  institutions,  there  are  a  small  number  of  German  associations  that  sup¬ 
port  libraries  in  which  German  books  of  course  predominate.  Several  such  asso¬ 
ciations  have  already  been  mentioned,  but  in  the  discussion  of  associations  for 
other  than  purely  literary  purposes.  There  still  exist,  and  formerly  there  were 
many  more,  German  reading  clubs,  that  in  their  way  adopted  the  Franklin  plan  of 
subscription  libraries.  Such,  for  instance,  are  the  German  Literary  Society  of 
Morrisania  (New  York) ,  and  the  German  Reading  Club,  of  Pittsburg.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  year  1897  the  German  library  of  the  latter  numbered  about 
12,000  volumes.1 

The  Belleville  Public  Library,  the  origin  of  which  may  be  likewise  traced  to  a 
German  reading  club,  has  a  very  interesting  history,  given  in  its  seventeenth 
annual  report  of  June  1,  1800.  Under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Anton  Schott,  sixteen 
German  immigrants  met  and  founded  the  German  Library  Society  of  St.  Clair 
County.  Each  paid  $3,  and  with  the  accrued  amount  a  “library  ”  of  346  volumes 
was  collected  the  first  year.  As  the  Germans  of  Illinois  have  always  been  good 
patriots,  the  first  book  purchased  was  the  first  volume  of  Sparks's  Life  of 
Washington. 

As  we  can  not  refer  to  the  interesting  details  of  the  development  of  this  library, 
we  mention  only  the  following:  In  the  year  1883  the  library  was  estimated  to  con¬ 
tain  about  9,000  volumes,  partly  English  and  partly  German.  It  was  then  taken 
charge  of  by  the  city,  to  which  it  was  presented  by  the  library  society.  Since 
that  time  the  number  of  books  has  risen  to  30,000.  and  the  German  works  have 
likewise  been  increased  in  number. 

Only  large  public  institutions  and  corporations  are  in  a  position  to  support  a 
library  of  any  importance.  Small  private  ‘  ‘  reading  circles  ”  are  suitable  for  small 
villages  and  rural  districts  alone.  Moreover,  the  lack  of  any  kind  of  a  library  is 
of  itself  proof  that  an  institution  has  no  claim  to  great  scientific  importance. 
According  to  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1897-98,  of  the  39 
largest  institutions  in  the  South,  12  possessed  a  library  with  fewer  than  5,000  vol¬ 
umes;  7  possessed  a  library  containing  5,000-10,000;  10  possessed  a  library  contain¬ 
ing  10,000-15,000;  4  possessed  a  library  containing  15,000-20,000;  5  possessed  a 
library  containing  more  than  20,000.  The  University  of  Texas,  with  35,000  vol¬ 
umes,  is  included  in  the  above. 

However,  the  disposition  is  manifested  in  the  South  to  remedy  this  cardinal 
defect  as  quickly  and  thoroughly  as  possible.2 

II.  Associations  and  Periodical  Publications  for  the  Promotion  of 
German  Instruction. 

The  Modern  Language  Association,  as  we  learned  in  the  section  on  historical 
development,  deserves  to  be  mentioned  first  among  the  societies  for  the  promotion 
of  German  instruction.  At  the  annual  meeting  held  in  the  University  of  Nebraska, 
in  Lincoln,  December,  1898,  its  purpose  was  amply  defined  by  C.  Alphonso  Smith, 


1  German  Reading  Club.  Yearbook  and  supplement  to  the  club  catalogue.  Pittsburg,  1897. 

2  The  Sewanee  Purple.  The  University  of  the  South,  Sewanee,  Tenn.  Midwinter  number, 
1901,  page  9. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


673 


president  of  the  central  division.  Among  other  things,  he  said:  “The  purpose  is 
by  united  efforts  to  establish  a  center  of  correct  information  for  the  settlement  of 
questions  relating  to  the  modern  languages  and  literatures.  We  wish  to  make 
accessible  to  every  advanced  student  and  to  every  teacher  of  the  modern  languages 
the  best  ideas  attainable  in  or  about  his  time.” 

He  then  referred  to  the  example  of  Noah  Webster,  and  explained  that  this  excel¬ 
lent  scholar  could  not  attain  a  result  corresponding  to  his  thought  and  energy 
because  he  was  not  acquainted  with  the  best  investigations  of  his  time.  Webster 
(who  died  in  1843)  lived  at  a  time  “when  Jacob  Grimm  had  laid  securely  the 
foundation  of  historical  grammar,  when  August  Wilhelm  von  Schlegel  had  laid 
the  foundation  of  Sanskrit  philology,  when  Franz  Bopp  had  laid  the  foundation  of 
comparative  grammar,  and  when  August  Friedrich  Pott  had  laid  the  foundation 
of  scientific  phonetics;  but  Noah  Webster  cared  for  none  of  those  things.” 

It  is  accordingly  evident  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  a  society  with  the  purpose 
in  view  of  acquainting  its  members  with  all  the  current  proceedings  in  their  dif¬ 
ferent  branches  of  knowledge.  In  what  way  the  Modern  Language  Association 
has  taken  an  active  part  in  educational  reform,  and  how  it  has  thus  assisted  Ger¬ 
man  to  attain  the  position  due  to  it  in  the  curriculum  of  higher  educational  insti¬ 
tutions,  has  been  amply  explained.  The  action  of  the  society  must  therefore  be 
considered  exceptionally  beneficial. 

The  total  number  of  members  is  about  1,000,  including  a  considerable  proportion 
of  Germans  and  German-Americans.  The  German  minority  is  by  no  means  so 
great,  however,  but  that  it  was  able  to  elect  a  president  of  its  own  choice.  If  the 
main  division  of  the  association,  with  about  550  members,  25  per  cent  German, 
elected  a  German — Prof.  Hans  Carl  Gunther  von  Jagemann — to  assume  its  direc¬ 
tion,  positive  reasons  alone  could  have  been  their  motive.  Nativistic  narrowness 
does  not  therefore  exist  in  these  circles.  If  another  proof  were  needed  it  is 
furnished  by  the  “Kommers”  (“smoker”),  which,  according  to  early  German 
custom,  was  held  at  the  seventeenth  annual  congress  in  New  York  at  the  close  of 
December,  1899.  Of  11  songs  sung  on  this  occasion,  3  were  Latin,  including  the 
Gaudeamus  igitur;  3  English,  3  German,  2  French,  and  1  was  “mixed,”  namely, 
partly  German  and  partly  English. 

The  scientific  lectures  delivered  at  every  annual  meeting  are  not  all  of  equal 
value;  still  many  are  worthy  efforts.  The  full  text  of  only  the  latter  is  given  in 
the  proceedings  of  the  association,  which  appear  annually.  The  Modern  Lan¬ 
guage  Notes,  likewise  published  by  the  association,  are  of  less  general  interest, 
though  they  are  indispensable  for  the  preservation  of  data  relative  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  German  instruction. 

The  National  German- American  Teachers’  Association,  whose  work  covers  a 
period  of  thirty  successful  years,  ranks  next  in  order  to  the  Modern  Language 
Association. 

In  April,  1870,  the  following  appeal  was  published  to  the  teachers  and  friends 
of  the  schools: 

German  teachers  and  German -American  schools  lack  union  and  combined 
action,  and  still  on  them  chiefly  is  based  the  hope  of  the  preservation  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  language,  custom,  and  thought — the  hope  of  the  protection  of  German  cul¬ 
ture.  We,  the  undersigned,  are  convinced  that  the  necessity  for  a  general 
organization  of  German  teachers  of  the  Union  has  long  since  been  felt  by  the 
majority,  and  that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  effecting  it  have  caused  anxiety, 
as  the  local  teachers'  associations  have  taken  no  part  in  the  matter  and  offered  no 
support. 

We  have  therefore  resolved  to  initiate  the  formation  of  a  general  teachers’ union 
by  annual  meetings,  after  the  fashion  of  German  teachers’  days.  These  would 
offer  points  of  contact,  the  first  essential  toward  a  permanent  union. 

We  define  the  purpose  of  such  meetings  to  be:  The  formation  of  general  peda¬ 
gogical  efforts,  the  support  of  the  mission  of  the  German  element  in  behalf  of  the 


ED  1901— — 43 


674 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


history  of  culture,  especially  the  extension  and  further  development  of  specifically 
German- American  schools,  and  in  connection  with  them  the  defense  of  the  interests 
of  their  teachers. 

As  the  beginning  must  be  made  by  some  one,  we  hereby  assign  the  first  German- 
American  general  teachers’  day  for  the  1st  to  the  3d  of  August  of  this  year,  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  and  invite  German  teachers  throughout  the  Union  to  participate 
in  large  numbers,  adding  that  all  other  friends  of  the  cause  who  feel  a  lively 
interest  in  the  preservation  of  our  native  language  and  are  not  indifferent  as  to 
whether  the  second  generation  of  immigrants  are  estranged  from  German  thought 
and  feeling  or  not,  are  heartily  welcome.  The  teachers  and  friends  of  the  schools 
in  Louisville  are  ready  to  form  a  local  committee  which  will  make  the  necessary 
arrangements  to  provide  the  attendants  with  cheap  or  free  lodging  and  reduced 
fares  on  railroads  and  steamers. 

We  furthermore  request  our  honored  colleagues  to  prepare  such  lectures  and 
theses  for  discussions  as  will  promote  the  above-mentioned  purposes;  the  announce¬ 
ment  of  these  should  be  sent  to  the  provisional  business  committee  through  E. 
Feldner,  Detroit,  Mich. ,  not  later  than  June  1,  so  that  the  program  maybe  arranged 
and  published  in  time  by  the  said  committee. 

The  Louisville  local  committee  (address  W.  N.  Hailmann)  will  publish  in  a 
short  time  all  information  concerning  its  arrangements. 

The  committee  formed  for  the  organization  of  the  first  general  German- Ameri¬ 
can  teachers’  union  is  composed  of:  J.  Bengel,  professor  at  the  Normal  School 
of  Ypsilanti,  Mich. ;  Ed.  Feldner,  director  of  the  German-American  Seminary, 
Detroit,  Mich.;  W.  N.  Hailmann,  director  of  the  German-American  Academy  in 
Louisville,  Ky. ;  Dr.  Hopp,  director  of  the  German-English  School  in  Yonkers,  N.*Y. ; 
J.  Illian,  teacher  at  the  German-American  Seminary  in  Detroit,  Mich.;  L.  R. 
Klemm,  teacher  at  the  German-American  Seminary  in  Detroit,  Mich.;  J.  C. 
Knapp,  director  of  the  German-English  School  in  New  Albany,  Ind.:  K.  Knortz, 
professor  at  the  High  School  in  Oshkosh,  Wis. ;  E.  Pollmar,  teacher  at  the  German- 
American  Seminary  in  Detroit,  Mich.;  H.  Reffelt,  teacher  in  Hoboken,  N.  J.;  A. 
Schneck,  teacher  at  the  German-American  Seminary  in  Detroit,  Mich.;  F.  L. 
Soldan,  professor  at  the  High  School  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  F.  R.  Schunemann-Potte, 
speaker  of  the  Secular  League  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  W.  Steffen,  professor  at  the 
St.  John’s  College,  Annapolis,  Md.;  Dr.  Sonneschein,  rabbi  of  the  Reformed 
Israelites  in  St.  Louis.  Mo.;  F.  Mundemann,  teacher  at  the  German-English 
School  in  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

The  organization  meeting  was  held  in  Louisville,  August  1,  1876.  As  might 
have  been  expected,  its  proceedings  were  all  of  a  preparatory  nature.  Lectures 
were  delivered  by  A.  Schneck,  Detroit,  on  the  subject,  A  Parallel  between  German 
and  American  Education;  by  P.  Engelmann,  Milwaukee,  on  School  Books;  by  H. 
Reffelt,  Hoboken,  on  Obstacles  to  German  Instruction  in  America;  by  J.  C.  Knapp, 
New  Albany,  Ind.,  on  The  Agitational  Task  of  German-American  Schools;  by 
Karl  Knortz,  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  on  German  Language  Instruction;  by  F.  L.  Soldan, 
St.  Louis,  on  Necessary  Modification  of  German  Methods.  Besides  these,  a  speech 
in  English  was  delivered  at  the  general  meeting  on  The  Mission  of  the  German- 
American  School. 

The  officers  were  Messrs.  E.  Feldner,  Detroit,  president;  W.  N.  Hailmann,  Louis¬ 
ville,  vice-president;  L.  R.  Klemm,  Detroit,  first  secretary;  W.  H.  Rosenstengel, 
St.  Louis,  second  secretary;  F.  Thurm,  Williamsburg,  N.  Y.,  third  secretary,  and 
J.  C.  Knapp,  New  Albany,  Ind.,  treasurer.  The  list  of  members  contained  116 
names,  21  being  those  of  women. 

The  result  of  the  meeting  is  thus  given  by  W.  N.  Hailmann: 

The  German  teachers  and  friends  of  schools  in  America  met  in  Louisville,  Ky., 
from  August  1st  to  5th.  This  was  the  first  successful  attempt  to  assemble  and 
unite  the  scattered  preservers  of  the  German  language  and  German  thought  and 
feeling  in  our  adopted  fatherland,  and  no  one  whose  pleasure  it  was  to  attend  the 
conferences  left  without  being  convinced  of  the  far-reaching  influence  and  impor¬ 
tance  of  this  opportune  undertaking.  By  the  proceedings  of  the  united  teachers 
the  professional  self-consciousness  of  each  was  strengthened;  everyone  returned 
home  with  renewed  zeal  for  the  fulfillment  of  his  duties,  whose  dignity  and  signif¬ 
icance  he  saw  in  a  clearer  light;  everyone  left  with  the  strengthened  conscious¬ 
ness  that  he  was  a  powerful  factor  in  a  high  mission,  the  elevation  of  his  fellow 
creatures  in  general  and  those  of  America  in  particular;  everyone  firmly  resolved 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


675 


tc  contribute  to  the  suppression  of  all  narrowness  in  his  profession,  based  upon 
traditional  or  acquired  claims  or  on  the  ignorance  of  state  or  church. 

The  first  positive  effect  of  this  congress  was  the  foundation  of  a  pedagogical 
monthly,  the  Amerikanische  Schulzeitung.  Its  publication  was  intrusted  to  a 
former  teacher,  the  late  publisher,  H.  Enofel,  of  Louisville,  and  W.  N.  Hailmann, 
likewise  a  resident  of  that  city,  was  chosen  editor.  What  this  periodical,  the 
name  of  which  was  changed  later  to  Erziehungsblatter  fur  Schule  und  Haus,  grad¬ 
ually  accomplished  under  the  management  of  Hailmann,  Kleinm,  and  Gross- 
mann  till  Dr.  H.  H.  Fick,  of  Cincinnati  assumed  the  editorship  can  be  ascertained 
by  examining  the  numbers  at  hand.  Besides  the  chief  editors  appointed  by  the 
publishers  the  following  gentlemen  were  chosen  by  the  association  as  assistant 
editors:  Messrs.  Rosenstengel,  Muller,  Keller,  Klemm,  Schuricht,  Lohmann,  Eckoff, 
Fick,  Rink,  and  Geppert. 

The  association,  as  well  as  its  organ,  acknowledged  the  following  concise  and 
sensible  statement  of  purposes: 

I.  The  care  of  the  German  language  and  literature,  together  with  English. 

II.  The  introduction  of  natural  (developing)  methods  as  striven  for  by  Ger¬ 
man  pedagogics  into  German -American  schools. 

III.  The  education  of  truly  republican  citizens  and  the  defense  of  the  intellectual 
and  material  interests  of  German  teachers. 

In  this  sense  the  foundation  of  the  Normal  Seminary,  previously  mentioned,  was 
undertaken  by  the  union.  Despite  unremitting  agitation  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  year  1888,  annual  meetings  in  different  places  (the  one  held  in  Cleveland, 
1880,  was  visited  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Dr.  Harris,  who 
delivered  an  address),  the  association  has  not  been  able  to  effect  a  firm  union 
among  German  teachers.  In  his  lecture  on  the  history  of  the  association,  deliv¬ 
ered  on  its  twenty-fifth  anniversary,  July  8,  1895,  in  Louisville,1  Dr.  Fick  attrib¬ 
uted  this  failure  partly  to  its  loose  organization,  partly  to  the  increasing  indiffer¬ 
ence  of  German- Americans,  and  partly  to  obstacles  of  a  partisan  nature.  In  so  far 
as  the  last  reason  was  justified,  it  could  not  have  been  better  counteracted  than 
it  was  on  the  thirtieth  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  association,  when 
Professor  Learned,  a  thorough  Anglo-American,  was  elected  president.  This 
action  formed  an  unusually  suitable  counterpart  to  the  choice  of  a  German  presi¬ 
dent  by  the  Modern  Language  Association.  Could  the  idea  of  intellectual 
cooperation  of  Germans  and  Americans  find  a  more  concrete  expression  than  in 
these  purely  spontaneous  manifestations  of  will  on  the  part  of  the  associations  in 
question? 

From  the  year  1899  a  new  and  to  all  appearances  more  hopeful  era  of  the  asso¬ 
ciation  begins.  Its  present  finely  equipped  organ,  the  Pedagogical  Monthly,2  a 
journal  devoted  to  German- American  education  and  since  December,  1899,  the 
organ  of  the  National  german- American  Teachers’  Association,  appeals  not  only 
to  German  teachers,  but  is  calculated  to  attract  professors  of  colleges  and  univer¬ 
sities.  The  editor  is  Max  Griebsch,  teacher  at  the  National  German- American 
Normal  Seminary,  and  Professor  Learned  has  personally  undertaken  the  direction 
of  the  ‘  ‘  division  of  higher  education.  ”  As  this  worthy  journal  reaches  about  13,000 
interested  persons  directly,  success,  it  seems,  must  follow.  The  list  of  contribu¬ 
tors  is  very  large  and  represents  not  only  the  most  important  States  from  Maine 
to  California  and  from  Michigan  to  Texas,  but  Canada  also.  The  association  now 
numbers  about  1,300  members. 

Besides  these  two  associations  of  national  importance,  others  restricted  to  a 
definite  field  of  action  and,  consequently,  the  more  effective,  e.  g.,  the  “  German 
societies”  of  the  different  universities,  which  exist  in  many  places,  deserve  to  be 


1  Published  in  Nos.  300  and  301  of  the  Erziehungsblatter. 

2  The  Herald  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  publishers. 


676 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

mentioned.  Harvard  and  Vassar  each  has  such  a  society,  and  it  seems  as  though 
they  will  continue  to  be  founded  in  the  interests  of  the  German  departments 
wherever  such  exist.  It  is,  moreover,  intended  that  the  different  German  societies 
shall  have  direct  intercourse  with  one  another,  in  order  that,  similarly  to  the 
societies  which  have  a  common  purpose  in  the  German  high  schools,  they  may  be 
informed  of  one  another's  work  and  action  and  perhaps  meet  periodically  on  spe¬ 
cial  “  days.” 

These  German  societies  are  a  part  of  student  life  that  has  yet  to  find  its  way  into 
America.  They  make  use  of  the  German  language,  German  lectures  are  held, 
German  songs  are  sung,  and  a  few  of  them  give  their  “  Komxners”  (“smokers”) 
at  the  close  of  the  scientific  work,  so  that  one  might  believe  himself  transported  to 
Heidelberg  or  Jena.  This  explains  why  so  many  of  the  professors  who  have 
studied  in  Germany  take  an  active  part  in  the  society  life,  however  little  their  pro¬ 
fessional  duties  may  have  to  do  with  German  instruction. 

One  of  the  most  flourishing  societies  of  this  kind  is  the  Deutscher  Yerein  of  Colum¬ 
bia.  According  to  its  constitution,  its  purposes  are  “  the  study  and  appreciation  of 
the  German  language  and  literature,  in  speech  as  well  as  in  writing;  the  discussion 
of  all  contemporaneous  events  in  Germany;  the  promotion  of  public  German  lec¬ 
tures  at  Columbia  University,  and  the  social  affiliation  of  those  who  are  interested 
in  German.”  Only  teachers  and  students  of  Columbia  can  be  active  members; 
the  number  of  honorary  members  is  unlimited.  The  first  thought  of  admitting  as 
extraordinary  members  any  who,  though  not  members  of  the  university,  were 
nevertheless  interested  in  the  purposes  of  the  society,  was  not  carried  out. 
Students  are  only  admitted  on  condition  that  they  understand  enough  German  to 
follow  the  proceedings  conducted  in  the  German  language. 

Mention  must  be  made  that,  besides  all  the  teachers  of  the  department,  several 
other  professors  who,  like  most  of  the  teachers  at  Columbia,  studied  in  Germany, 
became  regular  members.  Among  this  elite  group  of  German  students  a  German 
idealism  was  aroused,  which  White  deservedly  appreciates  in  his  “  Message  of  the 
nineteenth  to  the  twentieth  century.” 

It  would  cause  too  great  a  digression  to  mention  all  the  lectures  and  proceed¬ 
ings  of  the  society  since  its  organization  in  the  fall  of  1898.  During  the  season  of 
1900-1901  Dr.  F.  W.  Holls,  of  New  York;  Professor  Learned,  of  Philadelphia,  and 
L.  Viereck,  of  New  York,  delivered  lectures,  whilst  those  of  Professors  Jagemann 
and  Schilling,  both  of  Cambridge,  are  still  pending.  The  lecture  of  Professor 
Learned  cited  most  important  data;  the  lecture  of  L.  Yiereck  treated  of  the  his¬ 
torical  development  of  German  instruction  in  America.  The  remarks  of  Dr. 
Fred  W.  Holls,  of  New  York,  were  particularly  interesting.  Having  been  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  American  delegation  to  the  Peace  Congress  held  at  The  Hague,  he 
spoke  of  the  significance  of  this  event  for  the  development  of  international  law. 
Besides  the  lecturer,  two  other  members  of  that  congress  belonged  to  Columbia, 
viz,  President  Seth  Low  and  Captain  Mahan.  The  students  were  filled  with  no 
little  pride  at  these  international  relations  of  their  alma  mater. 

The  society  possesses  a  large  clubroom  in  the  west  hall  of  the  university.  One 
wall  is  decorated  with  a  magnificent  black,  white,  and  red  flag,  which  was  pre¬ 
sented  to  the  society.  The  other  walls  are  lined  with  cases  to  contain  the  books 
and  periodicals  of  the  society.  These  are  still  modest  in  number,  but  are  to  be 
considerably  increased,  as  a  benefit  play  given  in  the  German  theater  of  New 
York  realized  a  large  amount,  which  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  German 
books.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  students  are  recommended  to  see  German 
classical  plays  after  they  have  read  them  and  that  they  willingly  follow  this  coun¬ 
sel.  In  April  of  1901  the  German  ambassador,  Dr.  von  Holleben,  attended  a 
society  evening. 

As  far  as  can  be  ascertained  the  two  German  associations  of  the  Northwestern 
University— the  German  Gesellschaft  and  the  Literatur  Yerien— may  be  considered 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


677 


the  largest  and  most  successful  of  the  kind  outside  of  the  great  metropolis  of  the 
Empire  State.  They  were  organized  by  Prof.  Henry  Cohn,  a  man  prematurely 
cut  off  from  a  life  of  influential  action.  He  understood  how  to  imbue  them  with 
a  vigorous  and  varied  life,  so  that  there  need  be  no  fear  felt  for  their  continu¬ 
ance.  As  before  stated,  the  Literary  Society  was  founded  in  1893;  it  therefore 
belongs  among  the  oldest  organizations  in  question. 

In  the  account  given  of  the  university  mention  was  made  of  the  arrangements 
that  existed  in  former  years  in  the  departments  of  art  and  literature.  An  evening 
entertainment  given  in  January,  1901,  by  these  associations  was  fully  described  in 
the  Illinois  Staats  Zeitung  of  January  31,  of  that  year,  by  the  well-known  jour¬ 
nalist,  L.  Zwanzig.  We  quote  the  following: 

The  evening  entertainment  which  I  have  mentioned  was  attended  by  many  stu¬ 
dents  of  both  sexes,  a  large  number  of  professors  of  other  faculties,  the  trustees  of 
the  university,  with  their  ladies,  and  a  number  of  invited  guests.  The  programme 
consisted  of  recitations,  songs,  and  a  representation  of  the  highly  dramatic  scene 
between  Gen.  Octavio  Piccolomini  and  his  son  Max,  from  the  last  part  of  Schil¬ 
ler's  trilogy  Wallenstein.  *  *  *  The  language  of  the  Americans  on  the  stage 
of  the  music  hall  was  satisfactory  in  every  way,  and  even  astonishing.  We  must 
not  forget  that  the  pronunciation  of  German  on  such  occasions  is  difficult  for 
Americans.  I  was  agreeably  surprised  at  the  perfect  understanding  of  the 
works  on  the  part  of  the  young  men,  who  thoroughly  appreciated  the  thought 
portrayed. 

The  teachers  of  German  at  the  Northwestern  University  adhere  to  the  principle 
maintained  by  the  greatest  of  all  German  novelists,  Gustav  Frey  tag,  that  the 
knowledge  of  languages  is  the  best  help  for  science,  in  order  to  understand  the 
highest  that  man  can  comprehend,  the  souls  of  nations.  For  this  I  accord  them 
my  deepest  appreciation  and  admiration.  German- Americans  maybe  proud  that 
German  instruction  is  in  charge  of  such  excellent  scholars,  to  whom  liberal  sci¬ 
ence  is  the  high,  heavenly  goddess/’  and  not  “a  fine  cow  that  provides  them  with 
butter.” 

But  I  desire  to  express  the  pleasure  which  my  visit  among  them  afforded  me, 
not  only  to  the  teachers  but  to  the  students.  The  students  of  to-day  are  the 
teachers  of  to-morrow.  The  400  students  of  German  at  the  university  in  Evans¬ 
ton  form  a  respectable  fraction  of  the  element  called  to  leave  its  intellectual 
stamp  on  the  North  Americans  of  the  twentieth  century.  May  science  be  free  and 
holy  to  them,  and  may  they  carry  out  the  thought  of  their  teachers  when  they 
themselves  shall  be  guides,  leaders,  and  counselors  of  their  nation,  and  exert  a 
directive  and  molding  influence  on  its  history. 

Thus  far  the  words  of  the  report;  finally,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  at  a 
former  time,  the  Deutsche  Gesellschaf  t  felt  called  upon  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  the 
needy  German  poet,  A.  Mels,  on  his  death  bed.  The  recitation  of  his  well-known 
comic  Heine’s  junge  Leiden  (Heine’s  early  sufferings) ,  given  by  the  Berlin  actor, 
Nelich,  April  14,  1894,  under  the  auspices  of  the  association,  realized  the  sum  of 
$120,  that  contributed  much  to  making  his  last  hours  pleasanter. 

German  Turn-  and  Gesang  vereine,  German  societies  and  other  associations 
which,  according  to  their  statutes  or  occasionally,  as  opportunity  offers,  devote 
themselves  to  a  greater  or  less  cultivation  of  the  German  language  and  the  pro¬ 
motion  of  German  instruction,  athletics,  and  singing,  are  very  numerous.  Men¬ 
tion  has  already  been  made  of  athletic  associations  in  this  respect.  However,  it  is 
be^yond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  give  a  special  account  of  these  kinds  of  associa¬ 
tions.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Philadelphia  German  Centralbund  and  the 
different  German  historical  societies  of  Baltimore,  Milwaukee,  and  Chicago, 
although  their  work  contributes  not  a  little  toward  furnishing  valuable  historical 
data  for  German  instruction. 

The  two  quarterlies  that  have  been  published  since  1897,  the  Americana  Ger- 
manica  (appearing  since  January,  1897)  and  the  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology 
(appearing  since  April,  1897) ,  must  not,  however,  be  overlooked.  The  former  says: 

The  appearance  early  in  the  current  year  of  two  quarterlies,  both  devoted  to 
Germanic  studies  and  both  published  and  subsidized  in  America,  and,  thus  far 
at  least,  receiving  their  contributions  from  scholars  in  America,  is  a  reasonable 


678 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Jk 

cause  of  surprise,  and  at  the  same  time  an  adequate  reply  to  those  who  have  been 
wont  to  complain  that  the  Germanists  in  America  are  not  keeping  pace  in  pro¬ 
ductive  activity  with  their  colleagues  in  the  domains  of  Romanic  and  English 
philology.  The  explanation  of  this  apparently  sudden  manifestation  of  new  life 
is  not  far  to  seek.  For  more  than  a  decade  the  Modern  Language  Notes,  and  the 
Publications  of  the  Modern  Language  Association  of  America  have  been  the  main 
avenues  of  publication  for  the  three  great  departments  of  Romanic,  Germanic,  and 
English  philology  (the  last  having  been  severed  from  the  Germanic  group,  and 
regarded  as  a  separate  department,  because  of  its  cultural  importance).  While 
these  publications,  together  with  occasional  studies  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Philology  and  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philological  Association,  have 
done  much  to  stimulate  production  in  their  various  fields,  none  of  them  could, 
without  a  serious  break  with  its  traditions,  n?*rrow  down  its  scope  and  devote 
itself  to  any  one  particular  department.  The  various  university  series  begun  in 
recent  years  have  contributed  their  part  toward  meeting  the  demand  for  special 
publishing  facilities  until  more  specific  journals  should  arise  to  occupy  the  field. 
It  is  an  open  secret,  that  for  four  or  five  years  as  many  different  Germanists  in 
America  have  conceived  (as  it  seems,  quite  independently,  only  emulating  the 
example  of  German  scholars  beyond  the  Atlantic)  the  idea  of  establishing  some 
form  of  journal  for  the  promotion  of  Germanic  studies  in  this  country. 

Thus  the  two  new  journals  are  natural  and  timely  evolutions,  having  in  each 
case  a  clearly  defined  point  of  view  and  plan  of  operation,  and  having  so  consti¬ 
tuted  their  editorial  corps  as  to  include  most  of  those  who  were  themselves  con¬ 
templating  similar  enterprises,  thus  securing  cooperation  and  good  will,  which 
must  augur  a  new  and  better  epoch  in  the  history  of  Germanic  studies  in  America. 

The  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology  is  edited  by  Gustav  E.  Karsten,  University 
of  Indiana,  with  the  cooperation  of  Albert  S.  Cook,  Yale  University,  for  the 
department  of  English;  Horatio  S.  White,  Cornell  University,  for  the  history 
of  German  literature;  George  A.  Hench,  University  of  Michigan,  for  the  historical 
grammar  of  the  Germanic  dialects;  Georg  Holz,  University  of  Leipzig,  Germany, 
European  coeditor.  In  the  language  of  the  editors: 

The  journal  is  devoted  to  Germanic  philology  in  the  broader  sense  of  that  term, 
including  the  study  of  literature  as  well  as  that  of  language,  thus  embracing 
English,  which  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  scope  of  the  journal.  Thus 
the  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology  and  the  Americana  Germanica  enter  the  Ger¬ 
manic  field  from  quite  different  directions,  the  former  taking  English  and  German 
in  genera]  as  the  main  goal,  the  latter  emphasizing  the  literary,  linguistic,  and 
other  cultural  relations  of  Germany  and  America;  the  former  soliciting  foreign 
contributions  on  the  general  field  of  Germanics,  the  latter  accepting  American 
contributions  on  the  general  field,  but  soliciting  foreign  articles  on  the  relations 
of  Germany  and  America,  but  in  both  language  and  literature  and  in  all  the  peri¬ 
ods.  Both  journals  are  academic  in  character  and  aim  at  scientific  treatment  of 
the  material  which  they  publish;  both  accept  articles  in  English  or  German  and 
have  an  international  circulation.1 

The  Americana  Germanica  is  a  most  excellent  journal,  which  promotes  the  cause 
of  German  instruction  the  more  effectually  as  its  able  articles  not  only  influence 
professional  circles,  but  are  read  by  interested  parties  in  the  educated  circles  of 
both  hemispheres.  The  editor  is  Prof.  Marion  Dexter  Learned,  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  contributing  editors  are:  H.  C.  G.  Brandt,  Hamilton  College; 
Hermann  Collitz,  Bryn  Mawr  College;  Daniel  K.  Dodge,  University  of  Illinois; 
A.B.  Faust,  Wesleyan  University;  Euno  Francl^e,  Harvard  University;  A.  Gerber, 
Earlham  College;  Julius  Goebel,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University;  A.  R.  Hohl- 
feld,  Vanderbilt  University;  H.  M.  Schmidt- Wartenberg,  University  of  Chicago; 
Hermann  Schoenfeld,  Columbian  University;  Calvin  Thomas,  Columbia  Univer¬ 
sity;  H.  S.  White,  Cornell  University;  Henry  Wood,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

The  prospectus  of  the  journal  states: 

The  purpose  of  the  periodical  is  to  furnish  a  distinct  medium  for  the  publication 
of  results  obtained  from  the  comparative  study  of  the  literary,  linguistic,  and 
other  cultural  relations  of  Germany  and  America,  to  unite  the  efforts  already 
made  in  this  domain,  to  stimulate  new  researches  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic, 


From  an  editorial  in  Americana  Germanica,  I,  No.  3,  pages  105  and  106. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS.  679 

and  to  build  up  in  the  course  of  the  years  a  series  of  studies  setting  forth  the  his¬ 
tory  of  German  culture  in  America. 

The  periodical  will  include  in  its  scope  the  following  specific  subjects: 

1.  The  literary  relations  of  Germany  and  America — and  England  as  far  as  it  has 
to  do  with  these  relations— comprising  (a)  German  literature  written  in  America; 
(b)  German  literature  reprinted  in  America;  (c)  American  translations  of  German 
literature;  (d)  influence  of  American  literature  in  Germany. 

2.  The  linguistic  relations  of  Germany  and  America,  comprising  the  Germanic 
dialects  of  America:  (a)  German  dialects  (Dutch,  Platt,  Palatine,  Thuringian, 
Saxon,  Bavarian,  Swiss);  (b)  Scandinavian  (Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian, 
Icelandic) ;  (c)  English  only  so  far  as  influencing  or  influenced  by  the  other  Ger¬ 
manic  dialects. 

3.  The  cultural  relations  (exclusive  of  the  literary  and  linguistic)  of  Germany 
and  America,  particularly  folklore,  manners,  customs,  industries,  and  arts. 

4.  Articles  on  the  general  field  of  Germanics  written  in  America. 

The  journal,  which  at  present  forms  four  volumes,  has,  according  to  this  plan, 
published  a  series  of  valuable  articles.  Some  have  been  quoted  in  this  work; 
others  were  omitted  only  for  lack  of  space.  A  number  have  been  published  sep¬ 
arately.  The  undertaking  met  so  pressing  a  demand  that  its  extension  led  to  the 
earnest  consideration  of  an  American- German  publication  fund.  Details  of  the 
subject  will  be  given  in  the  next  section. 

Besides  the  more  lengthy  articles,  criticisms  of  books,  advertisements  of  recent 
jjublications,  and  editorials  on  all  subjects  relative  to  the  matter  in  question,  form 
the  chief  contents  of  this  interesting  journal.  As  a  matter  of  course,  it  likewise 
contains  articles  on  promoting  German  instruction,  though  they  are  not  so  numer¬ 
ous  as  in  the  official  organ  of  German- American  education,  the  Pedagogical 
Monthly.  The  “  division  for  higher  education  ”  is  directed  by  Professor  Learned. 

III.  Special  Institutions  and  Endowments  for  the  Promotion  of  German 

Instruction. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  friends  of  the  study  of  German  in  American  schools 
have  not  been  satisfied  with  the  official  action  in  this  direction  referred  to  in  pre¬ 
vious  sections,  but  have  competed  among  themselves  to  promote  the  cause  of  Ger¬ 
man  instruction  further  by  special  agencies  and  endowments.  As  a  result  of  this 
praiseworthy  zeal,  we  give  the  following  heterogeneous  list,  all  of  which,  never¬ 
theless,  tend  to  the  same  end: 

I.  The  Germanic  Museum,  at  Harvard. 

II.  The  German  Publication  Fund. 

III.  The  German  theatrical  productions  given  as  benefits  for  the  above  and 
other  Germanic  purposes. 

IV.  The  endowments  at  different  universities:  (a)  for  fellowships  or  scholar¬ 
ships  to  students  of  German;  (b)  for  professorships  in  German;  (c)  for  German 
books. 

In  March,  1897,  the  following  general  appeal  was  sent  out  from  Cambridge: 


THE  NEED  OF  A  GERMANIC  MUSEUM  AT  HARVARD. 

Not  so  .very  long  ago  the  study  of  German  in  this  country  was  valued  chiefly  as 
a  means  of  acquiring  facility  in  reading  or  speaking  a  language  which  has  come 
to  be  of  great  practical  importance  in  professional,  business,  and  scholarly  pursuits. 
Indeed  in  some  parts  of  the  country  this  is  still  the  prevailing  view  taken  not  only 
of  the  study  of  German,  but  of  all  modern  languages.  Greek  and  Latin  are  still 
surrounded  with  the  halo  of  a  time  when  all  higher  culture  was  considered  to  be 
bound  up  with  a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Roman  life;  while  French  and  German 
are  not  infrequently  looked  upon  as  upstarts  whose  standing  in  the  hierarchy  of 
learning  is  not  yet  beyond  doubt. 

It  is,  however,  clear  that  for  some  generations  past  a  change  has  been  gradually 
coming.  The  first  impulse,  as  far  as  German  is  concerned,  was  given  by  the  great 
epoch  of  German  literature  at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  When  Bancroft  and 


680 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Hedge  and  Motley  returned  from  their  studies  at  German  universities  they  brought 
with  them  not  only  a  fuller  equipment  of  scholarship,  but  also  a  strong  enthusiasm 
for  the  noble  intellectual  movement  which  was  then  shaping  the  destiny  of  mod¬ 
ern  Germany.  Following  this,  there  came  the  influence  of  1848.  The  March  revo¬ 
lution  struck  a  chord  to  which  the  American  heart  vibrated;  and  when  the  mar¬ 
tyrs  of  this  revolution  sought  a  refuge  in  this  country,  they  found  here  a  ready 
welcome  and  intelligent  sympathy  with  German  aspirations.  In  the  friendship 
between  Longfellow  and  Freiligrath  this  twofold  affinity  between  the  two  coun¬ 
tries  as  to  both  literary  and  political  ideals  may  be  said  to  have  received  its  most 
notable  symbolic  expression.  Next  there  followed  the  general  adoption  of  German 
methods  of  scientific  research  brought  here  by  the  steadily  growing  number  of 
American  teachers,  physicians,  and  theologians  who  had  received  the  decisive 
stimulus  for  their  life’s  work  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Gottingen,  or  Heidelberg. 
And  finally,  the  dominant  position  acquired  by  Germany  since  the  war  of  1870  gave 
the  American  people  a  new  sense  of  the  dignity  of  the  German  nation,  and  kindled 
interest  in  the  history  of  the  Teutonic  race. 

There  exists,  then,  to-day  an  ever-increasing  disposition  on  the  part  of  Ameri¬ 
cans  to  approach  the  study  of  German  as  a  study  leading  to  an  insight  into  a  great 
national  civilization.  Of  the  rapidity  with  which  this  tendency  is  developing,  the 
history  of  the  German  d  epartment  of  Harvard  University  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  is  an  index.  In  1871-72  there  were  given  two  elective  courses  in  Ger¬ 
man,  both  of  a  miscellaneous  character.  The  number  of  students  enrolled  in  them 
was  100.  Of  departmental  organization,  hardly  a  beginning  had  been  made.  To-day 
the  department  consists  of  ten  permanent  teachers,  namely:  One  associate  pro¬ 
fessor  of  German,  one  professor  of  German  literature,  one  assistant  professor 
of  Germanic  philology,  one  assistant  professor  of  German,  and  six  instructors. 
The  number  of  courses  offered,  apart  from  the  prescribed  course  in  elementary 
German,  is  29,  and  this  list  includes  such  courses  as  the  following:  History  of 
German  literature,  German  literature  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
German  literature  and  art  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  sixteenth  century,  German 
literature  from  the  Reformation  to  the  classic  period,  the  social  and  political  ten¬ 
dencies  in  German  literature  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Gothic,  Old  Saxon,  Old 
High  German,  Middle  Low  German,  Germanic  mythology,  Germanic  antiquities, 
and  a  seminary  of  German  literature  and  Germanic  philology.  The  number  of 
students  enrolled  in  these  elective  courses  is  about  750. 

Gratifying  as  this  development  is,  it  brings  into  clear  relief  the  need  of  further 
important  improvements.  To  one  of  these,  namely,  the  need  of  a  Germanic 
museum,  we  wish  to  call  the  attention  of  the  community  at  large. 

It  is  a  principle  now  generally  accepted  that  a  nation’s  history  can  not  be  studied 
adequately  without  a  consideration  of  its  achievements  in  the  monumental  and 
domestic  arts.  Nowhere  does  the  spirit  of  a  people  manifest  itself  more  clearly 
and  impressively  than  in  the  buildings  devoted  to  public  worship  or  public  delib¬ 
erations,  in  the  images  embodying  the  popular  conception  of  sacred  legend  or 
national  tradition,  in  the  appliances  for  private  comfort  and  security.  To  the 
student  of  Greek  and  Roman  culture  nearly  all  the  higher  institutions  of  learning 
offer  at  least  some  possibility  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  the  principal 
monuments  of  Greek  and  Roman  art.  The  student  of  Semitic  civilization  has  an 
excellent  opportunity  of  examining  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  monuments  in  our 
own  Semitic  Museum.  The  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  in  its  Japanese  collec¬ 
tion  ,  gives  an  admirable  conspectus  of  national  life  in  the  Far  East.  Both  the  Bos¬ 
ton  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  and  the  Fogg  Art  Museum  at  Harvard  contain  valuable 
collections  illustrating  certain  phases  of  mediaeval  and  Renaissance  art.  But 
nowhere  in  this  country  is  there  a  chance  of  studying  consecutively  even  the  most 
important  monuments  of  Germanic  civilization.  Nowhere  in  this  country  can  the 
student  obtain  a  vivid  impression  of  the  life  and  customs  of  our  forefathers,  from 
early  Teutonic  times  to  the  later  Middle  Ages,  such  as  is  afforded  by  the  Ger- 
manisches  Museum  at  Nuremberg  and  other  European  collections.  Nowhere  can 
be  given  an  accurate  conception  of  the  wonderful  Romanesque  cathedrals  of  the 
twelfth  century,  of  the  extraordinary  power  of  German  sculpture  in  the  thir¬ 
teenth,  of  the  exquisite  works  of  German  wood  carving  in  the  fourteenth  and  fif¬ 
teenth  centuries,  or  even  of  the  work  of  such  great  men  as  Peter  Yischer  and 
Albrecht  Durer. 

In  suggesting  the  establishment  at  Harvard  of  a  museum  devoted  to  this  hitherto 
neglected  subject,  we  do  not  wish  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  aesthetic  value 
of  German  art.  We  admit  that  for  the  cultivation  of  the  sense  of  formal  beauty 
the  study  of  Italian  art  is  decidedly  more  important  than  the  study  of  German  art; 
although  we  should  not  be  willing  to  grant  this  preference  to  the  art  of  any  other 
modern  nation.  What  we  maintain  is  the  paramount  importance  of  such  a  col¬ 
lection  as  this  for  the  study  of  civilization. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


681 


Four  or  five  rooms  containing  views  and  reproductions  of  characteristic  works 
of  Germanic  industry  and  art  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  sixteenth  century  might 
form  a  satisfactory  beginning  of  such  a  museum.  First  in  the  collection,  chrono¬ 
logically,  would  be  photographs  and  casts  of  such  objects  from  the  Neolithic  age 
as  may  "serve  to  throw  light  upon  the  questions  of  the  existence  of  an  anthropo¬ 
logically  distinct  Teutonic  race,  of  its  previous  history,  and  of  its  geographical  dis¬ 
tribution  in  Europe.  Next  there  would  follow  specimens  of  the  characteristic 
products  of  the  Hallstatt  and  La  Tene  periods;  models  of  the  earliest  habitations 
in  Germanic  territory,  so  far  as  their  construction  can  be  ascertained  from  actual 
remains,  from  imitations  in  the  form  of  house  urns,  and  from  the  descriptions  of 
ancient  writers;  pictures  showing  the  mode  of  burial  in  various  epochs,  and  casts 
of  tombstones  with  Runic  inscriptions.  The  progress  made  during  the  period  of 
the  Migrations  and  the  centuries  immediately  following  in  the  arts  of  working 
metais,  of  carving,  and  weaving  would  be  shown  by  reproductions  of  objects  in 
the  museums  of  Nuremberg,  Mainz,  and  Christiania,  and  in  the  British  Museum; 
the  development  of  navigation  by  models  of  boats,  from  the  dugout  of  the  lake- 
dweller  to  the  seagoing  boat  of  Nydam  and  the  Viking  ship  of  Gokstad;  the 
advance  in  architecture  by  models  of  the  German,  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the 
Norse  halls  as  described  in  the  literatures  of  the  respective  countries.  German 
culture  during  the  period  from  Charlemagne  to  the  Hohenstaufen  would  be 
illustrated  by  photographs  of  exteriors  and  interiors  of  the  great  Romanesque 
cathedrals  of  Aachen,  Worms,  Speier,  Mainz,  etc.,  the  Kaiserpfalz  at  Goslar,  the 
Wartburg  and  other  castles,  and  by  casts  of  such  works  of  sculpture  as  the  Bern- 
ward  column  of  Hildesheim,  the  brass  portals  of  Hildesheim  and  Augsburg,  the 
lion  of  Braunschweig,  etc.  The  thirteenth  century  would  be  characterized  by 
photographs  of  the  great  Gothic  cathedrals,  and  by  photographs  or  casts  of  the 
sculptures  at  Freiberg,  Wechselburg,  Naumburg,  Bamberg,  Freiburg,  Strass- 
burg.  For  the  fourteenth  century  a  selection  of  sepulchral  monuments  from  tlie 
Germanisches  Museum  at  Nuremberg  would  be  sufficient;  while  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury  should  be  fully  brought  to  view  by  representative  types  of  the  earlier  wood 
carving,  by  specimens  of  the  various  schools  of  painting  between  the  Van  Eycks 
and  Durer,  and,  finally,  by  as  complete  a  collection  as  possible  of  the  works  of 
Durer,  Holbein,  Peter  Vischer,  Adam  Krafft,Veit  Stoss,  Michael  Pacher,  and  Hans 
Bruggemann. 

A  collection  like  this  could  hardly  be  begun  with  less  than  $10,000.  But,  if  car¬ 
ried  out  successfully,  it  would  undoubtedly  be  one  of  the  most  useful  departments 
of  the  university.  It  would  be  the  first  attempt  to  bring  before  the  eyes  of  Amer¬ 
ican  students  a  picture  of  early  European  and  mediaeval  civilization.  It  would, 
at  the  same  time,  be  a  worthy  monument  to  the  genius  of  a  people  which  has  had 
a  large  part  in  shaping  the  ideals  of  modern  life  and  which  has  given  to  this  coun¬ 
try  millions  of  devoted  citizens. 

Very  few,  perhaps,  will  be  surprised  to  learn  that  until  the  close  of  the  cen¬ 
tury,  consequently  almost  four  years  after  the  publication  of  the  appeal,  not  more 
than  $4,000  was  forwarded  to  the  committee.  Meanwhile,  the  thought  to  be 
realized  is  so  striking  that,  perhaps,  it  need  only  be  made  known  to  the  public  at 
large  in  order  to  be  speedily  carried  into  execution  in  the  new  century.  Its 
success  would  certainly  be  an  important  event  in  the  history  of  culture.  That 
the  men  in  charge  of  its  execution  are  eminently  qualified  to  carry  out  such  a 
work  is  just  as  undeniable  as  the  fact  that  the  oldest  American  educational  insti¬ 
tution  in  the  country,  by  its  location  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  American 
Athens,  is  the  most  appropriate  place  for  such  a  Germanic  museum. 

It  is  a  gratifying  fact  that  the  German  ambassador,  Dr.  von  Holleben,  took  a 
personal  interest  in  the  founding  of  the  Germanic  museum.  By  invitation  of 
Professor  Miinsterberg,  of  Cambridge,  he  was  present  at  a  luncheon  given  at  his 
house  March  14,  1899,  for  the  purpose  of  urging  the  need  of  a  Germanic  museum 
at  Harvard.  On  this  occasion  he  delivered  the  following  address1  before  a  gath¬ 
ering  of  about  200  prominent  Germans  of  New  England: 

Gentlemen:  To  be  greeted  by  this  high-minded  gathering — amidst  eminent 
representatives  of  German  science  and  art,  transplanted  to  America — affords  me 
both  honor  and  pleasure;  but  it  is  particularly  gratifying  to  be  welcomed  in  the 
mother  tongue,  even  though,  outside  of  Germany,  I  am  accustomed  to  hear  those 
sounds  more  frequently  in  this  than  in  any  other  country,  for  Germany  has  a  home 


1  Taken  from  the  English  translation  published  in  the  German- American  Review. 


682 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


in  America.  Millions  and  millions  have,  in  decades  past,  come  from  abroad  and 
found  wliat  they  sought  for  in  vain  in  their  old  home — in  many  cases,  perhaps, 
not  without  fault  on  their  part — free  elbowroom  for  their  talent  and  efficiency. 
Things  no  doubt  went  hard  with  many,  but  most  of  them  have  for  generations 
risen  to  respected  positions,  and  at  former  times,  when  America  did  not  stand  upon 
its  present  summit  of  civilization,  German  intellect  and  laboring  power,  sprinkled 
all  over  America,  have  helped  to  form  in  man}7  places  what  might  he  likened  to 
an  oasis. 

At  the  head  of  all  those  contributors  to  evolutions  stand  the  representatives  and 
supporters  of  the  intellectual  wealth  of  the  German  people.  German  science 
bound  the  two  countries  together  by  ties  stronger  even  than  trade  and  industry. 
Those  ties  can  not  be  torn  asunder,  for  science  itself  can  not  be  extinguished. 
German  science  forms  the  leaven  of  European  civilization,  and  the  Americans  are 
more  permeated  by  this  German  science  than  most  of  them  imagine.  Here  in 
Boston,  under  the  spell  of  Harvard  University,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  lay  stress 
upon  the  overwhelming  importance  of  this  wealth  of  science.  Here  you  all  are 
under  the  more  or  less  immediate  influence  of  that  nursery  of  science,  almost  three 
hundred  years  old;  and  it  is  the  more  gratifying  that  the  leading  higher  school  of 
learning  in  this  country  stands  foremost  in  the  cultivation  of  German  science. 
Here  German  methods  of  research  have  triumphed.  The  study  of  German  itself — 
of  German  language,  art,  history,  and  literature  — has  taken  a  firm  hold,  and  has 
in  a  few  decades  found  rapid  development,  and  along  with  it  German  ideals 
became  more  deeply  rooted;  those  ideals,  which  at  times  are  apt  to  be  endangered 
in  their  own  country  when  passions  of  partisanship  and  industrial  struggle  run 
high,  although  no  government  in  any  country  in  the  world  is  so  anxious  to  nourish 
and  develop  the  intellectual  ^wealth  of  the  nation  as  is  that  of  Germany. 

Yea!  resting  upon  the  public  spirit  and  on  the  prosperity  of  the  American  peo¬ 
ple,  German  ideals  are  well  harbored.  But,  gentlemen,  is  it  for  us  to  fold  our 
hands  in  idleness?  Is  not  standing  still  equivalent  to  sliding  backward?  With 
great  pleasure  have  I  learned  that  a  movement  is  on  foot  in  Harvard  circles  hav¬ 
ing  for  its  purpose  the  erection  of  a  Germanic  museum.  Whoever  has  passed 
through  the  halls  of  the  Germanic  museum  at  Niirnberg  knows  what  it  should 
look  like,  and,  in  view  of  American  willingness  to  give,  I  am  sure  will  look  like 
some  day  in  the  near  future. 

The  creation  of  such  an  institution  must  needs  be,  to  far  wider  circles,  the 
source  of  abundance  of  suggestions  and  intellectual  impulses  in  the  interest  of  the 
German  language  and  German  ideals.  Let  my  last  words,  therefore,  express  the 
ardent  desire  that  every  one  of  us  may  do  his  duty  in  furthering  the  noble  object 
of  creating,  within  the  bounds  of  the  leading  university  of  the  country,  a  home¬ 
stead  for  the  treasures  of  German  art,  language,  and  history. 

The  Harvard  professors,  Dr.  Miinsterberg,  Dr.  Francke,  and  Hugo  K,  Schilling, 
and  the  chairman  of  the  visiting  committee,  Attorney  Henry  W.  Putnam,  like¬ 
wise  spoke.  Unfortunately,  Professor  Miinsterberg  possesses  neither  a  copy  nor 
a  draft  of  his  speech.  The  following  are  the  reports  of  the  other  addresses:1 

Prof.  Kuno  Francke  said: 

My  colleagues  and  myself  are  deeply  indebted  to  you  for  the  impressive  and  sin¬ 
cere  words  with  which,  so  to  speak,  you  have  pronounced  the  baptismal  blessing 
of  the  German  realm  on  the  life  of  our  child  still  unborn.  We  can  not  conceal 
that  in  many  respects  our  undertaking  has  special  difficulties  before  it.  *  *  * 
We  Germans  in  the  North  must  look  upon  ourselves  as  champions  of  German 
stamp  in  America;  we  must  consider  it  our  foremost  duty  to  open  the  eyes  of  our 
American  fellow-citizens  to  all  that  German  thought  has  aspired  to  and  produced 
in  the  course  of  centuries  in  industry,  art,  philosophy,  literature,  and  music,  and 
what  has  led  to  the  commanding  position  which  the  German  Empire,  thanks  be  to 
God,  occupies  at  the  present  day.  The  very  isolation  of  our  position  simply  makes 
an  undertaking  like  the  museum  in  question  a  patriotic  duty. 

That  is  one  side  of  the  case.  On  the  other  hand,  we  in  Harvard  are  by  no  means 
isolated.  We  know  that  if  not  the  attention  of  the  world,  at  least  the  eyes  of 
one  thousand  and  one  American  colleges  and  universities  are  bent  upon  us.  All 
that  is  done  in  Harvard  is  echoed  and  imitated  by  all  the  institutions  in  the  coun¬ 
try.  This  may  be  said  of  all  other  branches  as  of  the  study  of  the  German  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature.  Nowhere  else  are  there  so  many  and  excellently  trained 
teachers;  nowhere  else  is  the  history  of  literature,  of  art,  and  of  thought  studied 
as  extensively  and  scientifically.  Yet  the  outward  equipment  of  the  department 
presents  a  decided  contrast  to  this  favorable  status  of  teachers.  Whereas  Cornell 


Bostoner  Anzeiger,  No.  552,  March  25,  1889. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


683 


possesses  its  Zarncke  library;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  its  Bechstein  library, 
and  even  so  small  an  institution  as  the  University  of  Rochester  its  Ranke  library1, 
we  have  nothing*  worthy  of  mention  in  the  way  of  books  or  other  special  collections. 

If  we  succeed  in  forming  an  institution  that  will  bear  the  proper  relation  to 
teachers,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  in  a  few  years  Harvard  will  be  the  chief  seat 
and  central  point  of  G-ermanic  studies  in  America.  That  is  what  we  have  in 
mind.  As  Dr.  von  Holleben  has  so  beautifully  expressed,  we  desire  to  prepare  a 
home  for  German  thought.  We  desire  to  raise  a  structure  in  which  all  the  phases 
of  national  history  shall  be  represented  in  a  modest  degree,  but  in  typical  views, 
from  the  oldest  pile  dwellings  and  viking  vessels,  the  magnificent  architecture, 
sculpture,  and  painting  of  the  Middle  Ages  down  to  the  glorious  period  of  Weimar, 
and,  finally,  to  the  days  of  the  Niederwald  memorial  and  the  German  Reichstag;  in 
truth,  an  undertaking  that  will  be  a  milestone,  not  only  in  the  history  of  Harvard 
University,  but  in  the  development  of  scientific  life  in  America, 

An  address  by  Prof.  Hugo  K.  Schilling  followed.  He  said,  in  effect: 

I  hardly  know  what  I  can  add  to  what  has  already  been  said.  Permit  me,  then, 
to  give  a  somewhat  more  accurate  description  of  the  proposed  museum  as  we  hope 
it  to  be.  Only  the  barest  outline  could  be  given  in  the  appeal  made  by  the  Ger¬ 
man  department  some  time  since  in  the  Harvard  Graduates'  Magazine.  Dr.  von 
Holleben  has  referred  to  the  Germanic  museum  in  Ntirnberg,  which  presents 
itself  to  us  as  the  highest  ideal  of  such  a  collection,  and  the  masterly  arrangement 
of  which  we  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  take  for  our  model.  For  us,  of  course,  this 
ideal  is  in  many  respects  unattainable.  Nor  can  it  be  our  aim,  like  the  national 
and  provincial  museums  of  Europe,  to  collect  and  preserve  the  original  productions 
of  past  epochs  of  national  culture  in  greatest  variety.  The  proposed  museum  has 
a  purely  educational  purpose  in  view.  As  Mr.  Putnam  says,  it  is  to  enable  us  to 
apply  the  method  of  object  teaching  to  the  academic  study  of  antiquity  and  of  the 
history  of  art  and  literature,  and  thus  to  bring  before  the  mind  in  a  realistic  way 
the  material  and  intellectual  culture  of  our  ancestors;  it  is  to  be  a  practical  means 
for  helping  students  to  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  thought  and  feeling,  the 
laws  and  morals,  the  faith  and  customs  of  the  German  nation.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  public  at  large  takes  a  lively  interest  in  such  collections,  and 
that  it  is  susceptible  in  a  high  degree  to  their  educational  influence.  Our  museum, 
therefore,  will  lead  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  results  of  German  culture  by 
broader  circles  of  this  country. 

To  attain  this  purpose  in  most  cases,  plaster  casts  or  galvano-plastic  reproduc¬ 
tions  of  objects,  together  with  models,  photographs,  plans,  and  drawings  suffice; 
no  great  collections  of  things  similar  in  kind  are  required,  but  only  a  few  typical 
representatives  of  each  class.  In  this  way,  as  far  as  possible,  the  whole  develop¬ 
ment  of  Germanic  or  German  culture  may  be  represented  from  the  period  of  the 
separation  of  the  Indo-Germanic  tribes  to  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and,  if 
means  permit,  to  the  present  day. 

Pertinent  material  exists  in  great  measure;  all  relative  to  the  most  ancient  times 
is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  what  has  been  found  in  graves,  namely,  weapons, 
tools,  and  ornaments.  As  regards  the  transition  period  from  the  stone  to  the  cop¬ 
per  and  bronze  ages,  discoveries  in  the  oldest  pile  dwellings  of  Germany  and  Swit¬ 
zerland  give  an  insight  .into  an  advanced  state  of  culture  that  corresponds  to  a 
remarkable  extent  with  that  of  the  Indo-Germanic  tribes  at  the  beginning  of  their 
separate  existence,  as  made  known  by  comparative  philology;  much  information  is 
thereby  obtained  concerning  the  architecture  of  their  dwellings,  their  domestic 
life,  food,  arms,  clothing,  utensils,  ceramics,  weaving,  hunting,  fishing,  cattle¬ 
raising,  and  agriculture.  From  that  time  on,  discoveries  become  more  and  more 
numerous.  The  extensive  grave  field  of  Halstatt,  in  Upper  Austria,  and  the  more 
recent  pile-work  remains  of  La  Tene,  in  Lake  Neuenburg,  represent  different 
stages  of  culture  during  the  iron  age,  which,  if  not  brought"  about  by  the  ancient 
Germans  was  shared  by  them.  From  the  time  of  Csesar  and  Tacitus  the  Germans 
appear  in  the  light  of  history,  and  it  is  easier  to  define  more  sharply  their  char¬ 
acteristics. 

Later  on  we  find  a  new  and  more  abundant  source  in  the  literature  of  the  Mid¬ 
dle  Ages,  which  must  be  first  interpreted  and  made  more  forcible  by  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  antiquity.  The  proposed  collection  will  be  a  direct  help  to  the  study  of 


1  This  statement  is  erroneous.  Upon  the  author’s  inquiry,  Registrar  Herbert  S.  West  replied 
that  the  University  of  Rochester  possesses  no  “  Ranke  library,”  but  that  the  university  library 
contains  not  fewer  than  35,000  volumes,  of  which  many  are  German.  Whether  there  be  a 
Ranke  library  in  the  Theological  Seminary  or  in  the  Mechanics’  Institute,  of  Rochester,  could  not 
be  ascertained. 


684 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


literature  by  furnishing  a  tangible  representation  of  the  objects  of  which  we  must 
have  a  clear  idea  in  order  to  understand  many  passages  in  ancient  poetry,  inde¬ 
pendently  of  the  fact  that  for  the  comprehension  of  the  intellectual  energy  of  a 
nation  a  knowledge  of  its  material  culture  is  necessary. 

The  museum  will  be  of  the  same  practical  use  for  the  study  of  the  history  of 
art;  in  proportion  as  the  plastic  arts,  in  the  higher  sense,  develop  and  acquire  a 
national  individuality,  their  productions  in  a  museum  of  cultural  history  must 
gradually  be  brought  into  the  foreground.  As  in  every  other  instance,  the 
historic  development  of  art  and  skill,  customs  and  manners  must  be  typically 
illustrated;  thus  arms  from  the  stone  ax  to  the  armorer's  masterpieces  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries;  architecture  from  the  pile  hut,  and  the  simple 
structures  depicted  on  the  hut  urns,  to  the  Germanic  hall  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Middle 
High  German,  and  old  Northern  literatures,  to  the  imperial  palace  of  Goslar,  and 
the  typical  lord's  castle,  and  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  cathedrals;  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  shipbuilding  from  the  single  mast  of  the  inhabitants  of  pile  villages  to 
the  large  rowboat  of  Nydam  and  the  viking  ship  of  Go kstad;  that  of  sculpture, 
brass  work,  wood  carving,  and  painting,  from  their  beginnings  to  the  masterpieces 
of  Adam  Krafft,  Peter  Vischer,  Veit  Stoss,  and  Albrecht  Diirer. 

From  what  has  been  said  you  will  understand  that  the  museum,  as  regards  the 
latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  will  be  more  specifically  German,  and  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  art,  historical.  As  regards  the  earliest  times  and  the  first  part  of  the  Mid¬ 
dle  Ages,  it  will  be  more  archaeological  and  generally  Germanic.  Consequently  it 
will  promote  the  study,  not  only  of  German  and  Old  Northern,  but  likewise  of 
Anglo-Saxon  culture  and  literature,  and  that  encourages  me  to  hope  that  our  proj¬ 
ect  will  be  approved  by  Anglo-Americans  and  receive  substantial  support. 

Henry  W.  Putnam  said: 

The  members  of  the  visiting  committee  of  the  German  department  of  Harvard 
University  have  a  double  interest  in  the  founding  of  a  Germanic  museum.  In  the 
first  place,  we  share  the  national  feeling  exxDressed  by  the  gentlemen  who  have 
spoken  before  me.  Three  of  us,  Messrs.  Schlesinger,  Peary,  and  Godfrey  Morse  1 
are  of  German  extraction,  and  the  others,  as  do  all  Anglo-Saxons,  belong  to  the 
large  Germanic  race.  As  the  historian,  Freeman,  has  so  often  said:  Germany  is 
our  first  home,  England  the  second,  and  America  the  third. 

But  what  I  desire  to  emphasize  is  that  the  museum  will  be  not  only  a  monu¬ 
ment  of  German  nationality,  but  a  scientific  institution  affording  students  of  phi¬ 
lology  and  history  what  the  natural  history  museum  offers  to  zoologists  and 
botanists  and  the  laboratory  to  physicists  and  chemists.  It  will  contribute  to  the 
application  of  modern  pedagogical  principles  and  materially  advance  instruction 
by  observation,  the  concrete  comprehension  of  rea'ity.  At  the  present  day  we 
learn  more  and  more  through  the  eye,  by  actual  observation  in  contradistinction 
to  mere  theory.  In  this  way  time  is  saved,  the  imagination  is  quickened,  memory 
is  strengthened,  and  study  is  made  much  more  interesting. 

I  well  remember  the  mental  torture  which  I  suffered  during  my  college  life 
from  reading  the  description  of  the  Rhine  bridge  in  Caesar's  Gallic  war.  At  that 
time  the  greatest  stress  was  laid  upon  grammatical  construction  and  style.  What 
a  different  impression  this  description  would  have  made  upon  me  if  it  had  been 
illustrated  by  a  model  of  the  bridge  and  I  had  thus  had  a  clear  perception  of  one 
of  the  greatest  military  technical  works  of  all  times. 

The  reading  of  the  Nibelungen  Lied  is  dry  and  unprofitable  if  teachers  treat 
the  poem  from  a  mere  standpoint  of  language  without  giving  true  pictures  wher¬ 
ever  a  good  museum  is  at  hand  of  the  acting  persons,  their  dress,  aims,  manner 
of  life,  and  domestic  surroundings. 

The  great  progress  which  this  method  means  is  clear  to  all  and  we  desire  that  our 
children  should  profit  by  it.  As  Baron  von  Holleben  has  remarked,  we  owe  this 
method  chiefly  to  German  science,  and  Americans  are  more  influenced  by  German 
science  than  we  think.  I  acknowledge,  with  a  feeling  of  pleasure,  that  we  owe  a 
debt  of  gratitude.  We  beg  of  you  to-day  to  continue  helping  us  on  the  way  that 
you  have  pointed  out  to  us.  Although  our  country  is  politically  more  free  than 
Germany,  in  matters  of  education  we  are  to  some  degree  more  conservative  and 
even  reactionary.  Through  our  race  relationship  the  committee  hopes  to  interest 
Americans  in  this  project,  and  I  hope  that  the  German- Americans  of  Boston  will 
take  a  special  interest  in  demonstrating  the  art  and  practical  methods  of  the 
Fatherland  to  the  American  students  of  the  most  prominent  universities. 


i  In  the  meantime  Director  Heinrich  Conried,  of  2<Tew  York,  and  Dr.  F.  W.  Holls  were  made 
members  of  the  visiting  committee. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


685 


THE  GERMAN  PUBLICATION  FUND  OF  AMERICA. 

The  German  publication  fund  of  America  originated  in  the  idea  that  the  £  4  cra¬ 
dle  of  German- Americanism  ”  is  the  proper  place  for  the  publication  of  larger 
Germanistic  works.  The  very  interesting  plan  framed  by  Professor  Learned 
reads  as  follows: 

The  German  contribution  to  American  history  and  culture  has  been  by  far  the 
most  important  from  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  the  ethnographical  history  of 
America,  which  is  likely  to  be  the  history  of  the  near  future,  must  draw  largely 
upon  the  study  of  the  influence  of  the  German  people  in  the  development  of 
American  life  and  institutions.  The  increasing  interest  in  this  German  influence 
is  fast  extending  to  the  Anglo-Americans,  and  many  serious  and  well- trained 
investigators  are  turning  their  attention  to  this  new  field  of  research.  A  large 
amount  of  matter  in  the  form  of  original  documents  and  special  studies  is  already 
awaiting  publication,  thus  making  it  desirable  and  necessary  to  establish  a  per¬ 
manent  fund  for  the  publication  of  matter  relating  to  the  history  of  the  Germans 
in  America. 

The  plan  of  this  publication  includes  all  matter  of  a  scientific  and  documentary 
character  touching  the  “literary,  linguistic,  and  other  cultural  relations  of  Ger¬ 
many  and  America,”  with  such  specific  divisions  as  the  following: 

1.  The  literary  relations  of  Germany  and  America:  (a)  German  literature  writ¬ 
ten  in  America;  (5)  German  literature  reprinted  in  America;  (c)  American  trans¬ 
lations  of  German  literature;  ( d )  The  influence  of  American  literature  in  Germany. 

2.  The  linguistic  relations  of  Germany  and  America,  comprising  the  German  dia¬ 
lects  of  America  and  the  influence  of  the  German  language. 

3.  The  German  drama  and  stage  in  America:  (a)  The  German  drama  per¬ 
formed  on  the  German  stage  in  America;  (5)  The  German  drama  on  the  English 
stage  in  America;  (c)  The  literary  influence  of  the  German  drama  in  America. 

4.  German  music  in  America:  (a)  The  history  of  the  German  music  societies  in 
America;  ( b )  The  influence  of  German  music  on  American  culture. 

5.  German  Turner  and  other  societies  in  America. 

6.  German  art  in  America. 

7.  German  science,  philosophy,  theology,  and  educational  methods  in  America. 

8.  Commercial  relations  of  Germany  and  America;  German  industries,  trades, 
and  mechanical  arts  in  America. 

9.  The  German  press  in  America:  (a)  The  native  German  press;  ( b )  The  rela¬ 
tions  of  the  German  to  the  American  press. 

10.  The  diplomatic  relations  of  Germany  and  America. 

11.  The  Germans  in  American  wars. 

12.  German- American  biography. 

The  organization  of  a  national  committee  of  the  German  Publication  Fund  of 
America  was  set  on  foot  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  May,  1899,  and  a 
local  executive  has  been  constituted,  as  follows:  President,  Dr.  C.  J.  Hexamer, 
president  of  the  German  Society ;_ treasurer,  C.  C.  Harrison,  jr.,  123  South  Fourth 
street,  Philadelphia;  secretary,  M.  D.  Learned,  professor  of  German  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  national  committee,  consisting  of  representative  Germans  and  Americans, 
is  being  constituted  of  persons  who  are  willing  to  guarantee  contributions  rang¬ 
ing  from  $100  to  $5,000  to  the  fund.  Smaller  amounts  will  be  gladly  received. 
The  sum  asked  for  is  $100,000,  which  will  be  so  invested  as  to  secure  a  permanent 
income  for  the  publications  and  to  make  all  matter  available  as  soon  as  ready  for 
publication. 

To  all  members  of  the  national  committee  copies  of  the  works  published  out  of 
the  fund  will  be  sent  gratis. 

The  names  of  the  contributors  will  be  published  with  each  separate  volume  or 
monograph. 

All  matter  submitted  for  publication  will  be  expected  to  reach  a  high  academic 
standard  in  order  to  be  accepted. 

Subscriptions  of  money  and  contributions  of  original  studies  (written  in  English 
or  German)  or  other  material,  manuscripts  or  prints,  will  be  welcomed  from  any 
part  of  the  world. 

The  publications  will  be  circulated  through  the  regular  channels  of  the  book 
trade,  and  the  proceeds  from  sales  will  be  applied  to  the  fund. 

The  publications  thus  put  on  a  permanent  basis  will  constitute  a  splendid  and 
lasting  monument  to  the  Germans  in  America. 

Subscriptions  may  be  sent  by  check  direct  to  the  treasurer,  C.  C.  Harrison,  jr., 


686 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


123  South  Fourth  street,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Subscribers,  who  so  prefer,  may  pay 
their  subscription  in  five  or  ten  monthly  installments. 

Charles  J.  Hexamer. 

Samuel  W.  Pennypacker. 

Joseph  G.  Rosengarten. 

Charles  C.  Harrison,  Jr. 

Marion  D.  Learned. 

As  far  as  we  know,  no  large  amount  has  been  received  from  subscriptions;  in 
fact,  very  little  has  been  contributed  to  the  fund  besides  the  sums  realized  from 
two  benefit  plays  which  were  presented  by  Director  Conried  in  New  York,  and 
will  be  spoken  of  later. 

As  Professor  Learned  states  in  an  article  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
Bulletin,  April,  1900, 1  the  idea  of  establishing  the  Publication  Fund  was  suggested 
by  the  fact  that  the  editor  of  the  Americana  Germanica  received  entirely  too 
many  and  too  comprehensive  articles  for  publication  in  his  work.  The  idea  will 
probably  be  realized  after  one  leader  has  been  found  whose  example  will  inspire 
other  rich  men. 

The  good  cause  seems  to  have  found  such  a  man  in  Director  Heinrich  Conried, 
of  the  German  theater  in  New  York.  So  far  he  has  given  benefits  for  five  univer¬ 
sities  in  the  East,  and  has  furthermore  promised  to  present  annually  the  amounts 
realized  from  one  jierformance  each  for  the  German  Museum  in  Harvard  and  the 
Publication  Fund  in  Philadelphia.  Moreover,  he  is  connected  with  several  other 
institutions,  to  which  he  gives  the  same  generous  offerings  for  Germanistic 
purposes. 

So  far  Director  Conried  has  given  the  following  benefits:  (a)  Harvard:  Goethe’s 
Iphigenie  (1900),  Lessing’s  Minna  von  Barnhelm  (1901);  ( b )  Columbia:  The  same 
plays;  (c)  University  of  Pennsylvania:  Lessing’s  Minna  von  Barnhelm  (1899), 
Fulda’s  Friend  of  Youth  (1900),  Schiller’s  Robbers  (1901);  ( d )  Cornell:  Lessing’s 
Minna  von  Barnhelm  (1901);  (e)  Yale:  The  same  play. 

In  the  course  of  time  benefits  are  to  be  held  for  Johns  Hopkins  University  and 
Yassar  College.  To  make  these  offerings  the  whole  company  of  the  New  York 
theater  travel  to  the  place  in  question  and  take  all  the  necessary  equipment  along. 
The  attendant  expenses  are,  of  course,  very  large;  nevertheless,  in  each  case  the 
total  receipts  were  presented  to  the  beneficiary.  Harvard  received  about  $2,500. 

The  importance  of  this  generous  support  does  not  consist  so  much  in  the  amount 
of  money  as  in  the  sustained  interest  in  the  German  theater,  and,  consequently,  in 
the  whole  of  German  literature  among  American  students  and  their  teachers. 
The  survival  of  only  two,  namely,  those  in  New  York  and  Milwaukee,  of  all  the 
German  theaters  once  in  existence  is,  in  no  small  measure,  dependent  upon  the 
support  given  to  them  by  educated  Anglo-Americans.  If  interest  in  the  preserva¬ 
tion  of  good  German  art  institutions  is  kept  alive  among  this  element,  we  may  be 
sure  that  German  art  will  always  keep  a  few  places  of  refuge  in  America.  It  is 
evident  how  intimately  this  question  is  associated  with  that  of  German  instruc¬ 
tion.  Whoever  has  been  inspired  by  German  classical  plays  on  the  stage  will 
learn  to  love  the  German  language  and  not  remain  ignorant  of  its  literature.  By 
his  excellent  classical  productions  for  American  students  Director  Conried  has 
won  indisputable  merit  for  promoting  culture. 

Under  its  two  well-known  managers,  Messrs.  Webb  and  Wachsner,  the  Pabst 
Theater  Company,  in  Milwaukee,  which  presents  plays  in  Chicago  regularly  once 
a  week,  has  likewise  given  a  number  of  benefits  for  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
the  Northwestern  University  at  Evanston,  and  the  German- American  Normal 
Seminary  of  Milwaukee,  and  has  thus  greatly  furthered  the  cause  in  question. 
Although  the  old  board  of  directors  was  dissolved  last  year  the  present  management 


1  The  Conried  and  the  German- American  Publication  Funds  of  America.  Reprinted  1900. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


687 


seems  inclined  to  follow  their  example  in  this  respect.  Naturally  the  more  moder¬ 
ate  means  and  smaller  company  of  this  theater  do  not  allow  the  same  munificence 
that  is  extended  in  the  East.  Some  of  the  plays  given  at  the  Pabst  Theater  have 
already  been  mentioned;  a  full  list  could  not  be  obtained. 

Besides  the  gifts  presented  to  the  German  departments  by  the  German  theater, 
the  author  learned  of  the  following  endowments  for  German  purposes: 

I.  Harvard.  —The  Sohier  fund,  which  gives  an  annual  prize  of  §250  for  the  best 
work  on  a  subject  from  modern  literatures. 

II.  Columbia. — The  Gebhard  professorship  of  the  German  language  and  litera¬ 
ture  has  been  established  a  long  time.  The  Carl  Schurz  endowment  is  of  recent 
date.  The  interest  on  the  latter  fund  is  to  be  devoted  to  a  scholarship  for  the  con¬ 
tinuance  of  Germanic  studies,  and  an  annual  sum  is  to  be  set  aside  for  the  pur¬ 
chase  of  German  books. 

III.  Johns  Hopkins. — The  Bluntschli  library  was  presented  to  this  university. 
An  annual  sum  of  money  is  given  by  a  German  resident  of  Baltimore  for  the  pur¬ 
chase  of  German  books. 

IV.  University  of  Pennsylvania. — The  Bechstein  library  has  already  been  men¬ 
tioned. 

V.  Cornell. — A  large  number  of  books  have  been  presented,  many  by  Andrew  D. 
White. 

VI.  New  York. — This  university  possesses  (a)  the  freshman  entrance  examina¬ 
tion  prizes  of  $100,  (b)  the  Ridder  endowment  for  the  best  Germanistic  work, 
•(c)  the  Germanic  library  presented  by  Ottendorfer.  It  will  receive  besides  (d)  the 
Ottendorfer  scholarship,  from  which  the  sum  of  $800  is  to  be  paid  annually  to  one 
student  to  continue  his  studies  at  a  German  university.  A  recent  appeal  was 
made  to  the  Germans  of  New  York  in  memory  of  the  late  Mr.  Oswald  Ottendorfer. 

VII.  University  of  Michigan. — The  founding  of  the  Goethe  library  has  been 
already  mentioned. 

VIII.  University  of  Wisconsin. — A  collection  of  small  endowments,  including 
a  sum  of  $3,500  for  a  German  seminary  library,  have  been  referred  to. 

IX.  The  Washington  University  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  has  received  considerable 
amounts  from  Adolphus  Busch,  the  noted  brewer.  One  of  his  endowments  is 
devoted  to  a  German  professorship. 

X.  Stanford  University. — The  founding  of  the  Hildebrand  Library  has  been 
referred  to. 

The  renowned  German  publishing  house  of  F.  A.  Brockhaus,  in  Leipsic,  has 
presented  several  collections  to  different  universities.  The  German  Society  of 
Pennsylvania  received* over  500  volumes  from  them. 

The  above  list  could  not  be  made  more  complete.  At  all  events,  it  is  a  proof  that 
the  cause  of  German  instruction  in  this  country  does  not  lack  zealous  and  sacri¬ 
ficing  friends. 

IV.  Biographical  Notes. 

EDWARD  EVERETT. 

Though  Edward  Everett  was  not  so  well  known  in  Europe  as  his  elder  brother, 
Alexander  Hill  Everett,  his  efforts  for  the  advancement  of  German  in  America 
were  by  far  more  important.  Born  November  11, 1794,  in  Dorchester,  near  Boston, 
he  graduated  at  Harvard  with  the  A.  B.  diploma  at  the  early  age  of  17.  In  1812 
he  entered  the  university  as  tutor,  but  gave  up  his  position  in  1814  in  order  to 
devote  himself  to  thorough  scientific  studies  in  German.  How  highly  his  abilities 
were  valued  at  ‘Harvard  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  he  was  designated  for  the  pro¬ 
fessorship  of  Greek  prior  to  his  going  to  Germany.  He  accepted  the  position 
later  and  fulfilled  its  obligations  exceptionally  well,  He  was  not  a  worshipper  of 
the  “fetish,”  but  endeavored  to  clear  the  way  for  modern  studies  .and  educational 


688 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


reform.  His  contributions  to  the  North  American  Review  were  no  small  force  in 
bringing  this  magazine,  published  in  Boston,  into  prominence.  For  three  years, 
from  February  5,  1846,  to  February  1,  1849,  he  was  president  of  Harvard;  his 
failing  health,  however,  obliged  him  to  resign.  In  1824  he  entered  upon  political 
life  as  member  of  Congress;  the  cooperation  of  so  excellent  a  citizen  could  not  be 
ignored  in  molding  the  fate  of  the  nation.  Until  his  death,  January  15,  1865,  he 
was  not  allowed  to  retire  into  private  life.  His  accomplishments  as  a  statesman 
have  been  so  preeminent  that  his  scientific  worth,  which  we  were  not  justified  in 
ignoring,  is  apt  to  be  overlooked. 

GEORGE  TICKNOR. 

George  Ticknor  is  best  known  to  the  public  at  large  by  his  interesting  Life, 
Letters  and  Journals,  which  were  published  in  1876,  and  in  which  he  graphically 
portrays  German  conditions.  Edward  Everett  and  Ticknor  were  the  first  Amer¬ 
icans  to  study  at  Gottingen  and  lay  the  foundation  of  the  traditional  “students 
of  Gottingen,”  whose  influence  upon  culture  has  been  referred  to.  Born  at  Boston, 
1791,  he  studied  at  Dartmouth  College  to  adopt  the  profession  of  the  law.  Admit¬ 
ted  to  the  bar  in  1818,  his  desire  for  knowledge  impelled  him  to  go  to  Europe  in 
1815.  From  England  he  went  to  Gottingen,  where  he  studied  for  two  years  with 
Everett.  In  1819  he  accepted  the  Smith  professorship  of  French  and  Spanish 
literature  and  the  college  professorship  of  belles  lettres  at  Harvard.  In  the  year 
1820  he  was  offered  a  professorship  in  the  University  of  Virginia  at  a  salary  of 
$2,500,  which  was  not  accepted.  Prof.  John  B.  Minor  had  said  of  this  new  insti¬ 
tute:  “  The  scheme  adopted  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  a  German  uni¬ 
versity.”  Ticknor  desired  to  carry  out  this  resemblance  at  Harvard,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  enabling  Follen  to  begin  his  German  lectures  there.  An  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  German  literature,  he  praised  its  merits  to  Americans  in  the  highest 
terms,  and  endeavored  to  remove  all  prejudices  against  Germany.  With  this  end 
in  view  he  discussed  Grisconrs  book  on  Europe  in  the  North  American  Review. 
His  well-known  History  of  Spanish  Literature  can  not  be  treated  of  in  this  con¬ 
nection.  He  died  January  26,  1871,  after  he  had  done  his  part  toward  founding 
the  Boston  Public  Library. 


GEORGE  HENRY  CALVERT. 

George  Henry  Calvert,  a  native  of  Maryland,  was  probably  the  first  resident 
south  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  who  went  to  Gottingen,  where  he  studied  the 
German  language  and  literature  in  1823.  He  was  a  pupil,  of  Beneke,  profited  by 
the  works  of  Coleridge,  and  visited  Goethe.  As  a  worshiper  of  the  prince  among 
poets,  he  went  to  Weimar,  and  returned  an  enthusiast  of  the  first  order.  His 
works — Goethe,  His  Life  and  Works  (Boston,  1872),  and  Charlotte  von  Stein  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1877) — are  a  convincing  evidence.  His  First  Years  in  Europe,  containing  an 
interesting  account  of  student  life  at  Gottingen,  had  been  published  in  1866. 

HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW. 

The  life  of  Longfellow  is  too  well  known  to  be  considered  here.  To  his  lectures 
on  Goethe's  Faust,  begun  at  Harvard  in  1838,  is  due  the  fact  that  since  then 
such  have  been  introduced  at  all  American  universities.  His  Hyperion,  published 
in  1839,  is  in  part  autobiographical,  and,  together  with  Outre  Mer,  aroused  an 
interest  in  German  life.  Until  1854  he  filled  the  Smith  professorship  of  French 
and  Spanish  as  Ticknor 's  successor.  He  was  in  turn  succeeded  by  James  Russell 
Lowell.  He  contributed  much  toward  advancing  Harvard,  which  was  beginning 
to  take  its  position  as  a  leading  school  for  the  study  of  German.  Longfellow's 
attitude  toward  German  literature  was  fully  defined  in  an  interesting  lecture 
delivered  by  Professor  Learned  in  New  York  February  28,  1901. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


689 


MARGARET  FULLER. 

In  his  spirited  essay  on  Margaret  Fuller,1  E.  P.  Evans  states  concerning  the 
transcendental  movement: 

We  can  hardly  form  an  idea  of  the  ludicrous  fear  which  German  books  excited 
in  many  educated  persons  of  old  and  New  England  sixty  years  ago.  At  that 
time  German  writings  were  as  suspected  and  forbidden  in  America  as  is 
American  hog’s  meat  in  Germany  at  the  present  day.  Many  an  anxious  minister 
and  pious  father  raised  a  warning;  cry  against  the  moral  trichinse  with  which 
these  foreign  conceptions  of  the  brain  teemed  and  threatened  the  life  of  the  soul. 
It  was  bad  enough  if  such  productions  were  learned  through  abridged  and  revised 
extracts  or  had  been  thoroughly  purified  in  the  crucible  of  a  purged  translation, 
but  the  effect  was  much  more  pernicious  if  anyone  dared  to  enjoy  them  in  the 
original.  The  greatest  foreign  poets  and  thinkers  were  hailed  with  the  flattering 
terms  of  5 ‘poisonous”  and  “pestiferous.”  As  Goethe  received  the  highest  honor 
from  students  of  German  literature  and  was  mentioned  oftenestby  them,  he  served 
as  a  scarecrow  to  those  who  knew  him  only  by  name.  To  overthrow  the  idol, 
Professor  Felton  translated  Menzel's  renowned  work,  which  Margaret  Fuller  cen¬ 
sured  in  the  fourth  number  of  the  Dial.  Even  Longfellow,  as  charitable  as  he 
was,  condemned  Elective  Affinities  as  a  “horrible  book.”  The  great  teacher  of 
morals,  Kant,  who  was  obliged  to  serve  as  a  support  to  crumbling  orthodoxy,  is 
decried  by  Lady  Farrar  in  her  Recollections  of  Seventy  Years  as  the  chief  pro¬ 
moter  of  materialism  and  atheism  and  the  instigator  of  all  kinds  of  moral  evil. 

If  such  was  the  intellectual  atmosphere  of  the  period  when  the  “  Coleridgians  ” 
and  transcendentalists  first  stepped  into  action  they  evidently  had  a  great  work 
to  do  before  German  ideas  could  find  an  appropriate  home.  The  Dial,  a  weekly 
which  appeared  in  1840,  was  the  exponent  of  these  reformers,  whose  work  can  not 
be  too  highly  estimated.  Margaret  Fuller  had  acquired  her  knowledge  of  Ger¬ 
man  by  self-study  and  quickly  extended  it  by  instructing  men  like  Dr.  Channing. 
She  kept  up  a  constant  intercourse  with  the  Emersons  and  the  idealists  of  Brook 
Farm.  The  appreciation  of  Goethe  as  the  “master  par  excellence,”  in  which 
light  he  is  regarded  by  many  Americans  of  the  present  day,  can  be  traced  to  the 
action  of  the  Dial. 

HORACE  MANN. 

The  epoch-making  activity  of  the  great  educational  reformer  is  the  more  com¬ 
mendable  as  his  chronic  ill  health  and  very  limited  means  were  serious  obstacles 
in  his  way  throughout  his  whole  life.  Born  in  Massachusetts,  1796,  he  studied  at 
Brown  College,  where  he  taught  for  some  time.  In  1828  he  became  a  lawyer. 
The  irresistible  desire  to  reform  the  educational  system  of  his  country  influenced 
him  to  accept  the  position  of  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  State  board  of  educa¬ 
tion.  According  to  Professor  Emerson,  Rev.  James  C.  Carter,  and  not  Mann,  is 
the  “  father  of  the  normal  schools,”  as  the  former  had  already  published  his 
Essays  on  Popular  Education  in  1824  and  his  plan  for  normal  education  in  1826, 
that  was  discussed  in  the  North  American  Review  of  May,  1827.  Boone  adds 
that  the  “Indiana  Teacher’s  Seminary  ”  had  been  founded  in  1834  and  the  “Teach¬ 
ers'  Association  of  Bowdoin  College,”  in  Maine,  1837,  for  the  same  purpose.  Since, 
however,  all  these  reforms  were  based  upon  the  much  older  ideas  of  Francke,  the 
dispute  as  to  who  has  a  right  to  claim  the  “fatherhood”  means  nothing.  Pos¬ 
terity  must  decide  upon  the  most  successful  execution  of  the  thought.  The  palm 
must  then  be  given  to  Mann,  who  overcame  the  greatest  opposition.  The  endow¬ 
ment  of  $10,000  given  by  Edward  Dwight  alone  enabled  him  in  1839  to  found  the 
normal  school,  exclusively  for  women,  in  Lexington,  Mass.,  afterwards  removed 
to  Farmington.  His  own  means  of  support  were  partly  derived  from  the  Com¬ 
mon  School  Journal,  founded  by  him.  His  writings  on  education  are  among  the 
best  that  the  literature  of  pedagogics  in  America  has  produced.  In  1852  he  accepted 


An  American  Idealist,  in  his  “Contributions,”  Stuttgart,  1898,  page  5  et  seq. 

Ed  1901 - 44 


690 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  presidency  of  Antioch  College,  in  Ohio;  though  the  struggles  that  he  endured 
to  carry  out  his  ideas  of  reform  caused  his  early  death  in  1859. 

HENRY  BARNARD. 

Barnard,  born  January  24,  1811,  in  Hartford,  was  not  only  fifteen  years  younger 
than  Horace  Mann  hut  possessed  a  stronger  constitution.  He,  therefore,  saw  the 
aims  for  which  both  strove  with  the  same  degree  of  fervor  in  a  great  measure 
realized.  After  he  graduated  from  Yale  and  continued  his  studies  in  Europe 
he  became  a  lawyer  and  was  elected  to  the  legislature  of  hi3  native  State,  Con¬ 
necticut,  in  1837.  Owing  to  his  efforts  public  schools  were  placed  under  State 
supervision.  He  was  made  secretary  of  the  State  board  of  education,  and  as  such 
proceeded  to  found  a  teacher’s  institute  in  1839.  The  State  Normal  School  of  New 
Britain,  planned  by  him,  alone  educated  2,258  teachers  from  1850  to  1867.  From 
1855  to  1883  he  most  successfully  edited  the  American  Journal  of  Education,  which 
is  justly  regarded  as  a  pedagogical  work  of  lasting  merit.  In  1857  he  was  made 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin;  in  1866,  president  of  St.  John’s  College, 
in  Annapolis,  and  in  1867,  first  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education.  Bar¬ 
nard  filled  this  newly  created  office  until  the  year  1870,  and  died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  his  birthplace  July  5,  1900. 

FRANCIS  WAYLAND. 

Wayland  was  born  in  New  York  in  1796,  and  in  1813  graduated  from  Brown 
University,  Providence,  R.  I.,  to  which  his  chief  labors  are  confined.  The  result 
of  his  being  president  of  this  small  institution  was  that  the  attendance,  numbering 
only  150  students  in  the  year  1849-50,  rose  to  252  in  the  year  1854-55.  Neverthe¬ 
less  the  “innovator”  was  not  popular,  and  the  majority  of  the  trustees  voted 
against  the  principles  contained  in  his  celebrated  “Report  to  the  corporation  of 
Brown  University  on  changes  in  the  system  of  college  education,”  in  which  he 
recommended  the  adoption  of  German  methods  of  instruction.  Because  of  the 
consequent  friction  he  resigned  in  the  year  1855,  and  died  ten  years  later.  Inter¬ 
esting  details  of  his  life,  his  labors  as  a  writer  on  pedagogics  and  philosophy,  and 
a  sketch  of  his  character  are  given  in  the  work,  A  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Letters 
of  Francis  Wayland,  by  F.  and  H.  L.  Wayland,  New  York,  1867. 

BARNAS  SEARS. 

The  life  of  Dr.  Barnas  Sears,  who  lived  from  1802  to  1880,  shows  to  what  an 
extent  ideas  of  reform  prevailed  about  the  middle  of  the  past  century.  He  was 
the  successor  of  Horace  Mann  as  secretary  of  the  State  board  of  education  of 
Massachusetts  and  of  Wayland  as  president  of  Brown  University  (1855-1867). 
From  1845  to  1848  he  studied  in  Halle,  Berlin,  and  Leipzig,  and  associated  with 
the  most  celebrated  professors  who  taught  there.  He  thus  acquired  a  thorough 
understanding  of  German  methods  and  applied  them  in  practice.  One  of  his 
pupils  gives  the  following  account  of  his  way  of  teaching: 1 

Sears  laid  comparatively  little  stress  upon  accidental  mistakes  and  brilliant 
answers,  but  rather  took  the  work  of  the  whole  year  into  question.  The  feverish 
anxiety  with  which  we  went  to  recitation  ceased;  the  more  talented  and  those  less 
gifted  could  give  their  whole  attention  to  the  subject  explained.  Study  was  made 
agreeable  and  easy.  Sears  endeavored  mostly  to  teach  us  to  think,  and  guarded 
himself  against  impressing  his  pupils  with  his  own  views. 

CHARLES  FOLLEN. 

Follen’s  name  will  always  be  inseparable  from  the  history  of  American  educa¬ 
tion,  as  he  was  the  first  to  deliver  German  lectures  at  Harvard  and  introduce 


Tolman,  History  of  the  Higher  Education  in  Rhode  Island,  page  138. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


691 


German  athletics  into  the  New  World.  Born  September  3,  1795,  as  a  student  he 
took  part  in  the  wars  for  freedom  and  the  founding  of  the  Burschenschaft.  In 
1818  he  had  established  himself  as  a  private  teacher,  but  since  the  deeply  sensitive 
poet  had  yielded  too  strongly  to  his  republican  feeling  in  the  well-known  song, 
“Brause,  du  Freiheitsdrang,  brause  wie  Wogendrang,”  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to 
Switzerland,  where  a  professorship  in  Bale  was  bestowed,  on  him.  But  as  the 
Prussian  Government  demanded  his  extradition  he  emigrated  to  America  with 
his  friend  and  companion  in  suffering.  Dr.  Beck.  How  he  became  connected  with 
Round  Hill  School,  and  his  subsequent  work  at  Harvard,  have  already  been  men¬ 
tioned.  After  he  lost  his  position  at  Harvard  he  became  the  minister  of  a  Uni¬ 
tarian  Church  in  New  York,  and  afterwards  accepted  a  call  to  East  Lexington. 
Nevertheless  he  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  time  to  literary  work  and  lecturing. 
Invited  to  lecture  by  the  New  York  Mercantile  Library,  the  steamer  Lexington , 
on  which  he  sailed  February  13,  1840,  took  fire  during  the  trip  and  Follen  lost  his 
life.  His  death  was  deeply  lamented.  In  1834  his  younger  brother  Paul  likewise 
came  to  America  with  Frederick  Munch  (“Far  West”)  and  the  Giessener  Emi¬ 
gration  Society,  and  lived  in  Missouri  till  his  death  in  1844. 

CHARLES  BECK. 

Charles  Beck  was  born  August  19, 1798,  in  Heidelberg,  and  through  the  influence 
of  his  stepfather,  De  Wette,  professor  of  theology,  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  com¬ 
pleted  his  studies.  His  stepfather  being  suspected  of  favoring  plots  against  the 
Government,  as  the  burschenschaft  movement  was  considered,  he  lost  his  position 
and  was  compelled  to  emigrate  to  Switzerland.  Here  Beck  became  intimately 
associated  with  Follen,  and  went  with  his  friend  when  he  fled  to  America.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  in  New  York  he  announced  his  intention  of  becoming  an  Ameri¬ 
can  citizen,  and  the  Republic  has  never  had  one  more  faithful.  In  1830  he  tem¬ 
porarily  conducted  a  school  in  Philippstown  on  the  Hudson,  yet,  as  far  as  we 
know,  he  fulfilled  the  duties  of  professor  of  Latin  at  Harvard  without  interrup¬ 
tion.  After  bidding  farewell  to  the  university  he  devoted  himself  with  untiring 
zeal  to  his  duties  as  a  citizen  and  to  private  study.  Twice  he  was  elected  to  the 
State  legislature,  and  at  the  same  time  he  was  a  member  of  several  learned  soci¬ 
eties  and  financial  corporations.  He  visited  Germany  three  times,  partly  for 
recreation  and  partly  for  literary  purposes.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war, 
although  60  years  of  age,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  a  company  from  Cambridge, 
and  willingly  assumed  the  heavy  duties  of  a  soldier’s  life.  On  account  of  his  age, 
however,  he  was  not  accepted  when  the  Army  was  mustered  in.  He  made  amends, 
nevertheless,  by  sending  hundreds,  fully* equipped,  into  the  field  of  action.  His 
generosity  knew  no  bounds.  While  riding  with  his  daughter  he  died  suddenly 
from  an  apoplectic  attack,  March  19,  1866.  The  eulogies  pronounced  over  him 
prove  what  an  honor  he  was  to  the  German  name  in  America. 

FRANCIS  LIEBER. 

Francis  Lieber  was  born  March  18,  1800,  in  Berlin.  As  a  half-grown  schoolboy 
he  marched  against  Napoleon  in  1815,  and  was  wounded  in  battle.  After  graduat¬ 
ing  at  Jena,  his  Philhellenism  impelled  him  to  take  part  in  the  Greek  war  for 
liberty;  however,  the  undertaking  was  a  great  disappointment  to  him.  His  partici¬ 
pation  in  the  burschenschaft  movement  led  to  a  long  trial  and  forced  him  to  emi¬ 
grate.  Unable  to  establish  himself  in  London,  he  came  to  America  in  1827,  upon 
invitation  of  his  friend  Follen.  Here  he  soon  entered  into  personal  and  liter¬ 
ary  relations  with  the  most  prominent  men  in  the  “Athens  of  America.”  He 
was  speedily  associated  with  Josiah  Quincy,  president  of  Harvard;  the  renowned 
jurist,  Judge  Story;  the  historians  Prescott,  Bancroft,  and  Motley;  the  poet 
Longfellow;  Senator  Charles  Sumner,  and  others.  He  was  thus  in  surroundings 


692 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


that  enabled  him  to  engage  in  his  first  American  work  as  editor  of  the  Encyclo¬ 
pedia  Americana,  based  on  the  Brockhans's  Konversations-Lexikon,  published  by 
H.  C.  Carey,  Philadelphia. 

The  work  for  the  encyclopedia,  which  claimed  five  years  of  his  time,  gave  him 
access  to  the  circle  of  educated  Americans.  He  engaged  a  full  force  of  well-edu¬ 
cated  writers,  though  he  himself  wrote  nearly  all  the  articles  on  the  subjects  of 
history,  political  economy,  and  jurisprudence,  and  in  this  way  foreshadowed  the 
course  of  his  future  lifp  in  this  country.  It  is  hard  to  tell  to  what  extent  the 
dissemination  of  German  ideas  and  the  appreciation  of  German  language  and 
education  are  owing  to  the  fact  that  Lieber  produced  the  first  American 
encyclopedia,  and  made  use  of  the  collective  work  of  the  best  German  writers. 

After  expressing  his  views  on  education  in  Letters  to  a  Gentleman  in  Germany 
(1884) ,  he  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  history  and  political  economy  in  South 
Carolina  College,  Columbia,  S.  C.,  in  1835.  His  leisure  was  employed  in  writing 
the  following  works:  Manual  of  Political  Ethics  (2  volumes),  Legal  and  Political 
Hermeneutics  (1  volume),  Civil  Liberty  and  Self-Government  (2  volumes). 

These  works  excited  the  greatest  attention  and  occasioned  his  call  to  the  chair  of 
history  and  political  economy  at  Columbia  University  (1857) .  Political  conditions 
rendering  his  further  stay  in  the  South  unpleasant,  he  had  resigned  his  professor¬ 
ship.  His  inaugural  address  in  his  new  position,  delivered  February  17,  1858, 
treated  of  the  necessity  of  the  studies  of  history  and  political  economy  in  free  States 
and  received  great  applause. 

When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he  rendered  valuable  service  to  the  Government. 
He  was  often  called  to  Washington  by  telegraph  to  discuss  important  questions  of 
the  war  and  international  law  with  President  Lincoln.  From  the  point  of  constitu¬ 
tional  law  he  discussed  secession  in  numerous  pamphlets  published  by  the  Loyal 
Publication  Society,  of  which  he  was  the  founder  and  president.  His  formation 
of  a  code  of  war,  undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  President,  was  published  as 
General  Order  No.  100,  and  distributed  among  all  the  staff  officers  of  the  Army. 
This  work  marks  an  epoch.  Criticism  has  pronounced  it  a  masterpiece  of  the  first 
order,  and  Bluntschli  published  it  as  a  supplement  to  his  Modern  Law  of  Nations. 

Lieber’s  work  at  Columbia  continued  till  his  death,  October  2,  1872,  and  was  so 
successful  because  he  applied  German  methods  of  teaching  and  never  failed  to 
try  to  make  his  pupils  acquire  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  subject  in  ques¬ 
tion.  At  the  end  of  every  lesson  he  announced  the  passages  from  different  authors 
that  were  to  be  read  for  the  next  one.  All  definitions,  proper  names,  and  dates 
were  written  by  him  on  the  blackboard,  so  as  not  to  be  misunderstood.  Every 
student  was  required  to  have  a  well-bound  notebook,  in  which  blank  pages  were 
left  for  important  comments.  He  understood  how  to  sustain  his  pupils’  interest, 
and  his  personal  manner  toward  them  was  such  that  they  loved  and  esteemed  him. 

JOHN  LOTHROP  MOTLEY. 

Motley  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  April  15,  1814,  learned  German  upon  the 
advice  of  Bancroft,  and  as  a  young  student  delivered  a  eulogy  on  Goethe.  In  1832 
and  1833  he  studied  with  Bismarck  at  Gottingen.  The  prince  wrote  to  his  biog¬ 
rapher,  Dr.  Holmes,  in  regard  to  his  student  life:  “Motley  was  generally  more 
studious  than  most  of  his  companions.  He  did  not  speak  German  especially  well, 
but  nevertheless  excelled  by  his  intellectual  conversation.  In  the  autumn  of  1833 
we  went  to  Berlin  to  continue  our  studies  and  lived  together  in  a  house  on  Fried- 
richsstrasse.  Motley  wanted  to  translate  Goethe’s  Faust  at  the  time,  and 
attempted  to  write  original  German  verse.” 

i  BAYARD  TAYLOR. 

Bayard  Taylor  had  German  blood  in  his  veins,  his  grandmother  having  been 
a  German.  He  was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  January  11,  1825,  and  taught  when  17 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


693 


years  old,  before  his  great  European  journey  on  foot,  during  which  he  visited 
Freiligrath  and  other  great  men.  He  learned  German  from  books,  having  gained 
a  great  love  for  it  through  Howitt’s  Rural  Life  in  Germany.  During  his  second 
or  third  visit  to  Germany,  in  1856,  he  became  acquainted  with  Miss  Marie  Hansen, 
in  the  home  of  his  friend,  Bufleb,  to  whom  she  was  related,  and  married  her 
October  27,  1857.  His  Northern  Travels  appeared  simultaneously  in  German  and 
English.  In  1870-71,  his  celebrated  translation  of  Faust  was  published  and 
excited  the  greatest  attention;  his  School  History  of  Germany,  published  by 
Appleton  in  1872,  did  not  awaken  much  interest.  His  Studies  in  German  Litera¬ 
ture,  on  the  other  hand,  published  in  1879,  were  very  well  received  after  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  Berlin,  December  19,  1878. 

We  can  understand  that  President  Andrew  D.  White  could  not  have  made  a 
better  choice  than  Taylor  to  open  the  German  lectures  at  Cornell.  What  value 
the  latter  placed  upon  German  instruction  we  learn  from  the  following: 

31  West  Sixty-first  Street,  New  York,  March  15, 1875. 
Messrs.  O.  Ottendorfer,  E.  F.  Eberstadt  and 

other  Members  of  the  Committee. 

Gentlemen:  I  sincerely  regret  that  my  professional  duties  require  me  to  be  in 
Vermont  this  week  and  that  I  am  thus  prevented  from  being  here  to-morrow 
night.  Otherwise,  I  should  gladly  accept  your  invitation  to  be  present  at  the 
meeting  in  Cooper  Institute,  as  the  fulfillment  of  a  pleasant  duty.  I  consider  one 
modern  foreign  language  a  most  important  branch  of  study:  in  my  opinion,  none 
other  arises  and  develops  the  mental  powers  of  children  in  the  same  way.  From 
my  observations  and  chiefly  from  the  experiences  gathered  in  a  recent  visit  to  the 
Western  States,  I  am  convinced  that  the  study  of  German,  where  it  has  been 
introduced  for  three  or  four  years,  has  fully  justified  its  claim.  Pupils  that  excel 
in  German  are  not  only  far  from  being  behind  in  the  English  branches,  but  are, 
almost  without  exception,  first  in  them. 

In  Germany,  the  Burgerschulen  have  attained  the  most  brilliant  results  from  the 
introduction  of  English  instruction,  and  the  graded  schools  of  our  larger  cities 
hold  about  the  same  rank.  Even  if  our  system  were  inferior  to  the  German  in  the 
treatment  of  studies  and  firm  organization,  we  must  not  forget  the  high  purpose 
at  which  it  aims  and  which  it  must  fulfill. 

As  I  am  about  to  leave,  I  have  not  the  time  to  give  further  reasons  for  my  hearty 
participation  in  your  movement;  moreover,  I  trust  that  the  speakers  of  the  even¬ 
ing  will  make  this  superfluous.  In  haste. 

Respectfully,  yours,  Bayard  Taylor. 

OSWALD  SEIDENSTICKER. 

Oswald  Seidensticker,  the  son  of  a  lawyer,  was  born  in  Gottingen  in  1825.  On 
account  of  “  acts  of  high  treason  ”  the  father  was  compelled  to  spend  fifteen  years 
in  prison  and  emigrate  to  America  in  1845.  Oswald  accompanied  him  and  devoted 
himself  with  great  zeal  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  philology.  After  he  had 
taught  in  Boston  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1867  to  fill 
the  German  professorship.  He  performed  the  duties  of  this  position  with  great 
success  until  his  death,  January  10,  1894. 

Next  to  Frederick  Kapp,  Seidensticker  is  the  most  prominent  German- American 
historian.  His  contributions  to  the  Deutschen  Pionier  of  Cincinnati,  Rattermann’s 
Deutsch-Amerikanisches  Magazin,  and  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine  of  History  are 
of  great  value,  as  are  the  following  works:  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Geselischaft 
von  Pennsylvanien,  1764-1876:  Philadelphia,  1876.  Ephrata;  a  Story  of  American 
Convent  Life:  Cincinnati,  1883.  The  Die  erste  deutsche  Einwanderung  in  Ame- 
rika:  Philadelphia,  1883.  Bilder  aus  der  deutsch-pennsylvanischen  Geschichte: 
New  York,  1886.  GermamAmerican  Events,  principally  of  Pennsylvania,  down  to 
1870:  Philadelphia,  1892.  The  First  Century  of  German  Printing  in  America, 
1728-1830:  Philadelphia,  1893. 

ANDREW  D.  WHITE. 

Few  Americans  have  labored  with  the  admirable  zeal  and  the  same  degree  of 
success  to  promote  German  instruction,  make  use  of  the  fruits  of  German  intel- 


694 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


lect  for  the  benefit  of  the  American  people,  and  last,  but  not  least,  to  strengthen 
the  friendly  relations  between  both  nations,  as  the  illustrious  representative  of 
the  United  States  in  Germany,  Andrew  D.  White.  In  1855-56  he  studied  in  Berlin, 
and  afterwards,  1860  and  1866,  enjoyed  repeated  opportunities  of  spending  some 
time  in  Germany  on  diplomatic  missions.  The  country  and  its  inhabitants 
became  very  dear  to  him,  and  he  exerted  himself  to  learn  all  that  could  be  utilized 
for  the  advancement  of  American  civilization. 

The  industrial  schools  that  have  done  so  much  to  promote  German  industry 
were  his  special  study.  “  In  the  years  1867  and  1868,”  he  himself  relates,  “the 
opportunity  was  given  to  me  to  study  this  system  with  a  view  to  its  introduction 
into  America,  and  I  learned  to  realize,  as  I  had  never  done  before,  what  hearty 
patriotism,  what  earnest  and  intelligent  effort,  and  what  patient  and  hard  work 
is  devoted  to  the  establishment  and  development  of  those  schools.” 

In  an  address1  delivered  June  1,  1881,  he  stated: 

It  is  said  that  the  United  States  will  have  100,000,009  inhabitants  in  the  near 
future.  The  national  characteristics  of  these  will  be  German  thoroughness,  sta¬ 
bility,  and  faithfulness,  Anglo-Saxon  energy  and  firmness,  and  Italian  imaginative¬ 
ness.  Does  it  mean  nothing  that  a  German  element  enters  into  such  association? 
In  America  we  are  accustomed  to  speak  of  England  as  the  mother  country,  but  in 
the  future  a  large  number,  if  not  the  majority,  of  the  population  will  claim  Ger¬ 
many  as  the  mother  country,  and  one  from  which  neither  recollections  of  war  nor 
wrongs  on  land  or  water  will  separate  them. 

It  would  take  more  space  than  we  have  at  command  to  do  justice  to  White  as 
teacher,  statesman,  and  author.  His  most  important  work  is  A  History  of  the 
Yi arf are  of  Science  with  Theology  in  Christendom  (2  volumes,  1896).  In  a  speech 
delivered  by  Mr.  White  May  22,  1897,  at  the  farewell  banquet  of  the  Deutscher 
Liederkranz,  held  in  his  honor,  in  New  York,  before  he  left  for  Berlin  to  enter 
upon  his  present  duties,2  he  closed  with  the  following  remarks: 

I  go  back  to  Germany  as  one  of  the  same  family,  bound  by  the  closest  ties.  I 
am  going  to  visit  a  mother  again — Mother  Germania,  who  fears  God  and  no  one 
else  on  earth;  a  mother  of  art,  science,  and  literature,  who  has  spoken  to  us  through 
Kant  and  Lessing,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Fichte;  has  done  wonders  of  political  wis¬ 
dom  through  Stein,  Scharnliorst,  Bismarck,  and  Moltke,  *  *  *  and  to-day  fur¬ 
nishes  an  example  of  penetrating  wisdom,  resolute  courage,  and  thorough  care  for 
all  that  goes  by  the  name  of  civilization. 

DANIEL  C.  GILMAN. 

Daniel  C.  Gilman  was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn..  June  6,  1831,  and  in  1852  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Yale  College,  where  he  received  the  A.  M.  degree  in  1855.  The  title  of 
LL.  D.  was  conferred  on  him  later  by  Harvard,  St.  John’s  College,  Columbia  Uni¬ 
versity,  Yale  University,  University  of  North  Carolina,  and  Princeton  University. 
From  1856  to  1865  he  was  librarian  and  from  1863  to  1872  professor  of  physical  and 
political  geography  at  his  alma  mater,  and  resigned  this  position  to  become  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  newly  formed  State  University  of  California.  In  his  inaugural  address 
he  said:  “  In  these  days,  when  so  much  that  is  new  and  important  first  appears  in 
German  and  French,  no  system  of  education  can  be  called  liberal  which  does  not 
include  these  tongues. ”  Accordingly  an  important  position  was  given  to  the  modern 
languages.  In  1875  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
which  he  has  successfully  managed  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  In  an  address 
delivered  at  Harvard  in  I860  on  The  Characteristics  of  a  University  he  drew  atten¬ 
tion  to  the  American  emigration  to  German  universities,  adding,  “and  the  line 
which  began  with  Everett,  Ticknor,  Bancroft,  and  Woolsey  has  been  unbroken 
to  this  day.  Through  those  returning  wanderers  and  through  the  importation 
from  Germany,  England,  and  Switzerland  of  foreigners  distinguished  as  profes- 


1  Quoted  by  Seidenstieker  in  Die  erste  deutsche  Einwanderung  in  Amerika,  page  9. 

2  A  very  good  extract  from  this  speech  is  given  by  Evans,  Amerikanische  Litteratur-  und  Kul- 
turgeschichte,  page  223. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


695 


sors— Lieber  and  Beck,  Sylvester  and  Long,  Agassiz  and  Guyot,  and  their  com¬ 
peers — the  notion  of  a  philosophical  department  of  a  university  superior  to  a  col¬ 
lege,  independent  of  and  to  some  extent  introductory  to  professional  schools,  has 
become  familiar.” 

The  following,  from  the  same  speech,  is  particularly  striking:  “We  need  but 
few  universities,  but  we  need  them  strong.  ” 

Later  speeches  referred  to  “university  libraries”  (Ithaca,  October  7,  1891)  and 
“Higher  Education  in  the  United  States ”  (Chicago,  1893). 

The  above  speeches  form  the  contents  of  his  interesting  book,  University  Prob¬ 
lems  in  the  United  States:  New  York,  1898.  Among  his  larger  works  are  the  Life 
of  James  Monroe  and  an  Introduction  to  De  Tocqueville’s  Democracy  in  America. 

Gilman  is  corresponding  member  of  the  British  Association  and  officer  of  public 
instruction  in  France.  From  1893  to  1899  he  was  president  of  the  American  Ori¬ 
ental  Society. 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  ELIOT. 

Eliot  was  born  in  Boston  March  3, 1834,  and  graduated  at  Harvarddn  1853.  The 
years  1863  to  1865  he  spent  in  Europe,  in  order  to  continue  his  special  studies  of 
mathematics  and  chemistry  and  to  learn  foreign  methods  of  instruction  from  per¬ 
sonal  observation.  The  consequence  is  that  since  he  has  been  president  of  Harvard 
(1869)  he  has  labored  to  promote  modern-language  instruction,  to  introduce  liberty 
of  study,  and  to  elevate  his  university  to  a  scientific  center  that  will  occupy  no 
subordinate  position  to  German  universities.  With  the  exception  of  Professor 
Bartlett,  who  studied  in  Berlin  and  Bonn,  all  the  professors  of  the  German  depart¬ 
ment  were  born  in  Germany.  Most  of  the  instructors,  likewise,  are  native  Ger¬ 
mans  or  completed  their  studies  in  Germany.  In  Prof.  Hugo  Munsterberg  the 
university  has  gained  a  very  competent  scholar  for  the  professorship  of  psychol¬ 
ogy.  The  number  of  students  that  take  the  German  course  is  far  above  one  thou¬ 
sand. 

In  his  address  delivered  in  Cambridge  at  the  close  of  the  year  1889,  upon  occa¬ 
sion  of  the  seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  Modern  Language  Association,  President 
Eliot  made  the  following  interesting  remarks  concerning  his  participation  in  the 
successful  work  of  this  society: 

In  1875  we  established,  for  the  first  time  with  us,  the  examination  for  admission 
in  French  or  German,  which  I  am  sure  you  consider  a  considerable  step  toward 
the  proper  recognition  of  French  and  German  in  the  secondary  schools.  But  it 
was  only  in  1887  that  we  took  here  a  step  which  I  trust  may  yet  be  taken  by  many 
American  institutions,  namely,  the  putting  of  advanced  examinations  in  French 
and  German  upon  a  par  with  advanced  examinations  in  Latin,  Greek,  mathe¬ 
matics,  and  all  other  subjects  at  the  admission  examinations. 

Since  then  this  anticipation  has  been  realized. 

Among  other  works,  Eliot  has  written  the  following:  Manual  of  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analysis,  Manual  of  Inorganic  Chemistry,  Five  American  Contributions 
to  Civilization  and  other  Essays,  and  Educational  Reform.  The  latter  work  has 
been  much  used  for  this  report. 

MARION  DEXTER  LEARNED. 

Marion  Dexter  Learned  was  born  near  Dover,  Del. ,  July  10, 1857.  He  graduated 
at  the  Wilmington  Conference  Academy  at  Dover  in  1876.  After  one  year’s  teach¬ 
ing  in  a  public  school  in  Dorchester  County,  Md. ,  he  entered  the  sophomore  class 
at  Dickinson  College  in  the  autumn  of  1877.  In  1878-79  he  was  principal  of  the 
public  academy  at  Preston,  Md.  In  the  spring  of  1878  he  returned  to  Dickinson 
College,  where  he  received  the  degree  of  A.  B.  in  June,  1880,  and  that  of  A.  M.  in 
1883.  From  1880  to  1884  he  was  professor  of  languages  at  Williamsport  Dickin¬ 
son  Seminary,  Williamsport,  Pa.  In  the  autumn  of  1884  he  entered  Johns  Hop- 


696 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


kins  University  as  graduate  student  of  German.  In  1885  he  matriculated  at  the 
University  of  Leipsic,  returning  to  Johns  Hopkins  in  the  autumn  of  that  year, 
where  he  was  Fellow  in  Modern  Languages  in  1885-86,  spending  a  part  of  the  lat¬ 
ter  year  also  in  Germany.  He  was  instructor  of  German  from  1886  to  1889,  having 
received  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  in  1887;  associate,  1889  to  1893;  associate  professor, 
1893  to  1895.  In  1895,  he  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  the  Germanic  lan¬ 
guages  and  literatures  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Among  his  writings 
are  the  following:  The  Pennsylvania  German  Dialect,  Baltimore,  1889;  The  Saga 
of  Walther  of  Aquitaine,  Baltimore,  1892;  Beginnings  of  German  Culture  in 
America,  Baltimore,  1894;  The  German  American  Turner  Lyric,  Baltimore,  1895; 
German  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  inaugural  address,  Philadelphia,  1896. 
He  was  founder  and  editor  of  the  Americana  Germanica  (quarterly);  among  his 
contributions  to  this  journal  are:  Ferdinand  Freiligrath  in  America,  Francis 
Pastorius’  Bee  Hive,  and  Schwenkfelder  Documents. 

Occasional  addresses  separately  printed:  Bismarck’s  Service  to  German  Culture, 
memorial  address,  New  York,  October  18,  1898;  German  as  a  Culture  Element  of 
Education,  Cincinnati,  1898;  National  Education  and  World  Culture,  president’s 
address  before  the  Teachers’  Union,  Philadelphia,  1900;  Germanistics  and  Polite 
Literature  in  America,  read  before  the  Deutscher  Verein  of  Columbia  University, 
December  19,  1900. 

Learned  is  president  of  the  National  German- American  Teachers’  Association, 
1899-1901. 

HENRY  WOOD. 

Henry  Wood  was  born  July  7,  1849,  in  New  Bedford,  Mass.;  graduated  at 
Plaverford  College  in  1869;  studied  in  Berlin  and  Leipsic,  and  graduated  from  the 
latter,  in  1879,  as  doctor  of  philosophy.  After  teaching  two  years  at  the  Friends’ 
School  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  he  was  called  to  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1881, 
where  has  been  engaged  for  the  past  twenty  years.  From  1885  to  1892  he  was 
associate  professor,  and  since  the  latter  date  he  has  been  professor  of  the  Germanic 
languages.  Besides  his  critical  edition  of  Goethe’s  Faust,  he  has  published  several 
articles  on  German  literature  in  the  American  Journal  of  Philology,  and  the 
Quarterly  of  the  History  of  Literature. 

KUNO  FRANCKE. 

Kuno  Francke,  principal  of  the  department  of  Germanic  languages  and  litera¬ 
tures  at  Harvard  University,  was  born  in  Schleswig-Holstein;  studied  in  Germany 
under  Giesebrecht,  and  graduated  in  Munich  in  1878.  After  working  for  two 
years  under  Waitz  at  the  Monumenta  Germanise  Historica,  he  was  called  to  Cam¬ 
bridge  ten  years  ago,  since  which  time  he  has  considered  it  his  chief  duty  to  rec¬ 
oncile  German  and  American  culture.  The  following  works  have  been  published 
by  him:  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature,  New  York,  1896,  third  edition, 
1899.  Glimpses  of  Modern  German  Culture,  New  York,  1898. 

At  the  Goethe  memorial  celebration  in  New  York  and  Cleveland  he  recently 
delivered  a  most  interesting  address  on  Goethe’s  Vermachtniss  an  America,  in 
which  he  illustrates  the  many  relations  that  have  existed,  and  still  exist,  between 
Goethe  and  the  intellectual  life  of  America  in  a  masterful  way. 

HANS  CARL  GUNTHER  VON  JAGEMANN. 

Hans  Carl  Gunther  von  Jagemann,  professor  of  Germanic  philology  at  Har¬ 
vard  University,  is  German  born;  began  his  studies  in  Leipsic  and  completed 
them  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University.  As  president  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association  and  coeditor  of  the  Modern  Language  Notes  he  exerts  a  wide  influ¬ 
ence.  From  1886  to  1889  he  was  professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature 
at  Indiana  University,  whence  he  was  called  to  his  present  position. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


697 


WILLIAM  HENRY  CARPENTER. 

William  Henry  Carpenter,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  in  1853,  is  at  the  head  of  the 
German  department  of  Columbia  University  in  New  York.  Like  his  predecessor, 
Boyesen,  he  taught  at  Cornell  University,  and  continued  his  studies  at  the  Ger¬ 
man  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Freiburg.  His  study  of  Icelandic  took  him  to 
Copenhagen  and  Iceland,  and  for  his  doctor’s  thesis  he  published  the  epic  Nico- 
lasdrapa  Halls  prests,  which  had  not  been  printed  before.  Since  1883  he  has  been 
at  Columbia,  where  the  regular  professorship  was  given  to  him  in  1895. 

CALVIN  THOMAS. 

Calvin  Thomas,  born  in  1854,  studied  in  his  native  State,  Michigan,  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  where  he  graduated  in  1874.  After  some  practice  in 
teaching  he  went  to  Germany  to  study  philology  for  several  years  at  Leipsic. 
From  1879  to  1896  he  taught  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  after  which  he  devoted 
a  summer  session  to  the  study  of  Goethe  in  Weimar  and  was  then  called  to  Colum¬ 
bia,  where  he  has  since  held  the  so-called  Gebhard  professorship.  The  list  of  his 
writings  is  too  long  to  be  given  here;  his  commentaries  on  Faust,  parts  first  and 
second,  as  well  as  his  other  contributions  to  Goethe  literature  (Goethe  and  the 
Conduct  of  Life,  1886),  however,  may  not  be  omitted. 

ARTHUR  H.  PALMER. 

Arthur  H.  Palmer,  head  of  the  German  department  of  Yale  University  in  New 
Haven,  studied  at  the  Western  Reserve  University  in  Cleveland,  where  he  gradu¬ 
ated  in  1879.  He  continued  his  studies  for  several  years  in  Germany  and  Scandi¬ 
navia,  and  since  1891  has  had  entire  charge  of  German  literature  and  philology 
as  well  as  the  Scandinavian  languages  at  Yale  University. 

GUSTAV  GRUENER. 

Gustav  Gruener,  professor  of  German  at  Yale,  was  born  in  New  Haven  in  1863, 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1884,  and  continued  his  studies  there  until  1887.  For  two 
years  he  studied  in  Berlin  and  Munich,  and  in  1889  entered  the  German  depart¬ 
ment  of  his  home  university.  In  1892  he  was  made  assistant  professor,  and  full 
professor  in  1897. 

HORATIO  S.  WHITE. 

Horatio  S.  White,  dean  of  the  faculty  and  professor  of  the  German  language 
and  literature  at  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  has  been  at  the  head  of  the 
German  department  since  1891.  Born  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  in  1852,  he  studied 
at  Harvard  University,  where  he  graduated  in  1873,  and  afterwards  continued  his 
studies  in  Europe  for  several  years.  In  1878  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New 
York,  but  gave  his  attention  to  philological  studies  and  was  made  professor 
extraordinary  of  German  at  Cornell  University  in  1883.  As  a  member  of  the 
Weimar  Goethe  Society  he  is  in  direct  relation  with  Germany.  He  is  coeditor 
of  the  Americana  Germanica  and  the  author  of  many  works,  of  which  his  Deutsche 
Yolkslieder  was  published  in  1892. 

JAMES  T.  HATFIELD. 

James  T.  Hatfield,  professor  of  the  German  language  and  literature  at  the 
Northwestern  University  at  Evanston,  Ill. ,  graduated  in  1890  at  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  and  immediately  afterwards  assumed  the  duties  of  his  present  posi¬ 
tion.  The  prosperity  of  the  German  department  at  that  university  is  the  best  evi¬ 
dence  of  his  efficient  worth.  He  is  the  author  of  many  writings. 


698 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


HENRY  COHN. 

Henry  Cohn  was  Hatfield’s  faithful  assistant  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
suddenly  March  21, 1900.  Born  in  Breslau  in  1847,  he  emigrated  to  America  as  a 
boy.  In  1867  he  graduated  at  Columbia  College  and  later  studied  history,  philos¬ 
ophy,  and  Germanistics  in  Berlin  for  three  years.  After  teaching  at  different 
higher  schools,  he  was  made  professor  at  Amherst  College  in  Massachusetts  in 
1876,  and  afterwards  resumed  the  direction  of  the  German  department  of  the  Sum¬ 
mer  University  of  Chautauqua;  he  discharged  the  duties  of  this  position  with 
marked  success  until  his  death.  He  was  also  director  of  a  school  for  languages  in 
Chicago,  and  in  1893  assumed  the  duties  of  his  late  position  as  assistant  professor 
of  German  at  the  Northwestern.  His  first  work  there  was  the  foundation  of  the 
Deutscher  Yerein  and  the  Deutscher  Litteratur  Verein,  which  have  both  flourished 
to  such  a  degree  that  a  special  German  clubhouse  is  under  discussion;  the  plans 
have  been  drawn  and  well-to-do  German-Americans  have  promised  the  funds. 
The  work  of  these  associations  claimed  a  great  deal  of  his  time.  As  he  directed 
the  Sunday  school  of  the  Sinai  Congregation  in  Chicago,  and  instead  of  resting 
during  vacation  was  obliged  to  do  the  extensive  and  difficult  work  in  Chautau¬ 
qua,  we  can  understand  that  he  undertook  too  much.  His  mind  was  so  centered 
in  his  profession,  however,  that  he  would  not  allow  himself  any  rest.  All  his  per¬ 
sonal  friends,  among  them  President  Rogers,  and  the  tributes  paid  to  him  by  the 
press,  unite  in  commending  his  high  idealism.  His  willing  denial  of  the  rewards 
of  this  world  to  give  himself  up  completely  to  the  ideal  may  be  compared  with 
the  character  of  the  celebrated  philosopher  Baruch  Spinoza,  who  dwelt  altogether 
in  the  higher  world  of  his  thoughts.  An  excellent  life-size  portrait  of  him  is  a 
lasting  ornament  to  the  German  seminary  of  the  Northwestern. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  ROSENSTENGEL. 

Born  September  10,  1842,  in  Barmen,  William  Henry  Rosenstengel  followed  the 
profession  of  teaching  and  accepted  a  call  to  America  as  teacher  and  director  of  a 
private  school  in  St.  Louis  in  the  year  1865.  Afterwards  he  was  appointed  teacher 
of  German  at  the  Central  High  School  of  the  same  city,  and  was  called  to  the 
State  University  of  Wisconsin  in  1879.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
the  same  increased  interest  in  German  that  was  manifested  in  most  other  univer¬ 
sities,  and  that  inspired  him  anew  to  devote  all  his  energies  to  the  German  cause. 
He  was  x>articularly  active  in  publishing  popular  scientific  lectures  and  contribu¬ 
tions  to  the  press,  and  also  wrote  a  series  of  articles  on  educational  subjects.  He 
found  a  special  field  of  labor  in  the  German- American  Teachers’  Association,  of 
which  he  was  president  for  a  long  time,  and  in  the  Normal  School  of  Milwaukee 
founded  by  it. 

In  its  eulogy  on  Professor  Rosenstengel  the  Milwaukee  Sentinel  states  “that 
he  was  the  only  German  teacher  when  called  to  the  university,  and  that  he  lived  to 
see  the  number  of  his  assistants  increase  to  eight.  During  this  period  of  prosperity 
and  growth,  he  was  the  head  of  the  department.  For  some  years  Dr.  E.  K.  J.  K. 
Voss  had  been  assistant  professor  and  relieved  him  of  a  part  of  his  work.  In 
the  history  of  the  university,  however,  the  name  of  Rosenstengel  will  always 
be  associated  with  the  epoch  of  its  greatest  development.  Let  us  reflect  for  a 
moment:  When  he  came,  the  institution  did  not  number  400  students,  that  were 
accommodated  in  3  buildings.  When  he  died  there  were  2,400  students  instructed 
in  12  buildings.” 

H.  HUSS. 

H.  Huss,  professor  of  German  in  the  John  O.  Green  School  of  Science  of  Prince¬ 
ton  University,  was  born  in  Thuringen  in  1847,  studied  at  Jena,  where  he  gradu¬ 
ated  in  1870.  To  study  the  Romanic  languages  thoroughly,  he  spent  some  time  in 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


699 


Geneva,  Florence,  and  Naples,  and  taught  German  six  years  in  Rome.  From  there 
he  was  called  to  Princeton,  where  he  has  had  leisure  to  write  many  works. 

A.  B.  FAUST. 

A.  B.  Faust,  professor  of  German  at  the  Wesleyan  University  in  Middletown, 
Conn.,  was  born  of  German  parents  and  studied  at  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
where  he  graduated  in  1892  as  doctor  of  philosophy.  Since  1896  he  has  directed 
the  German  department  at  the  Wesleyan  University.  Among  his  writings  the 
biography  of  the  so-called  “poet  of  both  hemispheres,”  Charles  Sealsfield,  is  most 
interesting  to  the  general  reader. 

CHARLES  FREDERICK  RICHARD  HOCHDORFER. 

Charles  Frederick  Richard  Hochdorfer,  since  1891  professor  of  modern  languages 
at  Wittenberg  College,  in  Springfield,  Ohio,  was  born  in  Magdeburg  in  1834, 
studied  in  Berlin  and  Halle,  and,  after  teaching  for  several  years,  accepted  a  call 
to  America  in  1884.  Having  written  an  interesting  work  entitled  Observations 
on  the  Language  of  the  Court  of  Love,  he  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1888.  During  the  summer  vacation  he  likewise  lectures  at  the  University  of 
Chicago. 

LAWRENCE  A.  MpLOUTH. 

Lawrence  A.  McLouth  is  the  head  of  the  German  department  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  New  York.  Like  Calvin  Thomas,  he  was  born  in  Michigan,  and  grad¬ 
uated  at  Ann  Arbor  in  the  year  1887.  For  some  time,  afterwards  he  directed  a 
high  school.  After  pursuing  philological  studies  in  Heidelberg  and  Leipzig,  he 
returned  to  America  as  a  teacher  at  New  York  University,  where  he  has  occupied 
his  present  position  since  1895. 


EUGENE  H.  BABBITT. 

Eugene  Howard  Babbitt  was  born  in  Connecticut  in  1859  and  studied  at  Har¬ 
vard,  where  he  graduated  in  1886  with  distinction.  Twice  he  interrupted  his 
teaching  at  this  institution  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  to 
devote  himself  to  study  in  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Copenhagen.  From  1891  to  1900  he 
was  instructor  at  Columbia,  and  then  accepted  the  professorship  of  modern  lan¬ 
guages  at  the  University  of  the  South  in  Tennessee.  Among  other  writings,  he 
has  published  the  following  interesting  treatises:  Modern  Languages  as  a  Means 
of  Intellectual  Training,  The  Preparation  of  Modern  Teachers  of  Language  for 
American  Schools,  and  The  Pronunciation  of  English  in  New  York  and  Neigh¬ 
borhood.  tie  possesses  an  excellent  knowledge  of  the  German  language. 

STARR  WILLARD  CUTTING. 

Starr  Willard  Cutting,  the  director  of  the  German  department  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Chicago,  graduated  in  1881,  continued  his  studies  in  Germany,  and  taught 
modern  languages  at  the  University  of  South  Dakota  and  Earlham  College  in 
Richmond,  Ind,  In  1892  he  graduated  in  Baltimore,  and  was  then  called  to 
Chicago. 

HERMANN  COLLITZ. 

Prof.  Hermann  Collitz  has  directed  the  German  department  of  the  excellent 
woman’s  college  in  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  since  1886.  Born  in  Hanover  in  1855,  he 
studied  in  Gottingen  and  Halle,  and  established  himself  as  a  private  teacher  in 
Halle  in  1885.  Professor  Collitz  has  made  a  reputation  for  himself  by  several 
important  scientific  works. 


700 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


LAURENCE  FOSSLER. 

Professor  Fossler,  who  has  had  charge  of  the  German  department  of  the  State 
University  of  Nebraska  since  1889.  was  born  in  Germany  in  1857  and  came  to 
America  in  1871.  He  went  to  school  in  Lincoln,  but  pursued  his  scientific  course 
at  German  high  schools.  On  his  return  to  America  he  was  engaged  at  the  high 
school  of  Lincoln,  and  was  called  from  there  to  the  university. 

GEORGE  ALLISON  HENCH. 

George  Allison  Ilench  was  born  in  Pennsylania  October  4,  1866,  graduated  at 
Lafayette  College,  Easton,  in  1885,  and  then  studied  at  the  Johns  Hopkins.  In 
1887-88,  he  continued  his  studies  in  Berlin  and  Vienna;  in  1888-89  he  was  a  fellow 
at  Johns  Hopkins,  and  graduated  there  as  doctor  of  philosophy.  The  year  1889-90 
he  spent  in  Europe,  and  was  called  from  there  to  the  State  University  of  Michi¬ 
gan,  where  he  remained,  first  as  teacher,  and  subsequently  as  director  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  department,  till  his  untimely  death,  the  result  of  an  accident,  in  1899.  His 
doctor’s  thesis  referred  to  the  Fragmenta  Theotisca,  and  determined  the  course  of 
his  scientific  study.  His  first  work  was  entitled  Monsee  fragments;  newly  collected 
texts  with  introduction,  notes,  grammatical  treatise,  and  exhaustive  glossary  and 
a  photolithographic  facsimile;  Strassburg,  Trubner,  1891.  The  second  was  entitled 
Alt-Hochdeutsche  Isidor,  Facsimile  Ausgabe  des  Pariser  Codex  nebst,  kritischem 
Text  der  Pariser  und  Monseer  Bruchstucke,  Strassburg,  Trubner,  1893.  Besides 
these  works  he  published  valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of  the  German 
language  and  literature  in  the  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology,  and  in  the  Modern 
Language  Notes.  In  a  eulogy  on  him  by  Professor  Learned,  in  the  Americana 
Germanica,  he  says:  As  a  teacher  he  was  highly  successful,  and  the  testimony 
of  those  who  were  influenced  by  him  is  expressed  in  such  words  as  ‘  his  ideals 
were  so  high,  his  vision  was  so  broad.’  He  brought  to  his  teaching  that  peculiar 
stimulus  which  comes  from  early  distinction.  At  the  age  of  30  he  had  won  inter¬ 
national  recognition  and  esteem.”  The  loss  of  a  man  like  Hench  is  very  hard  to 
replace. 

HERMANN  SCHOENFELD. 

Hermann  Schoenfeld,  professor  of  German  and  of  European  history  at  Colum¬ 
bian  University,  in  Washington,  was  born  in  Oppeln  in  1861  and  studied  in  Berlin, 
Breslau,  and  Leipsic.  Called  to  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  the  department  of  modern 
languages,  in  1888,  he  contributed  many  articles  to  the  most  important  German 
magazines  here  and  abroad.  Many  have  been  made  use  of  for  this  work  and  have 
been  given  among  the  works  of  reference.  From  1891  to  1893  he  was  instructor 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University  and  published  articles  on  Brandt  and  Erasmus, 
Erasmus  and  Rabelais,  and  Slavonic  literature  and  history.  He  was  then  sent  to 
Russia  on  a  commission  of  the  American  Government  and  spent  two  years  there. 
As  a  result  of  his  travels  he  published  his  work  on  Higher  Education  in  Russian, 
Austrian,  and  Prussian  Poland,  and  The  Purposes  of  the  Great  Siberian  Railway. 
Since  1895  he  has  been  professor  in  Washington  and  has  edited  German  Historical 
Prose,  Mary  Stuart,  and  Ranke’s  Charles  V.  Numerous  articles  in  Johnson’s 
Universal  Cyclopedia  and  Brockhaus’s  Konversations-Lexikon  are  by  him.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1901  he  has  been  professor  at  the  summer  school  at 
Cornell  University. 

GUSTAF  E.  KARSTEN. 

Gustaf  E.  Karsten,  professor  of  German  at  the  Indiana  University,  Bloom¬ 
ington,  Ind.,  was  born  in  West  Prussia  in  1859  and  studied  in  Leipsic,  Konigsberg, 
Heidelberg,  and  Tubingen,  where  he  graduated  as  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1883. 
Until  he  was  called  to  his  present  position  he  was  lecturer  of  Germanic  and 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


701 


Romance  philology  at  the  University  of  Geneva.  Since  January  1,  1897,  he  has 
edited,  at  a  great  personal  sacrifice,  the  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology,  which  is 
of  the  greatest  value  to  all  who  aspire  to  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  researches 
that  have  been  made  in  English  and  German. 

OTTO  HELLER. • 

Otto  Heller,  professor  and,  for  the  time  being*  only  teacher  of  German  at  Wash¬ 
ington  University,  St.  Louis,  has  been  laboring  unremittingly  for  the  good  cause 
since  1893.  Heller  is  German  by  birth  and  education  and  completed  his  studies 
abroad. 

JULIUS  GOEBEL. 

Julius  Goebel  was  born  in  Frankfort  on  the  Main  in  1857;  studied  philosophy 
and  Sanscrit  in  Leipsic  and  Tubingen;  accompanied  his  father,  the  well-known 
German- American  teacher,  Louis  Goebel,  to  America,  and  was  called  to  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  this  country.  Here  he  found  the 
opportunity  of  becoming  one  of  the  most  active  members  of  the  newly  founded 
Modern  Language  Association.  His  lecture,  delivered  at  the  second  annual  meet¬ 
ing,  in  1885,  on  German  classics  as  means  of  education,  was  one  of  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  given  at  the  meetings  of  this  association.  The  suggestion  to  study  Goethe 
as  “an  independent  ideal  of  modern  culture,  which  is  not  based  upon  Greek  and 
Latin  authors,”  has  become  again  a  subject  of  earnest  thought  to  later  American 
teachers.  His  public  lectures  on  the  history  of  literature,  delivered  in  1886-87  at 
Johns  Hopkins,  were  very  successful.  From  1888  to  1892  he  edited  the  Belletris- 
tische  Journal  in  New  York,  and  has  since  been  engaged  at  the  newly  founded 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  in  California.  In  1894  he  succeeded  in  acquir¬ 
ing  the  celebrated  Rudolf  Hildebrand  library  for  this  university.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  the  following  are,  perhaps,  the  most  interesting  to  the  general 
reader:  The  Ueber  die  Zukunft  unseres  Yolks  in  Amerika;  Faust  Studien;  Zur 
Geschichte  der  Siegfriedsage. 

HENRY  RAAB. 

Henry  Raab,  a  prominent  teacher  in  Belleville,  Ill.,  wrote  to  the  author  con¬ 
cerning  his  life  work,  in  January,  1901: 

What  I  have  done  for  the  introduction  and  extension  of  German  instruction  in. 
public  schools  is  confined  to  my  work  as  teacher  and  superintendent  of  schools  in 
this  city.  In  the  year  1857-58  I  was  a  teacher  in  the  elementary  schools,  and 
instructed  only  in  English;  the  second  year,  1858-59,  I  was  allowed  to  teach  Ger¬ 
man  one  hour  a  day,  but  the  following  year  this  permission  was  revoked. 

In  1859-60,  at  my  suggestion,  German  was  introduced  into  the  course  of  study 
from  the  fifth  grade  up  to  the  high  school,  inclusive,  and  I  was  appointed  as  Ger¬ 
man  teacher.  Under  great  difficulties  I  taught  four  hours  a  week  in  each  grade. 
Receiving  no  support  from  the  class  teachers,  I  became  dissatisfied  and  requested 
a  grade  for  regular  instruction.  From  that  time  German  was  taught  in  the 
classes  whose  teachers  understood  the  language.  In  this  way  German  gradually 
received  less  and  less  attention  until  I  agitated  the  subject  by  publishing  articles 
in  the  local  press  during  the  years  1865  and  1866.  I  succeeded  in  having  German 
taught  in  all  classes  by  special  teachers.  After  the  death  of  the  most  deserving, 
Mr.  George  Bunsen,  I  was  appointed  superintendent  of  schools  in  Belleville.  As 
many  objected  to  German  on  the  plea  of  the  extra  expense  of  special  teachers,  I 
arranged  that  a  German  teacher  should  have  charge  of  every  other  class  and  teach 
German  in  both  classes.  Besides,  I  distributed  the  teachers  so  that  children  learn 
German  a  half  hour  every  day  during  their  first  year  at  school.  In  all  other 
grades  German  is  taught  one  hour  a  day,  and  this  arrangement  obtains  at 
present.  *  *  * 

My  opinion  is  that  teachers  do  not  influence  by  their  thinking,  speaking,  and 
composition,  but  by  the  way  in  which  they  conduct  themselves  with  their  pupils 
and  colleagues  and  appear  in  public.  Whenever  it  has  been  possible  I  have  spoken 
German  with  teachers  and  pupils,  have  read  the  classics  and  German  works  on 


702 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


pedagogics  in  German  to  English-speaking  colleagnes,  and  have  always  shown 
myself  a  German.  I  believe  that  I  have  done  more  in  this  way  than  by  writing. 

OTTILIE  HERHOLZ. 

Miss  Ottilie  Herholz,  born  in  Thorn,  Prussia,  comes  from  a  family  that  has  fol¬ 
lowed  the  profession  of  teaching  for  two  hundred  years.  She  attended  the  high 
school  for  women,  the  normal  school,  and  the  University  of  Berlin.  From  1872 
to  1890  she  taught  in  the  public  schools  of  Cincinnati.  With  the  title  of  professor 
extraordinary  she  has  since  1890  been  at  the  head  of  the  German  department  of 
Yassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  an  institution  intended  exclusively  for  the 
higher  education  of  women. 

HANS  FROELICHER. 

Professor  Froelicher  was  born  in  Switzerland  and  studied  in  Munich  and 
Zurich.  In  1886  he  graduated  as  doctor  of  philosophy  at  the  latter  university,  and 
in  1888  was  called  to  the  Woman’s  College  in  Baltimore,  where  he  first  taught 
French.  Since  1891  he  has  had  charge  of  the  German  department,  and  has  an  able 
assistant  in  his  wife,  Dr.  Frances  Froelicher. 

EMIL  DAPPRICH. 

Emil  Dapprich  was  born  in  Germany  and  educated  at  the  normal  seminary  in 
Usingen.  In  1865  he  came  to  Baltimore,  where  he  taught  at  Scheib’s  school  until 
1875.  From  1875  to  1882  he  taught  in  the  public  schools  of  Belleville,  Ill. ,  and  was 
subsequently  made  superintendent  of  public  schools  in  Belleville  and  St.  Clair 
County  at  the  same  time.  When  he  was  called  to  his  present  position  of  director 
of  the  German  Normal  School  of  Milwaukee,  which  he  has  held  since  1888,  the 
school  board  of  Belleville  had  reason  to  regret  the  loss  of  the  services  of  a  faithful, 
energetic,  and  self-sacrificing  teacher,  and  an  educator  of  rare  training  of  mind 
and  heart. 

KARL  KNORTZ. 

Karl  Knortz,  superintendent  of  German  in  Evansville,  Ind.,  was  born  in  Wetzlar, 
studied  in  Germany,  and  then  went  to  London.  In  1864  he  came  to  America. 
While  he  was  teaching  at  the  school  of  the  Seminar- Yerein  of  Detroit  he  made  a 
study  of  the  Indian  language  in  that  district.  From  Detroit  he  was  called  to  the 
high  school  in  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  in  1868,  as  professor  of  the  German  language  and 
literature.  In  1871  he  went  to  Cincinnati,  where  he  took  charge  of  the  German 
department  of  the  city  normal  school,  and  in  1874  edited  the  fifth  volume  of  the 
Deutscher  Pionier.  From  there  he  went  to  Indianapolis,  where  he  edited  the  Ger¬ 
man  paper.  Later  he  settled  in  Johnstown,  Pa.,  where  he  officiated  as  speaker  of 
the  Free  Congregation.  In  1882  be  went  to  New  York,  where  he  established 
himself  as  private  teacher  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  work  until  he  accepted 
his  present  position  in  Evansville. 

Knortz  is  undoubtedly  the  most  prolific  German-American  author,  as  the  fol¬ 
lowing  list  of  his  works  shows: 

Tales  and  Legends  of  North  American  Indians.  Jena.  1871. 

From  the  Wigwam,  Old  and  New.  Tales  and  Legends  of  North  American 
Indians.  Leipsic,  1880. 

American  Sketches.  Halle,  1876. 

From  Trans- Atlantic  Society;  Pictures  of  North  American  Civilization.  Leip¬ 
sic,  1882. 

Mythology  and  Civilization  of  North  American  Indians.  Leipsic,  1882. 

Capital  and  Labor  in  America.  Zurich,  1881. 

State  and  Church  in  America.  Zurich,  1882. 

Pictures  of  American  Life;  Sketches  and  Diary  Notes.  Zurich,  1884. 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


703 


The  North  Pole  Travels  of  a  German  Sailor;  William  Nindemann’s  Recollec¬ 
tions  of  the  North  Pole  Expedition  of  the  Polaris  and  Jeannette.  Zurich,  1885. 

Longfellow;  A  Literary  Study.  Hamburg,  1879. 

An  American  Shakespeare  Bibliography,  Boston,  1876;  second  edition,  1877. 

Shakespeare  in  America;  A  Literary  Study.  Berlin,  1882. 

American  Poems  of  Modern  Times.  Free  translations.  Leipsic,  1883. 

Modern  American  Lyrics.  Leipsic,  1880. 

Two  American  Idyls:  Elisabeth,  H.  W.  Longfellow;  Snow  Bound,  by  J.  G. 
Whittier.  Translated.  Berlin,  1879. 

Longfellow’s  Hiawatha.  Translated  and  explained,  with  introduction.  Jena, 
1872. 

New  Poems.  Glarus,  1884. 

Humorous  Poems.  Baltimore,  1877;  Glarus,  1889. 

Songs  and  Romances  of  Old  England.  Kothen,  1872. 

Scottish  Ballads.  Halle,  1875. 

Epigrams.  Lyck,  1877. 

New  Epigrams.  Zurich,  1884. 

Representative  German  Poems;  Ballad  and  Lyrical.  German  text  with  Eng¬ 
lish  translations.  New  York,  1885;  second  revised  edition,  1889. 

Goethe  and  the  Werther  Period,  with  the  Supplement,  Goethe  in  America. 
Zurich,  1885. 

Irish  Tales.  Zurich,  1886. 

Brook  Farm  and  Margaret  Fuller.  Lecture.  New  York,  1886. 

Walt  Whitman.  Lecture.  New  York,  1886, 

Gustav  Seyffarth;  Biographical  Sketch.  New  York,  1886. 

The  Life  and  Works  of  Gustav  Seyffarth.  New  York,  1886. 

Nokomis  Fables  and  Tales  of  North  American  Indians.  Zurich,  1887. 

Songs  from  a  Foreign  Land.  Free  translations.  Glarus,  1887. 

History  of  North  American  Literature.  Two  volumes.  Berlin,  1891. 

Hamlet  and  Faust.  Zurich,  1888. 

German  National  Songs  and  Tales,  with  the  Supplement,  National  Songs  of 
Yorkshire.  Zurich,  1889. 

Whitman’s  Leaves  of  Grass.  Selected  translations.  1889. 

How  He  Fell  in  Love  with  His  Wife.  An  American  story,  by  E.  P.  Roe.  Leip¬ 
sic,  1889. 

American  Tales  of  Crime.  Vienna,  1890. 

Rome  in  America.  Zurich,  1891. 

The  American  Sunday.  Zurich,  1891. 

A  World  Outlook  in  Quotations.  Leipsic,  1892. 

The  Christian-Communistic  Colony  of  Rappists  in  Pennsylvania.  Leipsic,  1892. 

V.  Effect  on  the  Relations  Between  Germany  and  America. 

The  visit  which  the  German  ambassador,  Dr.  von  Holleben,  paid  to  the  German 
department  of  Harvard  in  the  middle  of  March,  1899,  did  not  fail  to  excite  the 
attention  of  all  the  universities  in  the  country.  It  was  considered  most  desirable 
that  Germany  should  receive  more  than  occasional  information  of  the  extraor¬ 
dinary  efforts  made  in  so  many  places  in  the  United  States  to  cause  the  German 
language,  literature,  and  science  to  become  the  common  possession  of  all  the  edu¬ 
cated,  and  of  what  positive  results  these  efforts  can  show.  The  consequence  was 
that  several  of  the  leading  universities  in  succession  invited  the  ambassador  from 
Germany  to  visit  them  and  become  acquainted  with  their  arrangements. 

The  first  institution  to  approach  the  representative  of  Germany  in  this  matter 
was  the  University  of  Chicago. 

It  is  most  becoming  [the  invitation  dated  June  3,  1899,  reads]  that  American 
universities  should  strive  for  the  honor  .and  privilege  of  expressing  the  esteem 


704 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901, 


which  the  American  people  in  general  feel  for  the  German  Government  and  the 
German  nation.  Universities  are  specially  called  upon  to  acknowledge  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  Germany  on  the  educational  system  of  the  United  States,  and  it  must  be 
furthermore  acknowledged  that  Germany  has,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  pro¬ 
moted  all  undertakings  of  universities  in  this  country.  Americans  honor  Ger¬ 
mans  for  their  pioneer  work  in  the  advance  of  industry,  art,  science,  civic  virtue, 
and  religion.  We  approve  German  military  excellence,  and  we  approve  still  more 
highly  the  successful  efforts  of  Germany  to  maintain  peace. 

American  universities  cultivate  a  patriotism  that  is  founded  on  the  conviction 
that  American  institutions  are  best  for  Americans.  Still,  without  being  untrue 
to  their  duty,  they  are  disposed  to  help  all  Americans  to  know  and  honor  other 
nations.  It  is  of  special  importance  just  at  present  that  the  fact  should  be  gener¬ 
ally  known  that  the  efforts  toward  civilization  made  by  Germany  and  America 
are  essentially  the  same. 

American  universities  are  more  especially  called  upon  to  promote  a  sincere 
understanding  between  Germans  and  Americans  on  account  of  their  close  race 
relationship.  This  relation  has  been  firmly  established  by  a  long,  unbroken  friend¬ 
ship  and  by  the  large  number  of  loyal  American  citizens  who  claim  Germany  as 
their  home,  as  well  as  by  the  interest  manifested  on  the  part  of  Americans  for  the 
union  of  Germany  and  its  brilliant  success  in  being  recognized  as  one  of  the  great 
powers  of  the  world. 

In  his  reply,  dated  June  29,  1899,  the  German  ambassador  said: 

Surely  no  place  can  afford  a  better  opportunity  for  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  national  spirit  of  a  people  than  a  university,  the  school  of  moral  and  scientific 
education,  the  birthplace  of  new  ideas,  and  the  center  and  battlefield  of  intellectual 
intercourse. 

The  meeting  held  January  24,  1900,  was  in  accord  with  this  promising  prelude. 
All  the  representatives  of  the  university  vied  with  one  another  in  their  expressions 
of  gratitude  for  what  they  owed  to  Germany  during  their  school  course  and  sub¬ 
sequent  literary  pursuits.  As  the  speeches  delivered  on  this  occasion  have  more 
than  a  temporary  significance,  the  most  important  are  quoted.  The  proceedings 
took  place  at  3  o’clock  in  the  afternoon  in  Kent  Theater,  and  the  attendance  was 
so  large  that  no  seat  could  be  obtained  after  2  o’clock.  The  stage,  on  which  seats 
were  arranged  for  the  faculty  and  their  guest  of  honor,  was  decorated  with  the 
German  colors  and  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 

President  Harper  delivered  a  short  address,  in  which  he  referred  to  the  custom 
of  the  university  occasionally  to  invite  prominent  men  at  home  and  abroad  to  visit 
the  institution,  and  that  the  present  meeting  was  held  to  greet  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  foreigners  in  the  United  States  as  a  guest  of  honor  of  the  university. 
Prof.  J.  Laurence  Laughlin  delivered  the  address  of  welcome  to  the  representa¬ 
tive  of  Germany,  as  follows: 

PROFESSOR  LAUGHLIN’S  ADDRESS. 

We  are  pleased  to  offer  your  excellency  a  sincere  welcome  to  our  university,  not 
only  because  we  gladly  honor  those  who  are  honored  by  their  own  nation,  but 
because  you  represent  the  majesty  and  the  influence  of  the  great  German  Empire 
in  its  relations  to  our  beloved  country,  and  because  in  you  is  placed  the  trust  to 
separate  the  chaff  from  the  wheat  in  the  varying  expression  of  national  sentiment 
on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States. 

This  will  be  a  happy  occasion  if  we  are  permitted  to  give  the  reasons  why  our 
permanent  conditions  of  life  necessarily  seem  to  assure  fraternal  relations  with 
Germans.  The  fundamental  characteristics  common  to  Americans  and  Germans 
should  ever  tend  to  peaceful  relations  and  a  sincere  understanding. 

We  do  not  forget  that  English  and  American  institutions  are  of  Teutonic  origin, 
and  we  can  not  forget  the  blood  relationship.  The  institutions  established  in  cen¬ 
tral  Europe  by  the  ancient  Germans  are  still  preserved  in  America  under  different 
forms.  Our  “commons  ”  follow  a  custom  that  originated  in  the  German  “mark.” 
The  “mote”  of  the  free  Germans  was  a  precursor  of  our  “town  meetings,”  in 
which  our  political  life  was  originally  rooted.  In  our  whole  legal  procedure,  our 
apprehension  of  law,  and  our  strong  manifestation  of  self-help  we  find  the  evidence 
of  the  survival  of  our  Teutonic  ancestors’  sense  Of  law.  Americans  and  Germans 
grasp  hands  to-day  and  greet  one  another  as  successors  of  the  same  forefathers,  not 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS.  705 

as  strangers,  but  as  friends;  not  as  different  races,  but  as  members  of  the  same  large 
family. 

When  a  son  leaves  his  parents’  house  to  settle  in  foreign  parts,  he  in  the  course 
of  time  adopts  the  expressions  of  his  new  surroundings;  he  develops  new  capabili¬ 
ties  and  has  new  desires,  but  in  his  inmost  soul  the  elementary  forces  of  his  extrac¬ 
tion  continue  to  operate.  If  we  take  the  old  steel  sword  that  hangs  over  an  ances¬ 
tor’s  portrait  and  convert  it  into  a  plowshare  it  will  remain  good  steel  and  cut 
the  field  of  the  farmer  as  well  as  it  cut  wounds  when  held  in  the  hand  of  the 
warrior. 

Our  present  condition  and  our  successes  on  the  new  continent  are  an  evidence 
of  the  excellent  political  and  administrative  characteristics  of  the  Teutons.  We 
Americans  have  attained  a  power  that  must  be  heeded  by  other  nations,  because 
the  only  successful  colonies  of  modern  times  are  those  founded  by  the  Teutonic 
race.  Strong  in  hope  and  self-government,  a  body  of  Teutons  wander  to  find  a 
new  country,  and  by  virtue  of  their  innate  regard  for  self-government  they  choose 
a  leader  and  at  once  set  zealously  to  work  to  conquer  forest  and  field.  The  moral 
responsibility  of  citizens  toward  the  state,  their  apprehension  of  law,  their  highly 
developed  capabilities  for  administration  make  this  race  particularly  qualified  for 
the  colonization  of  new  countries.  It  is  therefore  only  a  consequence  of  natural 
talent  in  the  English,  Germans,  and  Americans  that  they  are  directing  the  differ¬ 
ent  successful  colonies  of  the  present  day;  in  the  fulfillment  of  this  task  they  are 
unequaled  by  any  other  race. 

We  must  not  forget  that  when  our  forefathers  sought  this  country  to  found  a 
new  state  in  which  freedom  could  prosper  and  religious  freedom  find  a  place  of 
refuge,  they  were  assisted  by  the  Germans.  The  influence  and  strength  of  the 
German  colonies  can  not  be  overestimated.  The  State  of  Pennsylvania,  with  its 
predominant  German  population,  still  preserves  the  elements  which  characterized 
its  power  during  the  Revolutionary  war  so  forcibly.  A  great  and  important  part 
of  our  Union  was  so  colonized  that  German  ideas  of  public  and  private  duties 
penetrated  the  very  heart  of  our  institutions.  The  carefulness,  prosperity,  con¬ 
servative  mode  of  thought,  and  deep  penetration  of  our  German  brethren  have  con¬ 
tributed  much  toward  our  growth.  Where  the  Huguenots,  Puritans,  Dutch,  and 
English  are  celebrated  in  the  early  history  of  our  country,  the  teacher  of  history 
who  knows  something  of  Muhlenberg  and  other  participators  in  the  vital  drama 
of  the  colonies  will  place  the  importance  of  German  influence  close  by  that  of 
English.  We  began  our  existence  together  with  German  brethren,  worked  side  by- 
side  with  them  in  forming  our  nation ,  and  we  are  glad  to  acknowledge  our  obli¬ 
gation  to  them.  In  no  other  great  crisis  of  our  more  recent  history  have  we  gone 
to  battle  or  council  without  standing  side  by  side  with  German  brethren. 

He  who  has  made  but  a  superficial  study  of  history  may  endeavor  to  arouse 
seemingly  just  prejudices  between  Germans  and  Americans  by  calling  to  mind 
the  Hessians  that  were  employed  by  Great  Britain  in  her  effort  to  oppress  the  col¬ 
onies.  The  story  has  been  repeated  to  Americans  too  often,  and  the}r  were  not  told 
how  the  misery  prevailing  in  the  weak  German  States,  at  that  time,  made  it  pos¬ 
sible  for  the  rulers  to  sell  peaceful  shepherds  for  the  purposes  of  war.  The  strong 
and  intelligent  part  of  Germany  was  not  at  all  implicated;  on  the  contrary,  we 
received  great  assistance  from  the  strongest  State.  Frederick  the  Great  was 
secure  on  his  throne  and  could  judge  aright.  He  was  above  the  influences  to 
which  weaker  rulers  yielded,  and  consequently  the  young  nation  found  in  one  of 
the  former  rulers  of  the  central  state  of  the  present  German  Empire  the  best  of 
friends.  As  we  gratefully  remember,  it  was  Frederick  the  Great  who  concluded 
the  first  treaty  with  iis  after  the  Revolutionary  war.  When  he  was  requested  to 
allow  the  Hessian  mercenaries  to  march  through  a  strip  of  his  territory,  it  was 
quite  natural  for  him  to  give  the  dry,  humorous  reply:  “  Yes,  but  I  should  receive 
the  cattle  tax  for  them  at  least.” 

Nor  can  we  forget  De  Kalb  and  Steuben,  who  endured  want  and  the  dangers  of 
war  out  of  devotion  to  our  just  cause.  It  is  being  more  and  more  clearly  proved 
that  Washington  prized  Steuben  especially  as  an  experienced  officer  and  drill- 
master,  who  transformed  our  militia  into  an  excellent  army.  He  was  a  welcome 
assistant  in  the  forming  of  our  young  nation. 

In  later  history  we  find  ourselves  under  obligations  to  a  number  of  Germans 
misjudged  in  their  native  country.  About  1849  there  came  over  to  us  Germans  of 
excellent  education  and  ability,  men  adapted  for  leadership,  who  possessed  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  moral  responsibility  to  their  adopted  country,  and 
exerted  a  far-reaching  influence  on  our  national  life.  *  *  * 

It  is  not  a  small  matter  to  formulate  the  relationship  between  Americans  and 
the  5,000,000  Germans  who  have  made  this  country  their  home;  some  evil  together 

ED  1901 - 45 


706 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


with  much  good  has  come  over  with  them.  We  naturally  speak  of  our  English 
extraction  and  our  limited  connection  with  the  mother  country.  It  is  limited,  and 
we  hope  that  the  future  will  not  make  it  more  so,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  we 
never  have  had  any  direct,  strong  influx  of  English  blood.  Since  colonial  times 
we  have  not  had  any  important  immigration  from  England,  whilst  no  nation  can 
ignore  the  weighty  influence  of  a  strong  immigration  such  as  our  country  con¬ 
stantly  receives  from  Germany.  The  infusion  of  German  blood  into  American 
life  is  an  important  political  and  social  factor.  For  this  reason  Americans  are 
better  acquainted  with  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Germans  than  those  of  the 
English.  The  result  of  these  influences  on  our  domestic  and  foreign  relations  can 
not  easily  be  foretold  nor  can  a  low  value  be  set  on  them. 

Our  material  and  political  relations  to  Germans  are  important,  it  is  true,  but 
we  are  in  much  closer  intellectual  and  spiritual  union  with  them.  Spiritual 
affairs  are  much  stronger  than  agreements  and  political  combinations.  There  is 
no  American  university  that  has  not  been  inspired  by  German  intellectual  activity. 
We  have  visited  the  halls  of  German  universities  in  numbers  and  kindled  our 
lamps  of  knowledge  at  their  altars.  Love  for  truth  and  the  holy  incentive  to 
knowledge  and  poetry  Americans  have  found  in  Heidelberg,  Gottingen,  Tubingen, 
Bonn,  etc.  When  we  look  down  upon  the  red  roofs  and  towers  of  Gottingen  as 
upon  the  red  flower  of  wisdom,  encircled  as  it  is  by  ancient  lindens,  we  not 
only  see  the  student  quarters  of  Bismarck,  but  also  the  places  where  Bancroft  and 
Longfellow  buried  themselves  among  their  books.  Of  course,  German  universi¬ 
ties  were  not  the  model  of  ours,  but  we  adapted  the  spirit  of  their  knowledge  to 
our  conditions. 

As  a  university  we  therefore  offer  a  sincere  welcome  to  you,  because  you  rep¬ 
resent  a  nation  that  has  given  us  scholars,  poets,  and  musicians,  and  in  the  name 
of  the  brotherhood  of  knowledge  we  extend  a  greeting  to  it  through  you.  Our 
indebtedness  to  German  science  is  great:  we  can  not  pay  it  back.  In  the  sur¬ 
rounding  buildings  appropriated  to  biological  research  the  great  German  physi¬ 
ologists,  Louis  Helmholtz  and  John  Miiller,  are  honored  as  the  fathers  of  their 
science.  The  brilliant  successes  of  Liebig,  Robert  Bunsen,  and  other  scholars 
have  excited  the  greatest  admiration  from  all  who  have  directed  the  work  in  the 
building  in  which  we  are  assembled.  Germany  is  prominent  in  nearly  all  branches 
of  scientific  work;  I  need  only  recall  Wundt,  Fechner,  Herz,  and  Rontgen.  Her 
poets  and  authors  are  known  in  every  American  household;  and  we  are  particu¬ 
larly  indebted  to  Germany  for  music,  as  Germans  have  done  most  to  arouse  an 
interest  in  music  in  the  United  States. 

Stronger  than  written  contracts  and  deeper  than  the  desires  of  ambitious  men 
are  these  elements  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  life,  in  which  the  highest  types  of 
mankind  in  both  countries  are  united  and  which  bind  us  by  ties  that  fire  and 
sword  can  not  separate.  Child,  parents,  and  grandparents — America,  England, 
and  Germany — united  in  loyalty  to  science,  literature,  and  art;  united  in  the 
desire  to  perpetuate  works  of  peace  and  justice;  united  in  the  effort  to  keep  the 
world  free  from  war;  united  not  by  words,  but  by  the  closest  family  ties,  may  we 
live  and  prosper  in  such  union. 

The  passages  in  which  the  speaker  referred  to  the  friendly  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Germany  were  enthusiastically  applauded. 

The  introduction  of  the  German  ambassador  by  Dr.  Harper  was  the  signal  for 
a  storm  of  cheers  from  the  students.  The  band  played  the  “Die  Wachtam 
Rhein,”  after  which  Dr.  Yon  Holleben  spoke. 

DR.  VON  HOLLEBEN’S  ADDRESS. 

To-day  is  not  the  first  time  that  I  have  the  pleasure  of  addressing  an  audi¬ 
ence  in  Chicago.  That  beautiful  June  day,  six  years  ago,  when  the  wonders  of 
the  World’s  Exposition  were  a  delight  to  all,  is  distinctly  before  me  now.  It  was 
German  Day,  and  the  platform  on  which  I  stood  was  built  on  the  shore  of  your 
glistening  lake.  Many  thousands  crowded  into  the  German  building,  and  the 
friendly  voice  of  the  late  Carter  H.  Harrison  still  rings  in  my  ears  as  he  told  me 
that  he  was  mayor  of  the  largest  German  city  in  the  world,  next  to  Berlin  and 
Vienna.  It  was  my  pleasant  duty  on  that  day  to  express  Germany’s  greeting  to 
you.  At  the  time  I  spoke  of  the  great  sympathy  and  true  admiration  with 
which  the  German  nation  is  following  the  grand  development  of  this  country.  I 
thanked  you  for  the  cordial  reception  extended  to  German  exhibitors  and  Ger¬ 
man  immigrants.  My  heart  was  filled  with  gratitude  and  pride  because  of  the 
part  taken  by  my  native  country  in  the  Exposition.  After  the  splendor  had 
faded  I  wandered  through  the  deserted  streets  of  the  White  City  and  asked  myself 


GERMAN  INSTRUCTION  IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOLS. 


707 


the  question:  What  is  the  greatest  and  noblest  exhibit  of  my  country?  Magnet¬ 
ism  drew  me  to  that  suite  of  quiet  rooms  in  the  palace  of  industry,  visited  by 
comparatively  few,  those  twelve  rooms  that  contained  the  exhibit  of  German  uni¬ 
versities.  The  collection  represented  the  energy,  knowledge,  and  life  work  of  the 
greatest  German  scholars,  and  I  felt  that  it  represented  German  national  life  and 
German  ideas  most  completely  and  gloriously. 

Years  have  passed  since,  and  the  White  City  has  become  a  dream  of  the  past. 
My  official  duties  called  me  far  away  from  the  United  States;  but  since  I  have 
returned  I  feel  called  upon  to  direct  my  steps  to  the  great  educational  institutions 
which  are  the  embodiment  of  the  noblest  and  highest  efforts  of  nonpolitical 
national  life.  Thus  I  have  come  to  you,  and  I  do  not  regret  it.  &or  do  I  regret 
that  ray  desire  to  know  all  of  your  great  universities  will  compel  me  to  undertake 
long  journeys  Like  you,  we  Germans  do  not  think  much  of  concentration  of 
scientific  research.  It  is  often  unjustly  asserted  abroad  that  the  University  of 
Berlin  ranks  first  among  German  universities.  That  is  not  the  case.  We  have  no 
scientific  Mecca,  as  the  French  possess  in  Paris,  and  we  desire  none.  All  German 
universities  have  the  same  facilities  and  follow  the  same  purposes.  I  must  con¬ 
fess  that  foreigners  are  attracted  by  the  difference  between  your  universities  and 
ours.  That  difference  is  partly  referable  to  the  result  of  historic  causes  and 
partly  to  the  principle,  defended  with  so  much  spirit  by  Americans,  of  meeting  the 
demands  of  modern  science  in  as  comprehensive  a  measure  as  possible,  independent 
of  local  conditions. 

What  makes  it  difficult  for  foreigners  to  form  a  clear  comparative  judgment  of 
your  universities  is  the  circumstance  that  they  work  with  much  greater  helps  in 
the  form  of  colleges  which  about  correspond  in  rank  to  the  German  gymnasiums. 
What  fills  us  with  admiration,  however,  is  your  practice  of  opening  the  doors  of 
your  universities  to  both  sexes  alike.  We  admire  your  generosity  which  enables 
teachers  to  spend  their  vacations  at  other  educational  institutions,  so  that  their 
pupils  may  profit  by  the  fruits  of  their  study.  We  admire  the  number  of  popu¬ 
lar  lectures.  We  admire  the  method  of  controlling  students’  knowledge  by  fre¬ 
quent  examinations,  and  thus  inciting  them  to  new  effort,  and  the  carrying  into 
effect  of  the  principle  that  teachers  should  be  in  direct  personal  contact  with 
pupils. 

I  frequently  hear  abroad  that  German  universities  do  not  care  to  modify  their 
character  according  to  modern  needs.  This  is  not  so.  '‘University  extension” 
has  been  introduced  at  different  German  universities;  and  at  the  present  day, 
when  one  of  the  largest  Eastern  universities  is  hesitating  to  confer  the  degree  of 
doctor  on  a  woman,  almost  every  German  university  has  at  least  one  woman 
doctor. 

It  may  be  true  that  students  profit  by  restrictions  during  their  academic  course, 
but  we  Germans  can  not  forget  what  influence  this  period  of  free  academic  life 
has  had  on  the  subsequent  career  of  our  greatest  intellectual  heroes.  At  all 
events,  we  Germans  are  following  the  development  of  your  universities  with  atten¬ 
tion,  and  a  common  intellectual  tie  binds  German  and  American  universities. 
Both  are  devoted  to  the  investigation  of  the  sciences  in  their  highest  form  of 
expression,  and  the  best  scientific  work  is  being  done  in  the  universities  here  as  in 
Germany.  It  is  not  so  in  England  and  France,  where  scholars  who  are  not  teach¬ 
ers  of  the  highest  educational  institutions  of  the  country  are  doing  the  most  scien¬ 
tific  work.  In  Germany  and  America  the  principle  obtains  that  the  productive 
scholar  is  the  best  teacher.  Here,  as  at  German  universities,  the  main  stress  is 
laid  upon  individual  scientific  research,  and  here,  as  in  Germany,  universities 
impress  their  characteristic  mark  on  the  life  of  the  nation.  In  the  universities  of 
America  the  same  spirit  is  cultivated  and  harbored  as  in  those  of  Germany,  and 
two  nations  united  by  the  bond  of  generations  of  educated  men  can  not  do  other¬ 
wise  than  harbor  and  cultivate  the  most  friendly  and  cordial  mutual  relations. 
So  long  as  this  bond  exists  neither  I  nor  any  of  my  successors  in  Washington  will 
ever  be  placed  in  a  position  to  deliver  other  than  messages  of  peace  and  sincere 
friendship  from  one  country  to  the  other. 

One  of  the  toasts  upon  the  occasion,  “University  life  as  a  common  bond,”  was 
pronounced  by  Prof.  C.  von  Klenze  with  great  energy.  After  stating  that  no 
country  on  earth  had  contributed  more  to  the  progress  of  human  culture  than 
Germany,  he  went  on  to  say  that  German  ideas  and  scientific  principles  in  Ameri¬ 
can  university  life  had  gained  the  ascendency  over  English  traditions,  which 
naturally  preponderated  twenty-five  years  ago.  “Germany  was  the  first  to  de¬ 
velop  the  principles  which  have  become  the  common  possession  of  all  scholars  and 


708 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


unite  those  of  all  countries  by  a  common  tie.  These  principles  bear  a  distinctly 
German  mark  impressed  upon  them  by  the  intellectual  integrity  which  is  the 
chief  feature  of  German  national  life.  If  Germany  has  gained  this  merit,  Amer  ¬ 
ica  may  claim  for  herself  to  have  been  the  most  willing  to  accept  the  principles 
developed  by  Germany  and  to  have  applied  them  most  thoroughly,  although  they 
must  have  seemed  unusually  strange  to  American  universities  at  first.  In  this 
way  a  new  bond  has  been  established  between  the  two  nations  that  will  unite  all 
men  who  devote  their  lives  to  scientific  research.  Each  nation  thus  tills  its  own 
field  and  cuts  its  own  stone  for  the  great  palace  of  a  new  civilization.  When  the 
first  happy  day  dawns  on  which  mankind  can  dwell  in  this  palace  that  will  have 
cost  so  much  effort  to  build,  Germany,  which  laid  the  firm  foundation  of  the  splen¬ 
did  structure,  will  be  remembered.” 

This  concluded  the  serious  addresses  of  the  day  which  has  inaugurated  so  impor¬ 
tant  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  relations  between  Germans  and  Americans. 
By  this  visit  of  its  representative,  Germany  has  proved  that  it  takes  the  same 
solid  interest  in  the  existence  and  further  development  of  American  universities 
that  is  manifested  by  all  civilized  nations  toward  the  maintenance  of  institutions 
of  culture,  and  recognizes  in  them  institutions  deserving  of  the  same  general 
esteem  as  the  much  older  German  models.  Ambassador  von  Holleben  has  also 
visited  the  Johns  Hopkins  and  has  accepted  an  invitation  from  the  Columbia  Uui- 
versity,  New  York,  for  April  of  the  current  year  (1901).  His  experiences  have 
left  so  favorable  an  impression  upon  the  illustrious  visitor,  that  he  feels  it  incam 
bent  upon  him  to  continue  his  visits  to  institutions  of  learning.  These  events 
have  likewise  contributed,  most  undoubtedly,  to  strengthen  the  friendly  rela¬ 
tions  between  the  two  nations  and  have  tended  to  promote  the  study  of  German 
in  America,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  number  of  American  students  in  Germany. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  briefly  state  that  in  recent  times  the  same  effort  has 
been  manifested  in  Germany  to  promote  the  study  of  English  as  has  been  made 
in  America  to  advance  the  study  of  German.  The  fact,  however,  is  not  refera¬ 
ble  in  the  same  degree  to  the  better  judgment  of  educators,  since  men  like  Pro¬ 
fessor  Paulsen,  of  Berlin,  by  no  means  recognizeits  educational  merit,  but  to  the 
personal  initiative  of  Emperor  William  II,  who  realizes  the  importance  of  Eng¬ 
lish  for  commercial  purposes  and  does  not  wish  to  see  it  sacrificed  to  the  Greek 
‘ £  fetich.  ”  German  students  are  learning  English  with  the  same  zeal  as  Americans 
are  pursuing  the  study  of  German,  and  the  inevitable  result  must  be  that  the  two 
nations  will  understand  and  esteem  each  other  better. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  FIRST  COMPREHENSIVE  ATTEMPTS  AT  CHILD  STUDY. 


Topical  outline.—  Introduction— Report  of  Berlin  Pedagogical  Society:  A.  Circular  letter— B.  The 
questions  submitted— C.  Criticism  of  the  returns— D.  Mode  of  procedure— E.  Classification 
and  analysis  of  the  concepts— F.  Criticism  of  appliances  for  teaching— G.  Historical  ideas— 
H.  Accomplishments  acquired  at  home— I.  Propositions  for  further  procedure— J.  Supple* 
ment:  Results  of  subsequent  inquiries  at  Plauen  and  Annaberg. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Early  during  the  nineteenth  century  individual  attempts  were  made 
in  studying  children  with  a  view  toward  finding  a  solid  basis  for  the 
science  and  art  of  education.  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi  had  given  an 
impetus  to  a  study  of  children’s  mental  as  well  as  physical  actions 
and  motives  of  actions.  A  little  book  entitled  Record  of  Infant  Life, 
by  D.  Tiedemann,1  appeared  in  Germany  about  a  hundred  years  ago. 
It  was  a  mere  fragment,  but  served  the  useful  purpose  of  pointing  out 
the  way  for  others  to  work  in  practical  psychology.  During  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  century  child  study,  or  rather  child  psychology,  as  the  Ger¬ 
mans  term  it,  became  a  most  interesting  subject  to  students  of  educa¬ 
tion  in  Germany. 

In  1864  Professoi  Stoy,  of  Jena,  began  to  subject  the  pupils  of  the 
practice  school  connected  with  his  seminary  to  an  examination  which 
was  intended  to  reveal  their  intellectual  status,  i.  e.,  would  show 
for  what  kinds  of  knowledge  these  children  had  an  interest  and  how 
reproduction  of  the  matter  learned  proceeded.  His  intention  was 
laudable,  but,  though  the  investigation  was  continued  for  some  time, 
the  results  were  never  published. 

The  second  attempt,  eminently  successful  in  its  results,  was  made  in 
Beilin, 

In  Berlin  the  teachers  had  for  many  years  arranged  for  regular 
courses  of  lectures  for  their  own  advancement,  and  during  the  winter 
of  1867-68  listened  to  a  course  of  lectures  on  educational  subjects 
read  by  Prof.  O.  Willmann,  professor  of  pedagogy  and  philosophy, 
one  of  the  foremost  psychologists  of  his  time.  These  teachers  subse¬ 
quently  studied  and  reviewed  his  book,  in  which  he  had  collected  these 
and  similar  lectures.  This  led  to  the  suggestion  to  investigate  the 
minds  of  children  newly  received  in  school  at  the  age  of  6.  The  sug¬ 
gestion  fell  upon  fruitful  soil  and  resulted  in  the  first  attempt  at  exam¬ 
ining  children  “  en  masse  as  to  the  contents  of  their  minds.  It  was 

1  Translated  by  F.  L.  Soldan,  superintendent  of  schools  in  St.  Louis.  Bardeen:  Syracuse,  1890. 

709 


710 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  purpose  to  find  out  what  these  children  knew  before  the  influence 
of  school  instruction  began.  The  results  of  this  attempt  will  be  found 
below. 

Since  then  many  like  en  masse  attempts  have  been  made  for  a 
variety  of  purposes  by  medical  men  like  Axel  Key,  in  Norway,  to 
investigate  the  physical  conditions  of  growth;  by  Dr.  Kotelmann,  of 
Vienna,  to  establish  the  fatigue  curve;  by  Prof.  W.  Preyer,  to  de¬ 
termine  the  stages  of  intellectual  growth;  by  Dr.  Berthold  Hartmann, 
to  analyze  the  juvenile  contents  of  the  minds  of  schoolchildren  in  the 
city  of  Plauen,  Saxony;  by  Dr.  T.  L.  Ziehen,  to  show  the  association 
of  ideas  in  children;  by  Paul  Moller,  to  diagnose  weak-mindedness,  and 
in  late  years  by  others,  especially  in  the  United  States,  where  the 
psychology  of  children  has  become  a  favorite  study  of  teachers. 

The  teachers  of  the  city  of  Berlin  referred  to  carefully  analyzed 
and  summarized  the  mass  of  information  received  from  various  city 
schools  and  published  the  results  in  the  city  yearbook  of  1870,  where 
they  lay  almost  forgotten  and  neglected  for  over  thirty  years.  It 
seems  very  desirable  to  rescue  this  report  from  oblivion  and  render  it 
in  English  for  several  reasons,  chief  of  which  is  the  thorough  treat¬ 
ment  and  method  of  procedure  of  the  investigators. 

The  following  is  the  report  of  the  teachers  of  Berlin : 1 

THE  CONTENTS  OF  CHILDREN’S  MINDS  ON  ENTERING  SCHOOL  AT 
THE  AGE  OF  6  YEARS. 

[Translated  from  “  Stadtisclies  Jahrbuch,  Berlin  und  seine  Entwicklung,  ”  volume  4, 1870.] 

A.  CIRCULAR  LETTER. 

The  Pedagogical  Society  of  Berlin  issued  in  October,  1869,  the  following  circu¬ 
lar  letter  addressed  to  all  the  school  principals  of  the  city: 

Gentlemen:  During  the  August  session  of  the  Pedagogical  Society,  a  discussion 
of  Dr.  Willmann’sbook,  entitled  “  Pedagogical  lectureson  elevating  the  intellectual 
activity  through  instruction.”  led  to  the  resolution  to  propound  certain  pedagog¬ 
ical  questions,  the  solution  of  which  will  essentially  contribute  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  schools,  if  the  questions  be  framed  with  especial  regard  to  the  urban 
conditions  characteristic  of  Berlin. 

Since  it  has  been  admitted  by  educators  of  the  most  varied  views  that  education 
and  formative  instruction  are  out  of  the  question  so  long  as  the  individuality  of 
the  pupil  is  not  known,  we  propose,  as  a  first  task,  to  ascertain  the  individuality 
of  the  little  boys  and  girls  just  entering  the  lowest  grade  of  our  Berlin  elementary 
schools,  so  far  as  it  rests  upon  the  ideas  they  have  acquired  of  their  environments. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  the  average  individuality  of  the  child  in  a  metrop¬ 
olis,  hence  also  in  Berlin,  is  a  different  one,  in  consequence  of  the  influence  of  his 
surroundings,  from  that  of  a  child  living  in  a  rural  district  or  in  a  small  town.  It 
is  also  a  fact  that  the  conditions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  city  exercise  different 
influences  upon  the  individuality  of  children,  in  consequence  of  which  the  mental 
receptivity  of  children  of  different  wards  shows  a  noticeable  inequality.  It  is  not 
at  all  impossible  to  investigate  the  causes — at  least  partly — to  which  this  dissimi¬ 
larity  in  the  pupils  on  the  one  hand  and  similarity  on  the  other  may  be  traced. 

As  is  seen  from  the  wording  of  the  task  proposed,  it  is  at  first  only  one  aspect  for 
which  your  attention  is  enlisted,  to  wit,  the  individuality  as  it  appears  influenced 
by  the  ideas  it  has  acquired  about  its  surroundings.  Of  course,  from  this  informa¬ 
tion  safe  conclusions  may  be  drawn  as  to  peculiar  natural  endowments  of  the 
Berlin  children  in  general. 


1  It  is  but  just  to  state  that  the  statistical  work  showu  in  the  following  tables  was  performed 
by  Professor  Bartholomai,  member  of  the  statistical  bureau  of  the  city  of  Berlin,  and  for  many 
years  editor  of  the  mathematical  part  of  Liiben’s  Jahresbericht.  (Translator.) 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN. 


711 


In  order  to  obtain  a  basis  necessary  to  ascertain  the  individuality  of  the  Berlin 
children,  we  take  the  liberty  of  requesting  you  to  send  in  replies  to  the  subjoined 
questions.  The  results  of  our  mutual  work  would  not  only  serve  the  important 
purpose  mentioned,  but  also  may  form  the  beginning  of  a  kind  of  educational 
statistics  hitherto  not  in  existence. 

The  selection  of  the  questions  to  be  submitted  to  the  children  was  not  easy.  To 
many  they  may  seem  strange,  especially  the  questions  concerning  natural  objects; 
for  instance,  it  may  sound  odd  to  ask,  “How  many  of  you  children  have  seen  a 
rabbit  running  free  in  the  country?”  The  concept  rabbit,  as  such,  has  no  more 
significance  for  our  purpose  than  many  other  concepts.  The  answer  to  the  ques¬ 
tion,  however,  becomes  of  value  by  ascertaining  whether  the  child  has'seen  the  ani¬ 
mal  run  free.  If  this  be  the  case,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  f  hat  simultaneous  with  the 
idea  rabbit  the  child  has  acquired  a  whole  group  of  other  ideas,  about  whose  degree 
of  clearness  the  replies  to  following  questions  will  give  the  desired  information. 

With  reference  to  the  bearing  of  this  attempt  to  ascertain  the  concepts  of  the 
Berlin  school  children  and  the  conditions  influencing  their  ideas,  a  few  words  may 
be  added.  The  first  group  of  questions,  for  instance,  is  intended  to  ascertain 
whether  the  supposition  is  correct  that  the  child  of  a  metropolis  notices,  more  often 
than  has  been  assumed,  things  moving  in  nature,  while  his  ideas  or  concepts  of 
things  in  repose  remain  indistinct  or  blurred,  sometimes  till  the  end  of  his  school 
life;  hence  that  his  interest,  in  many  cases,  can  not  be  easily  awakened  in  things 
in  repose.  If  this  should  prove  true,  many  apprehensive  phenomena  in  the  life  of 
the  people  of  Berlin  might  be  explained,  and  from  the  facts  ascertained  a  suitable 
method  in  instruction  and  training  in  school  may  be  devised  to  counteract  these 
critical  currents  in  the  life  of  the  people. 

A  similar  purpose  is  aimed  at  by  such  questions  as  “How  many  children  have 
an  idea  of  a  birch,  oak,  or  pine  tree  standing  in  the  woods?”  Experience  speaks 
for  the  supposition  that  the  Berlin  child,  if  indeed  it  has  observed  the  woods  fre¬ 
quently,  comprehends  with  especial  interest  quite  different  ideas  of  the  woods 
than  the  country  child,  hence  that  the  totality  of  the  idea  of  woods  is  an  entirely 
different  one  in  the  city  child  from  that  in  the  country  child. 

By  means  of  this  fact  maybe  explained  the  observation  made  by  teachers  in  city 
schools,  namely,  that  rural  children  having  moved  into  the  city  are  often,  at  their 
entrance  into  the  city  school,  far  behind  their  city-born  schoolmates  of  similar 
age,  but  that  they  surpass  them  within  a  short  time.  Perhaps  this  is  caused  by 
the  fact  that  the  appliances  for  object  lessons  (charts,  pictures,  etc.)  prescribed  by 
the  authorities,  and  used  all  over  the  Kingdom,  are  designed  chiefly  for  rural 
schools  and  schools  in  small  towns,  and  fail  to  consider  the  environments  and  con¬ 
ditions  of  life  of  the  children  of  a  large  city,  hence  appeal  preferably  if  not  exclu¬ 
sively  to  the  ideas  of  the  rural  children. 

That  the  investigation  proposed  for  the  purpose  of  a  statistical  summary  will 
lead  to  surprising  results,  is  seen  from  some  preliminary  inquiries  made  to  test  the 
questions  prepared.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  children  of  an  upper  grade  in  a  girls’ 
school  were  asked  what  mountains  or  hills  they  had  seen.  All,  without  excep¬ 
tion,  mentioned  the  Pepperhill  (Pfefferberg),  a  beer  garden  situated  on  the  point 
of  a  little  knoll  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school.  Some  also  mentioned  the 
Kreuzberg  and  the  Windmuhlenberg  as  having  been  seen.  A  few  questions 
revealed  the  fact  that  all  these  children  thought  a  place  of  refreshment,  or  a  beer 
garden,  a  characteristic  quality  of  the  idea  hill  or  mountain.  How  this  association 
of  ideas,  easily  explained  by  local  circumstances,  will  make  it  difficult  for  these  chil¬ 
dren  to  comprehend  song  texts,  selections  for  reading,  lessons  in  geography,  etc., 
in  school  is  obvious.  In  another  class  room,  in  a  school  near  the  Rosen  thaler  Gate, 
80  per  cent  of  the  pupils  between  11  and  13  years  had  never  seen  the  Friedrich- 
shain  (a  well-known  grove-like  park).  50  per  cent  had  no  idea  of  a  forest,  a 
park,  a  meadow,  etc.,  other  than  that  which  they  had  acquired  on  a  visit  to  the 
zoological  garden  made  in  the  company  of  their  teachers.  These  children  are 
lacking,  almost  up  to  the  time  they  leave  school,  a  large  number  of  those  concepts 
which  must  be  presupposed  in  the  instruction  in  geography,  nature  study,  singing, 
and  language,  ideas  upon  which  the  teacher  has  to  base  his  instruction. 

Now,  if  similar  results  be  discovered  in  the  majority  of  schools  in  Berlin,  as  may 
be  supposed  with  certainty,  there  will  arise  the  necessity  of  special  tasks  for  pri¬ 
mary  language  and  object  lessons,  and  for  lessons  in  reading  and  writing;  also  for 
a  utilization  of  the  walks  to  the  zoological  garden  and  the  museums  customary 
with  our  schools;  for  a  preparation  of  local  and  foreign  geography,  the  selection 
and  treatment  of  song  texts,  reading  matter,  the  study  of  natural  objects  and 
laws,  and  the  proper  acquisition  of  appliances  for  these  branches. 

Concerning  the  much-talked-of  kindergarten,1  no  definite  verdict  can  be  an- 


1  The  reader  is  reminded  of  the  date  of  this  letter:  1869. 


712 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


nounced  before  the  differences  in  the  individualities  of  the  children  having  attended 
it  and  of  those  reared  in  the  family  exclusively  have  been  statistically  ascertained. 

We  are  fully  aware  of  the  difficulties  and  obstacles  which  will  have  to  be  over¬ 
come  in  getting  replies  to  our  questions,  but  we  are  convinced  that  you  gentlemen 
will  gladly  undertake  the  arduous  task  in  view  of  the  supreme  value  which  such 
pedagogical  statistics  will  have  in  future  for  each  separate  school  and  the  whole 
system  of  city  schools  of  Berlin. 

This  hope  has  been  reenforced  by  the  fact  that  all  those  colleagues,  principals, 
and  class  teachers  who  have  heard  of  our  intention  have  given  their  consent  gladly 
and  will  attempt  to  obtain  replies  to  our  questions.  But  the  more  schools  which 
comply  with  our  request  the  more  complete  will  be  the  statistical  summary. 

A  personal  participation  on  the  part  of  the  senders  of  blanks  filled  out  in  the 
deliberation  of  their  disposition  and  of  their  summarization  is  particularly  desired. 
Our  work  may  be  made  more  valuable  by  explanations  of  colleagues  not  members 
of  the  society.  A  special  invitation  to  the  meetings  of  the  society  will  be  sent  to 
all  who  have  forwarded  returns.  All  summaries  will  be  published.  Circulars 
filled  out  should  be  sent  in  no  later  than  January  15,  1870. 

The  Pedagogical  Society, 

R.  Schobert,  President. 

October,  1869. 

B.  THE  QUESTIONS  SUBMITTED. 

The  questions  proposed  to  be  submitted  to  the  children  refer  to  the  existence  or 
nonexistence  in  their  minds  of  the  following  concepts: 

1.  Rabbit  running  free,  squirrel  on  a  tree,  grazing  flock  of  sheep. 

2.  Stork  on  its  nest,  floating  swan,  hen  and  its  chicks,  call  of  a  cuckoo,  song  of 
a  lark  in  liberty. 

8.  Hopping  frog  in  liberty,  fish  swimming  in  river. 

4.  Beehive,  butterfly  on  a  flower,  snail  creeping  in  garden  or  field. 

5.  Birch,  pine,  and  oak  tree  in  the  woods,  willow  on  the  edge  of  the  water. 

6.  Toadstool  and  moss  in  the  woods,  wild  flowers. 

7.  Hazel  and  huckleberry  bush  in  the  woods,  reeds  on  the  banks  of  a  pond. 

8.  Sand  pit,  turf  or  peat  pit . 

9.  Thunderstorm,  dew. 

10.  Moving  clouds,  hail,  sleet. 

11.  Rainbow,  evening  and  morning  red. 

12.  Starry  sky,  phases  of  the  moon,  sunrise  and  sunset. 

13.  Dwelling  place  (address),  the  Lustgarten,  Unter-den-Linden,  Wilhelmsplatz, 
Alexarulerplatz,  Gensdarmenmarkt,  Brandenburgerthor,  the  King’s  castle  and  the 
palace,  museum,  arsenal,  city  hall,  place  of  refreshment,  Friedrichshain,  Thiergar- 
ten,  zoological  garden,  botanical  garden,  Kreuzberg,  Hasenhaide,  Invalidenpark.1 

14.  Suburbs  of  Berlin,  such  as  Treptow,  Stralau,  Rummelsburg,  and  Tegel. 

15.  Ride  in  a  boat,  on  a  railroad,  range  of  mountains,  ocean. 

16.  Mount  or  hill,  forest,  meadow,  lake,  river,  grain  field,  potato  field,  snow- 
covered  landscape. 

17.  Village,  plowing,  harvesting,  windmill. 

18.  Triangle,  square,  circle,  cube,  sphere. 

19.  The  numbers  2,  3,  4,  etc. 

20.  God,  Christ,  biblical  stories,  prayers,  hymns,  church  service. 

21.  Name  and  profession  or  occupation  of  father. 

22.  King,  coins,  monuments  of  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick  the  Great,  the  Vic¬ 
tory  column. 

23.  Fairy  stories  of  Snow-white,  Red  Riding  Hood,  Sleeping  Beauty,  Cinderella. 

24.  How  many  can  pronounce  correctly  words  told  them? 

25.  How  many  can  recite  a  memorized  poem? 

26.  How  many  can  sing  a  song? 

27.  How  many  can  repeat  a  musical  tone  sung? 

28.  How  many  have  attended  a  concert? 


1  Mostly  well-known  Berlin  localities. 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BEELIN. 


713 


That  these  questions  solely  touch  upon  the  individuality  of  the  children  is  plain 
from  the  wording  of  the  circular  letter. 

This  attempt  at  fathoming  the  contents  of  the  minds  of  children  newly  entering 
school  was  heartily  approved  by  the  city  school  authorities,  and  authority  was 
granted  to  submit  the  questions  to  all  the  schools.  (Names  of  schools  and  their 
principals  appear  in  the  original  account,  but  are  here  omitted  as  unessential.) 

Of  the  84  reports  which  were  sent  in,  13  proved  to  be  absolutely  worthless  and 
were  laid  aside.  New  questions  were  suggested,  such  as: 

1.  How  many  of  the  children  have  brothers  and  sisters? 

2.  How  many  have  lost  their  father  and  mother? 

3.  How  many  have  house  inmates,  such  as  a  servant  or  apprentice? 

4.  How  many  have  domesticated  animals,  such  as  a  dog  or  a  cat? 

5.  How  many  have  a  bird? 

6.  How  many  know  the  colors  blue  and  red,  white  or  variegated? 

7.  How  many  have  seen  a  shoemaker,  joiner,  mason  at  work? 

8.  How  many  have  seen  a  watchmaker,  printer,  painter  at  work? 

9.  How  many  have  seen  soldiers,  farmers,  sailors? 

10.  How  many  have  seen  a  peddler,  a  negro? 

11.  How  many  know  how  bread  is  made  of  grain,  or  how  stockings  are  made? 

The  difficulties  of  the  inquiry  arose  partly  from  the  absence  of  some  children, 

partly  from  the  unavoidable  circumstance  that  the  last  questions  on  the  list  did 
not  come  to  the  children  before  weeks  and  months  had  passed,  and  that  it  was, 
therefore,  impossible  to  determine  whether  the  knowledge  the  children  were  found 
to  be  in  possession  of  was  gained  in  school  or  whether  it  was  in  their  possession  when 
they  entered  school.  The  large  number  of  questions  also  made  it  impossible  to 
exactly  ascertain  whether  the  concepts  expressed  by  words  had  actual  lodgment 
in  their  memory. 

The  various  teachers  reporting  mostly  refrained  from  making  comments.  A  few 
may  be  of  interest  to  be  quoted.  One  principal  found  only  one  child  who  could 
recognize  an  oak,  a  birch,  a  willow,  a  toadstool,  moss,  a  hazel  bush,  a  huckleberry 
bush,  and  reeds.  And  it  wTas  always  the  same  boy,  namely,  the  son  of  a  clergyman, 
who  had  passed  two  years  in  succession  on  the  farm  of  his  uncle.  None  of  the 
children  knew  the  difference  between  hail  and  sleet.  Another  teacher  discovered 
that  some  children  who  claimed  to  have  seen  a  lake  meant  a  fish  tank  in  the  market. 

C.  CRITICISM  OF  THE  MATTER  RECEIVED. 

Considering  the  difficulties  mentioned  and  the  resultant  differences  in  the  degree 
of  accuracy  of  the  inquiry,  it  was  to  be  supposed  that  the  matter  in  reply  to  the 
circular  letter  could  not  be  worked  into  reliable  summaries.  This  opinion  was 
candidly  expressed  by  a  lady  teacher  (Miss  L’Hiver),  who  wrote: 

I  deny  that  the  numbers  found  in  footing  up  the  returns  have  any  value  what¬ 
soever.  The  reasons  are  these:  To  ask  138  questions  of  28  children  gives  a  total  of 
3,588  questions.  (Only  14  children  were  to  be  examined  at  a  time,  but  should  the 
remaining  12  keep  silent  meanwhile?)  Two  conversation  hours  per  week,  at  50 
minutes  each,  give  in  a  term  of  3  months,  or  12  weeks,  1,200  minutes,  or  one-third 
of  a  minute  for  each  question.  If  the  children's  replies  are  to  be  used  as  a  founda¬ 
tion  for  statistical  conclusions  of  any  kind,  each  child  would  have  to  be  asked  a 
number  of  other  questions  to  establish  the  conviction  in  the  teacher  that  the  child  had 
not  merely,  parrot-like,  repeated  the  replies  of  others,  or  that  he  had  been  mistaken. 
(Thus,  for  instance,  I  found  that  most  of  the  children  who  claimed  to  have  seen  a 
rabbit  running  free  had  meant  other  animals  seen  in  liberty.)  Or,  that  the  child 
had  not  acquired  the  ideas  in  question  before,  but  during  his  school  days. 

For  such  an  examination  [the  lady  concludes]  a  teacher  can  find  no  time,  and  a 
superficial  examination  has  no  value  whatever.  I  therefore  do  not  share  the  hopes 
entertained  in  summarizing  the  returns. 

Similar  remarks  accompanied  other  returns.  These  objections  were  reenforced 
by  the  character  of  the  returns,  for  those  which  were  not  absolutely  rejected  for 
obvious  reasons  could  be  divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  Those  which  revealed  sus- 


714 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


picious  indications  of  the  fact  that  older  pupils,  having  attended  school  for  some 
months,  had  been  drawn  into  this  examination;  (2)  those  which  were  absolutely 
above  suspicion.  There  had  been  examined: 


Coming  from— 

New  pupils. 

Pupils  possibly  mixed 
with  older  ones. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Tlie  family  directly . . . 

471 

302 

773 

465 

412 

877 

A  kindergarten . . . . . 

83 

44 

127 

28 

28 

Institutions  for  keeping  young  children  during 
work  hours,  so-called  creches . . 

114 

71 

185 

128 

120 

248 

Total _ _ _ _ _ 

668 

417 

1,085 

593 

560 

1,153 

We  have,  therefore,  reliable  material  of  only  1,085  cases,  if  all  possible  errors, 
the  sources  of  which  have  been  stated,  be  eliminated.  The  question  arose  whether 
that  number  could  be  utilized  to  form  satisfactory  averages,  especially  whether 
the  number  of  children  having  attended  the  kindergarten  or  creches  (127  and  185, 
respectively)  was  not  too  insignificant  for  comparison. 

Mathematics  does  not  at  once  reject  inaccurate  observations,  but  often  derives 
reliable  results  from  them.  It  was  therefore  decided  to  use  not  only  the  1,085 
returns  of  cases  which  were  perfectly  reliable,  but  also  the  1,153  which  were 
slightly  suspected,  and  the  result  of  the  calculation  justifies  this  action. 

D.  MODE  OF  PROCEDURE. 

The  main  question  is:  What  value  is  to  be  placed  upon  these  numbers?  It  may 
be  presumed  at  the  outset  that  the  teachers  have  added  correctly.  Erroneous 
replies  on  the  part  of  the  children  have  their  origin  either  in  imagination,  wrong 
perception,  or  in  embarrassment  and  confusion.  In  cases  where  fancy  or  error 
was  active  the  reply  is  affirmative,  while  embarrassment  or  confusion  is  likely  to 
have  caused  a  negative  reply.  But,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
Berlin  children  are  not  troubled  with  embarrassment,  and,  furthermore,  that  a 
teacher,  unless  he  be  a  bungler,  will  overcome  the  children’s  shyness  in  a  very 
short  time,  hence  erroneous  replies  arising  from  childish  embarrassment  need  not 
be  expected.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  remarks  of  a  teacher,  who  says 
‘  ‘  It  was  noticed  that  when  the  queries  were  submitted  to  the  whole  class  nearly 
twice  as  many  children  would  claim  to  have  the  idea  asked  for  than  when  they 
were  questioned  in  small  sections  of  eight  or  ten  in  order  to  test  the  correctness  of 
their  answers.” 

The  summaries  show  two  things:  (1)  how  many  of  the  children  have  a  definite 
idea  of  the  objects  mentioned,  and  (2)  how  many  lack  the  idea.  The  former  may 
be  considered  the  maximum  limit,  the  latter  the  minimum  limit.  Of  course,  each 
one  includes  doubtless  a  scale  of  possibility  and  probability,  but  that  must  be  left 
out  of  the  consideration.  Thus,  for  example,  the  replies  to  the  fifty-fourth  ques¬ 
tion  concerning  the  phases  of  the  moon,  show  that  of  471  boys  and  302  girls  newly 
entering  school,  at  most  264  boys  and  179  girls  coming  directly  from  the  home,  at 
most  68  boys  and  32  girls  coming  from  the  kindergarten,  and  at  most  63  boys  and 
38  girls  coming  from  creches,  had  an  idea  of  the  phases  of  the  moon.  These  are 
classed  among  the  numbers  expressing  a  maximum  or  affirmative  reply.  In 
answering  to  question  65,  it  was  found  that  at  least  35  boys  and  49  girls  coming 
from  home,  etc.,  had  either  not  been  in  the  “  Lustgarten,”  “  Unter-den-Linden,” 
or  if  so  had  forgotten  it,  or  failed  to  connect  their  concept  of  these  places  with  the 
names  they  heard  from  the  teacher’s  lips.  This  statement  belongs  to  the  rubric  of 
minimal  numbers  or  negative  replies. 

In  order  to  obtain  larger  numbers  we  shall  add  together  the  two  groups  of 
freshly  entering  children  and  of  children  mixed  with  some  who  had  some  school¬ 
ing.  The  totals  will  retain  their  original  significance,  only  the  limits  of  maxima 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN. 


715 


and  minima  are  displaced  in  the  direction  of  their  own  meaning.  Doing  so,  we 
find  these  totals: 


Preparation. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Totals. 

Coming  from  liome  _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _  . 

936 

83 

714 

72 

1, 650 
155 

Coining  from  kindergartens . . - _ _ _ _ _ 

Coming  from  creches _ _ _  . 

243 

191 

433 

Totals _ .' _ _ _ 

1,261 

977 

2,238 

Since  the  number  of  children  having  come  from  the  kindergarten  is  too  small  to 
furnish  sufficiently  reliable  averages,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  a  comparison 
between  the  boys  and  the  girls  in  this  class  of  pupils  is  made  impracticable,  and 
only  that  between  the  total  number  of  boys  and  girls  is  attempted. 

E.  CLASSIFICATION  AND  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  CONCEPTS. 

The  questions  proposed  refer  either  to  direct  observation  and  resultant  concepts 
or  to  things  historically  transmitted  or  to  accomplishments.  We  may  consider 
first  those  which  result  from  observation.  From  the  list  of  these  concepts  we  shall 
have  to  eliminate  (1)  those  which  can  not  be  definitely  classified.  To  these  belong 
the  hen  and  chicks,  the  picking  of  field,  meadow,  or  forest  flowers,  the  snow-covered 
landscape,  the  windmill;  (2)  those  for  which  general  observation  is  not  possible, 
such  as  the  beehive,  sandpit,  peat-pit,  ride  on  the  water  or  railroad,  range  of  moun¬ 
tains,  and  ocean;  (8)  reiterations,  such  as  occur  in  the  mention  of  suburbs,  as  Stra- 
lau  and  Rummelsburg,  likewise  the  Schlesische  Busch  and  Tegel.  Omitting  all 
these  in  summarizing,  we  have  left  75  ideas  concerning  the  existence  or  nonexist¬ 
ence  of  which  the  inquiry  may  be  determined. 

The  75  ideas  or  concepts  (Vorstellungen)  may  be  classified  in  order  to  enable  us 
to  review  special  cases  as  follows: 

A.  NATURAL  CONCEPTS. 

I.  Mathematical — Arithmetical:  two,  three,  four;  geometrical:  triangle,  square, 
circle,  cube,  sphere. 

II.  Physical — Astronomical:  moon,  sunrise,  sunset,  starry  sky;  meteorological: 
thunderstorm  in  daytime  and  at  night;  precipitations:  dew,  clouds,  hail,  sleet; 
atmospheric  phenomena:  rainbow,  evening  red,  morning  red. 

III.  Natural  history — (1)  Animals,  (a)  mammals:  rabbit,  squirrel;  ( b )  birds: 
stork,  swan,  cuckoo,  lark;  (c)  cold-blooded  vertebrae:  frog,  fish;  (d)  insects  and 
mollusks:  butterfly,  snail.  .  (2)  Plants,  (a)  phanerogamous:  birch,  pine,  oak,  wil¬ 
low,  hazel  bush,  huckleberry  bush,  reed;  (b)  cryptogamous:  mushroom  or  toad¬ 
stool  and  moss. 

IV.  Geography — Mountain  or  hill,  forest,  meadow,  lake,  river. 

B.  HUMAN  CONCEPTS. 

I.  Topographical — (1)  Places  or  localities:  Lustgarten,  Unter  den  Linden,  Wil- 
helmsplatz,  Alexanderplatz,  Gensdarmenmarkt,  Brandenburger  Thor;  (2)  build¬ 
ings:  castle  and  palace  of  the  King,  museum,  arsenal,  city  hall;  (3)  landscape: 
Friedrichshain,  Thiergarten,  Zoological  Garden,  Botanical  Garden,  Kreuzberg, 
Hasenhaide,  Invaliden  Park;  (4)  suburbs:  Treptow,  Stralau,  Rummelsburg. 

II.  Agricultural — Flock  of  sheep,  field  of  ripening  grain,  potato  field,  village, 
plowing,  harvesting. 

III.  Family  and  home — Street  and  number  of  dwelling,  name  and  profession  or 
occupation  of  father. 

According  to  this  grouping  of  the  matter  the  following  table  is  made,  and  in 
order  to  facilitate  a  comparison  the  numbers  found  have  all  been  reduced  to  a 
basis  of  10,000.  This  enables  the  reader  to  see  at  a  glance  the  relative  frequency 
or  infrequency  of  the  existence  of  the  75  ideas. 


716  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Table  I. 

Number  of  children  in  every  10,000  who  possessed  the  concepts  mentioned  in  second 

column. 


No. 

Concepts  inquired  after. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

from 

home. 

Children 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Children 

from 

creches. 

Children 

in 

general. 

1 

Two . 

7,478 

7,380 

7,436 

8,323 

7, 113 

7,435 

2 

Three . 

7,478 

7,298 

7,418 

7,355 

7,344 

7,399 

3 

Four  . . 

7,279 

7,247 

7,224 

8,258 

7,067 

7,265 

4 

Triangle . 

4,274 

4.036 

4,078 

5,484 

4,111 

4,182 

5 

Square . 

5,424 

5,537 

5,230 

7,484 

5,681 

5,474 

6 

Circle . . 

4,750 

5,312 

4,818 

6,645 

5,081 

4, 991 

7 

Sphere . - 

7,684 

7,544 

7,576 

8,516 

7,483 

7,623 

8 

Cube . . - 

6,971 

6, 940 

6,800 

8,064 

7, 159 

6,957 

9 

Moon . . . 

6,043 

6.438 

6,067 

8,000 

6,144 

6,215 

10 

Sunrise . 

3,410 

2, 590 

3, 194 

2, 710 

2,633 

3,052 

11 

Sunset . 

4,925 

4,237 

4,739 

4,516 

4,226 

4,625 

12 

Starry  sky . . 

8,382 

7,840 

8,012 

8,645 

8,476 

8,145 

13 

Thunderstorm  at  day . 

7,613 

8,209 

7,776 

9,226 

7, 760 

7,873 

14 

Thunderstorm  at  night . 

3,188 

3,509 

3,224 

4,194 

3,510 

3,347 

15 

Dew . 

2,331 

2,395 

2,455 

2,323 

2,032 

2,364 

16 

Clouds . 

6,090 

5,711 

5,727 

6,581 

6,443 

5, 925 

17 

Hail . 

6, 606 

7, 544 

7,055 

7,677 

6,628 

7,015 

18 

Sleet . . 

2,847 

2,037 

2,382 

2, 194 

3,025 

2, 493 

19 

Rainbow. . . . 

7, 708 

7,851 

7,667 

9,355 

7,598 

7, 770 

20 

Evening  red . . .  --- 

6, 567 

5,148 

5,303 

6,065 

5,450 

5,384 

21 

Morning  red . 

3,497 

3, 715 

3, 545 

4, 128 

3,580 

3,592 

22 

Rabbit. . . . 

-2,482 

2,446 

2,473 

3,097 

2,217 

2, 466 

23 

Squirrel . 

3,878 

3, 193 

3,170 

4,903 

4,665 

3,579 

24 

Stork . . 

3,212 

2,467 

2,897 

3,290 

2, 702 

2,887 

25 

Swan . 

6,757 

!  5,425 

5,976 

7,032 

6,628 

6,175 

26 

Cuckoo . - . 

3,545 

2,610 

3,048 

4, 129 

3, 118 

3, 137 

27 

Lark . . . 

2,220 

1,249 

1,739 

2,258 

1,848 

1,796 

28 

Frog . . . 

5, 551 

4, 482 

4,879 

6,323 

5,427 

5,085 

29 

Fish . . . . . 

6,852 

4,565 

5,691 

6,968 

6,074 

5,853 

30 

Butterfly  . 

7,128 

4, 606 

5,503 

8,258 

7,229 

6,028 

31 

Snail . . . 

4, 877 

4, 585 

4. 612 

5,484 

5,012 

4, 750 

32 

Birch . . . 

1,531 

1,044 

1,339 

1,355 

1,229 

1,318 

33 

Pine . 

2,205 

1,341 

1,770 

2,065 

1,963 

1,828 

34 

Oak . . . 

2,625 

2,661 

2,776 

2,451 

2, 194 

2, 641 

35 

Willow . . 

2, 157 

1,034 

1,703 

1,742 

1,501 

1,667 

36 

Hazel  bush . . . - 

1,055 

706 

927 

1,032 

762 

907 

■37 

Huckleberry  bush . - 

1,792 

1,443 

1,564 

2,645 

1,570 

1,640 

38 

Reed  - . . . - . - 

1,840 

1,525 

1,655 

2,581 

1,570 

1,720 

39 

Toadstool . . 

3,204 

2,405 

2,539 

3,419 

2,610 

2,855 

40 

Moss . 

2,688 

2,221 

2,867 

3,355 

L,963 

2,484 

41 

Lustgarten . 

4,021 

3, 654 

3,800 

5,032 

3, 672 

3, 681 

42 

Unter  den  Linden . 

6, 122 

4,903 

5,436 

6, 129 

5,982 

5, 590 

43 

Wilhelmsplatz . . 

2,696 

1,464 

2,345 

1,935 

1,524 

2, 158 

44 

Alexanderplatz . 

4,084 

4,729 

4, 515 

3,935 

3,946 

4, 366 

45 

Gensdarmenmarkt . 

3, 450 

2,221 

2,915 

3,032 

2,841 

2, 909 

46 

Brandenburger  Thor . 

3,885 

2,968 

3,388 

4, 774 

3,303 

3,467 

47 

Schloss  (castle). . . 

3,465 

3,367 

3,333 

4, 192 

3,510 

3,423 

48 

Palace  of  the  King . 

3,180 

2,508 

2,788 

3,613 

3,002 

2,886 

49 

Museum . . . 

3, 450 

2,927 

2,982 

3,935 

3,880 

3,222 

50 

Arsenal . . . . 

2, 165 

1,689 

1,855 

2,839 

2,032 

1,957 

51 

City  hall . . . 

3,703 

3,501 

3,412 

5,935 

3,557 

3, 615 

52 

Friedrichshain . . 

3,600 

4,258 

3,915 

2,710 

4,203 

3,887 

53 

Thiergarten . 

5, 964 

4,893 

5,261 

6,516 

6,028 

5,496 

54 

Zoological  garden . . 

4,346 

3,685 

3,727 

6,323 

4,503 

4,057 

55 

Botanical  garden . 

452 

624 

497 

1,161 

416 

527 

56 

Kreuzberg . 

4,179 

2,518 

3,479 

4,065 

3, 141 

3,454 

57 

Hasenhaide . . . 

5, 780 

4,258 

5, 121 

6,194 

4,734 

5, 121 

58 

Invaliden  park  . 

1,301 

922 

964 

1,355 

1,709 

1, 135 

59 

Treptow . 

3,196 

2,897 

3, 127 

4,065 

2,469 

3,065 

60 

Stralau  .  . . . 

2,840 

1,955 

2.515 

2,387 

2,240 

2, 453 

61 

Rummelsburg . . 

1,459 

963 

1,248 

903 

1,339 

1,242 

62 

Flock  of  sheep . . 

4,005 

3,695 

3,739 

4,323 

4,203 

3,870 

63 

Field  of  ripening  grain . . 

4,322 

3,726 

4,012 

4,194 

4,203 

4, 062 

64 

Potato  field . 

6,265 

6,397 

6,303 

6,323 

6,397 

6,323 

65 

Village . . . 

3,672 

2,989 

3,364 

3, 419 

3,395 

3,374 

66 

Plowing.. . 

3,283 

1,801 

2,570 

3,290 

1,656 

2, 636 

67 

Harvesting . 

2,744 

1,883 

2,315 

2,323 

2,587 

2,368 

68 

Dwelling  address . 

9,120 

8,905 

9,103 

9,355 

8,612 

9,026 

69 

Name  of  father . 

8,136 

9,007 

8,830 

8,065 

7,483 

8,517 

70 

Occupation  of  father . 

8,652 

9,324 

9,194 

8,968 

7,991 

8,945 

71 

Mountain . 

3,402 

3,050 

3,067 

4, 645 

3,441 

3,248 

72 

Forest . 

4,036 

3,142 

3,655 

4,194 

3,418 

3,646 

73 

Meadow . . 

5,004 

4,096 

4, 467 

4,645 

5,127 

4. 607 

74 

Lake . 

2,451 

1,586 

2,055 

2,000 

2,171 

2,078 

75 

River  . 

1,126 

1,115 

1,194 

968 

901 

1,122 

CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN. 


717 


It  may  be  supposed  that,  in  general,  those  concepts  or  ideas  are  more  easily 
gained  which  are  found  in  a  large  number  of  children,  considering  the  psycholog¬ 
ical  conditions  of  the  children  and  the  possibility  of  acquiring  the  ideas  under 
urban  conditions,  than  such  ideas  as  are  possessed  by  a  small  number  of  children. 
This  is  the  reason  why  in  the  following  table  (Table  II)  the  ideas  have  been 
grouped  according  to  the  frequency  of  their  occurrence  among  the  children  exam¬ 
ined,  This  table  also  shows  the  excess  of  frequency  in  the  existence  of  the  ideas 
in  boys  over  girls,  girls  over  boys,  as  well  as  the  differences  or  excesses  in  the 
three  categories:  Home,  kindergarten,  and  creches.1 

Table  II. 


Number 

among 

each 


No. 


Concepts  inquired  after. 


10,000 
children 
having 
the  con¬ 
cept. 


Boys 

over 

girls. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 
42». 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 
5? 

54 

55 


Dwelling  address . 

Occupation  of  father . 

Name  of  father  .... . . 

Starry  sky . . . 

Thunderstorm  at  day . 

Rainbow  . . 

Sphere . «. . 

Two . 

Three . . . 

Four . . . 

Hail  . . 

Cube  . . 

Potato  field . 

Moon . 

Swan . 

Butterfly . 

Clouds . 

Fish . . . 

Unter  den  Linden . . 

Thiergarten . 

Square  . 

Evening  red . 

Hasenhaide . 

Frog . 

Circle . . . 

Snail . 

Sunset. . . . . . 

Meadow . 

Alexanderplatz . 

Triangle . 

Field  of  grain . 

Zoological  garden . 

Friedrichshain . 

Flock  of  sheep . 

Lustgarten . 

Forest . . . 

City  hall . 

Morning  red . 

Squirrel . . 

Brandenburger  Thor . 

Kreuzberg . 

Schloss  (castle) . . . 

Village . 

Thunderstorm  at  night.... 

Mountain . 

Museum . 

Cuckoo . 

Treptow . 

Sunrise  . . 

Gensdarmanmarkt. . . 

Stork . . . 

Palace  of  the  king . 

Toadstool . 

Oak . 

Ploughing . 


9,026 
8,945 
8,517 
8,145 
7,873 
7,770 
7,623 
7,435 
7,399 
7,265 
7,015 
6,957 
6,323 
6,215 
6, 175 
6,028 
5,925 
5, 853 
5, 590 
5,496 
5,474 
5,384 
5, 121 
5,085 
4,991 
4,750 
4,625 
4,607 
4, 366 
4,182 
4,062 
4,057 

3.887 
3,870 
3,861 
3,646 
3,615 
3,592 
3,579 
3,467 
3,454 
3,423 
3,374 
3,347 
3,248 
3.222 
3,137 
3,065 
3,052 
2, 909 

2.887 
2,886 
2,855 
2,641 
2,636 


215 


542 


136 

98 

180 

32 

'_3i' 


1,385 

2,522 

379 

2,307 

1,219 

1,071 


419 

1,522 

1,069 


292 

OSS 

908 


235 

596 

661 

'316 

367 

894 

202 


705 

917 

1,661 

98 

683 


352 

523 

935 

299 

820 

1,229 

745 

672 

799 


1,483 


Excess  of  — 


Girls 

over 

boys. 

Home- 

trained 

children 

over 

kinder¬ 

garten 

children. 

Kinder¬ 

garten 

children 

over 

home- 

trained 

children. 

Home- 

trained 

children 

over 

cr&che 

children. 

Creche 

children 

over 

home- 

trained 

children. 

273 

491 

672 

226 

1,203 

1,347 

871 

1,290 

633 

464. 

596 

1,450 

1,688 

940 

16 

143 

69 

93 

887 

323 

63 

74 

1.034 

157 

938 

622 

427 

1,264 

20 

359 

132 

94 

425 

1,913 

1,056 

2,755 

854 

77 

652 

2,226 

716 

1,267 

693 

383 

548 

1,255 

2,254 

762 

767 

113 

451 

147 

1,032 

387 

1,444 

1,82 

872 

548 

562 

263 

400 

223 

513 

178 

660 

645 

580 

570 

1,406 

184 

33 

191 

2,596 

776 

658 

1,205 

288 

584 

464 

1,232 

539 

128 

237 

2,523 

583 

145 

218 

35 

1,733 

1,386 

586 

1,495 

85 

338 

859 

117 

55 

31 

321 

970 

286 

1,578 

374 

47 

898 

1,081 

938 

70 

658 

484 

561 

117 

74 

393 

195 

825 

214 

880 

71 

36 

325 

582 

720 

96 

1  These  columns  had  been  mixed  through  mistake  by  the  printers  of  the  original  report,  but 
are  here  presented  iri  their  correct  order.— Translator. 


718 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 
Table  II — Continued. 


No. 

Concepts  inquired  after. 

Number 
among 
each 
10,000 
children 
having 
the  con¬ 
cept. 

Excess  of — 

Boys 

over 

girls. 

Girls 

over 

boys. 

Home- 

trained 

children 

over 

kinder¬ 

garten 

children. 

Kinder¬ 

garten 

children 

over 

home- 

trained 

children. 

Home- 

trained 

children 

over 

creche 

children. 

Creche 

children 

over 

home- 

trained 

children. 

56 

Rlfipt, _  _ 

2,493 

810 

188 

643 

57 

Moss 

2,484 

467 

488 

904 

58 

Rabbit _ _ _ 

2,466 

36 

624 

256 

59 

Rtralan  _  _  _  _ 

2,453 

885 

128 

275 

60 

Harvesting  _ _ _ 

2, 368 

911 

8 

272 

61 

T)rw  _ 

2,364 

64 

132 

423 

62 

Wilhelmsplatz  _  _ 

2,158 

1,232 

410 

821 

63 

Lake  _  . . . 

2, 078 

865 

55 

116 

64 

Arsenal _ 

1,957 

476 

983 

177 

65 

Pine  _  _  _ 

1,828 

864 

295 

193 

66 

Lark  .  _ _ _ _ _ 

1,796 

971 

519 

109 

87 

Reed  . . . . 

1,702 

315 

926 

915 

68 

Willow 

1.667 

1,123 

39 

203 

69 

Huckleberry  bush  _ 

1’640 

349 

1,081 

6 

70 

Birch . 

1,318 

487 

16 

110 

71 

Rummelsburg 

1,242 

496 

345 

91 

72 

Invalidenpark  _ 

1,135 

379 

391 

745 

73 

River  . _ 

1,122 

11 

226 

293 

74 

Hazel  bush.  _  _ 

907 

348 

105 

165 

75 

Botanical  garden . . 

527 

172 

664 

81 

From  the  foregoing  table  (II)  we  see  that  by  far  the  greater  number  of  ideas, 
nearly  75  per  cent,  were  found  more  frequently  in  boys  than  in  girls.  Greater 
even  than  that  is  the  difference  between  children  coming  directly  from  home  and 
those  coming  from  the  kindergarten.  The  latter  have  a  much  greater  wealth  of 
ideas  than  the  former.  The  difference  is  less  marked  between  children  coming 
directly  from  home  and  those  having  been  kept  in  creches  (Bewahranstalten).  It 
is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  school  must  assume  an  attitude  with  reference  to  boys 
different  from  that  assumed  toward  girls;  likewise  different  attitudes  as  regards 
home  children,  kindergarten  children,  and  children  from  creches.  Many  of  the 
ideas  in  question  may  have  been  familar  to  children  who  professed  not  to  have 
them,  they  never  ha  vie  g  connected  such  ideas  with  the  names  by  which  they  are 
expressed;  or,  perchance,  there  may  have  been  neglect  to  call  the  children's  atten¬ 
tion  to  them. 

One  specially  noteworthy  peculiarity  is  revealed  by  comparing  the  differences 
between  boys  and  girls.  We  notice  that  the  girls  more  often  surpass  the  boys  in 
acquiring  ideas  in  the  case  of  those  ideas  that  are  most  common  on  the  whole 
or  most  frequently  met  with  among  children.  Now,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
common  ideas,  those  frequently  found  in  the  consciousness  of  children,  are  acquired 
with  more  facility  than  those  found  rarely  among  children.  Hence  it  may  be 
concluded  that  the  mental  range  (or  compass)  of  girls,  as  compared  with  that  of 
boys,  is  more  enlarged  in  the  case  of  those  ideas  that  find  an  easy  lodgment  in  the 
minds  of  children  generally,  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  those  that  are  more  difficult 
of  conception.  The  matter  can  be  made  plainer  by  indulging  in  the  fiction  that 
each  idea  grows  gradually,  but  to  a  greater  extent  the  less  opposition  it  finds,  only 
that  the  opposition  is  also  fictitious.  Assuming  this,  we  may  say:  The  easier  an 
idea  finds  entrance  into  the  consciousness  of  children,  the  easier  will  it  do  so  in 
girls,  and  contrariwise,  the  more  difficult  will  it  be  to  enter  the  boys’  conscious¬ 
ness.  If  we  divide  the  column  of  numbers  of  Table  II  into  groups  of  ten  ideas 
(omitting  the  last  five)  we  find  the  following  result: 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BEKLIN. 


719 


Ten  ideas  found  in— 

Of  these  ten  ideas 
there  were  prev¬ 
alent — 

Among 

boys. 

Among 

girls. 

From  1  SIR  f.n  2  nTrildrfvn  _  _ _ 

9 

1 

From  s' 368  to  2'887  children  _ - _ 

9 

1 

From  2  909  to  3  454  children  -  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

9 

1 

Frr,m  8  4^7  f.A  4  0 88  nhildrpvn  _  _ _ _ . _ _ 

8 

2 

From  4  182  to  5  474  children  .  .......... _ _ _ _ - _ _ 

7 

3 

Fr^m  4Qfi  f.r»  7  01 S  irthildre/n  .  _ .  __ _ _ _ 

7 

3 

From  7  205  tn  9,026  children  _  _ _ _ : _ _ 

6 

4 

The  concepts  which  we  find  in  girls  more  frequently  than  in  boys  are:  Name 
and  occupation  of  father,  thunderstorm,  rainbow,  hail,  potato  field,  moon,  square, 
circle,  Alexanderplatz,  Friedrichshain ,  morning  red,  oak,  dew,  and  botanical 
garden. 

We  leave  it  to  psychologists  to  study  particular  phases  of  the  results,  some  of 
which  seem  eminently  important  to  psychology,  as  for  instance:  Though  the  sphere 
is  the  carrier  of  an  infinite  number  of  circles,  and  though  every  cube  is  bounded 
by  six  squares,  and  the  idea  triangle  seems  to  be  more  easily  conceivable  than  the 
square,  we  find  nevertheless  that  the  sphere  is  known  by  76.23  per  cent  of  the 
children,  the  cube  by  69.57  per  cent,  the  square  by  54.74  per  cent,  the  circle  by 
49.91  per  cent,  the  triangle  by  41.82  per  cent. 

It  may  be  of  general  interest,  however,  to  view  the  various  groups  of  ideas. 
The  totals  found  allow  us  to  frame  the  following  table  (III) : 

Table  III. 


Of  every  10,000  the  ideas  were  in  the  consciousness  of — 


Ideas. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

coming 

from 

home. 

Children 

coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Children 

coming 

from 

creches. 

Children 

in 

the  ag¬ 
gregate. 

Arithmetical . 

7,412 

7, 308 

7,359 

7,978 

7, 175 

7,367 

Geometrical . 

5,821 

5,879 

5,701 

7,239 

5,903 

5, 846 

Astronomical . . . . 

5,690 

5, 276 

5,503 

5,968 

5,370 

5,509 

Thunderstorm . . 

5,400 

5,880 

5,550 

6, 710 

5,635 

5,610 

Precipitation. . . . 

4,471 

4,422 

4,405 

4,694 

4,532 

4,449 

Atmospheric  phenomena . 

5,591 

5,571 

5,505 

6,516 

5,543 

5,582 

Mammals . . . . 

8, 180 

2,820 

2,821 

4,000 

3,441 

3,023 

Birds  . . . . . 

3,933 

2,938 

3,415 

4,177 

3,574 

3,499 

Cold-blooded  vertebrates . 

6,201 

4,523 

5,285 

6,645 

5, 751 

5,469 

Mollusks . 

6,003 

4,596 

5,057 

6,871 

6, 120 

5,389 

Phanerogamous  plants . 

1,886 

1,393 

1,676 

1,982 

1,541 

1,671 

Cryptogamous  plants . . . 

2,946 

2,313 

2,703 

3,387 

2,286 

2, 770 

Geographical . .. . . 

3,204 

2, 597 

2,887 

3,290 

3,012 

2,940 

Locations . 

4,038 

3,321 

3,733 

4,139 

3, 545 

3,725 

Buildings- . 

3,193 

2, 798 

2,874 

4,090 

3,196 

3,021 

Landscapes  . . . 

3,662 

3,022 

3,281 

4,046 

3,533 

3,382 

Suburbs.. . . . . . 

2, 498 

1,938 

2,297 

2,452 

2,017 

2,253 

Agricultural . . . . 

4,048 

3,415 

3,717 

3,978 

3,907 

3, 772 

Concerning  home  and  family . 

8,639 

9,097 

9,042 

8,796 

8,029 

8,829 

720  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


From  this  we  derive  the  following  table  for  purposes  of  comparison: 

Table  IV. 


Ideas. 

Number 

of 

children 
having 
the  idea 
in  every 
10,000. 

Among 

boys. 

Among 

girls. 

Excess. 

Among 

kinder¬ 

garten 

children.1 

Among 

children 

from 

home. 

Among 

children 

from 

creches. 

Concerning  family  and  home . 

8,829 

458 

246 

1,013 

Arithmetical _ _ _ 

7,367 

104 

619 

184 

Geometrical  _ _ _ _ 

5, 846 

58 

1,538 

202 

Thunderstorm . . . . 

5,610 

480 

1,160 

85 

Atmospherical  phenomena  _ 

5, 582 

20 

1,011 

38 

Astronomical _ 

5,509 

414 

465 

133 

Cold-blooded  vertebrates _ . _ 

5,469 

1,678 

1,360 

466 

Mollusks  .  _ _ _ _ 

5,389 

1,407 

1,814 

1,083 

Precipitations . . . 

4,449 

49 

289 

127 

Agricultural . . . . 

3, 772 

633 

261 

190 

Locations _ _ - _ . .. _ 

3, 725 

719 

406 

188 

Birds  . 

3, 499 

995 

762 

159 

Landscapes  . . . . .. . . . 

3,382 

640 

765 

252 

Mammals _ . _ 

3,023 

360 

1,179 

620 

Buildings . . . 

3,021 

395 

1,216 

322 

Geographical . . . 

2, 940 

607 

403 

125 

Cryptogamous  plants  .  _ 

2,670 

633 

684 

417 

Suburbs  - . , . . 

2, 253 

560 

155 

280 

Phanerogamous  plants . . . 

1,671 

493 

306 

135 

The  relations  of  children  to  their  homes  and  families  are  so  intimate  and  so  fre¬ 
quently  renewed  after  brief  intervals  spent  in  school  or  on  the  street  that  one  can 
not  but  expect  them  to  know  family  and  home.  But  in  this  the  more  introspec¬ 
tive  life  of  the  girls  is  revealed,  in  contrast  to  the  life  of  boys,  which  is  directed, 
even  in  early  childhood,  toward  the  outside  world.  This  tendency  of  boys  to  look 
at  things  outside  is  so  noticeable  that  the  girls  come  to  school  richer  than  the  boys 
in  only  three  groups  of  ideas,  to  wit:  In  ideas  of  home  and  family,  and  in  geomet¬ 
rical  and  in  meteorological  ideas.  The  fact  that  with  girls  the  ideas  of  space,  with 
boys  the  ideas  of  number,  should  predominate  is  certainly  worthy  of  notice.  That 
the  concepts  of  thunderstorm  and  its  attendant  phenomena  should  be  more  lasting 
in  girls  than  in  boys  shows  that  the  girls  have  a  greater  disposition  to  fear  and 
apprehension.  A  boy  is  not  generally  moved  by  thunder,  lightning,  and  pouring 
rain  any  more  than  by  other  phenomena;  they  appear  to  him  not  more  important 
than  others.  The  same  disposition  in  girls  to  apprehension  may  also  give  rise  to 
their  observing  hail  and  dew  on  the  grass,  things  less  often  observed  by  boys. 

The  greater  wealth  of  ideas  among  children  coming  from  creches  (Bewahran- 
stalten) ,  and  the  still  greater  wealth  among  children  coming  from  the  kindergar¬ 
ten,  as  compared  with  those  who  have  attended  neither  of  these  institutions,  is  so 
striking  that  the  decision  as  to  whether  the  kindergarten  for  the  prescholastic  age 
is  desirable  or  not  can  not  remain  doubtful  for  a  single  moment.  The  following 
somewhat  condensed  tables  (V  and  VI)  show  this  very  plainly,  especially  the 
latter,  which  exhibits  the  differences: 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN, 


721 


Table  V. 


Of  every  10,000  the  ideas  were  in  the  consciousness  of— 


Ideas. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

coming 

from 

home. 

Children 

coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Children 

coming 

from 

creches. 

Children 
in  the 
aggre¬ 
gate. 

Arithmetical . 

7,412 

7,308 

7,359 

7, 978 

7,175 

7,367 

Geometrical-.. . 

5,821 

5,879 

5,701 

7,239 

5,903 

5,846 

Astronomical . . . 

5,690 

5,276 

5,503 

5,968 

5,370 

5,509 

Meteorological . 

5,051 

5,129 

5,015 

5,749 

5, 114 

5,085 

Animals . . . 

4,650 

3,563 

3, 999 

5. 174 

4,492 

4,175 

Plants . . . . 

2,122 

1,598 

1,904 

2,294 

1,706 

1,893 

Geographical . . 

3,204 

2,597 

2,887 

3,290 

3,012 

2,940 

Locations . 

4,038 

3,321 

3,733 

4,139 

3,545 

3,725 

Buildings . 

3,193 

2,798 

2,874 

4,090 

3,196 

3,021 

Landscapes . . . 

3,662 

3,022 

3,281 

4,046 

3,533 

3,382 

Suburbs . 

2,498 

1,938 

2,297 

2,452 

2,017 

2,253 

Agricultural . . . 

4,048 

3,415 

3, 717 

3,978 

3,907 

3,772 

Family  and  home . 

8,639 

9, 097 

9,042 

8,796 

8,029 

8,829 

Table  VI. 


Ideas. 

Of  10,000 
children 
the  idea 
was  pos¬ 
sessed 
by— 

Excess  of — 

Boys 

over 

girls. 

Girls 

over 

boys. 

Coming 

from 

home 

over 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten 

over 

home. 

Coming 

from 

home 

over 

creches. 

Coming 

from 

creches 

over 

home. 

Family  and  home _ 

8,829 
7,367 
5,846 
5,509 
5,085 
4,175 
3, 772 
3,725 
3,382 
3,021 
2,940 
2,253 
1,893 

458 

246 

1,013 

184 

Arithmetical . . . . 

104 

619 

1,538 

465 

734 

1,175 

261 

406 

765 

1,216 

403 

155 

390 

Geometrical _ _ 

58 

202 

Astronomical  _ 

414 

133 

Meteorological . . 

78 

99 

493 

190 

Animals  _ _ _ _ 

i,087 

633 

717 

640 

395 

607 

560 

524 

Agricultural 

Locations. _ _ _ 

188 

Landscapes. . . . . 

252 

322 

125 

Buildings . . . . . 

Geographical . 

Suburbs . . . . . 

280 

198 

Plants . 

The  lessons  to  be  derived  from  this  table  are  so  obvious  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  dwell  on  them.  We  therefore  proceed  to  the  next  summary: 

Table  VII. 


Of  every  10,000  the  ideas  were  in  the  consciousness  of— 


Ideas. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

coming 

from 

home. 

Children 

coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Children 

coming 

from 

crSches. 

Children 
in  the 
aggre¬ 
gate. 

Mathematical . 

Physical . 

N  atur  al  history . . . . 

Geographical . 

Topographical . 

Agricultural . 

Home  and  family . 

6,418 

5,247 

3,453 

3,204 

3,491 

4,048 

8,639 

6.415 
5,174 
2,632 
2,597 
2,900 

3.415 
9,097 

6,323 
5,135 
3,007 
2,887 
2, 173 
3, 717 
9,042 

7,516 

5,816 

3,810 

3,290 

3,856 

3,978 

8,798 

6,380 
5, 193 
3,172 
3,012 
3,240 
3,907 
8,029 

6,416 
5,216 
3,091 
2,940 
3,233 
3, 772 
8,829 

ED  1901- 


46 


722 


EDUCATION  EEPOKT,  1900-1901. 
Table  VIII. 


Ideas. 

Of  10,000 
children 
the  idea 
was  pos¬ 
sessed 
by— 

Excess  of — 

Boys 

over 

girls. 

Girls 

over 

boys. 

Coming 

from 

home 

over 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten 

over 

home. 

Coming 

from 

home 

over 

crdches. 

Coming 

from 

crdches 

over 

home. 

Home  and  family . . . 

8,829 
6,416 
5,216 
3, 772 
3,233 
3,091 
2,940 

458 

246 

.  1,013 

Mathematical  _ 

3 

73 

633 

591 

821 

607 

2, 193 
681 
261 
1,683 
803 
403 

57 

58 
190 

1,067 

165 

125 

Physical . . . . 

Agricultural 

Topographical  _  _ 

Natural  history . . . . 

Geographical . 

From  the  foregoing  tables  it  is  seen  that  the  children  are  the  more  ignorant  of 
things  the  farther  away  the  things  are  from  home,  a  fact  which  might  have  been 
foreseen.  Number  of  house,  street  of  parents’  dwelling,  and  occupation  of  the 
father,  likewise  simple  mathematical  concepts,  can  be  acquired  by  a  child  without 
crossing  the  threshold  of  his  home,  and  without  being  taken  out  into  the  open  air 
into  parks  or  into  the  country.  In  all  classes  of  ideas,  with  exception  of  the  one 
concerning  home  and  family,  the  girls’  knowledge  is  less  than  that  of  the  boys. 
Those  who  have  attended  kindergartens  know  more  than  those  having  attended 
creches,  and  both  know  more  than  those  exclusively  kept  at  home. 

Summarizing  the  various  groups  of  ideas  still  more,  we  find  these  facts  clearly 
demonstrated: 


Table  IX. — Average  number  of  children  conscious  of  the  ideas  in  every  10,000. 


Ideas. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Coming 

from 

home. 

Coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Coming 

from 

creches. 

Children 
in  the 
aggre¬ 
gate. 

"Natural  _  _  _  .  .  _  .  _ _  _  _ 

4,470 
4, 117 
4,329 

4,035 

3,621 

3,869 

4,206 

3,868 

4,071 

4,991 

4,374 

4,744 

4,308 
3,852 
4, 126 

4,280 
3,906 
4, 128 

Human _ _ _ _ 

Both  classes  combined . . . . 

The  general  conclusion,  then,  is  that  occasional  instruction  in  families,  in  replies 
to  questions  such  as:  What  is  this?  What  is  it  called?  is  much  neglected.  The 
child  comes  to  school  comparatively  poor  in  concepts,  and  school  is  forced  either 
to  operate  with  mere  words  or  to  substitute  in  place  of  observation  of  living  or 
actual  objects  lifeless  representations  on  charts,  or,  thirdly,  go  back  to  actual 
observation  of  natural  objects.  Only  the  last  is  sensible.  School  finds  its  work 
somewhat  prepared  by  the  creches  (Bewahranstalten)  and  the  kindergartens. 
The  latter  are  by  far  preferable.  School  also  finds  the  boys  better  prepared  than 
the  girls. 

F.  CRITICISM  OF  THE  APPLIANCES  FOR  TEACHING. 

The  importance  of  the  existence  or  nonexistence  of  the  concepts  in  question 
becomes  obvious  when  we  select  from  the  list  those  which  must  be  presupposed 
in  order  that  the  teacher  may  use  the  appliances  for  teaching,  such  as  text-books 
and  charts  prescribed  for  the  schools.  These  selected  ideas  are:  Sunrise,  sunset, 
starry  sky,  clouds,  rainbow,  evening  red,  morning  red,  cuckoo  (its  nest),  lark  (its 
song),  reeds  (on  the  banks  of  the  water),  mountain,  forest,  river,  flock  of  sheep, 
grain  field,  village,  plowing,  harvesting.  It  is  easily  seen  how  little  the  appli¬ 
ances  and  text-books  used  in  school  are  adapted  to  the  horizon  of  ideas  of  the  pupils. 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BEBLIX. 


728 


Taking  the  total  number  of  children  again  as  a  basis  of  calculation,  we  find  the 
following  results: 

Table  X. 


Astronomical . 

Precipitations . 

Atmospheric  phenomena 

Animals . . . 

Plants . 

Geographical . 

Agricultural . . . 

Physical . 

Natural  historical . . 

Geographical . . 

Agricultural . . 

Natural . . 

Human . . 

Total . . 


Number  of  children 


iNumDer  or  cnnaren 
in  every  10,000  ac¬ 
quainted  with  the 
ideas — 

In  general. 

That  are 

presup¬ 

posed. 

5,509 

5,274 

4,449 

5,925 

5,582 

5,582 

4,175 

2,466 

1,893 

1,256 

2,940 

2,672 

3, 772 

3,262 

5, 216 

5,499 

2,212 

3,091 

2,940 

2,672 

3,772 

3,262 

4,280 

4,088 

3,900 

3,772 

4,128 

3,859 

It  is  plain  that  the  customary  books  and  appliances  which  are  to  be  considered 
here  presuppose  certain  fundamental  ideas  with  which  the  Berlin  children  are 
not  familiar.  From  this  results:  (1)  The  impossibility  of  selecting  from  among 
the  well-known  text-books  and  appliances  those  which  could  be  made  comprehen¬ 
sible  to  the  children  of  Berlin;  (2)  the  very  great  difficulty  of  finding  any  books 
and  appliances  which  are  adapted  to  the  ideas  which  may  be  presupposed  in  a 
given  community;  (3)  the  suggestion  not  to  begin  with  the  printed  page  at  all 
(books  or  charts),  but  base  all  primary  instruction  on  actual  observation  and  the 
analysis  of  the  thought  material  the  child  brings  with  it;  (4)  the  necessity  of  sup¬ 
plying  the  missing  ideas  by  the  study  of  objects.  Suffice  it,  the  results  open  a 
wide  perspective. 

G.  HISTORICAL  IDEAS. 

We  now  turn  to  the  supply  of  historical  ideas  the  children  bring  with  them  to 
school.  They  belong  partly  to  the  realm  of  religion,  partly  to  that  of  fairyland. 
The  question  as  to  how  many  of  the  children  had  attended  religious  service  in 
church  is  of  no  importance  for  our  purposes,  and  the  other  question  as  to  how 
many  of  the  children  had  heard  anything  of  fairy  stories  is  so  difficult  to  answer 
that  it,  too,  loses  importance.  The  results  derived  from  the  return,  however,  are 
briefly  given  in  Table  XI. 

This  table  contains  one  fact  remarkable  to  a  high  degree,  to  wit,  that  boys  are 
more  familiar  with  religious  ideas  than  girls;  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the  girls  are 
better  acquainted  with  fairyland  in  almost  the  same  proportion.  *  *  * 

Table  XI. 


Of  every  10,000  the  ideas  were  familiar  to— 


Ideas. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

coming 

from 

home. 

Children 

from 

kinder¬ 

gartens. 

Children ) 
from  1 
creches. 

Children 
in  the 
aggre¬ 
gate. 

God . 

7,827 
6,757 
3, 743 
5,400 
2,173 
2,427 
563 
1, 784 
5,852 
1,734 

5,067 

4,217 

1,453 

4,647 

3,009 

3.664 

1,044 

2,897 

3,846 

2,654 

6,927 
5,818 
2, 727 
5,078 
2,436 
2,800 
661 
2, 182 
5,138 
2,020 

5,935 
5,355 
2, 258 
5,613 
4,387 
4,581 

1.871 

3.871 
4, 790 
3,677 

5,704 
5,104 
2, 979 
4,850 
2,263 
3,025 
808 
2,032 
4.659 
2,032 

6,622 
5,648 
2, 744 
5,041 
|  2,538 

2,967 
773 
2,270 
5,021 
2, 137 

Christ . . . 

Biblical  stories . 

Prayers  and  hymns  . . . . 

Snow  white . . . 

Red  Riding  Hood . 

Sleeping  Beauty . 

Cinderella . 

Religious  ideas . . . 

Ideas  of  fairy  stories . 

724 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


However  venturesome  it  may  appear  to  draw  conclusions  from  this  upon  the 
differences  in  soul  life  of  boys  and  girls,  yet  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  inner 
natures  of  the  two  sexes  are  in  decided  contrast  to  each  other.  Since  it  is  reason¬ 
able  to  suppose  that  both  boys  and  girls  have  in  general  the  same  opportunites  to 
acquire  ideas  of  religion  and  of  fairyland,  the  want  of  comprehension  for  or  the 
facility  for  forgetting  these  ideas  must  be  dependent  upon  an  original  difference 
in  intellectual  disposition. 

Also  the  differences  between  children  of  the  three  classes — those  coming  from 
home,  from  the  kindergarten,  and  from  creches— are  remarkable.  Children  com¬ 
ing  directly  from  home  hear  more  of  God  and  get  more  religious  ideas  than  chil¬ 
dren  having  attended  kindergartens  or  creches.  The  predominance  of  biblical 
stories  and  of  prayers  and  hymns  found  among  children  coming  to  school  from 
creches  and  kindergartens,  respectively,  would  indicate  that  in  the  creches  biblical 
stories  are  taught  and  in  the  kindergartens  prayers  and  hymns  are  memorized. 
Both  practices  may  be  regarded  as  serious  pedagogical  errors. 

As  regards  the  fairy  stories,  it  is  found  that  they  are  best  known  by  children 
coming  from  kindergartens.  If  this  indicates  that  fairy  stories  are  made  a  subject 
for  instruction  in  kindergartens,  it  would  prove  a  pedagogical  error,  for,  in  our 
opinion,  the  kindergarten  age  is  too  early  an  age  for  fairy  stories.  But  if  such 
stories  are  introduced  there,  no  others  than  the  four  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  list 
should  be  used. 

The  relative  prevalence  among  children,  expressed  in  percentages,  of  the  four 
religious  points  of  knowledge  and  of  the  four  fairy  stories  under  consideration  is 
as  follows: 


Religious  ideas. 

Per  cent 
of  preva¬ 
lence. 

Fairy  stories. 

Per  cent 
of  preva¬ 
lence. 

God . . 

33 

Red  Riding  Hood . . . . 

34.7 

Christ . 

28.2 

Snow  white  . . . . 

29.7 

Prayers  and  hymns _ _ 

25.1 

Cinderella  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

26.6 

Biblical  stories. . . . . . 

13.7 

Sleeping  Beautv _ _ _ _ _ 

9 

* 

It  is  especially  noticeable  that  the  most  charming  of  all  natural  fairy  stories, 
namely,  Sleeping  Beauty  (the  reawakening  of  spring),  is  so  little  known,  particu¬ 
larly  since  it  is  the  simplest  of  all.  Has  the  comprehension  for  the  intimate  con¬ 
nection  of  popular  poetry  with  natural  phenomena  been  lost  among  the  people? 

H.  ACCOMPLISHMENTS  ACQUIRED  AT  HOME. 

Lastly,  we  may  see  the  result  of  the  inquiry  regarding  certain  accomplishments 
with  which  the  child  is  equipped  when  it  comes  to  school.  Those  about  which  the 
returns  give  information  are:  Correct  repetition  of  phrases  pronounced  by  the 
teacher,  recital  of  verses,  singing  of  a  song,  and  sounding  of  a  note  after  the 
teacher.  The  absolute  numbers  are  found  in  the  following  summary: 


Table  XII. — Number  of  children  that  have  certain  accomplishments. 


Accomplishments. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

coming 

from 

home. 

Children 

coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Children 

coming 

from 

creches. 

Children 
in  the 
aggre¬ 
gate. 

Repetition  of  phrases  _ _ _ 

1,093 

791 

620 

1  295 

104 

314 

1,713 

1,314 

1,134 

936 

Recital  of  verses _ _ _ _ 

523 

1,016 

861 

63 

235 

Singing  of  songs _ _ 

694 

440 

61 

212 

Sounding  a  note . . . 

535 

401 

691 

47 

198 

CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN. 


725 


Table  XII. — Number  of  children  that  have  certain  accomplishments — Continued. 
ALL  REDUCED  TO  A  BASIS  OF  10,000. 


Accomplishments. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Children 

coming 

from 

home. 

Children 

coming 

from 

kinder¬ 

garten. 

Children 

coming 

from 

creches. 

Children 
in  the 
aggre¬ 
gate. 

Repetition  of  phrases. . . 

Recital  of  verses . . 

Singing  of  songs . 

Sounding  a  note . 

8,868 

6,273 

5,504 

4,243 

6,364 

5,353 

4,504 

4,104 

7, 848 
6, 158 
5,218 
4,188 

6, 710 
4,065 
3,936 
3,032 

7,252 
5, 427 
4, 896 
4,573 

7. 654 
5, 871 
5,067 
4, 182 

This  table  also  offers  a  striking  and  unexpected  result.  Everyone  of  the  accom¬ 
plishments  is  found  more  frequently  among  boys  than  among  girls;  likewise  more 
frequently  among  children  coming  directly  from  the  family  than  among  those 
having  attended  kindergartens,  and  with  exception  of  singing  of  songs  than  among 
those  from  creches,  and  among  the  latter  more  frequently  in  every  case  than  among 
the  kindergarten  children. 

The  relative  abilities,  reduced  to  a  scale  of  100,  of  the  three  classes  of  children 
in  each  of  the  four  accomplishments  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  XIII. 


Ability  to— 

Children  coming  from — 

Repeat 

Recite 

Sing 

Repeat 

phrases. 

verses. 

songs. 

a  note. 

The  family . . . 

36 

37.1 

35.5 

39.3 

Creches . . . . . . . . . . . . 

33.2 

34.9 

38.8 

34.7 

Kindergartens . 

30.8 

28 

25.7 

26 

If  we  consider  that  the  children  attending  kindergartens  are  of  well-to-do 
parents,  while  those  attending  creches  belong  to  poor  families,  the  first  and  second 
columns  of  the  foregoing  table  would  show  that  poor  parents  occupy  their  time 
more  with  their  children,  and  the  very  poorest  probably  do  so  less  only  because  they 
lack  the  time.  As  to  singing,  the  difference  can  only  be  explained  by  assuming 
that  the  children  of  well-to-do  parents,  despite  their  attending  the  kindergarten, 
are  less  allowed  to  sing  at  home  than  those  of  poor  parents.  Hence  it  seems 
allowed  to  deduce  the  rule:  The  better  the  parents  are  situated  the  more  quiet 
must  the  child  remain  at  home  and  the  less  is  it  allowed  to  follow  its  instinct  of 
imitation.  That  the  ability  to  sing  is  in  most  cases  inborn  is  obvious  from  the 
large  number  of  children  coming  from  home  who  can  repeat  what  is  sung  to  them. 
On  an  average  the  accomplishments  of  children  (in  the  four  points  mentioned) 
reared  solely  in  the  bosom  of  the  family  appear  to  be  greater  than  those  who  have 
had  some  training  in  the  kindergartens,  as  has  already  been  remarked.  However,  it 
would  seem  hazardous  to  draw  definite  conclusions  from  this,  inasmuch  as  the 
number  of  children  coming  from  kindergartens  as  compared  with  the  sum  total 
examined  is  too  small  for  a  just  comparison. 

It  was  intended  to  summarize  the  returns  with  reference  to  the  various  wards 
of  the  city,  so  as  to  compare  certain  classes  of  society  with  others,  but  the  material 
on  hand  is  much  too  limited  for  the  purpose.  Hence  we  conclude  the  investiga¬ 
tion  here. 

I.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  RESEARCH 

The  first  thought  of  establishing  a  system  of  statistics  for  psychological  ques¬ 
tions  is  to  be  attributed  to  Sigismund,  who  as  early  as  1856  expressed  it  in  his 


726 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


“book,  Kind  und  Natur  (Braunschweig).  The  first  attempt  at  realizing  this 
thought,  namely,  to  exhibit  in  statistical  form  the  intellectual  life  of  children,  was 
made  in  the  teachers’  seminary  at  the  University  of  Jena.  The  main  purpose  of 
this  investigation  was  to  show  the  character  and  intensity  of  the  various  kinds  of 
interest  in  children,  to  wit,  empiric  and  speculative,  ethical  and  esthetic,  religious 
and  sympathetic  interest,  as  well  as  the  manner  of  reproduction  of  the  matter 
learned  with  reference  to  exactness  or  confusion,  completeness  or  omission,  rhythm 
and  degree  of  speed.  However,  a  publication  of  the  results  did  not  follow. 
Hence  it  may  be  said  that  this  attempt  in  Berlin  is  the  first  which  appears  before 
the  public  eye  with  tabulated  results. 

The  presupposition  upon  which  the  work  rests  is  quite  correct,  for  instruction 
and  training  can  be  successful  only  if  they  cohere  with  what  is  present  in  the  child’s 
mind.  Equally  true  is  the  assertion  that  the  teacher’s  method,  selection  and  use 
of  the  appliances  for  teaching  (text-books,  charts,  etc.),  essentially  depend  upon 
the  number  of  ideas  with  which  the  children  are  supplied.  According  to  what 
principles  the  Pedagogical  Society  selected  the  questions  (enumerated  in  the  fore¬ 
going  text)  is  not  stated,  nor  can  it  be  derived  from  the  questions  themselves.  It 
would  seem  to  the  writer  as  though  it  would  be  best  to  restrict  the  inquiry  to  the 
purely  psychological  field,  for  not  only  is  psychology  the  most  important  of  the 
allied  sciences  of  pedagogy,  and  statistical  investigations  like  the  present  will  give 
valuable  contributions  to  it,  but  such  restricted  attempts  will  also  result  in  obtain¬ 
ing  uniform  material,  since  the  inquiries  will  be  conducted  under  relatively  like 
conditions.  A  simple  example  will  show  this:  It  is  a  purely  psychological  question 
to  ask  what  children  had  seen  the  Alexanderplatz,  for  the  answer  to  that  is 
dependent  not  only  upon  the  children’s  intellectual  development  and  the  instruc¬ 
tive  activity  of  the  parents,  but  also  upon  the  location  of  the  children’s  homes. 
On  the  other  hand,  numbers,  forms,  and  relations  of  solids,  colors,  tones,  etc., 
domestic,  atmospheric,  astronomical,  etc.,  facts,  call  for  a  certain  skill  or  dexterity 
of  hand  or  brain,  exclusively  developed  at  home  and  not  subject  to  the  influence 
of  the  outer  world.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  restricting  any  such  inquiry  to  a 
purely  psychological  basis. 

Furthermore,  it  may  be  advised  to  restrict  the  number  of  queries  to  such  as  will 
permit  of  exact  replies.  For  this  purpose  small  groups  of  concepts  (as  numerical, 
geometrical,  meteorological,  geographical,  etc.),  will  serve  best,  and  they  should 
be  asked  year  after  year.  Also  concepts  may  be  chosen  at  times  which  may  be 
especially  difficult  or  very  easy  to  acquire  for  a  child  in  the  city  of  Berlin. 

If  according  to  the  nature  of  the  group  of  questions  6  to  12  questions  be  pro¬ 
posed,  they  could  all  be  answered  orally  and  the  replies  recorded  in  a  single  hour. 
For  if,  for  instance,  about  50  children  enter  a  school  as  new  pupils,  that  school 
must  have  about  10  teachers.  Distributing  for  examination  these  50  children 
among  all  the  teachers  of  the  school  would  give  5  children  to  each  teacher.  In  one 
hour  they  could  satisfactorily  establish  the  fact  whether  the  children  could  count  2, 
3, 4,  etc.,  or  whether  they  could  distinguish  such  terms  as  right  and  left,  forward  and 
backward,  up  and  down,  perpendicular  and  horizontal  or  slanting,  straight  and 
crooked,  angular  and  round,  etc.  This  mode  of  procedure  would  not  only  yield 
results  serviceable  for  the  instruction  in  class,  but  would  also  furnish  a  sound 
basis  for  secure,  scientific  deductions. 

With  regard  to  physiologic-psychological  questions,  we  refer  to  Sigismund’s 
book,  Kind  und  FTatur,  referred  to  above.  The  author  advises  to  investigate  the 
old  assertion  of  nurses  that  fleshy  and  physically  strong  children  take  longer  to 
develop  mentally  than  lean  and  physically  weak  children;  whether  girls  develop 
faster  than  boys;  what  influence  nourishment  or  the  seasons  of  the  year  have 
upon  their  mental  development;  to  what  degree  school  education  actually  pro¬ 
motes  mental  development,  and  how  the  power  of  using  language  is  developed. 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN.  727 

The  field  of  investigation  i3  endless,  in  view  of  the  inexhaustible  wealth  of  the 
human  mind. 

With  the  hope  that  the  teachers  of  Berlin  who  have  made  such  a  promising 
beginning  in  the  matter,  will  continue  their  investigations,  the  valuable  report 
closes. 

J.  SUPPLEMENT. 

The  third  attempt  to  investigate  the  minds  of  children  newly 
entering  school  was  made  in  1879  by  Dr.  K.  Lange,  school  principal 
in  Plauen,  Saxony,  author  of  the  well-known  monograph,  TJeber 
Apperception.  He  proposed  the  following  fourteen  questions : 

1.  Who  has  seen  the  sun  rise  and  set? 

2.  Who  has  seen  the  moon  and  the  stars? 

3.  Who  has  seen  a  lark  and  heard  it  sing? 

4.  Who  has  seen  a  fish  swimming  in  water? 

5.  Who  has  been  in  a  boat  on  the  pond? 

6.  Who  has  been  on  the  banks  of  a  brook  or  river? 

7.  Who  has  been  on  a  mountain? 

8.  Who  has  been  in  the  woods? 

9.  Who  knows  an  oak? 

10.  A  grain  field? 

11.  Who  knows  what  is  to  be  done  to  make  bread  of  grain? 

12.  Who  has  seen  a  shoemaker,  a  joiner,  a  mason  at  work? 

13.  Who  has  been  in  a  church? 

14.  Who  knows  anything  of  God? 

The  questions  were  submitted  to  500  elementary  pupils  of  the  town 
of  Plauen  and  to  over  300  children  in  rural  schools  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood.  Though  the  tabulated  summaries  of  these  inquiries  are  not 
available  to  the  present  writer,  it  is  known  that  the  published  state¬ 
ments  of  Dr.  Lange  contained  the  following  interesting  results :  The 
ideas  of  natural  objects  were  woefully  lacking  in  the  town  children. 
Hot  one-fourth  of  the  500  children  examined  had  seen  the  sun  set; 
only  one-half  of  their  number  had  been  at  a  pond  or  had  climbed  a 
hill  or  mountain.  It  is  especially  interesting  to  note  what  the  author 
says  concerning  the  difference  between  boys  and  girls.  “According 
to  the  tabulated  results,  the  girls  have,  at  their  entrance  into  school, 
throughout  fewer  ideas  of  the  environment  of  their  home  than  the 
boys.  They  have,  it  appears,  seen  less,  heard  less,  observed  less 
than  the  boys.  This  is  true  for  both  town  children  and  those  in 
rural  districts.  Only  in  one  point  did  the  girls  of  the  Plauen  school 
excel  the  boys:  They  knew  more  than  the  boys  of  God.” 

The  fourth  attempt  “en  masse”  to  examine  the  contents  of  chil¬ 
dren’s  minds  at  their  entrance  into  school  was  made  in  Annaberg, 
Saxony,  Germany,  in  1884.  It  was  much  more  searching  than  the 
attempt  at  Plauen,  and  was  organized  on  the  Berlin  plan.  Many  of 
the  Berlin  questions  were  used.  The  tabulated  results  are  given 
below.  What  makes  these  results  so  valuable  is  the  fact  that  they 


728 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901 


have  been  repeated  through  five  consecutive  years  (1880-1884) — that 
is  to  say,  the  sum  total  of  1,312  children  includes  the  new  pupils  of 
five  years.  Other  inquiries  have  since  been  made  in  Saxony  and 
other  States  of  Germany. 

The  introduction  of  Dr.  Berthold  Hartmann,  who  published  the 
results  of  the  Annaberg  investigation,  may  be  here  omitted,  but  his 
tables  are  full  of  unexpected  results. 

Table  XIY. — Results  of  the  inquiry  at  Annaberg,  Saxony. 


No. 

Ideas  or  objects  inquired  after. 

The  idea  or  object  was 
known  by— 

Statement  in  per 
cents. 

Of  660 
boys. 

Of  652 
girls.  | 

Of  1,312 
children. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

] 

126 

81 

207 

19 

12 

16 

o 

99 

69 

168 

15 

10 

13 

3 

Flock  of  sheep . . . - 

235 

198 

433 

36 

30 

33 

4 

85 

68 

153 

13 

10 

12 

5 

272 

250 

522 

41 

38 

40 

6 

Hen . . . 

195 

178 

373 

30 

27 

28 

7 

69 

88 

157 

10 

13 

12 

8 

76 

83 

159 

12 

13 

12 

9 

188 

126 

314 

29 

19 

24 

10 

Fish. . . . 

141 

122 

263 

21 

19 

20 

11 

Bee . 

75 

46 

121 

11 

7 

9 

12 

287 

362 

649 

44 

55 

49 

13 

210 

201 

411 

32 

31 

31 

14 

33 

10 

43 

5 

2 

3 

Pine  tree . 

145 

148 

293 

22 

23 

22 

16 

Maple  tree . . . . 

17 

11 

28 

3 

2 

2 

17 

Cherry  tree . . . . . 

83 

138 

221 

13 

21 

17 

18 

Apple  tree _ „ _ _ _ 

208 

219 

427 

31 

34 

33 

19 

Hazel  bush . 

78 

42 

120 

12 

6 

9 

20 

Wild  flowers . . . . 

322 

317 

639 

49 

49 

49 

21 

Huckleberries _ _ _ _ _ 

.  158 

193 

351 

24 

29 

27 

22 

Moss  . . . . . . 

130 

107 

237 

20 

16 

18 

23 

Toadstool . . . 

113 

165 

278 

17 

25 

21 

24 

Sandpit  . . . . . . 

58 

37 

95 

9 

6 

7 

25 

Stone  quarry . . . .  . 

121 

105 

226 

18 

16 

17 

26 

Mine  (coal)  . . . . . . 

41 

33 

74 

6 

5 

6 

27 

Thunderstorm . . 

363 

424 

787 

55 

65 

59 

28 

Fog _ _ _ _ 

186 

246 

432 

28 

38 

33 

29 

Clouds . . . . . . 

266 

293 

559 

40 

45 

42 

30 

Sleet . 

307 

315 

622 

46 

48 

47 

31 

Rainbow . . . - . 

226 

264 

490 

34 

40 

37 

32 

Evening  red . . . . 

119 

166 

285 

18 

25 

22 

33 

Sunset . . . . . . 

82 

77 

159 

12 

12 

12 

34 

Phases  of  the  moon  _ _ _ 

148 

223 

371 

22 

34 

28 

35 

Starry  sky . . . 

349 

466 

815 

53 

71 

62 

36 

Clock  dial1 . . . . 

27 

18 

45 

4 

3 

3 

37 

Days  of  the  week _ 

54 

92 

146 

8 

14 

11 

38 

Seasons  of  the  year . . 

37 

64 

101 

6 

10 

8 

39 

Cardinal  points . . . 

4 

1 

5 

1 

0 

1 

40 

Home  address . . . . 

543 

503 

1,046 

674 

82 

77 

80 

41 

Ziircher  Platz . . . 

346 

328 

52 

50 

51 

42 

Hauptmar  kt . . . . . . 

471 

452 

923 

71 

69 

70 

43 

Buchholzer  street . . . 

278 

281 

559 

42 

43 

43 

44 

High  school . . . . . 

133 

164 

297 

20 

25 

23 

45 

Bergchurch . 

210 

220 

430 

32 

34 

33 

46 

Catholic  Church . . . 

231 

237 

468 

35 

36 

36 

47 

City  hall . . . 

430 

403 

833 

65 

62 

63 

48 

Post-office . . . . . 

297 

344 

641 

45 

53 

49 

49 

Railroad  depot . . . 

418 

433 

851 

63 

66 

65 

50 

Bahl’s  restaurant . _ . 

167 

189 

356 

25 

29 

27 

51 

Botanical  garden _ _ _ 

163 

180 

343 

25 

27 

26 

52 

Markus-  Rohling . . . . . 

193 

267 

460 

29 

41 

35 

53 

Promenade . . . 

228 

292 

520 

35 

45 

40 

54 

drove _ _ _ _ _ _ 

172 

253 

425 

26 

39 

32 

55 

Cemetery . . . . . . 

394 

469 

863 

60 

72 

66 

56 

Pohlberg  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

217 

244 

461 

33 

37 

35 

57 

Galgenberg . . . . . 

89 

89 

178 

13 

13 

13 

58 

Schreckenberg  . . . . 

117 

112 

229 

18 

17 

17 

59 

Buchholz . . 

282 

329 

611 

43 

50 

47 

60 

Frohnau  . . . . 

164 

226 

390 

25 

35 

30 

61 

Wiesenbad  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

121 

159 

280 

18 

24 

21 

62 

Geyersdorf _ _ 

139 

200 

339 

21 

31 

26 

63 

Valley . 

51 

59 

110 

8 

9 

8 

64 

River _ _ _ _ _ 

150 

157 

307 

23 

24 

23 

65 

Bridge . 

282 

258 

540 

43 

39 

41 

1  Reading  the  hours. 


CHILD  STUDY  IN  BERLIN, 


729 


Table  XIY. — Results  of  the  inquiry  at  Annaberg ,  Saxony — Continued. 


No. 

Ideas  or  objects  inquired  after. 

The  idea  or  object  was 
known  by— 

Statement  in  per 
cents. 

Of  660 
boys. 

Of  652 
girls. 

Of  1,312 
children. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Aver¬ 

age. 

66 

Water  mill . . . 

152 

151 

303 

23 

23 

23 

67 

Pond . . 

434 

490 

924 

66 

75 

70 

68 

Meadow . . . 

250 

218 

468 

38 

33 

36 

69 

Grain  field . . . 

183 

111 

294 

28 

17 

22 

70 

Potato  field . . 

345 

358 

703 

52 

55 

54 

71 

Snow  landscape . . . 

289 

262 

551 

44 

40 

42 

72 

Village-.. . 

158 

175 

333 

24 

27 

25 

73 

Soldiers’  monument . 

180 

136 

316 

27 

21 

24 

74 

Fountain . . . . 

397 

394 

791 

60 

60 

60 

75 

Ride  in  carriage. . . . 

332 

362 

694 

50 

55 

53 

78 

Ride  on  railroad . 

300 

346 

646 

45 

53 

49 

77 

Work  in  the  field . 

250 

181 

431 

38 

28 

33 

78 

Work  in  the  garden . 

213 

211 

424 

32 

32 

32 

79 

Triangle . 

62 

66 

128 

9 

10 

10 

80 

Square . 

101 

90 

191 

15 

14 

15 

81 

Cube . 

214 

293 

407 

32 

45 

39 

82 

Circle . . . 

280 

284 

564 

42 

43 

43 

83 

Sphere . 

546 

510 

1,056 

83 

78 

80 

84 

Counting  to  10 . 

456 

405 

861 

69 

62 

66 

85 

God . 

370 

401 

771 

56 

61 

59 

86 

Christ . 

68 

142 

210 

10 

22 

16 

87 

Biblical  stories . . . 

7 

14 

21 

1 

2 

2 

88 

Prayers  and  hymns. . . . 

122 

184 

306 

18 

28 

23 

89 

Church  service . . . 

192 

223 

415 

29 

34 

32 

90 

Baptism . . 

118 

228 

346 

18 

35 

26 

91 

Wedding . . . 

70 

227 

297 

11 

35 

23 

92 

Name  and  occupation  of  father . 

425 

370 

795 

64 

57 

61 

93 

King . 

52 

42 

94 

8 

6 

7 

94 

Coins . . . 

450 

398 

848 

68 

61 

65 

95 

Disease . 

356 

406 

762 

54 

62 

58 

96 

Fairy  stories . 

32 

39 

71 

5 

6 

5 

97 

Repeating  words . 

480 

426 

906 

73 

65 

69 

98 

Reciting  verses . . . 

68 

62 

130 

10 

9 

10 

99 

Repeating  tones . . . . 

226 

243 

469 

34 

37 

36 

100 

Singing  songs . 

102 

161 

263 

15 

25 

20 

CHAPTER  XVI. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 

By  Kelly  Miller, 

Professor  of  Mathematics ,  Howard  University.  ' 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE. 

PART  L— THE  ECONOMIC  BASIS  OF  NEGRO  EDUCATION. 

I.  The  Educational  Significance  of  the  Growth  and  Tendency  of  the  Negro 

Population. 

The  growth  and  spread  of  the  negro  population  in  the  United  States.  The  bulk  remains  in 
the  South.  Localization  of  national  problem  calls  for  national  aid.  Slight  tendency  toward 
North  and  West.  Mixed  schools  in  North  and  West.  Dwindling  of  race  in  border  States. 
Social  isolation  the  cause.  Difficulty  of  maintaining  adequate  separate  school  system  for  sparse 
negro  element  in  border  States.  Decline  of  negro  population  in  Kentucky.  Black  belts  of  the 
South.  Area  in  which  negroes  are  more  than  twice  as  numerous  as  whites.  Area  and  relative 
density  of  region  in  which  negroes  are  in  the  majority.  Causes  tending  to  perpetuate  black 
belts.  The  social  and  educational  problems  of  black  belts. 

II.  Early  Struggle  for  Education,  Personal  Risk,  and  Economic  Sacrifice. 

The  negro’s  desire  to  taste  of  the  forbidden  tree  of  knowledge.  How  Frederick 'Douglass 
learned  to  read  and  write.  The  experience  of  John  M.  Langston.  Regulations  in  the  several 
Southern  States  against  the  instruction  of  the  negro.  Negro  schools  in  the  large  cities.  The 
colored  schools  of  Washington,  D.  C.  Kind-hearted  slave  owners  who  taught  their  slaves  to 
read.  Negroes  attending  school  in  slave  States,  1850  and  1860.  The  establishment  of  negro 
schools  by  Freedmen’s  Bureau  and  other  agencies.  The  negro  ever  eager  and  anxious  to  learn. 

III.  Separate  School  Provisions. 

Establishment  of  public  schools  by  reconstruction  governments.  Laws  and  regulations  of 
the  several  States  establishing  separate  schools  for  the  two  races.  Density  of  population  of 
white  and  colored  elements.  The  effect  of  division  of  school  fund  where  population  is  sparse. 
Equal  provision  for  both  races.  Total  and  per  capita  cost  of  education  of  the  two  races.  Sources 
of  public-school  funds.  The  extent  to  which  negroes  pay  for  their  own  schooling.  General 
educational  statistics  showing  school  population,  enrollment,  number  of  teachers,  average  salary, 
and  length  of  school  term  for  the  two  races. 

IV.  Negro  Owners  and  Tenants  of  Farms  and  Homes. 

Negroes  who  own  and  hire  their  own  homes  and  farms,  and  negro  property  owners  in  Georgia, 
North  Carolina,  and  Virginia.  Unsupported  assertions  as  to  support  of  negro  schools.  The 
Democratic  purpose  of  public  schools.  White  and  negro  population  in  slave  States.  Number  of 
negroes  who  own  and  hire  their  homes  and  farms.  Renters  are  bona  fide  taxpayers.  Negro 
property  holders  in  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia.  Ownership  of  corporate  enterprises. 

V.  Occupations  of  Negroes. 

The  negro  as  a  contributing  factor  to  the  industrial  life  of  the  South.  Persons  engaged  in 
gainful  pursuits.  Occupations  of  white  and  negro  women.  Negro  agricultural  laborers,  farmers, 
planters,  and  overseers.  Negro  laborers  acquiring  self- direction.  Negro  employed  mainly  in 
agriculture  and  domestic  service.  Few  employed  in  the  trades  or  in  the  arts.  Domestic  service 
the  chief  employment  in  the  border  States.  Education  should  be  directed  to  industrial  condi¬ 
tions.  Persons  employed  during  portion  of  the  year.  The  negro  the  most  important  industrial 
factor  in  the  South.  His  labor  the  basis  of  production  and  accumulated  property. 


731 


782  EDUCATION  KEPOET,  1900-1901. 

VI.  Special  Studies  of  the  Economic  Condition  of  the  Negro. 

The  importance  of  the  studies  undertaken  by  the  Labor  Bureau.  The  negroes  of  Sandy 
Springs,  Md.  The  negroes  of  Farm ville,  Va.  Negroes  in  the  black  belt  (six  groups).  The  city 
negro.  Economic  lesson  derived  from  these  special  studies.  Negro  spends  and  is  spent  for  the 
good  of  the  several  communities  in  which  he  resides.  He  is  everywhere  a  contributing  factor. 

VII.  The  Education  of  the  City  Negro. 

The  relative  status  of  the  urban  and  rustic  negro.  City  and  country  school  provisions  in  the 
South.  Negro  city  schools  fairly  well  equipped.  The  practical  aim  of  education  not  fulfilled. 
The  adaptation  of  school  program  to  the  needs  of  the  negro  race.  Special  features  of  negro 
schools.  The  importance  of  kindergarten  training.  The  large  function  of  negro  education. 
Negro  teachers  nn^t  awaken  moral  enthusiasm.  The  necessity  for  training  in  concrete  things. 
The  need  of  practical  j  udgment.  Baleful  effect  of  smattering.  Industrial  training.  The  city 
negro  a  servant  and  bodily  laborer.  The  predominance  of  the  female  element  influences  city 
schools.  The  negro  should  be  taught  concerning  himself  and  the  condition  of  his  race.  The 
city  schools  are  centers  of  light  for  the  entire  race. 

PART  II.-THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 

I.  The  Intellectual  Capacity  of  the  Negro. 

The  negro  regarded  as  an  inferior  order  of  creation.  Higher  susceptibilities  denied,  since 
they  were  not  needed.  Ill  usage  and  proscription  based  upon  innate  inferiority.  Intellectual 
manifestation  the  highest  measure  of  the  man  and  the  race.  The  negro  able  to  master  Euro¬ 
pean  courses  of  study.  Relative  capacity  of  the  races.  Arguments  and  testimony  to  uphold 
negro’s  claim.  Why  the  negro  has  not  produced  great  names  in  the  intellectual  arena.  Charge 
of  Thomas  Nelson  Page.  Plea  of  Thomas  Jefferson.  Intellectual  glory  depends  upon  social  and 
political  status.  Distribution  of  ability  in  America.  The  intellectual  position  of  women  analo¬ 
gous  to  that  of  the  negro.  The  negro  has  shown  surprising  intellectual  exuberance. 

II.  The  Need  of  the  Higher  Education. 

Knowledge  is  its  own  reward.  The  negro  must  connect  with  civilization  in  its  best  form  and 
at  its  highest  point.  Education  must  assist  evolution.  Choice  youth  must  assimilate  culture 
and  hand  it  down  to  the  masses  below.  Contact  with  superior  race  can  not  produce  civilization. 
Education  will  foster  self-reliant  activity  and  teach  the  impersonal  quality  of  knowledge  and 
virtue.  The  negro  has  to  compete  with  white  youth  and  needs  the  same  helpful  influence  to 
prepare  him  for  his  work.  The  higher  education  necessary  to  produce  leadership.  The  evil  of 
poorly  equipped  leaders.  Historical  example  of  race  development.  Backward  races  perish  for 
want  of  competent  leadership.  The  culture  influence  of  the  ancient  languages.  Higher  educa¬ 
tion  discriminates  between  the  real  and  the  apparent.  It  gives  a  larger  tolerance  for  existing 
conditions.  It  fosters  and  stimulates  industrial  activities. 

Ill  Objections  to  the  Higher  Education  of  the  Negro  Answered. 

The  money  spent  on  higher  education  has  been  wasted.  Education  has  not  eradicated  the 
negro’s  evil  and  criminal  disposition.  Higher  education  lifts  the  negro  above  the  needs  of  his 
people.  The  negro  is  leaving  the  farm  and  shop  for  the  college  and  the  university.  Education 
has  not  solved  the  race  question. 

IV.  The  Relative  Claims  of  Industrial  and  Higher  Education. 

The  two  phases  of  education  not  antagonistic,  but  supplementary.  The  white  people  believe 
that  the  negro’s  place  is  to  work.  Philanthropist’s  interest  in  helping  the  most  needy.  The 
negro’s  view  of  the  question.  It  would  be  useless  to  equip  large  numbers  of  colored  men  with 
trades  in  the  cities.  The  white  laborer  will  neither  compete  nor  combine  on  equal  terms.  The 
value  of  industrial  schools.  The  educational  impulse  proceeds  from  above.  Life  is  more  than 
meat.  Agricultural  and  domestic  education.  The  need  of  knowledge  to  direct. 

V.  The  Higher  Education  of  Colored  Women. 

The  weaker  element  of  the  weaker  race.  The  attitude  toward  the  higher  culture  of  women 
in  general.  Analogy  between  the  cause  of  women  and  that  of  the  negro.  The  lowly  status  of 
colored  women.  The  power  of  education  to  reach  and  to  uplift  her.  Home  life  the  base  of  the 
real  advancement  of  the  race.  The  education  of  the  colored  women  should  be  mainly  industrial 
and  domestic.  Room  for  the  ambitious  few.  Number  of  colored  women  who  have  graduated 
from  Northern  and  Southern  colleges.  Examples  of  successful  college-bred  colored  women. 
Their  work  in  the  future. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


733 


VI.  The  Origin  of  the  Negro  College. 

The  educational  status  of  the  negro  before  the  war.  Toleration  in  Northern  colleges.  Ober- 
lin  College  invites  negro  students.  Intellectual  darkness  at  the  close  of  the  war.  The  North¬ 
ern  missionaries  came  as  angels  of  mercy.  The  educational  work  of  Freedmen’s  Bureau.  Rise 
of  denominational  educational  movements.  The  reconstruction  government.  The  State  col¬ 
lege.  Date  of  founding  of  negro  colleges. 

VII.  Work,  Ways,  and  Future  of  Negro  Colleges. 

The  old  and  the  new  function  of  the  negro  college.  Rivalry  between  public  and  private 
schools.  Negro  universities  largely  secondary  and  primary  schools.  A  college  should  measure 
up  to  standard.  Requirements  of  admission  and  curricula  of  negro  colleges.  Relative  influence 
of  white  and  colored  teachers.  State  schools  under  control  of  colored  men.  Small  productive 
resources.  Colleges  are  too  numerous.  Extravagant  abuse  of  literary  degrees.  Occupations 
of  graduates  of  negro  colleges.  Their  religious  and  philanthropic  activity.  Leaders  in  the 
learned  professions.  Captains  of  industry.  The  future  of  the  negro  college.  What  they  have 
done  and  what  they  are  calculated  to  do.  Sensible  modification  and  adaptations  needed. 

VIII.  The  Negro  in  Northern  Colleges. 

The  benefits  and  disadvantages  of  mixed  schools.  What  makes  an  institution  great.  The 
existence  of  negro  colleges  does  not  estop  colored  students  from  attending  Northern  institu¬ 
tions.  The  negro  college  gives  the  negro  racial  enthusiasm.  It  develops  negro  scholarship 
by  giving  negroes  a  chance  to  develop  beyond  graduation.  It  does  not  put  a  damper  upon  his 
self-respect.  Northern  colleges  do  not  contemplate  the  needs  of  the  negro  race.  Northern 
institutions  can  not  be  relied  on  to  take  a  considerable  number  of  colored  students.  Negro 
colleges  do  not  perpetuate  prejudice.  Negro  graduates  of  Northern  colleges. 

IX.  Colored  Men  in  the  Professions. 

The  element  of  society  from  which  professional  men  usually  come.  The  rise  of  the  colored 
clergy.  The  negro  teacher.  The  negro  lawyer  and  physician.  Early  negro  practitioners. 
Statistics  of  professional  occupations. 

X.  Negroes  who  have  Achieved  Distinction  along  Lines  Calling  for  Definite 

Intellectual  Activity. 

The  individual  the  proof  of  the  race.  The  African  in  contact  with  the  European  has  pro¬ 
duced  distinguished  names.  Sources  of  information.  Phillis  Wheatley,  Benjamin  Banneker, 
H.  O.  Tanner,  Paul  L.  Dunbar,  and  others. 


PART  I.— THE  ECONOMIC  BASIS  OF  NEGRO  EDUCATION. 

I.  The  Educational  Significance  of  the  Growth  and  Tendency  of  the 
Negro  Population  in  the  United  States. 

Population  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  human  problems.  All  progress,  development, 
and  civilization  are  merely  emergencies  from  man  in  the  mass.  A  persistent  group 
of  people,  however  lowly  its  present  state  may  be,  contains  all  the  potential  pos¬ 
sibilities  of  the  human  race.  The  development  and  expansion  of  population,  there¬ 
fore,  afford  the  surest  measure  of  advancement. 

The  one  striking  feature  about  the  American  negro  is  his  physical  persistence 
and  expansion.  The  half  million  Africans  who  were  imported  into  this  country 
from  their  native  land  have  so  multiplied  and  ramified  as  to  complicate  every  factor 
in  the  equation  of  American  life.  The  negro  element  in  the  United  States  to-day 
exceeds  the  entire  population  of  ninety  years  ago.  The  negro  is  found  in  every 
State  and  Territory,  in  almost  every  town  and  hamlet,  ranging  in  relative  density 
from  fifteen  to  one  in  the  black  counties  of  the  South  to  less  than  one  in  a  hundred 
in  the  higher  latitudes.  This  widespread  distribution  among  the  white  population 
gives  an  African  flavor  to  local  and  national  problems.  No  question  can  be  con¬ 
sidered  on  its  merits  apart  from  its  bearing  upon  the  black  man  and  brother. 
Religious,  political,  industrial,  and  educational  problems  all  take  on  racial  color 
and  tinge. 


784 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Of  all  uplifting  agencies  one  would  say  that  education  is  the  common  lever,  and 
applies  alike  to  all  without  regard  to  ethnic  considerations.  And  yet  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  negro  constitutes  as  urgent  a  special  problem  as  any  that  confronts  the 
American  people  for  solution.  A  study,  then,  of  the  distribution  of  the  negro  ele¬ 
ment  among  the  general  mass  of  the  population  is  essential  to  a  clear  understand¬ 
ing  of  the  educational  needs  of  the  situation.  It  is  only  by  this  knowledge  that 
we  can  locate  the  area  where  the  need  is  greatest  and  where  the  call  for  agencies 
of  enlightenment  is  loudest.  A  localized  knowledge  of  the  negro  peoples  will  also 
enable  the  educator  to  adapt  plans  and  methods  to  the  requirements  of  a  variant 
situation.  No  greater  mistake  can  possibly  be  made  than  to  suppose  that  the  entire 
negro  race  requires  one  fixed  and  inflexible  programme  of  treatment,  with  no  varia¬ 
tion  to  meet  local  and  special  conditions.  A  race  of  9,000,000  souls,  scattered  over 
so  wide  a  geographical  area  and  endowed  with  divergent  aptitudes  and  capacities, 
encompasses  the  entire  circle  of  human  needs. 

There  are  four  phases  of  the  negro  population  which  entail  important  educa¬ 
tional  consequences. 

(1)  The  movement  toward  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  where  there  are  no 
separate  schools,  places  a  portion  of  the  race  on  the  same  educational  footing  with 
children  of  European  descent.  A  broad  distinction,  therefore,  must  be  made 
between  the  States  which  divide  the  schools  on  racial  lines  and  those  which  do  not. 
Owing  to  the  relative  density  of  the  negro  population  in  the  two  sections,  the  scho¬ 
lastic  separation  of  the  races  follows  quite  closely  the  line  of  cleavage  between  the 
slave  and  free  States.  The  half  million  negroes  in  the  Northern  States  constitute 
no  special  educational  problem. 

(2)  The  tendency  of  population  to  drift  into  cities  presents  important  educa¬ 
tional  suggestions.  This  tendency  is  no  doubt  due,  in  part,  to  the  better  school 
facilities  which  the  cities  afford.  The  million  negroes  in  the  large  centers  have 
fairly  adequate  and  ample  educational  facilities.  The  South  is  too  poor  to  pro¬ 
vide  adequate  schools  for  the  population  sparsely  scattered  over  the  rural  area, 
and  especially  so  under  the  policy  of  separate  instruction  for  the  two  races.  But 
in  the  cities,  where  the  population  is  dense  and  where  the  wealth  is  amassed,  the 
conditions  are  much  more  favorable.  Nor  does  the  duplication  of  schools  work 
such  an  economic  hardship;  for  where  there  are  sufficient  numbers  of  both  races 
to  maintain  the  schools  with  a  full  complement  of  pupils  there  is  little  waste  in  the 
dual  system.  The  education  of  the  city  negro  will  be  treated  in  a  separate  chapter. 

(3)  The  thinning  out  of  the  African  element  in  the  border  States,  where  separate 
schools  exist  for  the  two  races,  must  eventually  raise  the  question  of  the  feasi¬ 
bility  of  maintaining  an  independent  system  of  schools  for  so  sparse  a  population. 
In  the  State  of  Missouri  150,000  negroes  scattered  throughout  the  State  would 
demand  in  equity  almost  as  many  schools  as  18  times  as  many  whites,  and  on  a 
corresponding  scale  of  cost.  Oftentimes  there  are  not  enough  negroes  in  a  whole 
county  to  supply  children  for  a  single  school,  and  yet  these  few  children  may  be 
scattered  over  four  or  five  hundred  square  miles.  This  is  merely  suggestive  of  the 
special  educational  problem  of  the  border  States. 

(4)  The  segregative  tendency  of  the  negro  population  to  lodge  itself  in  certain 
sections  of  the  Southern  States  localizes  what  might  otherwise  be  a  national  prob¬ 
lem.  If  this  black  mass  were  equably  diffused  throughout  the  country,  the 
problem,  in  its  educational  aspect  at  least,  would  lose  in  intensity  what  was 
gained  in  extension.  But  the  stubborn  tendency  of  this  mass  to  settle  into  knots 
and  ganglia  where  the  institution  of  slavery  planted  it  most  thickly  emphasizes 
the  pressing  need  of  special  remedial  agencies.  The  condition  of  the  negro  in 
these  congested  localities  and  the  utter  inadequacy  of  local  provision  call  more 
loudly  than  anything  else  for  national  aid  to  popular  education. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO. 


735 


A  detailed  study  of  the  negro  population  will  bring  these  problems  more  clearly 


to  light: 


Negro  population  of  the  United  States. 


Year. 

Colored 

popula¬ 

tion. 

Decennial 

increase. 

Increase, 
per  cent. 

Per  cent 
of  total 
popula¬ 
tion. 

1790  . 

752,208 

1,002,037 

1.377.808 
1, 771, 656 
2, 328, 642 
2,873,648 

3.638.808 
4, 441, 830 
5,391,000 
6,580,793 

19  27 

1800  . 

244, 829 
375, 771 
393,848 
556, 986 
545, 006 

765. 169 
803,022 

949. 170 
1, 189, 793 

889,247 

32.33 

18.88 

19.03 

1810  . - . 

37.50 

1820  . 

28.50 

18.  39 

1830  . . . - . 

31.44 

18.10 

1840  . . . - . 

23.44 

16. 84 

1850  . 

26.63 

15.  69 

I860  . 

22.07 

14. 13 

1870 1  . . . 

21.37 

13.84 

1880  . . 

22. 07 

13. 12 

1890  . 

7,470,040 
8, 840, 789 

13. 51 

11.93 

1900  . 

1,570,749 

18.35 

11.57 

1  Estimated  by  Gen.  Francis  A.  Walker. 


If  we  begin  with  1810,  the  first  census  year  after  the  constitutional  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade,  we  see  that  the  growth  of  the  negro  element  followed  the  ordinary 
laws  of  population,  viz,  a  gradual  decline  in  the  rate  of  increase.  In  1810  there 
were  1,877,808  negroes  in  the  United  States.  In  eighty  years  this  number  had 
swollen  to  7,470,040.  It  more  than  quintupled  itself  in  eight  decades.  The  relative 
decline  of  the  African  element  as  a  factor  of  the  general  population  is  due  to  the 
influx  of  foreign  white  immigration.  Seven  hundred  thousand  negro  females  in 
eighty  years  produced  a  progeny  of  7,000,000.  The  African  is  without  question 
the  most  prolific  element  in  America.  The  race  will  not  only  persist  as  a  physical 
factor  of  the  American  people,  but  its  natural  increase  will  be  sufficient  to  per¬ 
petuate  the  race  problem  in  unabated  force.  This  fact  suggests  the  wisdom  of 
immediate  action,  in  so  far  as  the  problem  will  yield  to  ascertained  methods  of 
treatment.  To  delay  is  not  only  dangerous,  but  is  expensive  as  well.  While  it  is 
conceded  on  all  hands  that  the  negro  has  made  wonderful  strides  in  education,  yet 
there  are  probably  more  illiterate  negroes  in  the  United  States  to-day  than  there 
were  in  1860.  The  additive  difficulties  keep  fully  abreast  of  the  agencies  of  relief. 
If  national  aid  to  education  had  been  extended  ten  years  ago  there  is  no  doubt  that 
some  of  the  phases  of  the  race  problem  would  have  been  much  nearer  solution  than 
they  are  to-day.  Procrastination  to-day  will  only  add  new  complications  for 
to-morrow.1 


Negro  population  of  the  United  States,  by  slave  and  free  States. 


State. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1860. 

1850. 

Alabama. . . . 

678,489 

600,103 

475, 510 

437, 770 

345, 109 

Arkansas . . . . 

309, 117 

210, 666 

122, 169 

111, 259 

47,  708 

Delaware  . . . 

28, 386 

26,442 

22,  794 

21, 627 

20, 363 

District  of  Columbia. . 

75, 572 

59, 596 

43, 404 

14, 316 

13,  746 

Florida  . . . . 

166, 180 

126, 690 

91,  689 

62, 677 

40, 242 

Georgia  . 

858, 815 

725, 133 

545, 142 

465, 698 

384, 613 

Kentucky . . 

268, 071 

271, 451 

222, 210 

236, 167 

220,  992 

Louisiana . .. . 

559, 193 

483, 655 

364, 210 

350, 373 

262, 271 

Maryland. . 

215, 657 

210, 230 

175, 391 

171, 131 

165, 091 

Missouri . 

150, 184 

145, 350 

118, 071 

118, 503 

90,  040 

Mississippi  . . . . 

742, 559 

656, 291 

444, 201 

437, 404 

310, 808 

North  Carolina . 

561, 018 

531,277 

391, 650 

361,522 

316,  011 

1Race  Traits  and  Tendencies  of  the  American  Negro,  by  Frederick  L.  Hoffman,  which  was 
published  in  1896,  predicted  the  rapid  decline  of  the  American  negro  through  the  operation  of 
inherent  degenerative  agencies.  This  work  at  the  time  attracted  wide  attention.  The  Twelfth 


Census  has  progressed  far  enough  to  show  the  utter  erroneousness  of  Mr.  Hoffman's  conclusions. 
For  answer  to  Mr.  Hoffman’s  argument  see  Occasional  Papers  No.  1,  American  Negro  Academy. 


736  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Negro  population  of  the  United  States,  by  slave  and  free  Stales — Continued1. 


State. 


1890. 


1880. 


1870. 


1860. 


1850. 


South  Carolina 

Tennessee . 

Texas . . 

Virginia . 

West  Virginia. 


688, 934 
430, 678 
488, 171 
635,438 
32,690 


604,332 
403, 151 
393, 384 
631,616 
25,886 


415,814 
322,331 
253, 475 
512, 841 
17, 980 


412,320 
283, 019 
182, 921 
548, 907 


393,944 
245, 881 
58, 558 
526, 861 


Slave  States 


6,889,152 


6, 104,253 


4,538,882 


4,215,614 


3,432,238 


Maine  . 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont _ 

Massachusetts  .. 
Rhode  Island 

Connecticut _ 

New  York _ 

New  Jersey - 

Pennsylvania _ 


1,190 
614 
937 
22, 144 
7,393 
12,302 
70, 092 
47,638 
107,598 


1,451 
685 
1.057 
18,697 
6,488 
11,547 
65, 104 
38,853 
85, 535 


1,606 
580 
924 
13,947 
4, 980 
9,668 
52, 081 
30, 658 
65,294 


1,327 
494 
709 
9, 602 
3,952 
8,627 
49, 005 
25,336 
56, 949 


1,356 
520 
718 
9,064 
3,670 
7,693 
49, 089 
24, 046 
53,626 


North  Atlantic  division 


269,906 


229,417 


179, 738 


156, 001 


149, 762 


Ohio . 

Indiana . 

Illinois  . 

Michigan _ 

Wisconsin  .... 
Minnesota .... 

Iowa . 

Missouri 1 . 

North  Dakota 
South  Dakota 
Nebraska  .... 
Kansas . 


87,113 
45,215 
57,028 
15,223 
2, 444 
3,683 
10, 685 
150, 184 
373 
541 
8,913 
49, 710 


79, 900 
39, 228 
46,368 
15,100 
2,702 
1,564 
9,516 
145, 350 
401 


2,385 

43,107 


63,213 
24, 560 

28, 762 
11, 849 
2,113 
759 

5,762 
118,071 
94 


789 
17, 108 


38, 673 
11,428 
7,628 
6, 799 
1,171 
259 
1,089 
118, 503 


82 

627 


25,279 
11,262 
5,438 
2, 583 
635 
39 
333 
90,040 


North  Central  Division 

Montana . . 

Wyoming . 

Colorado . . 

New  Mexico . 

Arizona . 

Utah . 

Nevada . 

Idaho  . 

Washington . 

Oregon . 

California . . . 


280,928 

1,490 

922 


240,271 


346 

298 


6,215 

2,435 

1,956 

1,015 

1,357 

155 

588 

232 

242 

488 

201 

53 

1,602 

325 

1,186 

487 

11,322 

6,018 

155,009 


183 

183 

456 

172 

26 

118 

357 

60 

207 

346 

4,272 


65,736  45,567 


46 

85 

22 

59 

45 

50 

30  _ _ 

128  207 

4,086  . 


Western  division. 

Total  free  States . 
Slave  States . 


27,081 


580, 888 
6,889, 152 


11, 852 


6,380 


476,540  341,127 

6,104,253  4,538,882 


4,479 


226,216 

4,215,614 


1,240 


196, 570 
3,432,238 


United  States 


7,470,040 


6,580, 793 


4,880,009 


4, 441,830 


3,628,808 


1  Included  in  slave  States. 

This  table  shows  that  the  tendency  of  the  race  is  to  settle  in  the  Southern  States. 
Notwithstanding  considerable  waves  of  immigration  toward  the  North,  92  per 
cent  of  the  race  is  still  found  in  the  South.  Nor  is  there  the  slightest  intimation 
that  the  mass  center  of  the  race  will  be  disturbed  by  the  northward  movement. 
The  dust  may  fly,  but  the  solid  earth  will  remain.  Notwithstanding  the  influx  of 
negroes  toward  the  liberal  States  since  emancipation,  the  increment  in  the  free 
States  from  1860  to  1890  had  scarcely  more  than  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the 
general  negro  population.  All  rivers  run  into  the  sea,  and  yet  the  sea  is  not  full. 
This  suggests  the  inability  of  the  colored  race  to  maintain  itself  in  a  higher  lati¬ 
tude.  But  whether  this  inability  is  due  to  the  rigidity  of  the  climate  or  the  fri¬ 
gidity  of  the  social  atmosphere  is  not  apparent.  The  essential  fact,  however, 
remains.  The  Northern  States  are  not  likely  to  receive  the  negroes  in  such  num¬ 
bers  as  to  relieve  the  South  of  its  congested  condition.  It  is  often  suggested  as 
remarkable  that  the  negro  does  not  rush  to  the  freer  conditions  of  the  North  as  a 
gas  from  a  denser  to  a  rarer  medium.  There  civil  and  political  rights  are  guaran- 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


737 


teed,  and  educational  privileges  are  ample  and  free  alike  to  all.  Why  a  people 
should  prefer  to  remain  in  a  region  of  repression,  where  their  children  must  per¬ 
force  he  brought  up  without  ample  educational  equipment,  when  they  might 
remove  many  of  these  disabilities  by  crossing  an  imaginary  line,  might  seem  to  be 
a  great  sociological  mystery.  But  there  are  other  deterrent  causes  that  hinder. 
The  negro  is  essentially  a  conservative  race.  It  would  rather  bear  the  ills  it  has 
than  fly  to  those  it  knows  not  of.  The  industrial  proscription  of  the  North  is 
scarcely  less  depressing  than  the  political  suppression  in  the  South.  In  the  New 
England  States,  where  the  sentiment  toward  the  negro  is  freest,  there  is  evinced 
the  least  tendency  to  immigration.  In  all  New  England  there  are  fewer  negroes 
than  can  be  found  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  The  increase  of  the  negro  element 
in  the  North  Atlantic  States  from  1860  to  1890  was  73  per  cent,  or  only  3  per  cent 
above  the  general  growth.  The  movement  toward  the  West  has  been  more  gen¬ 
eral,  but  even  this  has  not  been  marked  enough  to  indicate  a  shifting  of  the  base 
of  population.  A  glance  at  the  table  showing  the  growth  of  the  negro  population 
by  geographical  divisions  is  sufficient  to  enforce  the  truth  of  this  statement. 

Negro  population  of  the  United  States  by  geographical  divisions . 


1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1860. 

Increase 
from  1860 
to  1890. 

United  States _ _ _ 

7,470,040 

6,580, 793 

4,880,009 

1,441,830 

3, 028, 210 

Slave  States  . . . . . . 

6,889,152 

6,104,253 

4,538,882 

4,215,614 

2,673,538* 

North  Atlantic  States . . 

269,906 

280,928 

30,054 

229,417 

240,270 

11,852 

179,738 

155,009 

6,380 

156,001 
65, 736 
4,479 

113,905 
215, 192 
25,575 

North  Central  Division  1  . . . . 

Western  Division  . . 

Total  in  free  States . . 

580,888 

1 

476,540 

341,127 

226,216 

354,672 

1  Missouri  is  taken  out  of  the  column  of  the  North  Central  States  and  placed  with  the  slave 
States. 


The  above  table  shows  that  the  increment  in  all  the  free  States  for  the  three- 
decades  from  1860  to  1890  was  only  354,672,  against  2,673,538  in  the  slave  States. 
The  entire  negro  population  in  the  free  States  has  remained  constantly  less  than 
the  colored  element  in  the  State  of  Alabama. 


Negroes  in- 
Alabama  ... 
Free  States 


1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

1860. 

678,489 

600, 103 

475,510 

437, 770 

580, 888 

476, 540 

341,127 

226,216 

There  is  no  mistaking  the  tendency  of  the  bulk  of  the  negro  population  to 
remain  in  the  Southern  States.  The  fascinating  attractions  of  the  North  allure 
them  not.  The  educational  as  well  as  the  general  sociological  problems  growing" 
out  of  the  presence  of  the  negro  must  be  worked  out  in  the  South,  where  the  black 
man  is  destined  to  abide.  As  the  localization  of  a  national  problem  places  too 
great  burden  on  the  afflicted  States,  the  General  Government  should  lend  a  hand 
toward  wiping  out  the  national  reproach. 


ED  1901- 


47 


738  EDUCATIONS'  BEPOET,  1900-1901. 


Negro  population  in  border  States. 


States. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

Increase 
from  1860 
to  1890. 

Delaware _ _ _ ... . . . . . 

21,627 
236,167 
171, 131 
118,503 
283,019 
548,907 

22, 794 
222, 210 
175,391 
118,071 
322,331 
514, 841 
17, 980 

26,442 
271,451 
210,230 
145,350 
403, 151 
631,616 
25, 886 

28, 386 
268,071 
215,657 
150, 184 
430,678 
635,438 
32,690 

6, 759 
31,901 
44, 526 
31,681 
147, 659 
86,531 
14, 710 

Kentucky . . . . . . . 

Maryland _ _ _ _ _ _  _ 

Missouri _ _ _ _ _ 

Tennessee _ _ _ _ 

Virginia . . . _ . 

W  est  V ir  ginia . . . - . 

Total . 

1,379,354 

1,391,618 

1, 714, 126 

1, 761, 104 

363, 770 

The  table  shows  that  throughout  all  this  region  the  race  increase  in  thirty 
years  was  only  363,770,  or  26  per  cent,  while  the  negro  population  at  large 
increased  during  the  same  period  70  per  cent.  This  slight  apparent  increment  is 
due  almost  wholly  to  the  growth  of  the  city  element.  The  rural  negro  in  this  sec¬ 
tion  is  growing  scarcer  and  scarcer.  If  we  could  separate  portions  of  West  Ten¬ 
nessee,  southeast  Virginia,  and  southern  Maryland,  where  the  negro  population  is 
relatively  dense  and  where  its  increase  is  normal,  from  the  rest  of  the  section 
under  discussion,  the  tendency  would  be  greatly  accentuated. 


Per  cent  of  negro  population  in  border  States  from  1860  to  1890,  showing  its  rela¬ 
tive  decline . 


States. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

Kentucky  _ _ _ ...... _ _ _ ... _ _ _ _ 

20.43 

16.82 

16. 47 

14.42 

Maryland  _ _ 

26.36 

22.46 

22.49 

21.07 

Missouri . . . . 

Tennessee .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

10.03 
27. 07 

6.86 

25.62 

7.16 

26.14 

5.61 
24. 37 

Virginia _ _ _ _ _ _ 

34 

49 

41 

38 

West  Virginia  _  _ _ _ ... _ _ _ _ 

4 

4 

4.1 

4.2 

We  see  that  there  has  been  a  rapid  relative  decline  throughout  this  section.  In 
Kentucky  the  negro  element  declined  in  thirty  years  from  20  to  14  per  cent  and  in 
Missouri  from  10  to  less  than  6  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  the  State. 


Absolute  decline  of  negro  population  outside  of  cities  in  the  border  States  from 

1880  to  1890. 


States. 

Outside  of — 

Decrease. 

Delaware  _  _  _  _  _  .  _  _  _ _ _  _ _ _ _ 

1  city  . 

258 
12, 186 
7,961 
5,332 
6;  910 
6,807 
1 6,-804 

Kentucky _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2  cities . . . 

Maryland  . 

lcitv  _ _ _ 

Missouri  _  _ _  .  _  _  _ _ _ 

2  cities  _ 

Tennessee _  _  _  _  _ _  ....  _ _  .  .  _ 

3  cities  _ 

Virginia . . . - . . . 

2  cities . 

West  Virginia _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1  Increase. 


If  we  except  a  few  cities,  we  see  that  there  has  been  an  absolute  decline  through¬ 
out  the  border  region,  except  in  West  Virginia,  which  has  had  a  great  influx  of 
negroes,  owing  to  special  industrial  conditions  which  prevail.  The  reason  for  this 
‘tendency  is  not  hard  to  seek  or  far  to  find.  Where  the  negro  is  sparsely  scattered 
among  the  white  population,  he  is  made  painfully  conscious  of  his  isolation.  He 
pines  for  consort  with  those  of  his  color  and  kind.  There  are  no  schools  for  his 
children,  or  churches  to  meet  his  religious  aspirations,  or  organizations  to  satisfy 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


739 

his  social  desires.  He  is  shut  up  to  the  dull  routine  of  toil  and  can  get  only  such 
social  relaxations  as  the  cold  tolerance  of  his  white  neighbors  may  accord  him. 
He  is  really  in  social  captivity  and  pines  for  those  communities  where  a  more  con¬ 
genial  environment  prevails.  The  result  is  he  either  rushes  to  the  cities  or  leaves 
the  section  for  those  communities  where  society  is  more  congenial.  The  same 
tendency  is  noticeable  in  the  Northern  negro,  or,  rather,  in  the  Southern  negro 
who  goes  to  the  North.  Although  he  comes  from  the  farm,  with  whose  life  and 
methods  he  is  tolerably  well  acquainted,  he  rarely  seeks  agricultural  work  in  his 
new  home,  but  goes  to  the  cities,  where  he  may  affiliate  with  others  of  his  race. 
The  growth  of  negro  churches  in  the  North  is  significant  of  the  same  tendency. 
Wherever  two  or  three  dozen  negroes  meet  together  in  a  Northern  community, 
there  a  colored  church  springs  up  among  them  to  meet,  in  a  large  measure,  their 
social  needs  and  aspirations.  This  tendency  is  not  to  be  marveled  at,  for  the  con¬ 
sciousness  of  kind  is  a  strong  incentive  in  all  races.  The  Anglo-Saxon,  with  the 
spirit  of  enterprise,  goes  to  the  utmost  ends  of  the  earth  to  dwell  among  all  kinds 
and  conditions  of  men,  but  he  never  loses  touch  with  the  higher  life  of  his  race 
and  is  determined  to  live  above  the  social  level  of  the  people  among  whom  he 
dwells.  He  is  also  inspired  by  the  hope  of  gaining  a  competency,  so  as  to  return 
to  the  congenial  environment  from  whence  he  came  or  of  making  his  new  envi¬ 
ronment  congenial  by  bringing  it  under  control  of  his  own  race  and  its  higher 
institutional  life.  If,  however,  he  had  to  live  like  the  negro,  below  the  level  of  his 
social  environment,  with  no  conceivable  outlook,  he  would  doubtless  pine  as  does 
the  negro,  and  at  the  first  opportunity  fly  to  more  congenial  companionship  with 
his  own  race  and  color. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause  and  its  justification  the  effect  remains  the  same. 

In  order  to  bring  more  prominently  to  light  the  serious  educational  problem  that 
this  movement  in  the  population  entails,  let  us  notice  a  few  typical  counties  in  a 
single  border  State. 


Negro  population  of  certain  counties  of  Kentucky  from  1860  to  1890. 


Comity. 

Area. 

Negro  population. 

Number  of  negroes  to  square 
mile. 

Number 
of  ne¬ 
groes  to 
100 

whites 
in  1890. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

Sq.  miles. 

Adair . . 

400 

1,662 

1,836 

2.171 

1,828 

4.1 

4.5 

5.4 

4.5 

15 

Bath. . 

270 

2,641 

2, 702 

2,017 

1,578 

9.8 

10 

7. 5 

5.8 

14 

Boyle . . 

180 

3, 714 

3,679 

4, 737 

4,809 

20.6 

20.4 

26.3 

26.7 

59 

Butler .  . 

452 

795 

643 

820 

773 

1.5 

1.4 

1.8 

1.7 

59 

CffcrroIK. . 

165 

1,087 

540 

771 

757 

6.6 

3.3 

4.7 

4.6 

9 

Clay . . 

580 

611 

495 

706 

413 

1  1 

8 

1  2 

7 

3 

6 

Edmonson _ 

348 

284 

226 

555 

458  . 

.8 

.7 

L6 

1.3 

Floyd . 

410 

220 

171 

199 

351 

5 

4 

.5 

4 

1 

Grant  . 

280 

726 

509 

733 

483 

2.6 

1.8 

2. 6 

1.7 

4 

Hancock . 

200 

831 

729 

803 

758 

4.2 

3.6 

4 

3.3 

9 

Henderson  .... 

472 

5,844 

5,990 

7,572 

8,223 

12.5 

12.6 

16 

17.4 

70 

Jefferson ...... 

375 

12,311 

19,146 

25, 995 

33,617 

32.8 

50.1 

79.3 

86.9 

20 

Knox . 

350 

673 

557 

662 

778 

1.9 

1.6 

1.9 

2.2 

.6 

Leslie.  _ 

420 

28 

32 

.06 

.08 

.8 

Logan . . 

544 

6, 726 

5,723 

7,381 

6, 569 

12.3 

10.5 

15 

12 

30 

Magoffin. . . 

300 

147 

179 

150 

160 

.5 

.6 

.5 

.5 

1.7 

Meade . 

332 

1,954 

1,294 

1,274 

769 

6 

3.9 

3.8 

2.3 

8 

Montgomery . . 

200 

2,892 

2,699 

3,566 

3, 643 

14.4 

13.5 

17.8 

18  2 

41 

Ohio . 

610 

1,321 

1,393 

1.464 

1,346 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2.2 

6 

Perry  . . 

448 

87 

96 

139 

160 

.2 

.2 

.3 

.3 

2 

Rockcastle .... 

280 

397 

369 

437 

155 

1.4 

1.3 

1.5 

.  6 

1.5 

Simpson _ 

320 

12,403 

2, 167 

2, 797 

2,374 

7.5 

6.8 

8.7 

7.4 

28 

Trimble... _ 

155 

,330 

456 

577 

321 

5.3 

2.9 

3.7 

2 

4 

Webster . 

340 

1,116 

1,355 

1, 666 

1,912 

3.3 

3.9 

4.7 

5. 6 

12 

The  foregoing  table  shows  the  evolution,  or  rather  the  retroaction,  of  the  negro 
population  in  several  counties  in  the  State  of  Kentucky.  In  order  that  the  conn- 


740 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ties  selected  might  be  impartially  chosen,  every  fifth  county  was  taken  in  alpha¬ 
betical  arrangement.  It  appears  that  in  19  out  of  24  counties  there  were  less  than 
10  negroes  to  the  square  mile,  and  in  6  counties  the  race  did  not  average  1  to 
the  square  mile.  It  is  also  seen  that  there  has  been  an  absolute  decline  from  1860 
to  1890  in  12  of  the  counties,  and  in  15  from  1880  to  1890.  Throughout  the  counties 
under  discussion  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  negro  element  is  very  thin  as  compared 
with  the  white.  If  we  suppose  that  this  relation  holds  good  for  the  entire  State, 
as  indeed  we  have  every  reason  to  believe,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  two^thirds  of  the 
counties  in  Kentucky  the  negro  averages  less  than  10  persons  to  the  square  mile, 
and  in  one-third  of  the  State  the  average  is  less  than  1  negro  to  the  square  mile. 
Not  only  is  this  true  of  Kentucky,  but  equally,  or  rather  to  a  greater  degree,  will 
it  hold  for  Missouri,  and  to  a  lesser  extent,  perhaps,  for  the  other  border  States. 

These  States  are  pledged  to  the  maintenance  of  separate  schools  with  equal 
facilities  for  both  races.  How  this  can  be  done  for  the  less  numerous  element  of 
the  population  at  a  reasonable  cost  is  the  special  educational  problem  which  the 
border  States  present. 

The  growth  and  expansion  of  the  so-called  black  belts  in  the  South  possess  great 
sociological  significance.  Although  our  modern  statesmanship  has  not  consciously 
set  apart  a  land  of  Goshen  for  the  abiding  place  of  the  sable  sojourners,  neverthe¬ 
less,  this  land  is  establishing  itself  by  the  sheer  force  of  racial  gravitation.  The 
tendency  of  the  negro  population  to  cluster  about  black  centers  notwithstanding 
the  operation  of  potent  dispersive  influences  has  been  widely  noted  and  remarked 
upon.  A  careful  study  of  this  population  shows  that  it  is  solidifying  along  the 
river  courses  and  in  the  fertile  plains  of  the  South,  where  it  was  most  thickly 
planted  by  the  institution  of  slavery.  In  order  to  bring  this  tendency  clearly  into 
evidence  the  following  tables  have  been  prepared  on  the  basis  of  the  Federal 
censuses. 

Table  I  shows  the  number  of  counties  in  each  State  in  which  the  negroes  are 
more  than  twice  as  numerous  as  the  whites,  the  aggregate  areas  of  such  counties, 
and  their  progressive  changes  during  the  three  census  decades,  1860-1890.  The 
growth  of  this  Africanized  area  has  been  remarkable.  It  increased  from  71  coun¬ 
ties  with  an  aggregate  area  of  35,732  square  miles  in  1860  to  103  counties  and 
66,084  miles  in  1890.  While  these  “black  belts ’’would  have  covered  a  territory 
as  large  as  South  Carolina  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war,  thirty  years  later 
they  had  grown  to  an  area  greater  than  that  of  all  the  New  England  States. 


Table  I. — Counties  in  which  negroes  exceed  the  whites  more  than  two  to  one. 


State. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890, 

Number 
of  coun¬ 
ties. 

Area. 

Number 
of  coun¬ 
ties. 

Area. 

Number 
of  coun¬ 
ties. 

1 

1  Area. 

Number 
of  coun¬ 
ties. 

Area. 

Sq.  miles. 

Sq.  miles. 

Sq.  miles. 

Sq.  miles. 

Alabama . 

7 

5,862 

11 

8,676 

11 

8,676 

11 

8,676 

Arkansas . 

1 

760 

3 

2,024 

6 

4,103 

6 

4,103 

Florida . 

1 

910 

3 

2, 792 

2 

1,510 

2 

1,510 

Georgia . 

13 

6,598 

14 

7,062 

18 

7, 888 

23 

10, 100 

Louisiana . 

13 

7, 182 

14 

8,376 

17 

9,597 

16 

9,007 

Mississippi .. . 

IT 

10, 994 

15 

9,292 

22 

13,037 

23 

13,757 

North  Carolina  .... 

1 

454 

2 

1, 134 

3 

1,654 

2 

1,134 

South  Carolina _ 

8 

8,186 

8 

5, 456 

12 

9,343 

12 

11,699 

Tennessee . 

1 

630 

1 

630 

Texas . 

2 

2,230 

3 

3,200 

3 

3,200 

3 

3,200 

Virginia . 

8 

2,236 

6 

1,756 

7 

2,059 

4 

1,218 

Total . 

71 

35,732 

79 

48, 568 

92 

62, 707 

103 

66,084 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO, 


741 


Table  II. — “ Black  belts ”  in  which  negroes  exceed  whites  more  than  tico  to  one. 


States  in  which  the  “black  belt” 
is  located. 

I860. 

1870. 

Negro 

popula¬ 

tion. 

White 
popula¬ 
tion.  | 

N  egroes 
to  100 
whites.  1 

Negro 

popula¬ 

tion. 

White 

popula¬ 

tion. 

Negroes 
to  100 
whites. 

Alabama . . 

147.396 

52,292 

281 

226, 950 

73, 085 

315 

Arkansas . 

7,513 

1,723 

436 

18, 469 

7,940 

232 

Florida . 

9,149 

3,194 

284 

34,631 

11,331 

305 

Georgia . . . . 

85,298 

34,331 

245 

102, 682 

37,809 

271 

Louisiana  . . 

129, 568 

33,948 

352 

101,  754 

40; 730 

248 

Mississippi . 

210,968 

61,382 

342 

179,237 

60, 004 

298 

North  Carolina . 

10,803 

4,923 

219 

26, 482 

l  11,694 

226 

South  Carolina . . . 

145,839 

48, 885 

298 

164, 771 

64, 294 

256 

Tennessee . . . . . 

Texas . 

9,242 

4,047 

228 

20, 167 

7,705 

264 

Virginia . 

48,554 

20,669 

240 

35,978 

15, 989 

225 

Total . 

804,329 

285,393 

303 

911,121 

330,581 

276 

1880. 

1890. 

States  in  which  the  “black  belt” 

IQ  1  opfl  tprl 

Negro 

White 

Negroes 

Negro 

White 

Negroes 

J.O  iUbdtCU. 

popula¬ 

popula¬ 

to  100 

popula¬ 

popula¬ 

to  100 

tion. 

tion. 

whites. 

tion. 

tion. 

whites. 

Alabama . 

274,420 

76,910 

368 

285,513 

75, 040 

380 

Arkansas . 

64,495 

20, 827 

309 

93,398 

26,898 

311 

Florida . 

29,508 

6,219 

476 

26,830 

6,679 

402 

Georgia . 

193, 823 

76, 121 

254 

210,075 

79,806 

261 

Louisiana  . . . . . . 

191,050 

55,890 

341 

200,620 

55, 925 

358 

Mississippi . . . 

350,897 

101,001 

347 

401,639 

110,436 

362 

North  Carolina  . . 

66,608 

22, 481 

296 

33,774 

15,494 

211 

South  Carolina . 

303, 192 

118,904 

255 

318, 113 

114,806 

277 

Tennessee . 

22,238 

9,633 

231 

20,492 

8,386 

244 

Texas . .. . _ . . . 

32,228 

12,097 

266 

35,695 

13,116 

272 

Virginia . 

49, 785 

21,259 

234 

26,309 

11,985 

219 

Total . 

1,583,244 

521,342 

301 

1,652,458 

517,571 

319 

Table  III. — Counties  in  which  there  are  from  100  to  200  negroes  to  100  whites. 


State. 

Number  of  counties. 

Population  in  1890. 

Number 
of  ne¬ 
groes  to 
100 

whites. 

1860. 

1870. 

1880. 

1890. 

Negro. 

White. 

Alabama . 

13 

11 

13 

8 

106,387 

81,738 

130 

Arkansas . 

5 

5 

7 

9 

67, 375 

52, 818 

127 

Florida . . 

5 

4 

7 

8 

80, 824 

57,631 

140 

Georgia . 

30 

41 

42 

39 

380,  425 

278,863 

136 

Louisiana  - . . 

19 

19 

19 

17 

176,695 

120,425 

147 

Maryland . 

5 

3 

2 

2 

13,201 

11, 850 

119 

Mississippi . 

15 

17 

16 

16 

191,420 

147,016 

130 

North  Carolina . 

19 

15 

19 

14 

142,  496 

105,115 

135 

South  Carolina . . . 

12 

13 

13 

14 

274, 330 

184,954 

147 

Tennessee  . . 

3 

2 

2 

2 

77, 209 

59, 089 

130 

Texas . 

5 

4 

5 

6 

36,895 

28,595 

128 

Virginia . . 

35 

36 

33 

30 

251,367 

183,905 

137 

United  States . 

166 

170 

178 

165 

1,772, 614 

1,312,009 

135 

Table  II  shows  the  relative  density  of  the  negro  population  within  the  area 
described  by  Table  I.  There  are,  on  the  average,  more  than  three  negroes  to  each 
white  person.  The  negro  population  is  increasing  far  more  rapidly  than  the  white, 
having  increased  from  3.03  times  the  white  in  1860  to  3.19  times  in  1890;  and, 
what  is,  perhaps,  more  surprising,  is  the  rapid  increase  of  this  ratio  during  the 
census  decade  1880-1890,  which  showed  such  a  marked  decline  in  eke  general 
increment  of  the  negro  population;  1,652,458  negroes,  or  nearly  one-fourth  of  the 
entire  race,  were  found  in  these  “black  belts  m  1890,  against  804,329,  or  about 
one-fifth  of  the  race,  in  1860. 


742 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Tables  I  and  II,  taken  together,  show  an  unmistakable  tendency  of  these  “  black 
belts  ”  to  increase,  both  in  extent  and  intensity.  The  probability  is  that  they  will 
not  only  maintain  themselves,  but  will  expand  with  the  coming  decade.  Much 
criticism  has  been  heaped  upon  the  successive  censuses  on  account  of  alleged 
errors,  both  of  an  excessive  and  defective  character;  but  the  discrepant  enumera¬ 
tions  do  not  affect  the  tendency  herein  noted.  This  growth  is  steady  and  unmis¬ 
takable.  We  can  predict  with  fullest  assurance  that  the  twelfth  census  will 
confirm  this  general  law  of  growth. 

Table  III  shows  the  number  of  counties  in  each  State  in  which  the  negroes  are 
in  the  majority  but  less  than  twice  as  numerous  as  the  whites,  together  with  the 
aggregate  population  of  such  counties  in  1890,  and  the  number  of  negroes  to  every 
100  whites.  This  area  is  much  larger  than  that  considered  in  Table  I,  and  has 
remained  almost  stationary  during  the  decades  under  consideration.  There  are 
165  counties  and  about  100,000  square  miles  in  this  region.  There  are,  on  the 
average,  135  negroes  to  every  100  whites.  Tables  I  and  III  show  that  the  entire 
region  in  which  negroes  are  in  the  numerical  majority  embraces  268  counties  and 
covers  an  area  as  large  as  the  North  Atlantic  division  of  States.  There  are 
3,400,000  negroes,  against  1,800,000  whites.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  race  is 
found  within  this  Goshenized  territory.  We  often  speak  of  the  “black  belts”  as 
being  congested,  but  this  must  refer  to  the  constantly  thickening  darkness  and 
not  to  the  absolute  density  of  the  population:  for,  as  noted  above,  these  belts  form 
an  area  about  the  size  of  the  North  Atlantic  States.  The  total  population  is  about 
5,000,000,  while  the  North  Atlantic  States  have  a  population  of  17,000,000.  The 
average  density  of  the  population  is  less  than  one-third  that  of  the  States  in  the 
higher  latitude.  The  indications  are  that  the  negro  will  be  able  to  maintain  the 
ground  already  gained,  but  will  not  be  able  to  make  further  headway  against  the 
“  white  man's  country.” 

The  opposite  tendency  in  the  Southern  population  is  also  noticeable.  Just  as 
the  black  spots  are  growing  blacker  the  white  spots  are  growing  whiter.  The 
line  of  cleavage  seems  to  take  xrlace  where  the  two  races  are  about  evenly  balanced, 
and  the  relative  densities  increase  in  both  directions.  In  those  counties  where 
the  negroes  constitute  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  population  their  relative 
decline  is  notable. 

If  we  turn  to  the  cities,  we  find  the  same  tendency  toward  a  geographical  sepa¬ 
ration  of  the  races.  There  are  25  cities  with  a  total  negro  population  of  more 
than  half  a  million.  A  careful  study  of  their  distribution  will  show  that  they 
are  segregated  in  districts  and  wards  as  definitely  marked  as  the  “ black  belts” 
of  the  South.  The  politician  is  as  familiar  with  the  black  and  the  white  wards 
of  our  large  cities  as  is  a  seaman  with  the  depths  and  shallows  of  the  sea. 

There  are  several  causes  which  conspire  to  perpetuate  the  segregative  tendencies 
of  the  negro  population  : 

1.  Under  the  social  conditions  now  prevailing  the  negro  is  compelled  to  flock 
with  his  kind.  He  is  thrown  back  upon  himself  by  the  expulsive  power  of  preju¬ 
dice.  The  negro  possesses  the  social  instinct  in  a  high  degree,  and  can  not  endure 
isolation.  The  thinly  veneered  tolerance  which  he  receives  when  scattered  pro¬ 
miscuously  among  the  whites  by  no  means  satisfies  his  longings.  He  longs  for 
his  own  church  and  society  and  forms  of  social  life. 

2.  The  white  population  shuns  open  rivalry  or  contact  with  the  negro  on  terms 
of  equality.  Wherever  white  men  and  women  have  to  work  for  a  living,  they 
avoid  those  sections  where  they  have  to  compete  with  the  negroes;  and  if  indige¬ 
nous  to  such  localities,  they  often  migrate  to  where  the  black  rival  is  less  numerous. 
For  this  reason  immigration  avoids  the  44 black  belts.”  Whenever  a  community 
of  Northern  agriculturists  settle  in  the  South,  they  usually  select  a  white  neigh¬ 
borhood,  and,  in  some  instances  at  least,  they  have  been  known  to  “freeze  out” 
the  negroes  by  methods  of  their  own  devising. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


743 


3.  As  manufacturing  industry  moves  southward,  the  poor  country  whites  will 
be  drawn  to  the  cities  as  operatives  and  workmen  along  lines  of  higher  mechanical 
skill,  leaving  the  negro  in  vast  numerical  preponderance  in  the  agricultural 
districts. 

These  factors  operating  separately  and  cooperating  conjointly  will  perpetuate 
the  “black  belts”  of  the  South  and  make  permanent  this  modern  land  of  Goshen. 

The  political,  social,  and  industrial  future  of  these  localities  is  a  matter  of  serious 
importance.  These  belts  are  so  distributed  among  the  States  that  they  can  not 
maintain  political  integrity.  They  do  not  follow  the  Atlantic  coast  line,  but  are 
only  tangential  to  it  at  several  points,  and  therefore  their  commercial  importance 
is  materially  lessened.  The  negro  constitutes  a  majority  in  only  two  States;  but 
even  in  these  the  white  man’s  superior  political  sagacity  will  enable  him  to  main¬ 
tain  governmental  control  for  any  calculable  period  of  time. 

The  educational,  social,  and  industrial  life  must  be  elevated  by  the  negro  hjm- 
seif  under  the  stimulus  of  local  and  national  assistance.  It  is  here  that  must  be 
worked  out  the  future  of  the  race  on  this  continent.  The  great  masses  will  be 
gathered  in  these  belts  or  in  the  corresponding  black  wards  of  our  large  cities, 
from  which  the  volatile  particles  will  fly  off  in  all  directions  to  be  dissipated  and 
lost. 

It  is  no  reproach  to  these  people  to  say  that  if  left  to  themselves  they  would 
lapse  into  barbarism.  No  people,  unaided,  can  lift  themselves  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  level  of  civilization.  It  is  a  social,  as  it  is  a  physical,  impossibility  to  lift 
one's  self  by  pulling  against  the  straps  of  one’s  own  boots.  But  this  land  of 
Goshen  is  not  to  be  left  alone;  there  will  always  be  a  number  of  whites  affiliating 
with  the  negroes  for  purposes  of  philanthropy  or  gain.  Hampton  and  Tuskegee 
and  Fisk  are  types  of  philanthropic  helpfulness.  There  is  need  of  autochthonous 
enterprise.  Young  men  of  ambition  and  education  will  be  forced  to  such  commu¬ 
nities  as  a  field  to  exploit  their  powers.  The  secret  and  method  of  New  England 
may  thus  be  transplanted  to  the  South  by  the  hands  and  brains  of  sons  of  Ethiopia. 
It  is  here  that  the  great  educational  and  developmental  problems  must  be  worked 
out.1 

II.— The  Struggle  for  Education— Personal  and  Economic  Sacrifice. 

A  full  knowledge  of  the  education  of  the  negro  can  not  be  had  without  making 
some  reference  to  the  earlier  educational  efforts.  It  is  well  known  that  slavery 
discouraged  the  dissemination  of  literary  knowledge  among  persons  of  African 
descent,  and,  in  most  cases,  this  discouragement  amounted  to  a  positive  prohibi¬ 
tion.  But  despite  the  rigid  regulations  of  the  slave  regime  there  were  many 
kind-hearted  slaveholders  who  taught  their  slaves  to  read  and  write.  Many  others 
picked  up  such  knowledge  in  ways  which  it  is  mysterious  to  comprehend.  The 
fact  that  book  information  was  withheld  from  the  negro  made  him  all  the  more 
anxious  to  acquire  it.  Stolen  waters  are  sweet,  and  the  fact  that  they  are  forbid¬ 
den  leads  those  from  whom  the  privilege  is  withheld  to  suspect  that  they  iDossess 
mysterious  efficacy.  Such  hungering  and  thirsting  after  knowledge  amid  dark 
and  dismal  discouragements  is  surely  a  compliment  to  the  intellectual  taste  of  the 
African.  The  antebellum  struggles  of  the  free  colored  people  and  the  more  ambi¬ 
tious  slaves  to  acquire  the  use  of  printed  characters  is  almost  incomprehensible, 
in  view  of  the  liberal  educational  provisions  of  these  latter  days.  The  experience 
of  Frederick  Douglass  was  not  without  many  parallels  and  counterparts.  In  his 
autobiography  he  tells  us: 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  my  stay  here  [in  Baltimore]  was  my  learning  to 
read  and  write  under  somewhat  marked  disadvantages.  In  obtaining  this  knowl- 


1  This  chapter  was  written  before  the  figures  of  the  Twelfth  Census  were  available.  This 
census,  however,  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  completed,  confirms  the  conclusions  of  this  chapter  in 
every  essential  particular.  See  Forum,  February,  1802,  “Expansion  of  the  Negro  Population.” 


744 


EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1801. 


edge  I  was  compelled  to  resort  to  indirections  by  no  means  congenial  to  my  nature 
and  which  were  really  humiliating  to  my  sense  of  candor  and  uprightness.  My 
mistress,  checked  in  her  benevolent  designs  toward  me,  not  only  ceased  instruct¬ 
ing  me  herself,  but  set  her  face  as  a  flint  against  my  learning  to  read  by  any  means.1 

She  would  rush  at  me  with  the  utmost  fury,  and  snatch  the  book  or  paper  from 
my  hand  with  something  of  the  wrath  and  consternation  which  a  traitor  might 
be  supposed  to  feel  on  being  discovered  in  a  plot  by  some  dangerous  spy.  The 
conviction  once  thoroughly  established  in  her  mind  that  education  and  slavery 
were  incompatible  with  each  other,  I  was  most  narrowly  watched  in  all  my 
movements.  If  I  remained  in  a  separate  room  from  the  family  for  any  consider¬ 
able  length  of  time,  I  was  sure  to  be  suspected  of  having  a  book,  and  was  at  once 
called  to  give  an  account  of  myself.  Teaching  me  the  alphabet  had  been  the 
“inch”  given;  I  was  now  waiting  only  for  the  opportunity  to  take  the  “ell.” 
Filled  with  determination  to  read  at  any  cost,  I  hit  upon  many  expedients  to  attain 
my  desired  end.  The  plan  which  I  mainly  adopted,  and  the  one  which  was  most 
successful,  was  that  of  using  my  white  playmates,  with  whom  I  met  in  the  streets, 
as  teachers.  I  used  to  carry  almost  constantly  a  copy  of  Webster’s  Spelling  Book 
in  my  pocket,  and  when  sent  on  errands,  or  when  playtime  was  allowed  me,  I 
would  step  aside  with  my  young  friends  and  take  a  lesson  in  spelling.2 

Meanwhile,  I  resolved  to  add  to  my  educational  attainments  the  art  of  writing. 
After  this  manner  I  began  to  learn  to  write.  I  was  much  in  the  shipyard,  and 
observed  that  the  carpenters,  after  hewing  and  getting  ready  a  piece  of  timber  to  use, 
wrote  on  the  initials  of  the  name  of  that  part  of  the  ship  for  which  it  was  intended. 
When,  for  instance,  a  piece  of  timber  was  ready  for  the  starboard  side,  it  was 
marked  with  a  capital  “S”;  a  piece  for  the  larboard  side  was  marked  “L  lar¬ 
board  aft  marked  “L.  A.”;  starboard  aft  “S.  A.”;  starboard  forward  “S.F.”  I 
soon  learned  these  letters,  and  for  what  they  were  placed  on  the  timbers.  My  work 
now  was  to  keep  fire  under  the  steambox,  and  to  watch  the  shipyard  while  the 
carpenters  had  gone  to  dinner.  This  interval  gave  me  a  fine  opportunity  to  copy 
the  letters  named.  I  soon  astonished  myself  with  the  ease  in  which  I  made  the 
letters,  and  the  thought  was  soon  present,  if  I  can  make  four  letters,  I  can  make 
more.  With  playmates  for  my  teachers,  fences  and  pavement  for  my  copy  books, 
and  chalk  for  my  pen  and  ink,  I  learned  to  write.3 

This  was  the  university  training  of  the  most  illustrious  American  negro,  which 
could  be  duplicated  by  thousands  of  his  fellow-slaves  who  remained  ‘  ‘  mute  and 
inglorious.” 

A  different  and  less  strenuous  phase  of  early  educational  opportunities  may  be 
found  in  the  experience  of  another  distinguished  colored  American,  the  late  Prof. 
John  Mercer  Langston.  Mr.  Langston  thus  recounts  the  early  schooling  of  his 
brother: 

His  father  (a  Virginia  white  man),  manifesting  the  deepest  interest  in  him, 
sought  by  his  own  efforts  and  influence  to  give  him  such  thorough  English  educa¬ 
tion,  with  general  information,  and  mental  and  moral  improvement,  as  to  make 
him  a  useful  man.  He  [at  7  years]  was  required  to  appear  for  his  recitations  in 
his  father's  special  apartments  the  year  around  at  5  o'clock  in  the  morning.4 

A  second  brother  was  put  through  the  same  regime,  and  John  M.,  though  too 
young  for  definite  training  when  his  father  died,  had  ample  provision  made  for 
his  education.5 

These  citations  represent  two  phases  of  negro  education  before  the  civil  war. 
The  one  gives  a  picture  of  the  dauntless,  self-impelling  determination  to  gain 
knowledge  at  any  cost;  the  other,  the  kind  and  genial  disposition  of  a  father- 
master,  in  spite  of  the  rigorous  requirements  of  the  law.  These  instances  may  be 
regarded  as  typical,  and  might  be  multiplied  by  hundreds  and  thousands.  There 
were  also  organized  efforts  for  the  education  of  the  colored  race.  Schools  were 
established  for  the  free  colored  people  within  the  limits  of  the  slave  territory. 
These  were  mainly  in  the  large  cities.  A  careful  and  detailed  study  of  such  early 
educational  efforts  for  the  several  States  and  cities  affords  a  rich  field  for  interest¬ 
ing  and  valuable  monographic  writing.  This  chapter  attempts  little  more  than  to 

1  Life  and  Times  of  Frederick  Douglass,  p.  72. 

2  Ibid,  p.  74.  3  Ibid,  pp.  85-86. 

4  From  Virginia  Plantation  to  the  National  Capitol,  by  John  M.  Langston,  pp.  19-20. 

6Ibid,  p.  20. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


745 


present  some  of  the  hindrances,  embarrassments,  personal  and  economic  sacrifices 
under  which  the  negro  in  the  slave  territory  labored  during  the  dark  days  of  slavery, 
in  order  to  secure  what  he  considered  the  talismanic  power  of  knowledge. 

The  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1888  contains  an  interesting 
and  exhaustive  study  upon  “  The  legal  status  of  the  colored  population  in  respect 
to  schools  and  education  in  the  different  States.”  As  this  work  is  now  out  of 
print,  a  recount  of  some  of  the  antebellum  school  laws  and  regulations  may  not 
be  without  interest.  The  sources  of  information  for  the  following  citations  are 
the  Report  just  referred  to,  Williams’s  History  of  the  Negro  Race,  Chapter  XII  on 
Negro  School  Laws,  and  R.  R.  Wright’s  Historical  Sketch  of  Negro  Education  in 
Georgia. 

In  Alabama  the  law  of  1882  provided  that  ‘  ‘  any  person  or  persons  that  shall 
attempt  to  teach  any  free  person  of  color,  or  slave,  to  spell,  read,  or  write,  shall, 
upon  conviction  thereof  by  indictment,  be  fined  in  a  sum  not  less  than  $250,  nor 
more  than  $500.” 

In  1833  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of  the  city  of  Mobile  were  authorized  by  law 
to  grant  licenses  to  such  persons  as  they  might  deem  suitable  to  instruct  for  limi¬ 
ted  periods  the  free  colored  creole  children  within  the  city  and  in  the  counties  of 
Mobile  and  Baldwin,  who  were  the  descendants  of  colored  creoles  residing  in  said 
city  and  counties  in  April,  1803,  provided,  that  said  children  first  receive  permis¬ 
sion  to  be  taught  from  the  mayor  and  aldermen  and  have  their  names  recorded  in 
a  book  kept  for  the  purpose.  This  was  done,  as  set  forth  in  the  preamble  of  the 
law,  because  there  were  many  colored  creoles  there  whose  ancestors,  under  the 
treaty  between  France  and  the  United  States  in  1803,  had  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States  secured  to  them. 

Arkansas  seems  to  have  had  no  law  on  the  statute  book  prohibiting  the  teaching 
of  persons  of  African  descent,  although  the  law  of  1838  forbade  any  white  persons 
or  free  negro  from  being  found  in  the  company  of  slaves  or  in  any  unlawful  meet¬ 
ing,  under  severe  penalty  for  each  offense.  In  1843  all  migrations  of  free  negroes 
and  mulattoes  into  the  State  was  forbidden. 

There  was  no  law  expressly  forbidding  the  instruction  of  slaves  or  free  colored 
people  in  the  State  of  Delaware  until  1863,  when  a  positive  enactment  against  all 
assemblages  for  the  instruction  of  colored  people,  and  forbidding  all  meetings 
except  for  religious  purposes  and  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  was  made. 

W  hile  the  free  colored  people  were  taxed  to  a  certain  extent  for  school  purposes, 
they  could  not  enjoy  the  privileges  of  public  instruction  thus  provided,  and  were 
left  for  many  years  to  rely  principally  upon  individual  efforts  among  themselves 
and  friends  for  the  support  of  a  few  occasional  schools.  In  1840  the  Friends 
formed  the  African  School  Association  in  the  city  of  Wilmington,  and  by  its  aid 
two  very  good  schools,  male  and  female,  were  established  in  that  place. 

In  1828  the  State  of  Florida  passed  an  act  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of 
common  schools,  but  white  children  only  of  a  specified  school  age  were  entitled  to 
school  privileges. 

In  Georgia  the  following  law  was  enacted  in  1829: 

If  any  slave,  negro,  or  free  person  of  color,  or  any  white  person,  shall  teach  any 
other  slave,  negro,  or  free  person  of  color  to  read  or  write,  either  written  or  printed 
characters,  the  said  free  person  of  color  or  slave  shall  be  punished  by  fine  and  whip¬ 
ping,  or  fine  or  whipping,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court;  and  if  a  white  person  so 
offend  he,  she,  or  they  shall  be  punished  with  a  fine  not  exceeding  $500  and  impris¬ 
onment  in  the  common  jail,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

In  1833  a  penalty  not  exceeding  $500  was  provided  for  the  employment  of  any 
slave  or  free  person  of  color  in  setting  up  type  or  other  labor  about  a  printing 
office  requiring  a  knowledge  of  reading  or  writing.  The  code  remained  in  force 
until  swept  away  by  events  of  the  civil  war. 

In  1833  the  city  of  Savannah  adopted  an  ordinance  that  if  any  person  should 
teach  or  cause  to  be  taught  any  slave  or  free  person  of  color  to  read  or  write  within 


746 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


tlie  city,  or  who  shall  keep  a  school  for  that  purpose,  he  or  she  shall  be  fined  in  a 
sum  not  exceeding .$100  for  each  and  every  such  offense;  and  if  the  offender  be  a 
slave  or  free  person  of  color,  he  or  she  may  also  be  whipped  not  exceeding  89  lashes. 

hi  otwithstanding  this  severe  enactment,  there  were,  nevertheless,  several  schools 
for  colored  children  clandestinely  kept  in  Augusta  and  Savannah.  The  poor 
whites  would  often  teach  negro  children  clandestinely.  If  an  officer  of  the  law 
came  round  the  children  were  hastily  dispatched  to  the  fictitious  duty  of  “picking 
up  chips.”  The  most  noted  negro  school  was  opened  in  1818  or  1819  by  a  colored 
man  from  Santo  Domingo.  Up  to  1829  this  school  was  taught  openly.  The  law 
of  that  year  made  concealment  and  secrecy  a  necessity.1 

In  Kentucky  the  school  system  was  established  in  1830.  In  this  provision  the 
property  of  colored  people  was  included  in  the  basis  of  taxation,  but  they  were 
excluded  from  school  privileges. 

Louisiana,  in  1830,  provided  that  whoever  should  write,  publish,  or  describe  any¬ 
thing  having  a  tendency  to  produce  discontent  among  the  free  population  or 
insubordination  among  the  slaves,  should  upon  conviction  be  imprisoned  at  hard 
labor  for  life  or  suffer  death,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court.  It  was  also  provided 
that  all  persons  who  should  teach  or  permit  or  cause  to  be  taught  any  slave  to 
read  or  write  should  be  imprisoned  not  less  than  one  month  or  more  than  twelve. 

In  1847  a  system  of  public  schools  was  established  for  the  education  of  white 
youth,  and  one  mill  on  the  dollar  upon  the  ad  valorem  amount  of  the  general  list 
of  taxable  property  might  be  levied  for  its  support.  Prior  to  the  civil  war  the 
only  schools  for  colored  youth  in  Louisiana  were  a  few  private  ones  in  the  city  of 
New  Orleans  among  the  creoles. 

St.  Francis  Academy  for  colored  girls  was  founded  in  connection  with  the 
Oblate  Sisters,  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  received  the  sanction  of  the  Holy  See  Octo¬ 
ber  2,  1831.  There  were  many  colored  Catholic  refugees  who  came  to  Baltimore 
from  Santo  Domingo.  The  colored  women  who  formed  the  original  society  which 
founded  the  convent  and  seminary  were  from  Santo  Domingo.  The  Sisters  of 
Providence  is  the  name  of  a  religious  society  of  colored  women  who  renounced 
the  world  to  consecrate  themselves  to  the  Christian  education  of  colored  girls. 
This  school  is  still  in  successful  operation.  A  colored  man  by  the  name  of  Nelson 
Wells  left  by  will  to  trustees  $7,000,  the  income  of  which  was  to  be  applied  to  the 
education  of  free  colored  children.  The  Nelson  Wells  school  continued  from  1835 
to  the  close  of  the  civil  war. 

Dr.  Bokkelen,  State  superintendent  of  education,  recommended  in  1864  the 
establishment  of  colored  schools  on  the  same  basis  as  those  of  the  whites,  and  states 
in  his  recommendation — 

1  am  informed  that  the  amount  of  school  tax  paid  annually  by  these  (colored) 
people  to  educate  the  white  children  in  the  city  of  Baltimore  for  many  years  has 
been  more  than  $500.  The  rule  of  fair  play  would  require  that  this  be  refunded 
unless  the  State  at  once  provided  schools  under  this  title. 

By  an  act  of  January,  1833,  the  legislature  of  Mississippi  provided  that  the 
meeting  of  slaves  and  mulatioes  above  the  number  of  five  at  any  place  or  public 
resort  or  meetinghouse  in  the  night  or  at  any  schoolhouse  for  teaching  reading  or 
writing  in  the  day  or  night  was  to  be  considered  an  unlawful  assembly.  In  1846 
an  act  was  passed  establishing  a  system  of  public  schools  from  all  escheats  and  all 
fines,  forfeitures,  and  amercement  from  licenses  to  hawkers  and  all  income  from 
school  lands.  The.-e  schools  were  for  the  education  of  white  youths. 

The  legislature  of  Missouri  in  1847  provided  that  no  person  should  teach  any 
schools  for  negroes  or  mulattoes. 

In  North  Carolina  until  1835  public  opinion  permitted  the  colored  residents  to 
maintain  schools  for  the  education  of  their  children.  These  were  taught  some¬ 
times  by  white  persons,  but  frequently  by  colored  teachers.  After  this  period 
colored  children  could  only  be  educated  by  confining  their  teaching  within  the 

1  Negro  Education  in  Georgia,  by  B.  R.  Wright,  p.  20. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


747 


cirele  of  their  own  family  or  by  going  out  of  the  limits  of  their  own  State,  in 
which  event  they  were  prohibited  by  law  from  returning  home.  The  public  sys¬ 
tem  of  North  Carolina  declared  that  no  descendant  of  negro  ancestors  to  the 
fourth  generation,  inclusive,  should  enjoy  the  benefits  thereof. 

In  1740,  while  yet  a  British  colony.  South  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  directly  leg¬ 
islating  against  the  education  of  the  colored  race — 

Whereas  the  having  of  slaves  taught  to  write,  or  suffering  them  to  be  employed 
in  writing,  may  be  attended  with  inconvenience,  be  it  enacted,  That  all  and  any 
person  or  persons  whatsoever,  Who  shall  hereafter  teach  or  cause  any  slave  or 
slaves  to  be  taught,  or  shall  use  or  employ  any  slave  as  scribe  in  any  manner  of 
writing  whatever,  hereafter  taught  to  write,  every  such  person  or  persons  shall 
for  every  such  offense  forfeit  the  sum  of  £100  current  money. 

In  1800  free  colored  people  were  included  in  this  provision.  In  1884  it  was  pro¬ 
vided— 

If  any  person  shall  hereafter  teach  any  slave  to  read  or  write,  or  shall  aid  or 
assist  in  teaching  any  slave  to  read  or  write,  or  cause  or  procure  any  slave  to  be 
taught  to  read  or  write,  such  person,  if  a  free  white  person,  upon  conviction 
thereof  shall,  for  each  and  every  offense  against  this  act,  be  fined  not  exceeding 
$100  and  [suffer]  imprisonment  not  more  than  six  months;  or  if  a  free  person  of color, 
shall  be  whipped  not  exceeding  50  lashes.  *  *  *  And  if  any  free  person  of  color 
or  slave  shall  keep  any  school  or  other  place  of  instruction  for  teaching  any  slave 
or  free  person  of  color  to  read  or  write,  such  free  person  of  color  or  slave  shall  be 
liable  to  the  same  fine,  imprisonment,  and  corporeal  punishment. 

And  yet  there  were  colored  schools  in  Charleston  from  1744  to  the  close  of  the 
civil  war. 

In  1838  Tennessee  provided  a  system  of  public  schools  for  the  education  of  white 
children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  16,  but  the  colored  children  never  enjoyed  any 
of  its  benefits,  although  the  free  colored  people  contributed  their  due  share  of  the 
public  fund. 

Texas  never  expressly  forbade  the  instruction  of  negroes,  although  the  harsh 
and  severe  restrictions  placed  upon  the  race  made  such  a  provision  scarcely 
necessary. 

In  1831  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia  enacted,  among  others,  the  following 
provisions : 

That  all  meetings  of  free  negroes  or  mulattoes  at  any  schoolhouse,  church,  meet¬ 
inghouse,  or  other  place  for  teaching  them  reading  or  writing,  either  in  the  day  or 
night,  under  whatsoever  pretext,  shall  be  deemed  an  unlawful  assembly.  *  *  * 
If  any  white  person  or  persons  assemble  with  free  negroes  or  mulattoes  at  any  school- 
house,  church,  meetinghouse,  or  other  place  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  such 
free  negroes  or  mulattoes  to  read  or  write,  such,  person  or  persons  shall,  on  con¬ 
viction  thereof,  be  fined  in  a  sum  not  exceeding  $50,  and,  moreover,  maybe  impris¬ 
oned,  at  the  discretion  of  a  jury,  not  exceeding  two  months. 

It  is  known,  however,  that  schools  for  colored  children  were  established  and 
maintained  in  such  cities  as  Petersburg,  Norfolk,  and  Richmond. 

The  early  educational  efforts  of  the  colored  people  of  the  District  of  Columbia 
have  been  studied  with  more  fullness  than  those  of  any  other  Southern  commu¬ 
nity.  He  who  presents  the  movement  in  Baltimore,  Richmond,  Louisiana,  Charles¬ 
ton,  and  other  Southern  centers  with  as  much  detail  and  accuracy  will  render  no 
inconsiderable  service  to  the  history  of  education. 

There  does  not  seem  to  have  been  any  express  law  forbidding  the  education  of 
colored  people  in  this  District.  In  1807  the  first  schoolhouse  for  the  use  of  colored 
pupils  was  erected  by  three  colored  men— George  Bell,  Nicholas  Franklin,  and 
Moses  Liverpool — not  one  of  whom  knew  a  letter  of  the  alphabet.  They  had  been 
former  slaves  in  Virginia,  and,  like  others  of  their  condition,  had  an  exalted  notion 
of  literary  knowledge.  A  white  teacher  was  secured.  From  this  time  to  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  new  regime,  brought  on  by  the  civil  war,  there  was  a  tolerably  adequate 
number  of  schools,  supported  mainly  by  the  colored  people  themselves,  but  not 


748 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


without  assistance  from  Northern  philanthropy.  But  that  these  schools  did  not 
always  have  plain  and  smooth  sailing  may  he  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  1835, 
on  account  of  an  alleged  indiscreet  utterance  of  a  colored  resident,  colored  schools 
were  attacked  by  a  mob,  some  of  them  burned,  and  property  destroyed,  while  the 
most  conspicuous  negro  teacher,  Mr.  John  F.  Cook,  was  compelled  to  flee  for  his 
life.  This  outbreak  is  known  as  the  snow  riot. 

Many  of  the  best-known  names  in  the  District  were  both  products  of  and  factors 
in  these  early  schools,  the  most  noted  of  whom,  perhaps,  is  Mr.  John  F.  Cook,  who 
subsequently  became  tax  collector  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  For  substance, 
dignity,  and  influence  he  stands  as  one  of  the  conspicuous  names  of  the  national 
capital,  regardless  of  race  distinction.  His  brother,  George  F.  T.  Cook,  who  wTas 
both  a  pupil  and  a  teacher  in  the  antebellum  schools,  subsequently  became  super¬ 
intendent  of  the  colored  public  schools  of  Washington  and  Georgetown,  which 
position  he  held  for  thirty  years. 

This  survey  has  been  limited  to  the  Southern  or  slave  States.  In  the  free  States 
of  the  North  the  negro  had  a  more  picturesque  and  exciting  educational  expe¬ 
rience.  The  Northern  States  did  not  expressly  forbid  the  education  of  colored 
persons,  but  the  hostility  to  such  movements  is  attested  by  many  a  local  outbreak. 

It  was  amid  such  dangers  and  difficulties  that  the  negro  began  his  educational 
career.  It  must  not  be  for  a  moment  supposed,  however,  that  the  laws  above 
referred  to  were  rigidly  enforced.  It  is  known  that  pious  and  generous  slave¬ 
holders  quite  generally  taught  their  favorite  slaves  to  read,  regardless  of  the  inex¬ 
orable  provisions  of  law.  Quite  a  goodly  number  also  learned  the  art  of  letters 
somewhat  after  the  furtive  method  of  Frederick  Douglass,  and  in  the  cities 
schools  for  negroes  were  conducted  in  avoidance,  connivance,  or  defiance  of  ordi¬ 
nances  and  enactments. 

In  1865  there  was  to  be  found  in  every  Southern  community  a  goodly  sprinkling 
of  colored  men  and  women  who  had  previously  learned  how  to  read  and  write. 

The  censuses  of  1850  and  1860  give  the  number  of  free  colored  people  attending 
school  in  the  several  States.  These  figures,  for  obvious  reasons,  represent  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  negroes,  free  and  slave,  who  were  openly  or  furtively  gain¬ 
ing  the  elements  of  literary  knowledge.  The  decline  in  avowed  school  attend¬ 
ance  between  1850  and  1860  is  due  to  the  growing  intensity  of  feeling  which  cul¬ 
minated  during  that  decade. 

Free  negroes  attending  school . 


State. 

1850. 

I860. 

Delaware . . . 

187 

250 

Maryland . 

1,616 

467 

1,855 

678 

District  of  Columbia . . 

Virginia  - . . . 

64 

41 

North  Carolina . 

217 

133 

South  Carolina . 

80 

365 

Georgia . 

1 

7 

Florida .  . 

66 

9 

Alabama . 

68 

114 

Mississippi . 

Louisiana . 

i,2i§ 

275 

State. 

1850. 

1860. 

Texas . 

20 

11 

Arkansas _ _ 

11 

5 

Tennessee _ _ _ 

70 

53 

Kentucky . . . 

288 

209 

Missouri  . . . . . . 

40 

155 

Slave  States _ _ _ _ 

4,414 

28,213 

3,661 

22,800 

Free  States _  _ 

Total  . 

32,627 

26, 461 

It  will  be  noticed  that  most  of  the  enactments  against  the  education  of  the 
negro  were  made  subsequently  to  1830.  The  Nat  Turner  insurrection  and  the  open¬ 
ing  up  of  the  antislavery  campaign  in  the  North  had  a  decidedly  reactionary 
effect  in  the  slave  territory. 

A  people  who  have  made  such  sacrifice  and  run  such  risks  for  the  sake  of 
knowledge,  who  of  their  own  scanty  means  were  ever  willing  to  support  schools 
for  the  education  of  their  children,  although  their  property  had  been  taxed  for 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


749 


the  support  of  an  educational  system  from  which  they  were  excluded,  surely 
deserves  a  larger  and  fuller  draught  of  that  knowledge  of  which  the  regime  of 
slavery  permitted  them  to  gain  only  a  foretaste.  The  civil  war  wiped  out  all  of 
these  restrictions,  and  at  its  close  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau,  religious  and  benevo¬ 
lent  associations,  and  the  reconstructed  governments  of  the  former  slave  States 
threw  wide  open  the  gate  of  knowledge. 

The  avidity  and  zeal  with  which  the  erstwhile  suppressed  population  seized  upon 
the  new  opportunity  furnishes  the  most  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of 
American  education.  Educational  opportunities  were  thus  thrown  open  to  a 
people  who  desired  and  needed  them  above  all,  and  who  had  shown  by  long  and 
persistent  endeavor  that  they  were  fully  worthy  and  deserving  of  them. 

III.  Separate  School  Provisions. 

Although  the  reconstruction  governments  have  been  charged  with  every  known 
public  sin,  yet  they  have  one  conspicuous  countervailing  claim  to  the  everlasting 
gratitude  of  the  South.  They  established  the  public  school  system  upon  a  broad 
and  enduring  foundation,  making  provision  for  the  education  of  all  children 
regardless  of  race  or  color.  The  South  will  search  its  records  in  vain  for  another 
act  of  statesmanship  fraught  with  so  much  wisdom  and  beneficent  consequences. 
No  one  has  yet  had  the  temerity  to  question  the  wisdom  of  this  one  redeeming 
memorial  to  the  hated  reconstruction  regime.  Be  it  said  to  the  credit  of  the  white 
people  of  the  South,  that  when  they  regained  political  ascendency  they  undertook 
to  strengthen,  rather  than  to  upset  the  educational  propaganda  originated  by  their 
political  foes. 

The  avowed  policy  of  the  Southern  people  is  that  equal,  but  separate,  educa¬ 
tional  facilities  shall  be  provided  for  the  two  races.  This  is  with  them  a  funda¬ 
mental  principle,  concerning  the  wisdom  of  which  it  would  be  a  mere  waste  of 
time  to  contend.  It  is  the  most  vital  clause  in  their  social  creed,  and  has  become 
embedded  in  the  fundamental  and  organic  laws  of  the  several  States,  being  as 
fixed  and  invariable  as  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  The  following  cita¬ 
tions  will  show  the  unanimity  of  the  several  Southern  States  as  to  scholastic  sepa¬ 
ration  of  the  races: 

Alabama. — The  general  assembly  shall  establish,  organize,  and  maintain  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  public  schools  throughout  the  State  for  the  equal  benefit  of  the  children 
thereof  between  the  ages  of  7  and  21  years;  but  separate  schools  shall  be  provided 
for  children  of  African  descent.  (School  Laws,  p.  3.) 

Arkansas. — Intelligence  and  virtue  being  the  safeguards  of  liberty,  and  the  bul¬ 
wark  of  free  and  good  government,  the  State  shall  ever  maintain  a  general,  suit¬ 
able,  and  sufficient  system  of  free  schools,  whereby  all  persons  in  the  State, 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years,  may  receive  gratuitous  instruction.  (School 
Laws,  1897,  p.  9.) 

The  said  board  shall  make  provisions  for  establishing  separate  schools  for  white 
and  colored  children  and  youths.  (Ibid., p.  48.) 

District  of  Columbia. — Separate  schools  for  white  children  and  for  colored  chil¬ 
dren  shall  be  provided.  (Rules  of  Board  of  Education,  1901,  p.  1.) 

Florida. — White  and  colored  children  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same  school, 
but  impartial  provisions  shall  be  made  for  both.  (School  Laws,  1897,  p.  12.) 

It  shall  be  a  penal  offense  for  any  individual,  body  of  individuals,  corporation 
or  association,  to  conduct  within  this  State  any  school  of  any  grade,  public,  pri¬ 
vate,  or  parochial,  wherein  white  persons  and  negroes  shall  be  instructed  or 
boarded  within  the  same  building,  or  taught  in  the  same  class,  or  at  the  same  time 
by  the  same  teacher.  (Ibid.,  chaps.  43-45,  sec.  1.) 

Any  person  or  persons  violating  the  provisions  of  section  1  of  this  act,  by  patron¬ 
izing  or  teaching  in  such  school  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be  fined  in  a  sum 
not  less  than  $150  nor  more  than  $500,  or  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  for  not 
less  than  three  months  nor  more  than  six  months  for  every  such  offense.  (Ibid., 
sec.  2.) 

Georgia. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  board  of  education  to  make  arrangements 
for  the  instruction  of  the  children  of  the  white  and  colored  races  in  separate 


750 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


schools.  They  shall,  as  far  as  practicable,  provide  the  same  facilities  for  both 
races  in  respect  to  attainments  and  abilities  of  teachers  and  length  of  term  time; 
but  the  children  of  the  white  and  colored  races  shall  not  be  taught  together  in 
any  common  or  public  school  of  this  State.  t  School  Laws,  1897,  p.  15.) 

Kentucky. — There  shall  be  maintained  throughout  the  State  of  Kentucky  a  uni¬ 
form  sj^stem  of  common  schools.  *  *  *  It  shall  not  be  lawful,  under  any  of 
the  provisions  of  this  chapter,  for  any  white  child  to  attend  any  common  school 
provided  for  colored  children,  or  for  any  colored  child  to  attend  any  common 
school  provided  for  white  children.  (School  Laws,  1897,  chap.  154.) 

Maryland. — It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  county  school  commissioners 
to  establish  one  or  more  public  schools  in  each  election  district  for  all  colored 
youth  between  6  and  20  years  of  age,  to  which  admission  shall  be  free,  and  which 
shall  be  kept  open  as  long  as  the  other  public  schools  of  the  county:  Provided , 
The  average  attendance  be  not  less  than  10  scholars  for  two  consecutive  terms. 
(School  Laws,  1898,  sec.  96.) 

Each  colored  school  shall  be  under  a  separate  board  of  school  trustees,  to  be 
appointed  by  the  board  of  county  school  commissioners,  and  shall  be  under  the 
same  laws  for  its  government  and  furnish  instruction  in  the  same  branches  as 
schools  for  white  children.  (Ibid.,  sec.  7.) 

Mississippi. — There  shall  be  maintained  a  uniform  system  of  free  public  schools 
for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  5  and  21  years.  (School  Laws,  1894,  sec.  3162.) 

Separate  schools  shall  be  maintained  for  children  of  the  white  and  colored 
races.  (Ibid.,  sec.  207.) 

Missouri. — Separate  free  schools  shall  be  established  for  the  education  of  chil¬ 
dren  of  African  descent;  and  it  shall  hereafter  be  unlawful  in  public  schools  of 
this  State  for  any  colored  child  to  attend  any  white  school  or  for  any  white  child 
to  attend  any  colored  school.  (School  Laws,  1893,  p.  17.) 

North  Carolina. — The  school  commissioners  shall  establish  and  locate  in  the 
districts,  schools  for  the  white  race  and  schools  for  the  colored  race.  (School 
Laws,  1897,  sec.  2550.) 

South  Carolina. — The  general  assembly  shall  provide  for  a  liberal  system  of 
free  public  schools  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  years. — (Constitu¬ 
tion,  1895.) 

Separate  schools  shall  be  provided  for  children  of  the  white  and  colored  races, 
and  no  child  of  either  race  shall  ever  be  permitted  to  attend  a  school  provided  for 
children  of  the  other  race.  (Ibid.) 

Tennessee.— There  shall  be  established  and  maintained  in  this  State  a  uniform 
system  of  public  schools.  (School  Laws,  1895,  sec.  1.) 

Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  allow  or  permit  mixed  schools  of 
the  white  and  colored  population,  but  such  schools  shall  be  taught  separately,  as 
now  provided  by  law.  (Ibid.,  p.  23.) 

Texas. — The  children  of  the  white  and  colored  races  shall  be  taught  in  separate 
schools,  and  in  no  case  shall  any  school  consisting  partly  of  white  and  partly  of 
colored  children  receive  any  aid  from  the  public  school  fund.  (School  Laws, 
1899,  sec.  16.) 

All  the  available  public  school  funds  of  this  State  shall  be  appropriated  in  each 
county  for  the  education  alike  of  white  and  colored  children,  and  impartial 
provisions  shall  be  made  for  both  races.  (Ibid.,  sec.  13.) 

Virginia. — White  and  colored  persons  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same  school, 
but  in  separate  schools,  under  the  same  general  regulations  as  to  management, 
usefulness,  and  efficiency.  (School  Laws,  1892,  sec.  77.) 

West  Virginia. — White  and  colored  persons  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same 
school.  (School  Laws,  1897,  p.  17.) 

This  separation  of  races  raises  important  economic  questions.  It  is  well  known 
that  a  dual  scheme  of  schools  covering  a  sparsely  settled  territory  practically 
duplicates  the  expense  of  a  unified  system.  Although  race  prejudice  proves  to 
be  very  expensive,  yet  the  white  South  is  pledged  to  its  maintenance  at  any  cost. 
The  wisdom  of  this  policy  is  not  a  profitable  subject  of  discussion.  The  policy 
emphasizes  the  necessity  of  outside  aid  for  the  education  of  both  classes  of 
children. 


THE  EDUCATION-  OF  THE  NEGRO, 


751 


Number  of  persons  to  the  square  mile ,  1890 . 


State. 

Total. 

White. 

Colored. 

22.11 

41.81 

36.39 

271. 48 
317. 44 
154. 03 
125. 95 
193. 82 
116. 88 

Pennsylvania  _  _  .  _  _ _ _ _ _ 

North  Atlantic  Division  _ _ _ _ _ 

101.37 

Delaware  .  . . . . . . . . - . 

_ 

_ 

85. 97 
105. 72 
3, 839. 87 
41.27 
30. 95 
33.30 
36.18 
31 . 15 
7.22 

60.49 

83.85 
2, 590. 40 

25.44 

29.65 

21.85 
15.42 
16.60 

4.17 

14. 48 
21.87 
1,249.47 
15.  83 
1.30 
11.45 
22. 74 
14. 55 
3.05 

Maryland . . . . . . . - . . . 

District  of  Columbia. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Virginia  ..  .  . .  . . . 

West  Virginia  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

North  Carolina  ..  _ _ _  _ _ _ 

South  Carolina  . . . . . . . . . 

Georgia . . . . . . . . 

Florida  . . 

South  Atlantic  Division  .  _ _ _ _ 

32.98 

North  Central  States  _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

_ 

29. 68 
18.94 
2.58 
38.98 
46. 47 

South  Central  Division . . . . . 

Western  Division  . .  . . . - _ 

Missouri . . . . . 

36.  79 
39.76 

2.19 

6.71 

Kentucky  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

United  States _  _  ■_ _ 

21  TbT 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  relative  density  of  the  population  for  the 
severed  geographical  divisions  of  the  United  States.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  slave 
States  as  a  group  are  more  sparsely  settled  than  any  other  section  of  the  country, 
excepting,  of  course,  the  far  West,  with  its  vast  stretches  of  uninhabited  and 
uninhabitable  spaces.  The  difficulty  of  maintaining  a  duplicate  system  of  schools 
for  such  a  population  is  clearly  apparent.  The  inevitable  result  is  inferior  scho¬ 
lastic  accommodations  and  greater  hardship  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in  securing 
them.  Pennsylvania  has  an  average  density  of  116  persons  to  the  square  mile, 
while  Georgia  has  only  31,  or,  to  count  the  two  independent  component  elements, 
16-|-  white,  and  14£  colored.  The  State  must  be  covered  with  a  dual  system  of 
schools  for  the  accommodation  of  the  two  component  classes.  If  the  two  States 
were  equal  in  proportional  financial  ability,  and  if  both  had  a  unified  system, 
Pennsylvania  could  maintain  far  more  efficient  schools,  because  of  the  relative 
density  of  the  pupils  to  be  taught;  but  when  we  take  into  account  the  relative 
fiscal  status  and  the  solidified  system  in  the  one,  and  the  bifurcation  of  funds  and 
facilities  in  the  other,  the  educational  possibilities  of  the  two  become  startingly  dis- 
proportional.  Georgia  and  Iowa  have  approximately  the  same  area  and  popula¬ 
tion.  The  school  expenditure  for  Georgia  in  1899-1900  was  $1,807,815;  for  Iowa, 
$8,588,417.  The  population  in  both  States  is  mainly  rural.  And  yet  Georgia,  with 
only  one-fourth  of  the  school  funds,  must  do  twice  the  work  of  its  northern  coun¬ 
terpart.  The  result  is  inevitable.  A  dollar  will  go  no  further  in  Georgia  than  in 
Iowa,  and  a  dollar  applied  to  the  education  of  the  negro  will  accomplish  no  more 
than  one  applied  to  the  education  of  a  white  child. 

These  instances  are  but  typical  of  the  relative  educational  conditions  which 
prevail  in  the  Northern  and  Southern  States.  National  aid  alone  can  bring  the 
latter  up  to  the  requisite  educational  status. 

In  the  second  place  these  States,  by  clear  declaration  or  imperative  inference, 
are  pledged  to  equal  school  facilities  for  both  races.  The  general  school  fund 
should  therefore  be  apportioned  between  the  races  on  the  basis  of  relative  numer¬ 
ical  strength.  The  colored  element  being  shorn  of  political  power,  is  wholly  at  the 


752 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


mercy  of  the  whites  for  the  carrying  out  of  this  provision.  It  will  be  seen  also 
that  the  schools  for  the  less  numerous  race,  provided  equal  facilities  are  afforded, 
must  be  proportionately  more  expensive  than  for  the  race  numerically  dominant. 
In  all  the  Southern  States,  therefore,  except  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  and 
Louisiana,1  the  cost  of  education  of  the  negro  would  relatively  exceed  that  of  the 
whites.  Several  of  the  States— notably  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Delaware — appor¬ 
tion  only  that  portion  of  local  school  taxes  paid  by  colored  property  holders  to  col¬ 
ored  schools.  The  Maryland  law  requires  that  “the  total  amount  of  taxes  paid 
for  school  purposes  by  the  colored  people  of  any  county,  or  in  the  city  of  Balti¬ 
more,  together  with  any  donation  that  may  be  made  for  this  purpose,  shall  be 
devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  schools  for  colored  children.”'2 

This  does  not  of  necessity  limit  the  provision  for  colored  schools  to  the  taxes 
paid  by  colored  people.  It  is  not  imperative,  but  permissory;  and  in  some  of  the 
counties  at  least  the  practice  prevails. 

The  school  laws  of  Kentucky  are  more  emphatic:  “  But  no  tax  shall  be  levied 
upon  the  property  or  poll  or  any  services  required  of  any  white  person  for  the 
benefit  of  a  school  for  colored  children;  and  no  tax  shall  be  levied  upon  the  prop¬ 
erty  or  poll  or  any  services  required  of  any  colored  person  for  the  benefit  of  a 
school  for  white  children.”3 

In  the  school  report  for  the  county  of  Sussex,  Del.,  1892,  we  find  the  following 
components  of  the  educational  fund  for  the  colored  race: 


Amount  from  State _  . . . . . . . . $2,  783. 33 

Unexpended  balance  for  books _ _  _  114.  93 

Amount  of  colored  taxes . . . . . .  569. 89 

Unexpended  balance  for  salaries . . .  45. 78 


Total . . . . . . .  3,513.93 

Reserved  for  books _ _ _ _ _  464. 04 


Balance  applied  to  salaries . . .  3, 049. 89 


The  State  fund  is  of  course  distributed  equally  according  to  population,  the 
application  of  taxes  from  negro  property  holders  to  negro  education  applying  only 
to  county  or  local  provisions. 

In  these  States  we  have  an  indication  of  the  general  policy  which  has  sometimes 
been  advocated  of  assigning  to  colored  education  only  the  proportional  taxes  paid 
by  that  race.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  educational  fund  in  the  South  is  not  equably 
apportioned  between  the  two  races  except  in  a  few  States.  The  accompanying 
table  clearly  indicates  the  inequality  of  distribution: 


Per  capita  expense  of  white  and  colored  schools ,  1897-98 .4 


State. 

Expenditure. 

Estimated  number  of 
children  5  to  18. 

Per  capita  cost  of 
education. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

District  of  Columbia . 

Florida . 

Kentucky  . . 

Maryland  - . . . 

North  Carolina . 

5 $692, 547 
565, 465 

6  2, 586, 032 
2,388,721 

7 454, 976 

5 $273, 382 
171, 486 

6  322, 322 
320,383 

7  240, 446 

46,720 
95, 460 
570, 000 
272, 700 
387, 600 

25. 700 
75, 640 
97, 500 

78. 700 
232, 400 

$14. 82 
5.92 
«  4. 59 
8.76 
1.17 

$10. 64 
2.27 
6  3.34 
4.07 
1.03 

1  The  Twelfth  Census  gives  a  clear  white  majority  in  Louisiana. 

2  School  Laws,  1898,  sectino  94. 

3  School  Laws,  1897. 

4  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1898-99,  vol.  1,  p.  lxxxix  et  seq. 

6  Does  not  include  permanent  improvements. 

61896-97. 

7  Excluding  certain  sums  not  classified  by  race,  and  a  few  counties  not  reported. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO.  75& 


School  expenditure  of  the  sixteen  former  slave  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia 
approximately  classified  by  race. 1 


Year. 

Estimated  expenditure 
for  each  race. 

Estimated  school 
population  for 
each  race. 

Expenditure  per 
capita  of  school 
population. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

1870-71  . . . . . 

*9, 605, 158 
11, 297, 560 
10, 123,542 
12, 730, 938 
16,392, 646 
21,245,685 
24, 432, 222 
24,765,544 

$780,303 
1, 723, 954 
2,050,599 
3,632,533 
4,429,323 
5,444,625 
5,011,362 
6,451,935 

3,236,630 
3,547,430 
3,900,250 
4, 308, 000 
4,759,100 
5,230,115 
5, 679, 755 
5,828,980 

1,578,170 
1,794,870 
2,042, 150 
2,221,930 

2.382.570 
2,551,511 
2,761,205 

2. 844.570 

$2. 97 
3. 18 
2.60 
2. 96 
3.44 
4. 08 
4.30 
4.25 

$0. 49- 
.95 
1. 00- 
1.63> 
1.86- 
2. 13 
1.81 
2.27- 

1874-75 . . . 

1878-79 . . . . 

1882-83 . . . 

1886-87  . 

1890-91  . 

1894-95  . 

1897-98  . 

Total2 . . 

444, 769,585 

101,860,661 

1  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1898-99,  vol.  1. 

2  Specimen  items  are  here  presented  at  intervals  of  five  years  in  order  to  show  the  progressiv  5-- 
character  of  these  provisions.  The  total  is  taken  from  the  full  table  as  prepared  by  the  Bureau^ 
of  Education. 

These  tables  show  that  the  per  capita  expense  of  the  education  of  the  negro 
child  is,  in  the  Southern  States,  at  present  about  one-half  of  that  of  the  white- 
child.  In  North  Carolina  the  two  are  nearly  even,  being  $1.17  for  the  white  and. 
$1.03  for  the  colored,  while  in  Florida  the  proportion  is  $5.92  to  $2.27.  The 
encouraging  suggestion  of  these  figures  is  that  the  cost  of  the  education  of  the  col¬ 
ored  race  has  been  steadily  increasing  both  absolutely  and  relatively  since  1870- 
In  that  year  the  per  capita  cost  of  the  education  of  the  white  child  was  $2.97  and  of 
the  colored  child  $0.49,  whereas  in  1897  the  figures  tvere  $4.25  to  $2.27,  respectively^ 
It  is  but  fair  to  state  that  part  of  the  disproportion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the* 
schools  of  the  white  race  represent  a  higher  grade  of  scholastic  attainments  and, 
as  is  well  known,  advanced  courses  are  more  expensive  than  the  elementary- 
branches. 

The  State,  in  so  far  as  it  controls  education,  must,  by  the  very  nature  and  theory- 
of  its  function,  furnish  equal  accommodations  for  all  of  its  citizens.  The  funds 
are  the  common  property  of  all  the  people,  and  therefore  should  not  be  appor¬ 
tioned  according  to  class  or  race  distinction.  It  is  interesting  to  study  the  sources, 
of  these  funds  as  furnishing  light  as  to  their  just  apportionment  between  the  races.. 

Sources  of  public- school  funds. 

ALABAMA  (1898). 


Balance . A . . .  $42, 727.  50 

Apportionate . . . .  . . . . 407, 579. 25 

White  poll  tax. . . . . . .  107,480.86 

Colored  poll  tax . .  . . .  37, 344. 77 

Total . . . .  . __ . .  595, 132. 38 

ARKANSAS  (1900). 

Amount  on  hand . . . . . . ...........  $570,595.26 

Common-school  fund . . . . . . . .  446, 557. 55 

District  tax . . . . . .  805, 412. 54 

Other  sources . . . .  19,111.91 

Total  income.  . . . . . .  1, 841, 677. 20- 

district  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Congressional  appropriation,  one- half  being  chargeable  to  the  District. 

ED  1901 - 48 


754 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
FLORIDA  (1900). 


Cash  on  hand . . . . . . . .  $74, 608. 00 

Interest  on  State  fund _ _ _ _  35,557.00 

One-mill  apportionment _ _ _ _ *  88, 892. 00 

County  levies . 371,539.00 

Back  taxes . . . . . - .  68,418.00 

Poll  taxes _ _ _ _ _ _ _  _  36, 432. 00 

Back  poll  taxes _ _  _ _ _  11,396.00 

Examination  fees . 1,967.00 

Nonresident  pupils . 402.00 

School  district  taxes.. _ _ _ . _ _  40,  234. 00 

All  other  sources _ _ _ _ _ . _  24, 627. 00 


Total  income . . .  754, 072.  00 


GEORGIA  (1899). 

Poll  tax . . . . .  $238,515.00 

Direct  tax_ . . . . . . . . .  800,  000. 00 

Rent  W.  and  S.  R.  R . . . . , .  210, 006.  00 

Liquor  tax . . . . . . .  142,452.00 

Inspection  of  fertilizers . . . . . . .  6, 173.  00 

Convict  lease  . . . . . . . . .  24,255.00 

Dividend  from  stock . . . .  2, 046. 00 

Show  tax . . . . . . .  4,692.00 

Oil  fees . . . . . . . . .  12,503.00 


Total . . . . . .  1,440,642.00 


KENTUCKY  (1896). 

Balance . . .  $44, 060. 76 

Sheriffs’ revenue  . .  _ . . . . . . .  1,161,055.36 

Interest  on  old  school  bonds . . . . . . . .  79, 620. 00 

Interest  on  new  school  bonds . . . . . .  36, 399. 01 

Tax  on  banks . . . . .  . . .  275,000.00 

Tax  on  railroads . . . . . . . . . .  120,  000. 00 

Tax  on  distilled  spirits . . .  20, 000  00 

Tax  on  miscellaneous  corporations  . . . . . . .  25, 000.  00 

Licenses,  fines,  etc . .  245,000.00 

Dividends  in  banks  of  Kentucky . . . . .  5, 880. 00 

Miscellaneous .  . . .  30,  000. 00 


Total _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  2,042,015.13 


Mississippi  (1898-99). 

Balance . . . . . . . . . .  $142,091.89 

State  distribution  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  617, 780. 62 

Polls... . . . . . . . . .  246,365.67 

Institute  fund.  . . . . . . .  8, 279. 91 

Sixteenth  section . . . . . . . . .  77, 712. 12 

Chickasaw  fund _ _ _ _  47, 492.  54 

Special  tax  for  old  warrants _ _  164. 20 

County  levy _ _ _ _ _  33, 937. 89 

Interest  on  3  per  cent  funds . . . . . . .  18, 352. 74 

Separate  school  districts . . . . . . .  342, 589. 47 

Two  and  3  per  cent  fund . . .  3,  699. 90 


Total  income . . . . . . . .  1 , 538, 466.  95 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


755 


NORTH  CAROLINA  (1899). 

Balance  . - _ _ _ _ -  $189,681.17 

State  and  county  poll  tax._r . . . . . . . .  303,818.21 

General  property  special  tax - - - -  433, 886. 44 

Special  property  local  tax _ _ _ _ _ _  15, 781 . 35 

Fines,  penalties,  etc . . . . . . . .  14, 413. 15 

Liquor  licenses . . . , . . . . . . .  71, 122. 36 

Auctioneers.. - - - - - -  1,435.00 

State  treasury . . . . . .  8,975.36 

Other  sources . . . - . . .  56, 275. 36 


Total . . . . . .  1,059,213.13 


SOUTH  CAROLINA  (1899). 

Balance . . .  _ . .  $99, 131 . 30 

Poll . . . . . .  121,383.72 

Three-mill  tax . . _ . . . .. . „ .  437, 310. 09 

Dispensary . . . . . .  76,672.65 

Special  levy _ _ _ _ _ -  93, 088. 49 


Total _ _ _ _ _ _ . _  827,586.25 


TENNESSEE  (1899). 

Balance . . . . . .  $633,233.06 

From  State. . . . . . . . . . _.  157, 245. 98 

From  counties  . . . . . . _ —  1,407,082.10 

From  other  sources . . . . .  170,  366. 21 


Total . . . . . . . .  2,367,927.35 


Texas  (1896-97). 

Balance . . . . . . . . .  $323,879.18 

State  appropriation,  1895-96  . . . . .  152, 904. 20 

State  appropriation,  1898-97  . . . . . . . . . .  2, 977,  429. 60 

Apportionment  to  towns  and  cities . . . . , . .  307, 660. 96 

Local,  county,  city,  and  town  taxes . . . . . .  807,600.19 

Transfer  of  pupils  . . . . . . . . __  24,897.27 

Tuition. . . . . . .  41,170.30 

Other  sources  . .. . . . . .  82, 094.  66 


Total _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  4,717,636.36 


VIRGINIA  (1899). 

State  fund . . . . . . .  . .  $764,282.01 

Direct  appropriation  by  legislature _ _ _  200, 000.  00 

Interest  on  literary  fund _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...  47, 532. 96 

County  fund _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  259,  654. 44 

City  fund . . . . . . . . .  392,352.14' 

Other  local  funds _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  55,462.78 

District  fund . . . . . .  291,339.20 


Total . . . .  2,010,623.53 


These  figures  of  nearly  all  of  the  Southern  States  are  sufficient  to  show  the 
general  amounts  and  sources  of  school  funds. 

It  has  recently  been  urged  that  the  negro  pays  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
cost  of  his  own  education,  while  the  great  burden  falls  upon  the  shoulders  of  the 
white  taxpayer.  A  study  of  the  sources  of  the  public  school  funds  will  throw 
much  light  upon  the  theory  sought  to  be  upheld  in  this  assertion.  The  figures  for 
the  State  of  Georgia  are  perhaps  more  easily  analyzed  than  those  of  any  other  State. 
This  question  was  studied  by  the  recent  Atlanta  conference,  with  the  conclusion 
that  the  negro,  to  a  much  greater  degree  than  is  generally  supposed,  pays  for  his 
own  education. 

“It  was  estimated  that  the  negroes  of  Georgia  paid  during  1899  $26,347.43  in 


756  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

direct  tax  and  $39,003  in  polls,  making  a  total  of  $115,530.48  paid  directly  by  the 
race  for  educational  purposes.  The  nature  of  the  indirect  taxation  of  Georgia 
is  such  that  the  negro  is,  without  any  shadow  of  question,  entitled  to  his  due 


proportion. 

Western  and  Atlantic  Railroad _ _ _ $210,  000 

Liquor  tax - - -  . - - - - -  142, 000 

Convict  lease _ .... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  24,255 

Dividend  from  stocks _ _ _ _ _ • . . .  2, 046 

Show  tax.... . . . . . . . . . .  4,692 

Oil  tax _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .... _ _ _ _  12, 503 


“The  negro’s  pro  rata  share  of  the  school  fund  raised  by  indirect  taxation  was 
$176,898.24,  making  a  grand  total  of  $292,248.67.  The  expenditure  for  negro 
schools,  including  proportional  cost  of  superintendence,  was  $288,128.  This  would 
seem  to  show  that  the  whites  of  Georgia,  at  least,  do  not  contribute  one  cent  to 
negro  education. 

“On  the  same  basis  of  calculation,  though  with  confessed  lack  of  definite  data, 
the  conference  shows  a  like  condition  of  things  for  the  entire  South.  The  negro  is 
shown  to  have  contributed  in  thirty  years  $104,539,591  toward  public  education. 
This  sum,  of  course,  includes  lii3  pro  rata  share  of  general  funds,  such  as  land 
funds  and  indirect  taxation.  The  total  cost  of  negro  education  for  the  period  was 
$101,860,601. 

“Although  these  figures  are  given  out  as  tentative,  yet  there  can  be  no  question 
as  to  the  substantial  correctness  of  the  conclusion  that  the  negro’s  education 
imposes  no  special  burden  upon  the  white  taxpayers  of  the  South.  The  wide 
currency  and  general  acceptance  of  the  assertion  is  but  another  illustration  of  the 
ease  with  which  frequently  reiterated  though  unsupported  statements  concern¬ 
ing  the  negro  gain  currency  and  credence.  ” 1 

General  educational  statistics. 


State. 

School  popula¬ 
tion. 

Enrollment. 

Number  of 
teachers. 

Average  sal¬ 
ary. 

Length  of 
school 
term. 

© 

2 

£ 

•d 

© 

u 

2 

O 

© 

2 

£ 

*d 

£ 
o 
' o 
o 

© 

-u> 

2 

© 

u 

o 

2 

O 

© 

2 

£ 

'd 

© 

t-, 

o 

2 

o 

© 

2 

£ 

'd 

© 

u 

o 

2 

o 

Alabama . 

851,328 

341,492 

622,554 

93,351 

282,733 

131,016 

113,555 

68,077 

196,299 
230, 345 
391, 080 
67, 077 
162, 460 
263,217 
123,398 

122,915 
84,317 
64, 246 
41,797 
196,829 
127,399 
146,477 

4, 773 
5,518 
8,564 
2,084 
4,419 

2,301 

1,441 

1,396 

645 

3,023 

$25.05 

$17. 66 

»68 

162 

Arkansas . . . 

Kentucky  _ 

Florida  . 

36. 81 
30. 49 
26.32 

27.67 

19.59 

22.23 

i95 

i87 

Mississippi _ 

North  Carolina . 

408,787 

196, 600 

214. 06 
36. 81 

212.82 
33. 63 

South  Carolina 

3,000 

7,347 

10,468 

2,003 

1,867 

2,855 

Tennessee  _ _ 

566,434 

193, 728 

Texas . . 

48.45 

46. 86 

35. 29 

34. 85 

Virginia  . 

397, 162 

268, 703 

241, 696 

117, 129 

1  Days.  2  Weeks.  3  Months. 


This  table,  while  not  complete,  and  the  figures  not  being  for  the  same  date  for 
all  of  the  States,  nevertheless  gives  a  fair  general  impression  of  the  prevailing 
educational  treatment  which  the  two  races  receive.  In  general,  the  white  schools 
run  longer  than  the  colored,  there  are  more  white  teachers  in  proportion  to  the 
population,  and  they  receive  higher  average  of  salary.  These  discrepant  arrange¬ 
ments  range  from  the  most  glaring  disproportions  in  some  States  to  an  almost 
exact  equivalence  in  others.  In  South  Carolina  there  are  3,000  white  teachers  for 
123,398  pupils  and  2,003  colored  teachers  for  146,477  negro  pupils.  The  length  of 
school  term  for  the  whites  is  6.81  months  and  for  the  blacks  only  3.65  months. 


1  Dr.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  Independent,  July  18, 1901. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


757 


Although  the  blacks  constitute  three-fifths  of  the  population,  their  educational 
allowance  absorbs  scarce  more  than  one-fourth  the  total  school  fund.  In  Florida 
the  whites  have  2,084  teachers  for  68,077  pupils,  while  the  blacks  are  allowed  only 
645  teachers  for  41,797  pupils.  The  relative  compensation  for  teachers  is  $86.81 
and  $27.67  per  month,  and  the  relative  lengths  of  school  terms  ninety-five  and 
eighty-seven  days.  On  the  other  hand,  in  North  Carolina,  if  we  make  the  neces¬ 
sary  allowance  for  the  inevitable  differences  in  the  scholastic  requirements  of  the 
two  races,  the  provisions  both  as  to  length  of  term  and  compensation  of  teachers 
seem  to  be  equitable  enough.  In  Texas,  whose  school  laws  require  equal  facilities 
for  the  two  races,  the  provisions  are  entirely  beyond  complaint,  whether  we  con¬ 
sider  the  relative  number  of  teachers  employed,  their  compensation,  or  the  length 
of  school  term.  While  the  whites  are  a  fraction  ahead,  yet  this  difference  can  be 
accounted  for  on  other  grounds  than  race  discrimination.  The  white  teachers 
average  $48.45  per  month,  while  the  colored  teachers  average  $46.86.  This  differ¬ 
ence  is  doubtless  due  to  the  higher-grade  certificates  held  by  white  teachers.  The 
average  term  for  white  schools  is  5.39  months;  for  colored,  4.85.  This  slight  dis’ 
crepancy  may  be  effected  by  the  relative  distribution  and  density  of  the  two 
elements  of  the  population. 

On  the  whole,  it  appears  that  while  the  negro  constitutes  one-third  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  original  slave  States,  the  cost  of  his  education  is  not  more  than  one- 
fifth  the  total  allowance— that  is,  the  educational  provision  of  a  colored  child  costs 
just  half  as  much  as  that  for  a  white  child. 

IV.  Negro  Owners  and  Tenants  of  Farms  and  Homes. 

The  census  of  1890  contains  a  vast  deal  of  valuable  information  concerning  the 
negro  race,  a  careful  study  of  which  throws  much  light  upon  current  educational 
discussion.  The  negro  problem  is  ever  discussed,  but  seldom  studied.  In  no  other 
field  of  serious  inquiry  do  We  find  such  an  extravagance  of  assertion  coupled  with 
such  paucity  of  proof.  We  are  expected  to  accept,  without  investigation,  state¬ 
ments  and  solutions  born  of  impatience  and  haste,  although  they  clearly  violate 
easily  accessible  and  accurate  data. 

The  assertion  that  the  whites  gratuitously  impose  a  tax  upon  themselves  to  defray 
the  cost  of  negro  education  has  gained  such  wide  currency  and  credence  as  to 
become  almost  a  universally  accepted  belief.  Indeed,  it  is  postulated  as  an  axiom 
in  current  discussions.  But  the  potency  of  fact  must  in  the  end  overcome  the 
fascination  of  assertion.  It  is,  however,  a  slow  and  painful  process  to  uproot 
popular  prejudice  by  scientific  demonstration.  A  full  and  fair  presentation  of  the 
negro  as  a  contributing  factor  to  the  industrial  and  economic  life  of  the  South  will 
be  sufficient  proof  that  his  educational  privileges  are  not  bestowTed  as  a  charity* 
but  are  a  legitimate  part  of  the  fruits  of  his  own  endeavor. 

Interesting  as  such  inquiry  might  be,  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  investigation 
to  discuss  the  theory  and  function  of  public  education,  except  in  so  far  as  its  bear¬ 
ing  upon  the  present  task  makes  it  imperative. 

The  public-school  system  is  the  most  democratic  feature  of  our  democratic  insti¬ 
tutions.  The  obvious  object  is  to  produce  a  higher  average  of  intelligence  and 
good  citizenship.  It  is  undertaken  and  controlled  by  the  State  for  the  general 
welfare.  The  rich  and  the  poor  meet  together  on  terms  of  perfect  equality,  and 
the  State  administers  facilities  impartially,  alike  to  all.  The  taxpaying  ability  of 
the  recipient  is  no  more  a  legitimate  factor  in  popular  education  than  it  is  in  the 
enforcement  of  law  or  the  administration  of  justice.  The  childless  millionaire  is 
taxed  to  educate  the  progeny  of  the  prolific  peasant  with  as  much  justice  and 
equity  as  when  a  tax  is  imposed  upon  the  exemplary  citizen  to  restrain  the  vicious 
and  the  lawless. 

The  injection  of  the  negro  usually  forms  a  perturbing  element  in  the  sociological 
equation.  The  social  formulas  which  pass  unchallenged  among  white  men  lose 


758 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


much  of  their  force  and  effect  when  made  to  include  the  negro.  This  race  was 
injected,  without  warning  or  preparation,  into  the  general  body  politic,  and  has 
ever  since  formed  a  disturbing  and  irritating  factor.  At  the  close  of  the  war  the 
negro,  as  might  well  be  imagined,  figured  scarcely  at  all  in  the  roll  of  taxpayers. 
Y/hen,  therefore,  public  schools  were  inaugurated  in  the  South  carrying  like  pro¬ 
visions  for  both  races  it  might  have  appeared,  on  first  view,  that  the  whites  were 
being  taxed  for  the  education  of  the  blacks.  How  prone  men  are  to  be  satisfied 
with  appearances  without  stopping  to  investigate  the  underlying  principles.  It  is 
a  dictum  of  political  economy  that  labor  pays  every  tax  in  the  world.  The  negro 
did  not,  indeed,  enjoy  the  privilege  of  passing  the  tribute  to  the  tax  taker,  for  the 
accumulated  fruits  of  his  labor  were  in  the  possession  of  another  race. 

But  does  this  justly  preclude  him  from  sharing  in  all  the  public  privileges  which 
the  fruits  of  his  labor  make  possible?  Every  laborer  contributes  his  full  share 
and  more  than  his  share  toward  bearing  the  public  burden;  and  even  if  he  did 
not,  motives  of  self-preservation  would  induce  the  State  to  abate  no  whit  in 
its  effort  toward  popular  enlightenment.  The  argument  that  the  rich  are  taxed 
for  the  education  of  the  poor  is  seldom  heard  of  outside  of  communities  compli¬ 
cated  with  the  race  question.  Who  would  have  the  temerity  to  suggest  such  an 
argument  in  New  York  or  Minnesota? 

A  knowledge  of  the  extent  to  which  the  negro  has  acquired  property,  upon  which 
he  pays  taxes  directly,  or  hires  it,  in  which  case  he  certainly  meets  the  taxation 
item  indirectly,  will  do  much  to  correct  an  erroneous  impression. 


White  and  colored  population  of  the  sixteen  original  slave  States ,  1890. 1 


State. 

White. 

Colored. 

Per  cent. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . . . . . 

833, 718 

678,489 
303, 117 
28, 386 
75, 573 
166, 180 
858, 815 
268, 071 
559, 193 
215, 657 
742, 559 
150, 184 
561,018 
688,934 
430,678 
488,171 
635,438 
32, 690 

55. 10 

44.84 

Arlfa.nsas  _  _  _ .  _ _  _  __  _ 

818, 752 
140, 066 
154. 695 

72. 57 

27.40 

Delaware...  . . 

District  of  Columbia _ _ _ _ _ 

83. 13 

67. 14 

6.85 

32.80 

Florida . . . . 

224, 949 
978,357 
1,590,462 
558, 395 

57. 47 

42.46 

Georgia  .  _ _ _  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

53.25 

46. 74 

Kentucky _ _ _ _ _ 

85. 57 

14.42 

Louisiana . . . . 

49.92 

49.99 

Maryland . . . . . . 

826, 493 

79.29 

20. 69 

Mississippi  _  .  ..  _  _ _ 

544, 851 
2,528,458 
1,055,382 
462,008 
1,336,637 
1,745,935 
1,020,122 
730, 077 

42.25 

57.58 

Missouri  _ _ _  _ _ _ 

94. 37 

5.06 

N  orth  Carolina . . . . . . . 

65.25 

34. 67 

South  Carolina . . . 

Tennessee _ ; _ _ 

40. 13 
75  62 

59.85 
24. 37 

Texas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

78.10 

21.84 

Virginia  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

61.60 

38.37 

"West  Virginia . . . . . . . 

95.  71 

4.29 

Total . . . . . . 

15,549,357 

6,888, 152 

69. 31 

30.69 

This  table  shows  the  number  of  whites  and  blacks  in  the  slave  States  in  1890  and 
their  respective  percentage  as  a  factor  of  the  total  population.  As  this  study  is 
concerned  primarily  with  the  negro  and  with  the  whites  mainly  as  a  concomitant 
factor,  only  persons  of  African  descent  are  tabulated  wherever  it  is  possible  to  sep¬ 
arate  them  from  the  Indian  and  Mongolian  races.  In  the  report  of  the  Eleventh 
Census,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  are  classed  with  negroes  as  constituting 
the  colored  element;  but  since  the  aborigines  and  the  orientals  constitute  no  part 
of  the  negro’s  educational  problem,  they  are  therefore  justly  excluded  from  the 
present  consideration.  The  comparatively  slight  numbers  of  such  non- Aryans  do 
not,  in  general,  produce  any  appreciable  effect  upon  the  racial  equation  between 
Africans  and  Europeans;  but  in  Louisiana,  where  the  two  elements  are  almost 
equal,  they  constituted  in  1890  the  balance  of  population  There  were  558,395 
whites,  559,193  blacks,  333  Chinese,  39  Japanese,  and  627  Indians.  Thus  the  999 


1  Omitting  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Indians. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO.  759 

Mongolians  and  Indians  were  sufficient  to  change  a  negro  plurality  into  an  absolute 
minority. 

The  negroes  were  in  the  majority  in  two  of  these  States,  and  if  we  consider  the 
competing  races  only  there  would  be  three  States  in  which  this  race  predominated 
numerically.  The  per  cent  of  the  negro  element  ranged  from  59  85  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina  to  4.29  in  West  Virginia.  In  the  entire  region  there  were  15,549,357  whites 
and  6,888,152  colored,  the  negro  element  averaging  BO.  69  per  cent.  If  we  omit 
Missouri  and  West  Virginia,  where  the  African  element  did  not  exceed  5  per 
cent,  the  negroes  constituted  35  per  cent  of  the  remaining  fourteen  States.  This 
territory,  with  its  mixed  population,  constitutes  America’s  most  serious  educa¬ 
tional  problem.  It  is  interesting  to  study  the  extent  to  which  the  negro  has  gained 
material  proprietorship  since  emancipation.  Let  us  not  forget  that  he  began  at 
the  zero  point  of  materiality.  He  was  emancipated  without  so  much  as  one  day’s 
provision.  Being  cast  upon  the  cruel  current  of  material  rivalry,  without  expe¬ 
rience  or  intelligent  self-direction,  he  has  had  to  drift  blindly  in  the  dark,  with¬ 
out  compass  or  pilot.  His  material  accumulations,  therefore,  should  not  be  judged 
in  the  light  of  their  absolute  value,  without  regard  to  the  disadvantageous  circum¬ 
stances  under  which  they  were  acquired.  We  may  regard  his  present  ownership 
as  an  earnest  of  future  acquisitions. 


Number  of  persons  oivning  and  hiring  farms  and  homes  in  the  sixteen  slave  States 
and  the  District  of  Columbia,  1890. 


Sfcclfc©. 

Owners. 

Tenants. 

Aggregate. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . . 

83, 774 

15,736 

71,119 

116,575 

154,893 

132,311 

Arkansas . . . 

89,311 

11, 844 

67, 796 

44,602 

157,107 

56,446 

Delaware. . . . 

11, 869 

1,264 

17,491 

3,929 

29,360 

5,193 

District  of  Columbia . 

9,093 

2,132 

20,522 

12,167 

29, 615 

14,299 

Florida . . . 

29,479 

10,649 

17, 179 

22,676 

46, 658 

33,325 

Georgia . . . . 

90,629 

20,005 

96,295 

145,032 

186,924 

165, 137 

Kentucky . . . . 

163,318 

12,877 

141,804 

36,441 

305,122 

49,318 

Louisiana  . . 

48,660 

14,602 

57,802 

92, 768 

106,462 

107,370 

Maryland  . . . . 

68, 619 

8,596 

94,541 

30,291 

163, 160 

38, 887 

Mississippi . . . 

61,500 

16,956 

39,929 

122,285 

101,429 

139,241 

Missouri . . 

264, 674 

8,894 

233,815 

20,677 

498, 489 

29, 571 

North  Carolina  . . . . 

118,211 

20,010 

85, 474 

82, 875 

203  685 

102,885 

South  Carolina . . 

42, 982 

21, 101 

44,314 

114,450 

87,296 

135, 541 

Tennessee . . . . 

135, 712 

14, 663 

120,218 

63,532 

255, 930 

78, 195 

Texas _ _ _ 

168, 982 

20,880 

156,084 

64, 961 

325,066 

85,841 

Virginia . . 

100,212 

29, 888 

91, 971 

82,516 

192, 183 

112, 404 

West  Virginia _ 

77,898 

1,471 

56, 796 

4, 184 

134, 694 

5,655 

Total . 

1,565,923 

231,568 

1,413,150 

1,059,991 

3,763,073 

1,291,919 

Percentage  of  population  owning  and  hiring  farms  and  homes,  by  race,  1890. 


State. 

Owners. 

Tenants. 

Aggregate. 

White,  j 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . 

10.05 

2.32 

8.53 

17. 18 

18.58 

19.50 

Arkansas _ _ _ _ _ 

10. 91 

3.83 

8.28 

14.43 

19.19 

18.26 

Delaware . . . . 

8.47 

4. 45 

12. 49 

13.84 

20. 96 

18.29 

District  of  Columbia . 

5.88 

2.82 

13. 27 

16. 10 

19.15 

18.92 

Florida . . . . 

13. 10 

6.41 

7. 64 

13.65 

20.74 

20.06 

Georgia . . 

9.26 

2.33 

9.84 

16. 89 

19. 19 

19.22 

Kentucky . . . 

10. 27 

4.80 

8. 92 

13.59 

19.19 

18.39 

Louisiana  ...' . . . 

8.71 

2. 61 

10.35 

16.59 

19.06 

19.20 

Maryland . 

8.30 

3.99 

11.44 

14. 05 

19. 74 

18.04 

Mississippi  . . . . . . 

11.29 

2.28 

7.33 

16.47 

18. 62 

18.75 

Missouri . . . . 

10.47 

5.92 

9.25 

13.77 

19.  72 

19.69 

North  Carolina . . . 

11.21 

3.57 

8.10 

14.  77 

19.31 

18.34 

South  Carolina . . . . 

9.30 

3.06 

9. 59 

16.61 

18.89 

19. 67 

Tennessee . 

10. 15 

3.40 

8.99 

14.75 

19.14 

18. 15 

Texas . . 

9.68 

4.28 

8.  94 

13. 39 

18. 52 

17. 59 

Virginia .  . . 

9.82 

4. 70 

9.02 

12. 99 

18.  84 

17.69 

West  Virginia . . . 

10. 67 

4.50 

7.78 

12. 80 

18.45 

17.30 

760 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  foregoing  tables  contain  the  number  of  persons  owning  and  hiring  their  farms 
and  homes,  by  race,  compiled  from  the  Eleventh  Census,  for  the  sixteen  original 
slave  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  There  were  231,568  negroes  who  owned 
their  farms  and  homes,  against  1,565,923  whites.  The  contributing  power  of  the 
whites  to  the  ownership  of  farms  and  homes  was  10.07  per  cent  of  the  white  popula¬ 
tion,  against  3.23  per  cent  for  the  negroes.  If  we  estimate  5  persons  to  the  family, 
it  will  be  seen  that  50  per  cent  of  the  white  families  owned  their  farms  and  homes, 
and  16  per  cent  of  the  colored  families.  It  would  probably  be  a  revelation  to 
most  persons  who  decry  the  lack  of  energy,  thrift,  and  foresight  on  the  part  of 
the  negro  race  to  be  told  that  one-sixth  of  them  own  their  own  farms  and  homes. 
There  were  29,888  negro  owners  in  Virginia  alone.  This  State  contained,  in  round 
numbers,  100,000  white  and  30,000  negro  owners  of  farms  and  homes,  representing 
9.82  and  4.70  per  cent  of  the  respective  populations;  or,  to  put  it  in  other  terms,  23 
out  of  every  100  negro  families  were  their  own  proprietors,  against  49  out  of  every 
100  whites.  The  highest  average  contributing  power  to  the  ownership  of  farms 
and  homes  on  the  part  of  the  negro  is  found  in  Florida,  where  32  negro  families 
out  of  every  100  are  their  own  pro£3rietors,  and  the  lowest  in  Alabama,  which  con¬ 
tributes  only  11  out  of  100. 

It  will  be  seen  that  one -sixth  of  the  colored  people  of  the  South  are  taxpayers 
upon  their  own  property.  We  must  not  forget  also  that  capitation  tax  prevails  in 
most  or  all  of  the  Southern  States,  so  that  every  negro  male  over  21  years  of  age 
becomes  a  taxpayer.  These  two  classes  contribute  directly  to  the  public  revenues. 

The  table  under  consideration  also  contains  the  number  of  persons  who  hire 
their  farms  and  homes.  The  number  of  blacks  is  in  relative  excess  of  the  whites. 
There  were  1,413,150  whites  and  1,059,991  colored  tenants.  These  might  be  called 
indirect  taxpayers;  for  it  is  well  known  that  the  owner  of  a  farm  or  home  esti¬ 
mates  the  taxation  as  an  essential  element  of  cost  in  fixing  the  rental.  So  that 
whether  the  tenant  pays  in  money,  service,  or  part  of  crop  he  is  the  real  taxpayer 
upon  the  house  which  he  occupies  or  the  farm  which  he  tills.  The  percentage  of 
the  colored  race  who  are  owners  and  tenants,  and  therefore  taxpayers,  directly  or 
indirectly,  is  not  so  far  below  that  of  the  whites;  or,  to  be  exact,  19  per  cent  of  the 
one  against  24  per  cent  of  the  other. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  absolute  values  of  the  colored  holdings  are  rather 
small  by  comparison.  This  is  inevitable.  The  negro  out  of  his  scanty  earnings 
acquires  a  small  piece  of  land  or  humble -shanty  which  he  can  call  his  own.  But 
this  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  the  race  have  become  owners  of 
the  farms  and  homes  which  they  occupy,  and  that  their  property  is  subject  to  all 
the  requirements  of  public  revenue.  The  essential  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that 
nearly  a  quarter-million  negroes  in  thirty  years  have  risen  from  the  condition  of 
chattels  to  that  of  proprietorship.  The  race  which  a  generation  ago  was  rated 
with  farms  and  homes  as  a  part  of  the  common  asset  now  represents  13  per  cent 
of  the  ownership  of  all  the  homes  and  farms  in  the  South. 

Nor  do  the  figures  reveal  the  whole  truth.  It  is  quite  easy  to  take  for  granted 
that  all  white  and  negro  tenancy  implies  white  proprietorship;  but,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  many  negroes,  and  white  persons  as  well,  are  tenants  of  farms  and  homes 
that  are  owned  by  members  of  the  colored  race.  The  census  of  course  does  not 
take  cognizance  of  such  cases,  which,  if  revealed,  would  doubtless  bring  the  total 
negro  holdings  to  a  much  higher  figure. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO, 


761 


Owners  of  farms  and  homes,  separately,  in  the  former  slave  States  and  District  of 

Columbia,  1890. 


Owners  of  farms. 


State. 

Free. 

Incumbered. 

Total. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . 

60, 746 

8,045 

2,327 

802 

63,073 

8,847 

Arkansas... . 

68,629 

7,319 

2,629 

685 

71,258 

8,004 

Delaware _ _ 

3, 151 

199 

1,306 

89 

4,457 

288 

District  of  Columbia  . . 

2J7 

15 

9 

1 

226 

16 

Georgia . 

63,408 

7,706 

2,085 

426 

65,473 

18,131 

Florida . . 

18,423 

4, 746 

503 

200 

18,926 

4,940 

Kentucky . 

114,209 

3,870 

4,751 

240 

118, 960 

4,310 

Maryland . 

16,484 

1,691 

7,335 

459 

23, 819 

2,150 

Mississinpi . . . 

45, 941 

10,032 

3,178 

1,494 

49, 119 

11,526 

Missouri . . . 

108, 130 

1,812 

62,077 

933 

170,207 

2,745 

North  Carolina . . 

91,393 

9,670 

4,377 

824 

95, 770 

10,494 

South  Carolina . 

29,531 

12,048 

2,590 

1,027 

32, 121 

13,075 

Tennessee . . . 

97,394 

5, 951 

3,002 

427 

100,396 

6,378 

Texas  . 

107,569 

11,505 

6,213 

1,008 

113, 782 

12, 5,3 

Virginia . 

66,527 

13,097 

2,014 

581 

68, 541 

13,678 

West  Virginia . . 

48,327 

436 

7, 219 

53 

55, 546 

489 

Louisiana . . 

27,757 

6,257 

997 

428 

28, 749 

6,685 

Total . . . 

967,836 

104,393 

112,587 

9,677 

1,080,423 

114,269 

Owners  of  homes. 

State. 

Free. 

Incumbered. 

Total. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . 

20,108 

6,656 

593 

233 

20,701 

6.889 

Arkansas . 

17,031 

3,583 

1,022 

257 

18,053 

3;  840 

Delaware . 

4,548 

595 

2,864 

381 

7,412 

976 

District  of  Columbia . 

6, 595 

1,751 

2,272 

365 

8, 867 

2, 116 

Georgia . 

24,501 

11,518 

655 

376 

25, 156 

11, 874 

Florida . 

10,021 

5,489 

532 

220 

10, 553 

5,709 

Kentucky . 

41, 272 

8,237 

3,076 

530 

44, 358 

8,887 

Maryland . 

32, 875 

5,239 

11,925 

1,207 

44, 800 

6,446 

Mississippi . 

11, 869 

5, 117 

512 

253 

12, 381 

5,430 

Missouri . 

67, 775 

4,747 

26,692 

1,402 

94, 467 

6, 149 

North  Carolina . 

21,338 

9,052 

1,103 

464 

22, 441 

9,516 

South  Carolina . 

10, 084 

7, 589 

777 

437 

10, 861 

8,026 

Tennessee . 

33, 538 

7.875 

1,178 

610 

35,316 

8,285 

Texas  . . . . 

55, 836 

8;  018 

2,364 

349 

55,200 

8, 367 

Virginia . . 

30, 411 

15,524 

1,260 

686 

31, 671 

6,210 

West  Virginia . 

18, 169 

746 

4,183 

236 

22,352 

1,082 

Louisiana . 

19, 131 

7,625 

780 

292 

19,911 

7,907 

Total . 

425,102 

109,161 

72, 788 

8,297 

484,500 

117,689 

This  table  shows  that  the  negro  owned  104,393  unincumbered  farms  and  9,677 
incumbered  ones.  It  is  easy  to  assume  that  the  property  which  is  recorded  in  the 
negro’s  name  is  only  nominally  his,  whereas  the  real  owner  is  the  white  man  who 
holds  the  mortgage.  Of  the  230,000  negro  owners  of  homes  and  farms,  less  than 
18,000  carry  mortgages.  It  might  appear  that  the  comparatively  small  number  of 
pieces  of  involved  property  held  by  the  negro  implies  that  he  is  not  rapidly 
increasing  his  holdings.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  his  financial  methods 
know  that  he  is  in  the  habit  of  secreting  his  savings  until  he  has  sufficient  accu¬ 
mulations  to  make  a  purchase  outright.  An  old,  unobtrusive  colored  man  often 
surprises  his  friends  and  neighbors  by  a  sudden  show  of  financial  strength  who 
had  previously  been  regarded  as  impecunious. 

NEGRO  PROPERTY  OWNERS  IN  GEORGIA,  VIRGINIA,  AND  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

A  most  interesting  bulletin  has  just  been  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  on 
Negro  Landholders  in  Georgia.1  Georgia  contains  a  larger  black  contingent  than 
any  other  State.  The  negro  element  amounts  to  more  than  1,000,000,  comprising  46 

1  Bulletin  No.  35,  July,  1901;  Dr.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  investigator. 


762 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  Record  of  the  ownership  of  property  by  negroes 
in  this  State  has  been  kept  since  1874. 


The  assessed  value  of  total  property  owned  by  negroes  in  Georgia ,  1874  to  1900. 


Year. 

Assessed 

value. 

Year. 

Assessed 

value. 

1874 . . . 

$6, 157, 798 
5,393, 885 
5, 488, 867 
5,430, 844 

5.124. 875 
5, 182, 398 
5, 764, 293 
6,478,951 

6.589.876 
7,582, 395 
8,021,525 
8, 153, 390 
8, 655, 298 
8,936,479 

1888 . 

$9, 631, 271 
10,415,330 
12, 322, 003 
14, 196,  735 
14, 869,  575 
14, 960, 675 
14, 387, 730 
12,941,230 
13, 292, 816 
13, 619, 690 
13,  719, 200 
13, 447, 423 
14, 118,  720 

1875. . . . . 

1889 . 

1878 . . 

1890 . . 

1877  . 

1891 . . . . 

1878  . . . 

1892  . - . 

1879  . 

1893 . 

1880  _  _ 

1894  . 

1881  .  ..  . 

1895 . 

1882 . . . . 

1896. . . . . . 

1883 

1897  . 

1884  . 

1898 . . . 

1885  . - . 

1899 . . 

1886  . 

1900  . . 

1887  . 

Thi3  table  shows  a  gradual,  healthy,  general  increase,  which  is  not  free  from  the 
fluctuations  caused  by  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  of  general  business  conditions 
throughout  the  country. 


Number  of  acres  and  assessed  valuation  of  land  owned  by  negroes  in  Georgia , 

1874  to  1900. 


Year. 


1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 
1881. 
1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1886. 
1887. 


Number 
of  acres. 

Assessed 

valuation. 

Year. 

Number 
of  acres. 

338,769 

396,658 

1888  . 

868,501 
877, 112 

$1,263, 902 

1889  . . 

457, 635 

1,234, 104 

1890  . . 

967, 234 

458, 999 

1,262, 723 

1891 . . 

1,004,306 

501, 890 

1,294,383 

1892  . . . 

1,063,649 

541,199 

1,348,758 

1893 . . . . . 

1,043,860 

586, 664 

1,  522, 173 

1894  . . . 

1,064,431 

660,358 

1, 754, 800 

1895  . . . 

1, 038, 824 

692, 335 

1, 877, 861 

1896  . . . 

1,043,847 

668, 583 

2, 065, 938 

1897  . . . 

1, 057, 567 

756, 703 

2, 262, 185 

1898  . . . 

] , 097, 087 

788, 376 

2, 362, 889 

1899  . 

1,062,223 

802, 939 
813, 725 

2,508,198 

2,598,650 

1900  . . . 

1,075, 073 

Assessed 

valuation. 


$2,822,943 
3,047,685 
3,425.176 
3,914, 143 
4,477,183 
4,450, 121 
4, 386, 366 
4, 158, 960 
4, 234, 848 
4, 353,  798 
4, 340, 100 
4, 220, 120 
4,274,549 


The  average  size  of  negro  farms  in  56  typical  counties  was  79  acres.  These  coun¬ 
ties  contained  8,065  negro  farm  owners,  or  a  majority  for  the  entire  State.  The 
average  size  of  all  farms  in  Georgia  was  147  acres.  The  average  value  of  negro 
farms  for  typical  counties  was  $312.  The  value  of  town  and  city  real  estate  owned 
by  Georgia  negroes  was  $3,643,586,  or  more  than  29  per  cent  of  all  negro  property 
in  the  State.  Savannah  showed  $870,707,  Atlanta,  $793,910,  and  Augusta,  $479,495 
as  held  by  negroes  in  the  respective  municipalities. 


Landholders  in  Virginia. 


Year. 

Number  of  acres. 

Assessed  valuation 
per  acre. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

1891 . . . 

25, 285, 981 

698,074 
833, 147 

$4.88 

4.50 

$4.21 
4. 14 

1895  . . . 

25, 154, 781 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


763 


Assessed  value  of  property  held  by  negroes  in  Virginia,  1S91  to  1S95. 


Year. 

Real  es¬ 
tate. 

Personal 

property. 

Total. 

1891  . 

$8,995,514 
9,425,085 
9,829,583 
10, 182, 889 
10,759,548 

$3,094,451 
.,3,342,950 
3,465,370 
3,241,144 
3, 174,450 

$12,089,965 
12, 708,035 
13,294, 953 
13,414,033 
13, 933, 998 

1892.  . 

1893 . 

1894  .  . 

1895 . 

In  North  Carolina  the  negroes  in  1891  paid  taxes  on  $8,018,446  worth  of  prop¬ 
erty. 


Valuation  of  taxable  property  owned  by  whites  and  negroes  in  Georgia,  North 

Carolina,  and  Virginia. 


State. 

Year. 

White. 

Colored. 

Georgia . _ . . . . . 

1890 

$365,044,781 
234, 109, 565 
379,708,644 

$12,322,003 
8,018,446 
12, 089,965 

North  Carolina . . . . . . . 

1891 

Virginia . . . . 

1890 

Total . . . 

978,862,993 

32,430, 414 

Percentage  of  total  property  and  per  capita  valuation  for  each  race. 


State. 

Percentage. 

Per  capita  valua¬ 
tion. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Georgia . . . . 

96.5 

3.5 

$322.3 

$14.3 

North  Carolina . 

96.7 

3.3 

223. 1 

14.1 

Virginia . . . . . 

96.9 

3.1 

374.2 

18.9 

Total . . . . . 

96.8 

3.2 

323.3 

15.7 

These  tables  show  the  general  economic  condition  of  the  two  races  in  the  three 
States  mentioned.  The  relative  values  are  so  close  together  in  these  States  that 
we  may  well  take  them  as  typical  of  the  whole  group.  It  would  be  misleading, 
however,  to  suppose  that  these  figures  reveal  the  whole  truth.  The  negro's  pos¬ 
sessions  are  limited  to  real  estate  and  personal  property.  The  vast  corporate 
interests,  public  and  private,  are  set  down  wholly  to  the  credit  of  the  white  race. 
As  is  well  known,  these  comprise  a  large  part  of  the  aggregate  wealth  of  the  sev¬ 
eral  States.  The  real  ownership  is  not  always,  perhaps  not  generally,  in  the  hands 
of  local  whites,  but  is  the  result  of  outside  capital  invested  in  the  State.  For 
purposes  of  taxation,  therefore,  they  can  not  justly  be  credited  to  the  white  race, 
for  as  is  well  known  the  burden  of  taxation  falls  upon  the  patrons  rather  than 
upon  the  ownership  of  such  enterprises. 

Y.  Occupations  of  Negroes. 

Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  has  prepared  an 
interesting  pamphlet  on  occupations  of  negroes,  under  the  auspices  of  the  trustees 
of  the  John  F.  Slater  fund.1  From  this  pamphlet  we  learn  that  out  of  a  total  pop¬ 
ulation  of  62,622,250  in  the  United  States,  22,753,884  persons,  or  34.6  per  cent,  were 
engaged  in  gainful  occupations.  Of  negroes,  numbering  7,470,040,  there  were 
3,073,123,  or  41.1  per  cent,  engaged  in  gainful  occupations.  Thus  for  the  country 
at  large,  the  negroes  were  more  generally  employed  than  the  whites.  The  South 


Trustees  of  John  F.  Slater  fund,  Occasional  Papers,  No.  6. 


764 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


boasts  of  her  bygone  clays  of  chivalric  civilization  instinct  with  dignity,  comity, 
and  grace;  and  she  does  well.  The  New  South,  springing  Phoenixlike  from  the 
ashes  of  the  old,  is  fast  bidding  for  industrial  prestige  and  power.  But  under¬ 
neath  all  her  glory — past,  present,  or  to  come — lies  the  negro's  brawny  arm.  It 
was  he  who  cleared  her  forests,  cultivated  her  fields,  and  covered  her  hills  with 
the  fleecy  snow  of  cotton  and  her  valleys  with  golden  shocks  of  corn.  The  brunt 
of  effort  necessary  to  the  new  awakening  will  also  devolve  upon  him  the  veri¬ 
table  “man  with  the  hoe.”  In  order  to  show  to  what  extent  the  negro  is  a  con¬ 
tributing  factor  to  the  industrial  life  of  the  South,  the  following  tables  have  been 
computed  on  the  basis  of  the  Eleventh  Census. 


Persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations ,  by  race,  1890. 


States. 

White. 

Colored. 

Per  cent. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama  ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ........... _ 

247,993 
230, 102 
51, 897 
61,015 
71, 269 
299, 330 
482, 602 
179,324 
297,227 
157,955 
823,285 
320,277 
151, 197 
387, 896 
525, 393 
310,487 
209, 669 

293,406 

116,976 

12,350 

29. 63 

43.24 
37. 84 

Arkansas _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _ 

28.10 

Delaware _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ............ 

District  of  Columbia _ 

40,007 
65,371 
369,265 
107, 666 
243, 157 
95, 811 
303, 837 
60,655 
216, 590 

39. 44 

52.  94 

Florida _ _ _ _ _ 

31. 68 

39.34 

Georgia  .... _ _ _ ....... _ _ _ ............ _ 

30.60 

43.00 

Kentucky _ _ _ _ _ ....... _ _ _ 

30.34 

40. 16 

Louisiana _ _ _ _ ; 

32. 11 

43. 48 

Maryland _ _ _ 

35. 96 

44.43 

Mississippi _ _ _ _ _ _ 

28. 99 

40. 92 

Missouri _ _ _ _ _ 

32. 56 

40. 39 

North  Carolina  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

30. 35 

38. 61 

South  Carolina _ 

289, 550 
165, 734 

32. 73 

42.03 

Tennessee  _  _  ..... 

29.02 

38.48 

170, 085 
241,095 
14,101 

30. 09 

34. 84 

Virginia _  _ _ _ _ _ 

30.44 

37. 94 

West  Virginia . . . . . . . . . . 

28.99 

43. 14 

Total . . . . . . 

4,806,918 

2, 805, 656 

30.09 

40. 70 

The  first  table  shows  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations,  by 
race,  for  the  sixteen  original  slave  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  According 
to  the  plan  of  the  Eleventh  Census,  persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  did  not 
include  housewives  and  school  children,  but  only  those  persons  above  10  years  of 
age  who  received  a  definite  stipend  for  their  labor.  There  were  4,828,918  whites 
and  2,815,656  negroes  engaged  in  gainful  pursuits.  While  the  negroes  constituted 
30  per  cent  of  the  population,  they  contributed  37  per  cent  of  the  workers.  Every 
State  shows  a  higher  percentage  of  negroes  than  of  whites  engaged  in  gainful 
occupations.  The  per  cent  for  negroes  ranged  from  52.94  in  the  District  of  Colum¬ 
bia  to  34.84  in  Texas,  while  that  of  the  whites  varied  from  39.44  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  to  28.10  in  Arkansas.  If  we  omit  the  city-State  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  because  of  its  peculiar  industrial  conditions,  the  highest  per  cent  of 
employment  of  both  races  is  found  in  the  State  of  Maryland,  viz,  35.96  for  whites, 
and  44.42  for  blacks.  This  is  due  to  the  city  of  Baltimore,  which  contains  half  the 
population  of  the  State.  The  employment  of  the  whites  in  the  South  was  far 
below  that  of  the  whites  in  the  country  at  large,  while  the  Southern  negro  shows 
a  percentage  slightly  below  the  average  for  his  race. 


Proportions  engaged  in  gainful  occupations d 


Class. 

Per  cent. 

Class. 

Per  cent. 

Total  population. _ _ _ _ _ 

34.6 

Negroes  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

41.10 

Whites  . . 

35.5 

Southern  whites _ _ 

30.93 

Native  whites _ _ _ 

31.6 

Southern  negroes _ - _ .... _ 

40.70 

Foreign-born  whites . 

55.2 

1  This  table,  except  for  Southern  whites  and  Southern  negroes,  is  taken  from  Occupations  of 
Negroes,  p.  6. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


765 


The  high  employment  rate  of  the  foreign  whites  is  due,  of  course,  to  the  large 
proportion  of  adults  among  them,  who  come  to  this  country  with  an  eye  single  to 
gainful  work.  Omitting  this  class,  the  negro  has  a  higher  rate  than  any  other 
element,  and  the  Southern  whites  have  the  lowest  rate  of  all.  In  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  South  Carolina  there  was  an  army  of 
1,500,000  black  toilers,  constituting,  approximately,  three-fifths  of  the  labor 
force  of  these  States.  If  we  assume  equality  among  the  laboring  units,  the  negro 
is  seen  to  contribute  60  per  cent  of  the  industrial  strength  of  the  cluster  of  States 
in  which  the  race  is  most  numerous.  Throughout  the  slave  territory  there  were 
414  negroes  engaged  out  of  every  1,000  of  the  negro  population,  against  809  whites 
to  the  1,000,  giving  an  excess  of  105  in  favor  of  the  negroes. 


Selected  occupations ,  by  race ,  for  the  sixteen  former  slave  States ,  189G. 


State. 

Agriculture,  fisher¬ 
ies,  and  mining. 

Domestic  and  per¬ 
sonal  service. 

Manufactu  ring 
and  mechani¬ 
cal  industries. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . 

168,258 

212,485 

14,582 

58,819 

28,152 

10,856 

Arkansas . 

169,013 

87,290 

14,588 

21,733 

18,241 

3,679 

Delaware . 

14.510 

4, 192 

9, 677 

6, 509 

17,236 

868 

District  of  Columbia . 

i;317 

568 

10,213 

29,421 

18,983 

4,324 

Florida . . . 

34,861 

31,318 

8,205 

23,655 

12,883 

5,251 

Georgia . . . - . 

191,525 

226,570 

16,455 

104,330 

40,465 

18,523 

Kentucky . 

286,610 

39,464 

46,658 

51,577 

75,321 

7,351 

Louisiana . . 

79, 192 

161,244 

26,912 

62, 911 

30, 418 

11,223 

Maryland . 

75, 137 

30,257 

50,654 

51,431 

98,485 

5,527 

Mississippi . . . 

113,358 

245,921 

6,745 

42,939 

13, 110 

6,487 

Missouri . . . 

388, 572 

16,079 

112,  390 

34,517 

148, 979 

3,920 

N or th  Carolin  a . . . 

233,648 

140,287 

19,225 

51,986 

36,168 

14,465 

South  Carolina . . . 

104,483 

223,496 

6, 956 

44,775 

18, 931 

12, 188 

Tennessee . - . 

252,023 

84,824 

29,331 

55, 960 

46, 605 

11,546 

Texas. . 

325,563 

106,587 

51,953 

48,202 

51,808 

6,249 

Virginia  -  - . 

167, 751 

103,913 

30, 767 

95,383 

54,236 

23,326 

West  Virginia . 

125, 047 

4,840 

25,431 

5,977 

29,875 

967 

Total . 

2,730,868 

1,719,335 

480, 732 

790, 125 

737,894 

146,740 

State. 

Trade  and  transportation. 

Professional  service. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . 

27,011 

9,285 

9, 990 

1,961 

Arkansas . 

19,045 

2,811 

9,215 

1,463 

Delaware . 

8,393 

652 

2,081 

129 

District  of  Columbia . 

23,921 

4,969 

6,581 

725 

Florida . . 

10,807 

4,158 

4,450 

999 

Georgia . 

37,997 

16, 764 

12,888 

3,078 

Kentucky . 

53,696 

7,448 

20,313 

1,826 

Louisiana . 

34,385 

6,173 

8,417 

1, 606 

Maryland . 

61,291 

7,682 

13,660 

914 

Mississippi . 

16,629 

5,745 

8,113 

2,745 

Missouri . . . . 

135,119 

4,905 

38, 225 

1,234 

North  Carolina  . . 

21,130 

7,668 

10,108 

2, 184 

South  Carolina . . . . 

14,684 

7,043 

6, 143 

2,048 

Tennessee . . . . . 

42,828 

11,076 

17, 119 

2,328 

Texas . 

70,548 

6,452 

25,523 

2, 595 

Virginia . 

42,610 

15,907 

15, 123 

2,566 

West  Virginia . 

20,884 

2,088 

8,432 

229 

Total . 

641, 978 

128,828 

46, 3^9 

28,630 

The  second  table  shows  selected  occupations,  by  race,  for  the  16  original  slave 
States  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  Eleventh  Census  divided  occupations 
into  5  classes:  (1)  Agriculture,  including  mining  and  fisheries;  (2)  personal  and 
domestic  service;  (3)  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries;  (4)  trade  and 
transportation;  (5)  professional  service.  The  census  order  has  not  been  adhered 
to,  but  the  several  occupations  have  been  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  number  of 
colored  persons  employed.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  vast  bulk  of 


766 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


persons  enumerated  under  the  first  head  are  engaged  in  vegetal  agriculture,  as 
mining  and  fishing  are  comparatively  unimportant  industries  in  the  South. 

The  negroes  were  engaged  mainly  in  agriculture  and  domestic  service,  the  num¬ 
ber  in  manufacturing  and  trade  being  quite  small  in  comparison,  while  the  num¬ 
ber  in  the  professions  was  quite  insignificant.  Of  those  listed  in  the  professions, 
the  majority  are  school-teachers  and  ministers,  leaving  comparatively  few  for  law 
and  medicine. 

The  following  table  shows  the  proportion  of  negro  wage  earners  engaged  in  the 
several  groups  of  occupations,  together  with  those  for  the  native  and  foreign-born 
whites  for  the  United  States: 


Occupations. 

Native 

whites. 

Foreign- 

born 

whites. 

Negroes. 

Professions  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Per  cent. 
5.50 

Per  cent. 
2.2 

Per  cent. 

1.1 

Agriculture _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

41 

25.5 

57.2 

Trade  and  transportation _ _ _ _ _ _ 

17 

14 

4.7 

Manufactures  _  .  _  .  _  _ _ 

22.90 

31.3 

5.6 

Personal  service  ...... . . . . . . . . . . 

13. 60 

27 

31.4 

Total  .  .. 

100 

100 

100 

It  is  disclosed  that  57.2  per  cent  of  negro  wage  earners,  41  per  cent  of  native 
white,  and  25.5  per  cent  of  foreign-born  white  wage  earners  are  engaged  in  agricul¬ 
ture.  The  negro  is  represented  in  the  professions  by  1.1  per  cent  of  those  engaged, 
or  less  than  1  professional  representative  for  every  100  of  the  population,  whereas 
the  native  whites  have  more  than  1  in  50.  In  manufactures,  trade,  and  transpor¬ 
tation  the  negro  shows  on]}7  10  per  cent,  against  40  per  cent  for  the  native  whites 
and  45  per  cent  for  foreign  whites.  It  is  also  known  that  the  negroes  who  are 
engaged  in  such  pursuits  are  in  many  cases  performing  the  drudgery  of  unskilled 
labor.  This  is  not  on  account  of  inability  or  lack  of  desire  for  the  higher  lines  of 
mechanical  skill,  but  because  they  are  excluded  by  intolerant  regulations.  Herein 
lies  the  great  field  for  remunerative  labor,  and  the  negro,  through  no  fault  of  his 
own,  is  excluded  therefrom  and  relegated  to  the  less  desirable  spheres  of  farm  life 
and  domestic  service. 

Principal  occupations  pursued  by  negroes,  1890. 


State. 

All  occu¬ 
pations. 

Agricul¬ 
ture,  fish¬ 
eries,  and 
mining. 

Domestic 

service. 

Other 

occupa¬ 

tions. 

Alabama . 

293, 406 

212, 485 

58,819 

22,102 

Arkansas . . . 

116, 976 

87.290 

21,733 

7,953 

Delaware .  . . 

12,340 

4,192 

6,509 

1,639 

District  of  Columbia . . 

40,007 

568 

29,421 

10,018 

Florida . . . 

65,371 

31,318 

23, 655 

10,398 

Georgia . . . 

369,265 

226, 570 

104, 330 

38,365 

Kentucky . 

107,666 

■  39,464 

51, 577 

16,525 

Louisiana . . . . 

243.  f57 

161,244 

62,911 

19,002 

Maryland . . . 

95, 811 

30,257 

51, 431 

14, 123 

Mississippi . 

303, 837 

245, 921 

42, 939 

14,977 

Missouri . 

60, 655 

16, 079 

34,517 

10,059 

North  Carolina.. . . . 

2F6.590 

140,287 

51,986 

24,317 

South  Carolina . 

289,550 

223,496 

48, 775 

21,279 

Tennessee . 

165, 734 

84, 824 

55,960 

24,950 

Texas . . . 

170, 085 

108. 587 

48, 202 

15,296 

Virginia . . . 

241, 095 

103, 913 

95,383 

41,799 

West  Virginia . 

14, 101 

4, 840 

5,977 

3,284 

Total . 

2,905,640 

1, 719, 335 

790, 125 

396,181 

This  table  shows  the  principal  occupations  pursued  by  negroes  in  the  South.  It 
is  seen,  as  before  suggested,  that  they  are  chiefly  employed  in  agriculture  and  in 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEOEO. 


767 


domestic  service,  those  engaged  in  all  other  callings  not  exceeding  14  per  cent  of 
the  wage  earners: 

Persons  engaged  in  agriculture,  including  mining  and  fisheries. 


State. 

Whites. 

Negroes. 

Alabama  ......... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

168, 258 

212,485 
228, 570 

Oem-pla  _  .  _ _ 

191.525 

Louisiana  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

79, 193 
113, 358 

161,244 

Mississippi  _ _ _ _ - _ _ 

245,921 
223, 496 

South  Carolina. .  ....................... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

104,483 

Total .  . .  .  _ _ _ 

656, 816 

1,089,710 

In  the  five  States  where  the  negro  population  is  most  numerous  there  were 
1,069,716  negroes  engaged  in  agriculture  to  656,816  whites.  The  negro  represented 
five-eighths  of  the  agricultural  workers  in  these  States.  In  Louisiana,  Missis¬ 
sippi,  and  South  Carolina  there  were  more  than  two  negroes  engaged  in  agricul¬ 
ture  to  one  white  person. 

The  small  proportion  of  negroes  engaged  in  agriculture  «n  the  border  States 
forces  itself  upon  attention. 

Occupation  of  negroes  in  the  border  States. 


State. 

Agriculture. 

Domestic 

service. 

Other 

pursuits. 

Delaware  _ ....... _ _ _ _ ... ..... _ 

4,192 

89,464 

80,257 

16,079 

6,509 
51,577 
51, 431 
34,517 
5,977 

1, 644 

Kentucky. _ _ _ - _ _ - _ _ 

16, 525 

Maryland  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

14, 123 

Missouri _  _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ .. 

10.059 

3,284 

W est  V ir  ginia  _ _ _ _ _  _ 

4,840 

Occupations  of  negroes  in  the  far  Southern  States. 


State. 

Agriculture. 

Domestic 

service. 

Other 

pursuits. 

Alabama  . .  _  _  _ _ 

212,485 
226, 570 
161,244 

58, 819 
104, 330 
62, 911 

22, 102 

Georgia . .  _ . . . . . . 

38,365 

Louisian  a _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

19, 002 

Mississippi  .  ..  .  _ _ _  _ _ _ 

245, 421 

42, 939 

14, 977 
21, 279 

South  Carolina . . . . . . . . . 

223,496 

44, 775 

In  the  border  States  more  than  half  of  the  negroes  are  engaged  in  domestic 
service  and  about  one-third  in  agriculture.  In  the  far  Southern  States,  on  the 
other  hand,  five-sevenths  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture  and  one-fifth 
in  personal  service. 

This  fact  is  not  without  sociological  significance.  It  bears  out  the  suggestion  in 
section  1,  that  the  border  State  negroes  do  not  find  a  comfortable  social  status 
among  their  white  neighbors,  and  they  therefore  leave  the  rural  districts  for  the 
cities,  where  the  social  conditions  are  more  to  their  liking.  It  is  little  less  than 
striking  that  in  an  agricultural  State  like  Missouri  there  should  be  only  16,000 
negroes  engaged  in  agriculture,  against  more'  than  twice  that  number  in  personal 
service.  The  proximity  of  large  cities  has  much  to  do  with  the  distribution  of  the 
negroes  among  the  several  occupations,  but  they  are  not  of  themselves  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  pronounced  tendency  of  the  border  States. 

These  figures  give  rise  to  two  pregnant  suggestions: 

(1)  The  education  of  the  negro,  in  so  far  as  its  aims  and  intent  are  of  a  practical 
character,  should  take  cognizance  of  the  occupations  which  the  bulk  of  the  chil¬ 
dren  must  follow.  If  85  per  cent  of  this  race  are  pursuing  two  main  lines  of 


768 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901 


employment,  it  would  be  the  utmost  folly  to  ignore  this  fact  in  a  scheme  of  educa¬ 
tion.  Industrial  education  for  the  negroes  should,  in  the  main,  be  directed  to  those 
lines  from  which  the  recipient  is  most  likely  to  derive  a  livelihood. 

(2)  The  proportion  of  negroes  in  these  callings  is  too  large,  and  diversification  of 
activities  should  be  encouraged.  It  is  doubtless  true,  however,  that  the  segrega. 
tion  of  the  blacks  in  agricultural  and  domestic  pursuits  is  the  result  of  natural 
industrial  forces.  It  is  here  that  competition  is  least  severe,  and  he  is  shielded 
from  the  fierce  strife  of  Aryan  rivalry.  These  are,  indeed,  the  only  fields  that  are 
open  to  him  on  anything  like  an  adequate  scale.  The  destiny  of  the  race  must  be 
worked  out  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  South,  and  the  bulwark  and  buttress  of  its 
strength  is  in  the  soil.  It  is  here  that  remedial  and  educational  agencies  can  be 
most  wisely  applied. 

Occupations  of  whites ,  by  sex,  1890. 


State. 

Agriculture,  fish¬ 
eries,  and  mining. 

Domestic  and  per¬ 
sonal  service. 

Manufacturing 
and  mechanical 
industries. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Alabama . 

Arkansas . . . . 

Delaware . . 

District  of  Columbia . . 

Florida . . . 

Georgia . 

Kentucky . 

Louisiana  . . . 

Maryland . 

Mississippi . 

Missouri . 

North  Carolina . 

South  Carolina . . 

Tennessee  . 

Tpixa.s  .  _ „ _ 

153, 428 
160, 172 
14, 238 
1,275 
32, 710 
175, 073 
275, 745 
73, 191 
73, 151 
102,097 
376,474 
211,842 
89.627 
240, 718 
312,157 
161,190 
121,841 

14, 830 
8,841 
272 
42 
2,151 
16,452 
10,865 
6,001 
1,986 
11,261 
12,098 
21, 806 
14, 856 
11,305 
13,406 
6, 561 
3,206 

9,a55 
9,480 
6, 646 
6,376 
6,110 
10, 037 
29,287 
19, 368 
33, 243 
4,225 
71, 726 
8,471 
3,751 
17,807 
39,609 
19,044 
15, 895 

5,227 
-5, 108 
3,031 
3,837 
2,095 
6,418 
17,369 
7,544 
17,411 
2,520 
40,664 
10, 754 
3,205 
11,514 
12,344 
11,723 
9,536 

22,424 
16,297 
14,578 
15,590 
11,139 
30,223 
60, 170 

23.662 
73,556 
10, 628 

124, 719 
25,106 

12.663 
39,085 
45,352 
44,401 
26,460 

5,728 
1,994 
2,658 
3,393 
1,744 
10,242 
15, 151 
„  6, 756 

22,929 
2,482 
24,260 
11,062 
6,268 
7,520 
6,454 
9,835 
3,415 

Virginia . . 

"West  Virginia . 

Total . . . 

2,574,929 

155,739 

309, 430 

170,300 

671,254 

141,891 

State. 

Trade  and  transportation. 

Professional  service. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Alabama . 

26,234 

777 

7,708 

2,282 

Arkansas . . 

18,584 

461 

7,538 

1,677 

Delaware . . . 

7,697 

696 

1,405 

676 

District  of  Columbia . 

19,123 

4,798 

5,297 

1,284 

Florida . . . 

10, 516 

354 

3,467 

983 

Georgia . . . . . 

36,648 

1,349 

9, 782 

3,106 

Kentucky . 

50,556 

3,140 

14, 724 

5,595 

Louisiana . . . 

32,418 

1,967 

5,944 

2,473 

Maryland . 

55,689 

5,602 

9,502 

4,158 

Mississippi  . . 

16, 103 

526 

5,613 

2,500 

Missouri... . 

127, 199 

7,920 

27,061 

11,164 

North  Carolina . 

20,606 

524 

7,346 

2, 760 

South  Carolina . 

14,156 

528 

4,426 

1,717 

Tennessee . . 

41,169 

1,659 

13,244 

3,875 

Texas . 

68.790 

1,758 

20, 191 

5,332 

Virginia....  . 

40,976 

1,634 

10,307 

4,816 

West  Virginia . 

20,157 

727 

6,230 

2,202 

Total . . . . . 

606,622 

33,420 

159,885 

56,600 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGBO, 


789 


Occupations  of  negroes ,  by  sex,  1890. 


State 

Agriculture,  fish¬ 
eries,  and  mining. 

Domestic  and  per¬ 
sonal  service. 

Manufacturing 
and  mechanical 
industries. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Alabama . . 

146,361 

66,124 

25,428 

33,391 

9,926 

930 

Arkansas . . . 

68,219 

19,071 

11,227 

10,506 

3,406 

273 

Delaware . . . . 

4,157 

32 

3,631 

2,878 

816 

52 

District  of  Columbia . . 

553 

15 

12,682 

16, 739 

2, 838 

1,486 

Florida . „ . 

23,692 

7, 626 

13,231 

10,424 

4,496 

745 

Georgia . 

172,500 

54,070 

39,297 

65,033 

16, 604 

1,919 

Kentucky  . . . . 

38,456 

1,008 

26,649 

28,928 

6, 522 

829 

Louisiana . . . . 

111,820 

49,424 

31, 613 

31,288 

8,456 

2, 767 

Maryland . 

29,516 

741 

21,022 

30,409 

4,456 

1,071 

Mississippi . . . 

167,997 

77,924 

17,210 

25, 729 

5,694 

793 

Missouri . . 

15, 757 

322 

18, 899 

15, 618 

3,531 

389 

North  Carolina . 

106, 493 

33, 794 

20, 584 

31, 402 

12,113 

2,352 

South  Carolina . 

149.915 

73,581 

18, 555 

26,220 

9,850 

2,338 

Tennessee . . . 

72,316 

12,508 

25,624 

30,336 

10,407 

1,139 

Texas . 

85, 824 

20, 763 

23,361 

24, 841 

5,799 

450 

Virginia . . 

93, 746 

10,167 

39, 434 

55,949 

18,852 

4?  474 

West  Virginia . 

4,790 

50 

3,516 

2,461 

927 

40 

Total . 

1,292,112 

427,220 

347,960 

432,062 

123,793 

22,047 

State. 

Trade  and  transportation. 

Professional  service. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Alabama . 

9,151 

134 

1,471 

490 

Arkansas . 

2,787 

24 

1,225 

238 

Delaware . 

634 

18 

97 

82 

District  of  Columbia . . . 

4,776 

193 

390 

335 

Florida . . . 

4, 106 

52 

776 

223 

Georgia . 

16,397 

367 

2,122 

956 

Kentucky . . . . . 

7,383 

65 

1,406 

420 

Louisiana . _ . . . . . 

6,046 

127 

1,251 

355 

Maryland . . . . . 

7,538 

144 

640 

274 

Mississippi . . . - 

5,671 

74 

1,970 

775 

Missouri- . 

4,862 

43 

897 

337 

North  Carolina . . 

7,564 

104 

1,619 

565 

South  Carolina . . . . . 

6,860 

183 

1,543 

505 

Tennessee . 

10,955 

121 

1,736 

592 

Texas . . . 

6,386 

66 

2,031 

564 

Virginia . - . . . - 

15,664 

243 

1,654 

912 

West  Virginia . 

2,081 

7 

166 

63 

Total . . 

118, 861 

1,575 

20, 994 

7,636 

The  two  preceding  tables  give  the  occupations  of  whites  and  blacks  by  sex.  It 
is  chiefly  valuable  in  showing  to  what  extent  negro  women  are  employed  in  agri¬ 
cultural  pursuits  and  in  domestic  service.  In  1890  there  were  427,220  negro 
females  engaged  in  agriculture  and  432,062  in  domestic  service.  Nearly  1,000,000 
of  these  women  were  in  the  list  of  wage-earners.  It  is  this  fact  that  gives  the 
negro  such  a  relative  preponderance  in  the  industrial  world.  The  proportion  of 
negro  women  and  white  women  engaged  in  agriculture  was  about  3  to  1,  and  in 
domestic  service  about  4  to  3,  the  larger  number  in  both  cases  being  in  favor  of 
the  negro  women.  On  the  other  hand,  the  colored  women  scarcely  figured  at  all 
in  manufactures  and  trade  and  transportation,  while  the  white  woman  was  quite 
numerously  represented. 


ED  1901 


-49 


770  EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


Agricultural  laborers ,  farmers,  planters,  and  overseers,  by  race,  1890. 


State. 

Agricultural  laborers. 

Farmers,  planters,  and  overseers. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

White. 

Colored. 

White.  | 

Colored. 

White.  | 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Alabama . 

43, 576 

75  222 

8,650 

59, 159 

103, 544 

65,247 

6,129 

6, 945 

Arkansas . 

38,566 

31,237 

2, 675 

15,200 

118, 895 

36,577 

6,126 

3,865 

Delaware 

4,745 

3,206 

37 

16 

8,819 

809 

District  of  Colum¬ 

bia 

274 

293 

^  238 

32 

224 

9 

Florida . 

6, 743 

10,040 

719 

6,060 

11, 843 

1,407 

1,548 

Georgia  . . . . 

56, 141 

98,400 

9, 138 

50,351 

lie!  in 

63,012 

7,247 

3,563 

Kentucky . 

76, 935 

26, 201 

1,358 

513 

191,302 

10, 600 

9,405 

475 

Louisiana . . 

24,897 

72, 144 

3, 156 

45,899 

44,250 

37,680 

2, 701 

3,467 

Maryland . 

23.649 

20,921 

492 

549 

36, 516 

4, 560 

1,324 

164 

Mississippi . 

25,924 

81,444 

5, 805 

67,347 

74,864 

85, 947 

5, 399 

10,675 

Missouri  . 

83, 144 

8,522 

683 

92 

273, 313 

5,886 

11, 196 

221 

North  Carolina _ 

65,285 

64, 163 

11, 719 

30,629 

141, 186 

.38,290 

9,998 

3,077 

South  Carolina _ 

31,449 

85. 503 

10, 731 

67,584 

56, 778 

60,378 

4,094 

5,975 

Tennessee . 

67, 674 

39, 714 

2,515 

10, 106 

165, 730 

30,500 

8,700 

2.349 

Texas  . 

75, 916 

35, 553 

2,300 

15, 784 

214, 965 

48, 543 

10,835 

4,968 

Virginia . 

51,710 

56,298 

1,311 

8,373 

102,027 

29,403 

5,174 

1,694 

West  Virginia . 

32, 773 

1,814 

462 

17 

79,542 

892 

2,690 

28 

Total . 

709,301 

710, 675 

67,514 

377,679 

—7 

Oi 

O  1 

1 

00 

530, 199 

92, 649 

49,023 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  extent  to  which  negro  agricultural  workers  are 
acquiring  self-direction,  and  are  becoming  farmers,  planters,  and  overseers, 
instead  of  mere  farm  laborers.  The  accompanying  table  brings  out  this  feature  of 
the  inquiry.  About  700,000  males  of  each  race  were  rated  as  agricultural  labor¬ 
ers.  There  were  more  than  500,000  negro  farmers,  planters,  and  overseers. 
These  figures  are  quite  suggestive  of  the  progress  of  the  negro  as  an  industrial 
I  factor  in  the  South.  We  saw  in  the  section  on  ownership,  that  about  230,000 

negroes  owned  their  farms  and  homes.  There  were  114,209  negroes  who  owned 
their  farms,  so  that  more  than  400,000  others  must  have  risen  above  the  grade 
of  laborers  who  have  not  yet  acquired  their  own  lands.  This  is  the  first 
step  toward  acquisition.  When  a  man  rises  above  the  lowest  grade  of  agri¬ 
cultural  service  and  gets  a  foretaste  of  independent  activity  in  the  management 
and  direction  either  of  a  hired  farm  or  as  overseer  for  the  owner,  the  next  step  is 
personal  proprietorship;  so  that  we  may  say  that  there  are  500,000  negroes 
who  have  started  on  the  road  to  ownership  of  land.  It  will  be  a  surprise  to  those 
who  have  never  looked  into  the  subject  to  be  informed  that  the  negroes  consti¬ 
tute  24  per  cent  of  the  farmer,  planter,  and  overseer  class.  The  number  of  colored 
women  who  belong  to  this  grade  is  nearly  50,000,  against  92,000  white  women. 
There  were  377,679  colored  female  farm  laborers  and  only  67,514  whites.  The 
employment  of  so  large  a  number  of  females  in  the  hard,  bone-breaking  wTork  of 
the  farm  is  indicative  of  an  unsatisfactory  social  and  industrial  state.  It  never¬ 
theless  helps  to  show  that  all  of  the  available  energies  of  the  colored  race  are 
expended  in  developing  the  industrial  life  of  the  South. 

Mr.  Booker  T.  Washington  is  fond  of  telling  a  story  of  an  old  colored  man  who 
objected  to  the  bringing  of  white  immigrants  to  the  South  on  the  ground  that 
there  wTere  as  many  white  people  there  already  as  the  colored  people  could  sup¬ 
port.  The  serious  side  of  this  suggestion  is  more  significant  than  its  humorous 
aspect.  The  burden  of  industry  in  the  South  falls  most  heavily  upon  the  negro 
race.  Not  even  its  women  are  spared  the  onerous  task  of  tiresome  toil.  That 
this  labor  from  beneath  supports  the  general  life  of  the  community  is  as  certain 
as  that  the  mudsill  supports  the  superstructure  'which  rests  upon  it. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


771 


Negro  agricultural  laborers. 


State. 

Male. 

Female. 

State. 

Male. 

Female. 

Alabama  „ 

75,222 
98,400 
72, 144 
81, 444 
85,503 

59, 159 
50,351 

Maryland _ _ _ _ _ 

20,921 

8,522 

549 

Georgia  _ - _ _ 

Missouri . _ . . . 

92 

Louisiana 

45, 899 
67,347 
67, 584 

Kentucky . . . . 

26,201 
1, 814 

513 

Mississippi  _ 

West  Virginia  . . . 

17 

South  Carolina . 

While  the  number  of  negro  male  field  hands  is  noticeably  small  in  the  border 
States  as  compared  with  the  States  farther  South,  the  negro  woman  practically 
falls  out  of  the  equation  as  a  field  worker  in  the  higher  tier  of  States. 

The  number  of  negroes  who  have  risen  from  the  level  of  field  laborer  to  the  dig¬ 
nity  of  farmers,  planters,  and  overseers  is  quite  considerable,  and  is  not  far  behind 
the  number  employed  as  agricultural  laborers,  so  far  as  the  males  are  concerned. 
In  Arkansas,  Florida,  Mississippi,  and  Texas  the  number  of  negro  male  farmers, 
planters,  and  overseers  surpasses  the  number  of  field  laborers.  This  is  a  fact  of 
striking  significance.  It  shows  to  what  extent  the  negro  is  becoming  an  independ¬ 
ent  worker  in  the  agricultural  industries  and  how  indissolubly  he  is  interwoven 
in  the  warp  and  woof  of  the  agricultural  life  of  the  South.  As  agriculture  con¬ 
stitutes  its  chief  productive  resource,  and  as  the  negro  is  at  the  base  of  this  life, 
he  is  therefore  the  real  productive  factor  of  that  section. 


Persons  unemployed  during  a  portion  of  the  year  only.1 


Males. 

Females. 

Aggregate. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Agriculture,  fisheries,  and  mining  ... 

Domestic  and  personal  service . 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical  in¬ 
dustries  . 

Trade  and  transportation . . 

Professional  service  .... . . . 

All  occupations . 

Per  cent  of  population  _ _ 

898,419 

583,223 

860, 973 
227,557 
51,146 

214,193 

99,886 

37,970 

19,172 

3,447 

15,822 

78,425 

162,740 

14,919 

84,828 

93,060 

52,163 

5,055 

189 

3,079 

914,241 
661, 648 

1,023, 713 
242,476 
135,974 

307,253 

152,049 

43,025 

19,361 

6,256 

2,621,318 

374,668 

356,734 

153,546 

2,978,052 

5.43 

545,678 

7.10 

1  These  tables  apply  to  the  entire  United  States. 


Persons  employed  during  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  year. 


Males. 

Females. 

Aggregate. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Part  of  year _ 

2,621,318 

13,981,829 

374,668 
1, 726, 711 

356,734 

2,582,307 

153,346 

821,651 

2,978,052 

16,564,136 

528,214 
2,544, 950 

The  year  round . . 

Total . 

16,602,147 

2,101,379 

2,939,041 

971, 785 

19,542,188 

3, 073,164 

Per  cent  of  population  employed  during  a  part  or  all  of  the  year. 


Males. 

Females. 

Aggregate. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Part  of  year _ _ _ _ _ 

9.33 

49.57 

10. 15 
65.46 

1.39 

6.95 

4.05 

22.02 

5. 42 
30. 15 

7.07 

34.07 

The  year  round . . . 

Total . . . . 

41.14 

We  see  that  2,621,318  male  whites,  or  9.33  per  cent  of  the  male  white  population, 
were  unemployed  during  part  of  the  year,  and  374,668  male  negroes,  or  10.15  per 


772 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


cent  of  the  male  negro  population;  30.15  per  cent  of  the  whites  of  both  sexes  were 
employed  the  year  round,  against  34.07  per  cent  of  the  negroes.  It  will  be  remem¬ 
bered  that  only  30.93  per  cent  of  the  Wjhite  people  of  the  South  are  employed  at  all; 
thus,  if  we  take  the  negroes  of  the  country  at  large,  they  were  more  generally 
employed  the  year  round  than  the  white  people  of  the  South,  including  both 
regular  and  irregular  employment. 

The  assertion  that  we  see  so  often  reiterated  that  the  negro  is  an  idle  and  worth¬ 
less  incumbrance  upon  the  life  of  the  South  is  not  borne  out  by  the  facts. 

Summarizing  the  results  of  this  chapter,  we  find  that  the  negro  is  engaged  mainly 
in  agriculture  and  domestic  service;  that  he  is  to  a  much  greater  degree  employed 
in  gainful  pursuits  than  his  white  neighbor;  that  he  is  rapidly  becoming  a  land- 
owner,  and  much  more  rapidly  an  independent  farmer  and  planter;  that  he  is 
making  little  or  no  headway  in  the  mechanical  and  industrial  arts;  and  that  the 
marked  tendency  in  the  far  Southern  States  is  toward  agricultural  labor,  while  in 
the  border  States  the  drift  is  toward  domestic  service. 

Taking  all  these  things  together  it  is  fully  apparent  that  the  negro  is  the  most 
valuable  productive  element  in  the  industrial  life  of  the  South,  and  that  most  of  its 
prosperity  rests  upon  the  basis  of  his  toil;  that  he  is  therefore  justly  entitled  to 
share  in  all  the  public  benefits  which  his  labor  makes  possible,  and  that  it  is  the 
part  of  wisdom  for  the  white  South  to  encourage  him  in  the  development  of  intel¬ 
ligence,  virtue,  and  industrial  skill,  so  that  he  may  become  a  more  efficient  factor 
in  the  development  of  the  general  welfare. 

VI.  Special  Studies  of  the  Economic  Conditions  of  the  Negro. 

The  most  valuable  special  studies  upon  the  economic  conditions  of  the  negro 
race  are  to  be  found  in  the  bulletins  of  the  Department  of  Labor.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  this  Department  to  make  a  series  of  investigations  concerning  the  economic 
and  social  relations  of  this  race.  The  method  adopted  is  to  present  an  exhaustive 
analytic  study  of  well-defined  typical  groups  of  negroes  in  different  sections  of  the 
country.  Expert  investigators  are  employed  by  the  Department  for  this  purpose. 
Several  such  investigations  have  already  been  made  and  still  others  are  under  con¬ 
templation.  When  the  series  shall  have  been  completed  the  student  will  have 
accurate  and  reliable  data  from  which  to  draw  conclusions.  The  bulletins  so  far 
issued  present  special  studies  rather  than  broad  generalizations  and  speculative 
dissertations.  Of  all  problems  pressing  for  solution,  the  American  people  seem  to 
approach  the  negro  question  with  the  greatest  degree  of  nervousness  and  impa¬ 
tience.  The  theorizer  reaches  his  conclusion  and  leaves  the  investigator  to  furnish 
data  for  proof,  and  discards  him  if  he  does  not.  An  accurate,  analytic,  scientific 
presentation  of  facts  and  rational  deduction  of  conclusions  therefrom  is  still  an 
unfulfilled  desideratum.  The  student  of  sociology,  therefore,  hails  with  delight 
the  effort  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  which  undertakes  this  work  with  adequate 
machinery  and  equipment  for  its  successful  prosecution.  Such  work  can  be  done 
effectively  only  through  some  such  central  and  commanding  agency.  The  diffi¬ 
culty  with  individual  and  private  attempts  is  that  they  lack  unity  of  purpose  and 
plan,  and  therefore  the  divergent  methods  and  conclusions  confuse  as  much  as 
they  elucidate. 

Several  of  these  bulletins  have  been  prepared  by  Dr.  W.  E,  B.  Du  Bois,  that 
careful,  accurate  student  of  the  race  problem,  who  is  doing  more  than  any  other 
worker  in  this  field  to  supplant,  by  scientific  method,  guesswork  and  vagaries. 
Being  himself  of  the  race  to  the  study  of  whose  problems  he  has  consecrated  his 
splendid  faculties,  he  not  only  approaches  the  subject  with  the  best  approved 
methods  of  sociological  inquiry,  but  brings  also  the  stimulus  and  zest  of  personal 
solicitude. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


778 


THE  NEGROES  OP  SANDYSPRING,  MONTGOMERY  COUNTY,  MD.1 


The  Sandyspring  community  lies  in  Montgomery  County,  Md.,  due  north  of 
Washington  City.  The  nearness  to  the  national  capital  is  of  great  economic 
importance  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighborhood,  the  southern  corner  of  which 
is  about  miles,  in  an  air  line,  north  of  the  northern  angle  of  the  District  of 
Columbia.  Here  within  a  stoned  throw,  as  it  were,  of  the  seat  of  Government,  is 
a  thriving  agricultural  community,  among  whom  still  live  the  descendants  of 
negro  families  which  have  beeft  free  for  a  century  and  a  quarter. 

The  community  is  of  irregular  shape,  about  5  miles  from  east  to  west  and  about 
5  miles  from  north  to  south.  Sandyspring  is  in  Montgomery  County,  some  knowl¬ 
edge  of  whose  social  and  economic  condition  can  be  gathered  from  the  following 
statistics: 

Population  of  Montgomery  County ,  1790  to  1890. 


1790. 

1800. 

1810. 

1820 

ls:;o. 

1840. 

1850. 

1860 

1870. 

18S0. 

1890. 


Whites. 

Negroes. 

Total. 

11,679 

6,324 

18,003 

8,508 

6,550 

15, 058 

9,731 

8,249 

17,980 

9,082 

7,318 

16,400 

12,103 

7,713 

19,816 

8, 766 

6,690 

15,456 

9,435 

6,425 

15,860 

11,349 

6,973 

18,322 

13,128 

7,434 

20,562 

15,608 

9, 150 

a  24, 759 

17,500 

9,685 

27,185 

a  Including  1  Indian. 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  two  races  have  made  almost  exactly  proportional  gains 
in  100  years. 

The  county  contains  267,933  acres,  of  which  193,937  acres  are  improved.  There 
are  1,959  farms,  of  the  average  size  of  137  acres;  only  177  farms  contain  less  than 
10  acres,  and  4  over  1,000  acres;  1,841  farms,  or  83.77  per  cent,  were  cultivated  by 
owners.  The  farm  produce  for  1890  was  estimated  at  $1,531,760,  and  the  live  stock 
and  poultry  at  $1,249,790.  The  basis  for  the  tax  levy  of  1898-99  was  $12,443,795. 
The  amount  levied  for  the  support  of  the  public  schools,  1899-1900,  was  $30,200. 
There  were  114  public  schools,  which  were  open  for  nine  months.  Of  these,  81 
were  white  schools  with  100  teachers,  and  33  were  colored  schools  with  40  teachers. 
For  these  schools  the  county  received  from  the  State  school  tax  $18,181.03;  from 
the  free-school  fund,  $2,154.35;  for  free  text-books,  $6,784.55.  The  total,  includ¬ 
ing  county  levy,  was  $59,548.60.  For  the  colored  schools  the  receipt  for  1898-99 
was  $7,477.44  from  the  State,  $1,107.74  (the  proportional  amount  of  county  tax 
paid  by  negroes)  from  the  county  school  board,  and  $3.33  from  miscellaneous 
sources,  making' a  total  of  $8,588.51. 

Much  side  light  is  thus  thrown  upon  the  educational  provisions  for  the  two 
races  in  this  county,  and  incidentally  in  other  counties  of  the  State. 

For  a  white  population  of  17,500  persons,  there  were  81  schools  and  100  teachers, 
at  a  total  cost  of  $50,958.09.  For  a  colored  population  of  9,685  persons,  scattered 
over  the  same  area,  there  were  33  schools  and  40  teachers,  at  a  total  cost  of  $8,588.51. 
The  per  capita  cost  of  the  education  of  each  negro  child  was  $5.74,  while  that  for 
the  county  at  large  was  $16.10.  There  was  1  white  teacher  for  every  175  of  the 
white  population,  and  1  colored  teacher  for  every  242  of  the  negro  population. 
One  white  school  was  provided  for  every  5.2  square  miles,  and  1  colored  school  for 
every  14  square  miles.  The  pay  of  the  colored  teachers  ranged  from  $180  to  $225 


1  Compiled  from  Department  of  Labor  Bulletin,  No.  32,  pp.  43-102  (January,  1901),  by  William 
Taylor  Tliom,  Ph.  D.,  investigator. 


774 


EDUCATION  BEPORT,  1900-1901. 


per  annum.  The  average  pay  of  all  teachers,  including  both  races,  was  $328.90, 
so  that  that  of  the  white  teachers  must  have  been  in  the  neighborhood  of  $400. 

It  is  rather  curious  to  be  informed  by  the  investigator  that  ‘ 4  there  is  no  provision 
made  in  the  office  of  the  county  commissioners  or  of  the  county  clerk  by  which 
property  can  be  identified  as  held  by  white  or  negro  owners,”  when  both  by  law 
and  practice  the  colored  schools  receive  only  that  proportion  of  county  taxes  paid 
by  negroes. 

The  settlement  of  Sandyspring  was  founded  l^y  the  Society  of  Friends.  To 
this  fact  is  attributable  the  large  number  of  free  colored  people  in  the  community, 
as  well  as  its  general  prosperity  and  thrift. 

The  white  population  of  Sandyspring  is  estimated  at  about  700  and  the  negro 
population  at  1,000. 

There  were  3  schools  and  5  teachers  for  the  Sandyspring  negroes,  1898-99.  The 
school  term  was  nine  months.  The  salary  of  the  teacher  was  $25  a  month,  and 
the  salaries  of  the  assistants  $20.  The  total  enrollment  was  391,  only  240,  however, 
belonging  to  the  Sandyspring  district  proper.  Of  these  1,000  persons  484  were 
able  to  read,  38  could  read  but  not  write,  while  140  were  returned  as  illiterate. 
Of  the  683  people  reported,  70.9  per  cent  could  read  and  write,  5.5  per  cent  could 
read  but  not  write,  and  20.5  per  cent  could  neither  read  nor  write. 

The  negro  males  were  distributed  as  follows  among  the  several  occupations: 


Barber _ 1 

Mail  carrier _ 1 

Mail  contractor . . . . .  1 

Merchant _ _ 1 

Miller _ _ 1 

Shingle  maker . 1 

Teacher _ ...... _  1 

Waiter _ 1 

Bricklayers  and  stone  masons .  2 

Carpenters .  _  _ _ 2 

Clergymen . . 2 

Hucksters _ _ 2 


Coachmen _ _ 3 

Domestic  servants _ _ 3 

Engine  drivers . 3 

Shoemakers . . 3 

At  home _ 7 

Not  reported _ _ 19 

At  school . 64 

Laborers . . .  65 

Farm  laborers . . 105 

Total . 313 


The  females  were  employed  as  follows: 


Day  workers _ 27 

Day  workers  and  housewives _  25 

Domestic  servants . . 72 

Housewives . . 49 

Monthly  nurses  . . 5 

Seamstresses  and  housewives _  7 

Teachers _ 4 


W asherwomen  and  housewives ....  51 


Not  reported . . . .  30 

At  home . 23 

At  school . 80 

Total . . .  370 

Grand  total . . 683 


If  we  subtract  from  this  number  144  school  children  and  49  housewives,  49  not 
reported,  and  30  reported  as  being  at  home,  we  have  left  411  engaged  in  gainful 
occupations.  This  represents  41.1  per  cent  of  the  aggregate  colored  population. 
Curiously  enough,  we  have  here  the  identical  per  cent  of  negroes  thus  engaged 
throughout  the  United  States.1  There  were  153  males  and  91  females  who  had 
worked  at  the  same  place  from  two  to  five  years.  The  great  majority  of  females 
had  resided  in  their  present  place  of  residence  for  more  than  three  years.  Thi3 
indicates  a  fair  degree  of  steadiness  in  residence  and  occupation.  There  were  205 
negro  families,  with  an  average  of  4.29  to  each  family.  Of  the  165  economic  fami¬ 
lies,  63  families  own  their  own  homes,  54  were  renters,  44  farm  hands,  and  4  tenure 
not  reported.  The  average  annual  rent  was  $26.50.  One- third  of  the  families  had 
annual  incomes  ranging  between  $250  and  $750.  The  estimated  income  and 


Occupations  of  the  Negroes,  by  Henry  Gannett,  p.  5. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


775 


expenditure  of  a  farm  hand’s  family  of  five  persons  will  be  seen  from  the  accom¬ 
panying  table: 


Income. 

Expenditures. 

Husband  (farm  band),  $12  per  month  .. 

$144 

Food . 

$88. 40 

Wife  (washing),  $1  per  week.  - 

52 

Fuel . 

26.20 

Boy,  6  months1  labor,  $3  ner  month _ 

18 

Clothing _ _ _ _ 

50. 00 

Rent. . . . 

18.00 

Miscellaneous . . . 

10.00 

Medical  treatment . 

10.00 

Surplus . . . 

11.40 

Total 

214 

Total . 

214.00 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  family  may  exert  itself  to  the  utmost  stretch  of  endeavor, 
and  would  have  to  spend  all  its  earnings  in  order  to  maintain  the  scanty  necessi¬ 
ties  of  living.  Its  earnings  are  spent  with  the  merchant,  the  landlord,  and  the 
professional  classes,  each  of  whom  abstracts  a  surplus  percentage  in  order  to  meet 
the  cost  of  public  taxation. 

Sixty-three  females  owned  their  own  homes,  54  rented  their  houses,  44  were 
farmhands  occupying  their  houses  free  of  money  rent,  and  4  were  not  reported  as 
to  tenure.  There  were  92  owners  of  real  estate;  the  size  of  the  average  holding 
was  less  than  five  acres;  the  assessed  value  was  $21,590.  The  county  tax  rate  was 
$1.02  per  $100,  so  that  the  landed  interests  alone  of  the  Sandy  Spring  negroes 
produced  $258.90  for  county  revenue. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  investigator,  “from  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  conclu¬ 
sions  drawn  from  the  investigation  of  this  group  would  appear  to  be  favorable. 
The  Sandy  Spring  negroes  seem  to  be  acquiring  and  holding  property,  and  the 
agricultural  element  of  labor  among  them  gives  a  good  account  of  itself.  ” 

THE  NEGROES  OF  FARMVILLE,  PRINCE  EDWARD  COUNTY,  VA.1 

Farmville  is  the  county  seat  of  Prince  Edward  County,  Va.,  and  contains  about 
2,500  inhabitants. 

The  white  and  colored  population  from  1790  to  1890  will  be  seen  from  the  follow¬ 
ing  table: 

Population  of  Prince  Edward  County ,  1790  to  1890. 


Census  year. 

Whites. 

Negroes. 

Total. 

1790.... . . . 

4,082 

4,978 

4, 018 

8  100 

1800 . 

5, 984 
7,145 

10, 962 
12  409 

1810. . . 

5,264 
4, 627 
5, 039 
4, 923 

1820 . . . . . 

7,950 

9,068 

12, 577 
14, 107 
14,069 
11, 857 
11, 844 
12, 004 
14, 668 
14,694 

1830 . 

1840 . . . 

9,146 

7,680 

1850 . 

4,177 

4,037 

1860 . . 

7,807 

1870 . . . 

4,106 
4, 754 
4,707 

7, 893 
9,914 
9,924 

1880 . 

1890 . . . 

The  white  population  has  remained  nearly  stationary  for  a  hundred  years, 
whereas  the  negroes  have  more  than  doubled  in  number.  In  1890,  the  negroes  out¬ 
numbered  the  whites  more  than  two  to  one.  There ‘were  487  farms,  818  of  which 
contained  between  400  and  500  acres,  with  only  six  containing  less  than  10  acres, 
and  two  more  than  1,000  acres.  Fifty-seven  per  cent  of  the  farms  were  cultivated 
by  their  owners. 


1 W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  Ph.  D.,  investigator.  Department  of  Labor  Bulletin,  No.  14,  January,  3898, 
pp.  1-38. 


776 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  assessed  valuation  of  real  estate  and  personal  property 'was  $2,397,007.  On 
this  was  raised  the  sum  of  $24,281  for  taxation,  $4,714  of  which  went  to  the  sup¬ 
port  of  public  schools.  The  negroes  of  the  county,  in  1895,  owned  17,555  acres  of 
land,  assessed  at  $132,189,  against  202,962  acres,  with  an  assessed  value  of  $164,180, 
owned  by  the  whites.  The  number  of  acres  and  the  assessed  valuation  of  lands 
held  by  negroes  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 


Year. 

Number 
of  acres. 

Assessed 

value. 

1891 .  . 

12,215 
13,207 
14, 754 
16, 467 
17,555 

$83,212.48 
89, 787. 75 
97,341.53 
105,024.48 
132,188.66 

1892 . 

1893  ....  . 

1891 .  . . . 

1895 . . . - . 

Farmville  is  the  trading  center  of  six  surrounding  counties,  with  a  population 
of  961  whites  and  1,305  negroes.  The  chief  industry  is  the  storage,  manufacture, 
and  shipping  of  tobacco,  wood-working,  coopering,  milling,  and  wholesale  and 
retail  merchandising.  The  total  valuation  of  the  town  in  1890  was  $661,230,  on 
which  a  tax  of  $9,855  was  raised,  $661  of  which  went  to  the  State  school  fund  and 
$1,322  to  the  town  and  county  school  fund.  In  1895  negroes  owned  $51,240  worth 
of  real  estate,  or  about  7  per  cent  of  the  aggregate. 

There  were  262  families  of  negroes  in  the  town,  about  half  of  whom  had  moved 
there  since  1880.  The  town  has  no  school  for  colored  children,  but  sends  them 
to  the  district  school,  just  outside  of  the  corporation  limits.  The  school  term  is 
six  months.  The  teachers’  salaries  do  not  average  over  $30  a  month.  There  were 
367  children  between  5  and  15  years  of  age,  of  whom  205,  or  55.9  per  cent,  were  in 
school.  Forty-two  per  cent  of  the  negroes  could  read  and  write,  Yi\  per  cent 
could  read  but  not  write,  while  40  per  cent  were  wholly  illiterate.  Four  hundred 
and  fifty-nine  males  were  distributed  among  41  different  occupations.  There  were 
128  teamsters,  58  laborers,  16  domestic  servants  among  the  men,  and  144  day 
workers,  65  domestic  servants,  23  teachers,  and  23  employees  in  the  canning  fac¬ 
tory  among  the  women.  Six  hundred  and  fifty-one  persons,  or  48  per  cent,  were 
engaged  in  gainful  pursuits,  against  41  per  cent  of  the  negro  population  of  the 
United  States.  The  average  size  of  the  real  family  was  5.03,  and  of  the  economic 
family,  4.61.  Of  the  262  families,  114,  or  43.5  per  cent,  own  the  homes  they 
occupy,  and  148,  or  56.5  per  cent,  rent.  The  estimated  amount  of  rent  paid  is 
$4,872  annually.  The  income  of  families  ranges  from  $50  to  $750.  There  were 
five  families  whose  income  exceeded  the  latter  limit. 

Estimated  annual  income  and  expenditure  of  family  of  five  persons. 


Income. 


Head  of  family: 

24  weeks’  labor,  at  75  cents  per  day 

$108. 00 

16  weeks’  labor  on  farm,  at  40 
cents  per  day . 

38.40 

Housewife:  Fifty  weeks’ washing,  at 
$1.50  per  week . 

75.00 

Total . . . 

221. 40 

Expenditure. 

Food _ _ _ ...... _ 

$85. 28 
32.40 

Fuel . . . 

Clothing . . . 

50.00 

Rent _ _ _ _ _ 

36.00 

Miscellaneous . . . . 

15.00 

Surplus . . . . . . . 

2. 72 

Total . 

221.40 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


777 


Estimated  income  and  expenditure  of  family  of  jive  persons  owning  home  and  in 

moderate  circumstances. 


Income. 


Head  of  family: 

32  weeks’  work  as  carpenter,  at 
7H  cents  per  day _ 

OO  O  1 

OO  O  | 

38  S  1 

rH  rH 

Odd  jobs  . . . . . . . 

Housewife  and  boy:  Twenty  weeks’ 
work  at  tobacco  factory,  at  $7  per 
week . . . . . 

Total . 

284. 00 

Expenditure. 


Food . - . 

$117.00 

30.00 

Fuel . . . 

Clothing  . . . . . 

60.00 

Taxes . . . 

8.00 

Miscellaneous . . . . . 

30. 00 

Surplus _ _ _ _ 

39.00 

Total . 

284.00 

Here  we  see,  as  in  Sandy  Spring,  that  the  average  negro  family,  making  the  best 
use  of  its  opportunities,  must  spend  practically  all  of  its  earnings  in  the  commu¬ 
nity,  part  of  which,  under  any  just  estimate,  goes  to  the  support  of  public  taxa¬ 
tion.  In  1895  there  were  119  negro  taxpayers  in  the  corporation  on  lots  and 
buildings,  ranging  in  value  from  $25  to  $2,800.  There  were  232  white  holders  of 
real  estate,  the  highest  of  whom  was  assessed  at  $16,000.  There  was  a  considerable 
number  of  negro  farmers  owning  valuable  farm  lands  in  the  district  surrounding 
the  corporation. 

The  investigator  says  that  “it  seems  fair  to  conclude,  after  an  impartial  study 
of  Farmville  conditions,  that  the  industrious  and  property- accumulating  class  of 
the  negro  citizens  best  represents,  on  the  whole,  the  general  tendencies  of  the  group.” 

THE  NEGRO  IN  THE  BLACK  BELT.1 

Group  I.— Six  small  groups,  containing  920  negroes,  have  been  studied  by  the 
Atlanta  University,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  DuBois.  All  but  one  of  these 
groups  are  situated  in  Georgia.  Eleven  representative  families  in  Doraville  and 
vicinity  were  studied,  with  the  result  that  the  average  family  was  found  to  consist 
of  11.9  persons.  Four  of  the  heads  of  families  could  read  and  write;  5  owned  their 
homes.  The  farms  varied  from  1  to  11  acres  in  extent  and  were  worth  from  $100 
to  $400.  Six  families  rented  their  farms  on  shares  and  cleared  from  $5  to  $10  in 
cash  at  the  end  of  each  year.  Women  and  girls  were  employed  as  farm  hands. 

Group  2. — Lithonia  is  a  small  village  of  about  800  persons  in  Dekalb  County, 
Ga. ,  25  miles  east  of  Atlanta.  Negro  stonecutters  are  employed  at  from  $5  to  $5.50 
per  week.  They  rent,  for  the  most  part,  small  two-room  frames  at  $4  per  month. 
The  whites  have  a  private  and  public  school,  giving  them  a  term  of  from  eight  to 
nine  months.  The  negro  schools  comprise  a  Methodist  and  a  Baptist  school,  each 
of  which  has  a  term  of  three  months.  Sixteen  negro  families  were  specially 
studied.  Six  of  these  families  owned  their  homes  and  had  an  average  yearly 
income  of  $369.  The  other  10  families  paid  on  an  average  between  $4  and  $5  a 
month.  Five  of  these  families  had  an  income  of  less  than  $200. 

Group  3.— Covington  is  a  village  41  miles  southeast  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  and  con¬ 
tained,  in  1898,  3,000  persons.  There  were  between  250  and  300  negro  families,  50 
of  which  were  chosen  for  study.  The  average  size  of  these  families  was  3.78. 
There  is  a  public  school  for  negroes  open  nine  months  in  the  year.  The  principal 
receives  $50  a  month;  his  two  female  assistants  $30  a  month.  The  illiteracy  among 
the  50  families  doe3  not  exceed  10  per  cent.  There  were  8  porters,  6  teachers,  4 
barbers,  5  carpenters,  4  laborers,  3  gardeners,  3  office  boys,  2  mail  agents,  2  drivers, 
2  draymen,  2  grocers,  2  ministers,  2  waiters,  1  bartender,  1  fireman,  1  quarryman, 
1  contractor,  1  brick  mason;  of  the  females  there  were  11  teachers,  10  seamstresses, 
6  cooks,  3  washerwomen,  1  boarding-housekeeper,  1  housekeeper,  making  a  total  of 


1  Labor  Bureau  Bulletin,  No.  22,  May,  1899,  pp.  401-417.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois,  Ph.  D. ,  investigator 


778 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


85  persons,  or  45  per  cent,  engaged  in  the  gainful  occupations.  The  average  income 
is  between  $300  and  $500.  The  majority  of  the  better  class  of  negroes  are  buying 
property.  The  yearly  income  of  the  mass  of  negroes  is  between  $100  and  $300;  of 
the  better  class,  between  $300  and  $500.  Of  the  50  families  studied,  41  own  their 
homes  and  9  are  renters. 

Group  4. — Marion  is  in  the  midst  of  the  black  belt  of  Alabama,  where  the  negroes 
outnumber  the  whites  4  to  1.  The  town  has  2,000  inhabitants,  equally  divided 
between  the  races.  Thirty-three  negro  families  were  studied.  The  average  family 
contained  5.3  persons.  Twenty-eight  owned  their  homes;  five  were  renters. 
Among  the  mass  of  the  negro  population  there  are  a  number  who  own  their  homes. 
Sixty-one  persons,  or  41  per  cent,  were  engaged  in  gainful  occupations.  The  public 
school  is  poor,  but  is  supplemented  by  three  missionary  schools. 

Group  h. — Marietta  is  a  town  of  4,000  inhabitants,  23  miles  north west  of  Atlanta. 
It  has  a  negro  population  of  1,500,  of  whom  40  families,  comprising  162  persons, 
were  studied.  The  public  schools  are  fair.  Twenty-four  families  own  their  homes. 
Negroes  are  employed  in  local  industrial  works,  receiving  from  50  to  75  cents  per 
day.  The  average  negro  family  lives  on  from  $2  to  $4  a  week. 

Group  6. — Athens  is  a  city  of  10,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  one-third  are  negroes. 
Forty-five  families  were  studied.  Ten  or  fifteen  were  illiterate.  Their  public 
schools  are  well  conducted.  Thirty-nine  of  these  families  own  their  homes  and 
six  are  renters.  Thirteen  families  have  an  income  of  $750  a  year;  sixteen,  between 
$500  and  $750. 

It  is  probable  that  the  families  of  the  several  groups  were  of  the  better  class, 
and  therefore  show  a  higher  average  of  living  and  industrial  activity  than  would 
be  true  for  the  groups  at  large. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  CITY  NEGRO.1 

The  first  of  the  special  studies  relating  to  the  negro  race  issued  by  the  Labor 
Bureau  was  upon  the  condition  of  negroes  in  cities.  The  work  was  accomplished 
under  the  general  direction  of  the  Atlanta  University.  Reports  were  made  from 
50  negro  investigators.  These  were  for  the  most  part  college  graduates,  teachers, 
doctors,  and  lawyers,  each  of  whom  was  expected  to  study  one  or  more  small 
groups  of  negroes  in  his  own  vicinity.  From  10  to  20  houses  standing  together  in 
portions  of  the  city  thought  to  be  representative  were  taken  as  constituting  a  group. 
The  number  and  distribution  of  the  groups  thus  studied  may  be  seen  from  the 
accompanying  table: 


City. 

Groups. 

Fami¬ 

lies. 

Individ¬ 

uals. 

Atlanta,  Ga . . . . . . . . . _ . . 

16 

324 

1,292 

1,090 

380 

Nashville,  Tenn . _ . . . _ . . . . 

10 

246 

Savannah,  Ga _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ 

5 

96 

Cambridge,  Mass . . . . . . . . . . 

1 

98 

366 

Washington,  D.C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

4 

66 

293 

Macon,  Ga . 

4 

30 

90 

Jacksonville,  Fla _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

3 

77 

327 

Columbia,  S.  C _ _ _ _ _ _ 

3 

15 

81 

Birmingham,  Ala . . . _ 

17 

63 

Tuskegee,  Ala  . . . . . . _ . . 

2 

21 

119 

Orangeburg,  S.C . . . 

2 

22 

109 

Sandford,  Fla . 

1 

24 

116 

Athens,  Ga _ _ _  _ _ 

1 

16 

73 

Cartersville,  Ga . . . . . . . 

1 

10 

53 

Louisville.  Ky _ _ _ 

1 

15 

70 

Macon.  Miss . . . 

1 

17 

64 

Chattanooga,  Tenn . . . 

1 

21 

89 

Jackson,  Tenn . . . 

1 

22 

67 

Total . 

59 

1,137 

4,742 

1  Labor  Bureau  Bulletin  No.  10,  May,  1897,  pp.  257  and  373.  Atlanta  University  graduates  et  alM 
investigators. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


779 


The  observations  were  sufficiently  widespread  to  be  typical  of  general  city  con¬ 
ditions.  The  average  family  contained  4.17  persons;  This  was  considerably  below 
the  average  size  of  a  family  for  the  cities  under  discussion,  as  shown  by  the  Eleventh 
Census.  Of  324  families  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  73,  or  22.53  per  cent,  owned  the  houses 
in  which  they  lived,  while  249,  or  7G.85  per  cent,  paid  an  average  rent  of  $4.25  per 
month.  Of  the  246  families  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  116,  or  47.15  per  cent,  owned  their 
houses,  while  123,  or  50  per  cent,  paid  an  average  rent  of  $4.68  per  month.  In  the 
32  groups  located  in  other  cities,  of  469  families  embraced  therein,  157,  or  33.48  per 
cent,  owned  the  houses  in  which  they  lived,  and  284,  or  60.55  per  cent,  paid  an 
average  rental  of  $5.51  per  month.  Some  families  were  paying  for  their  houses  on 
the  installment  plan. 

The  occupations  and  earnings,  by  families,  may  be  seen  from  the  accompanying 
typical  tables: 

Group  10. — Atlanta,  Ga. 


Head  of  family. 

Children. 

Family 

No. 

Occupation. 

Weeks 

em¬ 

ployed. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Earnings 
for  the 
year. 

1 

Fireman,  stationary . . __ . . . 

50 

$7.00 

3.50 

$132 

48 

2 

Washerwoman _ _ _ _ ... _ _ 

49 

3 

Cabinetmaker  ... 

36 

7.00 

100 

4 

Drayman _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

5.10 

5 

_ do . 

52 

4. 00 

690 

6 

Laborer  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

4. 00 

156 

7 

Blacksmith  _ _  .  . . . 

52 

7.50 

b 

Coachman _ _ _ _ _ „ _ 

52 

4.00 

130 

9 

Well-digger  _  _ _ _ 

52 

5  no 

90 

10 

Washerwoman . . . . . . . 

42 

2.50 

11 

Junk  dealer  . . . . . . 

52 

12.00 

234 

12 

Cook,  hotel 

43 

3.50 

13 

Employee  of  railroad  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

4.00 

14 

Restaurant  proprietor _  _ _ _ _ 

52 

6.00 

15 

W  asher  woman _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

3.00 

922 

16 

Bandmaster _ _ _ _ _ 

49 

10.00 

511 

17 

Stone  mason . . . 

45 

6.00 

225 

18 

Mattress  maker _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

48 

7.00 

91 

19 

Hack  driver  ("proprietor)  _  _ 

52 

12.00 

20 

Cook,  family _ _ _  _ _  .  .  .  _ _ _ _ 

49 

.50 

21 

W  asher  woman _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

1. 50 

Group  5. — Other  cities. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


Carpenter.  .  _ _  .  ._  _  ..  _ _ _ 

(,)M 

$13.00 

12.00 

_ _ do . I . 

Barber,  proprietor . . . 

52 

25.00 

Letter  carrier . . . . 

52 

14. 00 

$220 

212 

Carpenter,  lodging-house  keeper,  and  capitalist _ 

52 

75.00 

Merchant,  boots  and  shoes  . . . . . . . . 

52 

15.00 

Merchant,  lumber  . . . . 

52 

15.00 

Cigar  maker _ „ _ ,  .. 

52 

12.00 

Not  reported . 

260 

Barker  . 

52 

12.66 

Steward  of  a  club . . . . . 

52 

20. 00 

Carpenter . 

52 

12.00 

208 

Physician . . . . . . 

52 

20.00 

550 

Clergyman _ _ _ _ 

52 

12.50 

530 

Carpenter . . . 

52 

12.00 

326 

Barber . . 

52 

12.00 

520 

Clergyman . 

52 

25.00 

Post-office  clerk . .  . .  . 

52 

16.00 

294 

Compositor . . . . . 

52 

8.00 

Store  porter  . . . . . 

52 

10.09 

218 

Barber . . . .  . 

52 

52 

52 

12.00 

520 

Longshoreman _ 

10.00 

Contractor,  building . 

15.00 

218 

Contractor,  building . 

52 

50.00 

Barber,  proprietor . 

52 

15.00 

Merchant,  boots  and  shoes . 

52 

25.00 

560 

Waiter,  head,  hotel . 

40 

25.00 

2,496 

Teacher . . . . . . . . 

32 

12.50 

240 

Merchant,  commission . . . 

52 

50.00 

300 

_ do . . . 

52 

30.00 

938 

Clergyman  and  capitalist  . . . . 

52 

40.00 

780 

1  Not  reported. 


780 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
Nashville ,  Tenn. 


Family 

iSlo. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 
23 


Head  of  family. 

Occupation. 

Weeks 

em¬ 

ployed. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

35 

88 

52 

Carpenter . 

52 

9.50 

Washerwoman . . . __ . . . 

52 

2.00 

1ST o  occupation , charity . - . . . . .  - 

Porter  .  _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

41 

6.00 

Coolr  resta.nTa.Tit  _  _  _  _  _ 

46 

9.00 

Clergyman  _  .  ...  _ _ _ _ 

52 

30. 00 

Porter  ..  .  _  _ _ ' _ _ _ 

52 

7.00 

Furniture  merchant _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

25.00 

Teamster . . . . . . 

52 

6.00 

Saloon  keeper _ _ _ _ _ 

52 

15.00 

Hack  driver  . . . 

30 

10.00 

Shoemaker . . 

52 

7.00 

Cook,  family _ _ _ _ _ 

26 

2.50 

Engineer . . . . . . . . 

52 

8.00 

Porter,  railroad . . . . . . . 

52 

15.00 

Teamster ,  with  team _ .... . . . . 

52 

5.00 

Ho  occupation  . . . . . . 

Sorter,  lumber  . . . . . . 

52 

6.00 

Teamster. . . . . . . 

39 

6.00 

G-auger,  lumber  . . . . . . 

52 

9.50 

Carpenter . .  . . . . . 

30 

7. 50 

Children. 


Earnings 
for  the 
year. 


$1,122 

463 

118 


12 


98 

173 

39 

108 


163 


182 

260 

536 

416 

100 


428 


These  figures  give  quite  a  clear  idea  as  to  the  steadiness  of  employment  among 
negroes,  as  well  as  to  the  character  of  their  occupation;  41  out  of  60  heads  of 
families  in  the  groups  here  presented  were  employed  52  weeks  during  the  year. 

In  the  city  of  Atlanta,  Ga.,  out  of  a  total  of  324  families,  73,  or  22.55  per  cent, 
were  supported  wholly  by  male  head  of  family;  31,  or  9.57  per  cent,  wholly  by  a 
female  head,  and  84,  or  25.93  per  cent,  wholly  by  a  male  and  a  female  head  of 
family.  It  is  suggestive  that  63.27  per  cent  of  the  families  were  supported  wholly 
or  in  part  by  the  mother;  all  of  which  goes  to  show  to  what  an  extent  negro  females 
are  wage-earners  in  our  cities. 

The  death  rate  of  the  negro  race  was  given  much  attention  in  this  investigation. 
The  vitality  of  a  people  affects  all  the  relations  which  it  sustains  to  the  com¬ 
munity,  whether  economic  or  social.  The  general  conclusion  on  this  point  is  that 
the  negro’s  death  rate  is  about  as  8  to  5  when  compared  with  the  whites,  and  that 
this  excess  is  due  mainly  to  remedial  sanitary  causes. 

While  these  studies  are  not  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  draw  infallible  conclusions, 
yet  we  have  here  a  body  of  data  covering  a  wide  area  and  a  great  diversity  of  con¬ 
ditions.  We  are  at  present  concerned  only  with  the  economic  side  of  these  inves¬ 
tigations  in  so  far  as  they  throw  light  upon  the  negro  as  a  contributing  factor  of 
the  several  communities,  who  thus  helps  to  support  the  burden  of  public  taxation; 
and  more  especially  the  extent  to  which  he  contributes  directly  and  indirectly  to 
the  education  of  his  children.  To  this  end  it  is  essential  to  know  (1)  to  what 
extent  he  has  become  a  property  owner;  (2)  to  what  extent  he  is  tenant,  and  the 
money  value  of  his  rental;  (3)  how  generally  he  is  engaged  in  gainful  occupations, 
and  the  manner  in  which  he  disposes  of  his  earnings. 

We  saw  that  of  1,000  persons  composing  165  families,  at  Sandy  Spring,  Md.,  92 
persons  were  owners  of  real  estate;  63  families,  or  38.2  per  cent,  owned  the  houses 
in  which  they  lived;  54,  or  32.7  per  cent,  paid  money  rent  for  the  houses  they  occu¬ 
pied,  and  44,  or  26.7  per  cent,  occupied  houses  on  the  farm  as  a  part  of  the  stipu¬ 
lated  agreement;  4  were  not  accounted  for  as  to  conditions  of  tenure.  Forty-one 
per  cent  of  the  entire  population  was  engaged  in  gainful  occupations,  and  on  the 
average  a  family  must  spend  in  the  community  nearly  or  quite  all  of  its  earnings 
in  order  to  meet  the  ordinary  requirements  of  living. 

In  Farmville,  out  of  262  families,  114,  or  43.5  per  cent,  owned  their  own  houses; 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


781 


r  148,  or  56.57  per  cent,  rented  the  houses  they  occupy,  at  an  average  rental  of 
$4,872  annually.  Forty-eight  per  cent  of  the  entire  population  was  engaged  in 
gainful  pursuits,  and,  as  at  Sandy  Spring,  the  average  family  must  spend  nearly 
or  quite  all  of  its  earnings  in  order  to  live.  The  Black  Belt  reveals  the  same 
conditions. 

In  group  1,  5  out  of  11  families  owned  their  own  homes,  the  other  6  rented  their 
farms,  and  both  sexes  worked  as  farm  hands. 

In  group  2,  6  out  of  16  families  owned  their  homes,  and  10  families  paid  rent, 
from  $4  to  $5  monthly.  The  men  were  generally  employed. 

Forty-five  per  cent  of  group  3  were  employed  and  the  majority  were  reported 
as  buying  property.  Of  50  families,  41  owned  their  own  homes  and  9  were  renters. 

In  group  4,  28  out  of  33  families  owned  their  homes,  and  5  were  renters.  Forty- 
one  per  cent  were  distributed  among  the  various  lines  of  industrial  pursuits. 

Group  5  showed  26  out  of  40  families  owning  their  own  homes. 

Group  6  yielded  39  home  owners  out  of  45  families  studied,  and  6  renters. 

When  we  turn  to  the  cities,  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  73  out  of  324  families,  or  22.53  per 
cent,  owned  their  own  homes,  while  249  families,  or  76.85  per  cent,  paid  an  aver¬ 
age  rental  of  $4.25  per  month.  In  Nashville,  Tenn.,  47.15  per  cent  of  the  families 
studied  owned  their  homes  and  the  rest  paid  an  average  rental  of  $4.68  per  month. 
For  the  other  cities  in  which  investigations  were  made,  of  32  groups  in  all,  33.48 
per  cent  owned  the  houses  in  which  they  lived  and  the  rest  paid  $5.50  average 
monthly  rental. 

That  these  families  were  steadily  employed  at  wages  not  much  more  than  suffi¬ 
cient  to  meet  the  urgent  necessities  of  life  can  be  judged  by  glancing  at  the  tables 
under  the  head  of  city  groups.  Thus  we  see  that  the  negro  spends,  and  is  spent 
in  the  several  communities  in  which  he  resides,  the  little  mite  which,  by  the  most 
rigid  economy,  goes  to  permanent  accumulation  after  meeting  the  physical  neces¬ 
sities  of  life,  representing  only  an  insignificant  fraction  of  his  energies.  The  pro- 
ductibility  of  his  labor  enhances  the  industrial  and  economic  power  of  the  com¬ 
munity.  His  expenditures  swell  the  bulk  and  profit  of  the  merchants’  business. 
From  the  rents  collected  from  his  black  tenant  the  landlord  pays  the  taxes  on  his 
tenements,  and  in  every  sense  the  negro  is  a  vital  contributing  factor  in  the 
economic  welfare  and  is  justly  entitled  to  his  due  share  of  public  privileges. 

VII.  The  Education  of  the  City  Negro. 

The  urban  negro  constitutes  a  distinct  problem  from  his  rural  brother.  In  their 
industrial  status,  social  environments,  and  educational  facilities  they  are  widely 
asunder. 

In  discussing  the  education  of  the  negro  it  is  not  usual  to  discriminate  between 
the  two  classes,  but  to  include  the  entire  race  under  the  same  formula.  The  eco¬ 
nomic  conditions  of  the  Southern  cities  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  country, 
and  the  educational  provisions  are  so  glaringly  discrepant,  that  the  two  must  be 
separated  in  any  scheme  of  profitable  discussion.  The  negro’s  educational  for¬ 
tunes  have,  perhaps,  the  widest  margin  of  variation.  His  school  opportunities  in 
the  cities  are  more  nearly  equal  to  those  of  the  whites  than  in  the  rural  districts. 
Thus  the  gap  between  the  educational  status  of  the  two  classes  is  emphasized.  In 
the  rural  districts,  where  the  school  term  covers  only  four  or  five  months,  and 
where  economic  and  industrial  conditions  are  such  that  the  scholars  do  not  attend 
regularly  for  even  so  short  a  term,  it  may  be  easily  seen  that  the  curriculum  can 
not  profitably  be  patterned  after  the  city  courses,  with  their  superior  advantages 
and  facilities.  When  we  consider  that  an  average  country  child  attends  school  for 
only  a  few  terms,  it  appears  that  his  entire  schooling  is  scarcely  equal  to  four 
grades  of  the  city  curriculum.  On  the  other  hand,  the  negro  city  school  has  all 
of  the  essential  advantages  of  up  to  date  scholastic  requirements. 


782 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Cities  of  more  than  5,000  colored  inhabitants  in  1890, 


State  and  city. 


White 

popula¬ 

tion. 


Colored 

popu¬ 

lation. 


Expendi¬ 
ture  for 
school 
purposes, 
1898-99. 


School 

expendi¬ 

ture 

for  State, 
1S99-1900. 


Alabama: 

Birmingham . 

Mobile . . 

Montgomery . . 

Arkansas,  Little  Rock . 

Delaware,  Wilmington . . . 

District  of  Columbia,  Washington 
Florida : 

J ackson  ville  . * . 

Key  West . 

Pensacola . ... . 

Georgia: 

Atlanta . 

Augusta . . . 

Columbus . . . 

Macon . . . 

Savannah  . 

Kentucky: 

Lexington - - 

Louisville  - . - . . 

Louisiana: 

Baton  Rouge . 

New  Orleans. . . . 

Shreveport . . . . 

Maryland ,  Baltimore  . . . . 

Mississippi : 

Meridian . . . 

Natchez. . 

Vicksburg . 

Missouri: 

Kansas  City . . . 

St.  Louis _ _ 

North  Carolina: 

Charlotte _ _ _ _ _ 

N  ewbern . . 

Raleigh . . . 

Wilmington . 

South  Carolina: 

Charleston . 

Columbia . . 

Tennessee: 

Chattanooga . . 

Knoxville  . . . 

Memphis . 

Texas: 

Dallas  . . 

Galveston . 

Houston. . 

Virginia: 

Alexandria . 

Danville. . 

Lynchburg . 

Norfolk . . 


14,809 
17,429 
8,892 
16, 114 
53, 754 
154, 695 

7,372 

12,390 

6,001 

37,416 
17,395 
9,276 
11,538 
20, 211 

13,020 
132, 457 

4,444 
177,376 
4,439 
367, 143 

5,442 
4, 858 
6, 164 

118,821 
424, 704 

6,417 
2,572 
6,320 
8, 731 

23,919 
6, 563 

16,525 
16. 106 
35, 766 

30,006 
22,316 
17, 178 

9,226 
4,764 
9,903 
18, 672 


11, 254 
13,630 
12, 987 
9.739 
7,644 
75,572 

9.801 
5. 654 
5, 743 

28,098 
15, 875 
8,025 
11,203 
22, 963 

8,544 

28,651 

6.027 
64, 491 
7,532 
67, 104 

5,178 

5,241 

7,204 

13,700 

26,865 

5, 134 
5,271 
6,348 
11,324 

30, 970 
8, 789 

12,563 

6,423 

28,706 

7,993 
6.722 
10;  370 

5,113 

5,538 

9. 802 
16,244 


38, 764 
76, 644 


67,599 

229,332 


57,613 

12,209 

18,847 

142, 345 
94, 686 
45, 862 
80,963 
121,288 

86,171 

6S5.063 


398.000 

16,000 


25,076 


545,988 
2, 118, 454 


112,720 
31, 751 

43,000 
55,633 
182, 607 


105, 464 
111. 001 


$1,300,000 


1,369,709 

418,479 

1,323,000 

710,919 


1,807,815 


3, 163, 000 
1,185,116 


3, 159,503 
1,165,840 


7,184,250 
963, 045 

769,815 

1,661,144 

5,485,291 

1,971,264 


Petersburg. 
Richmond. . 


10,456 
49, 034 


12,221 

32,330 


The  foregoing  table  reveals  46  cities  in  the  Southern  States  with  a  negro  popula¬ 
tion  of  more  than  5,000,  ranging  from  that  limit  up  to  75,000.  Twenty-two  cities 
have  a  negro  population  above  10,000, 11  cities  above  20,000.  and  three  above  50,000. 
We  have  here  an  aggregate  population  of  well  nigh  three-quarters  of  a  million 
negroes  collected  in  large  municipal  centers.  The  number  of  urban  negroes 
exceeds  the  population  of  the  State  of  Maine.  Constituting  about  10  per  cent  of 
the  entire  race,  this  body  is  too  large  to  be  ignored  in  any  comprehensive  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  race  problem. 

The  movement  of  population  toward  cities  constitutes  one  of  the  most  marked 
sociological  phenomena  of  our  times.  The  negro  follows  in  the  wake  of  this  move¬ 
ment,  and,  although  he  does  not  seem  to  possess  a  profitable  economic  status  in  the 
centers  of  commerce  and  marts  of  trade,  he  is  attracted  by  the  allurements  of  city 
life  as  a  moth  by  the  glare  of  a  candle.  Perhaps  the  most  pressing  phase  of  the 


’HE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


783 


race  problem  id  presented  by  city  conditions.  The  country  negro  is  embaltned,  as 
it  were,  in  a  state  of  nature,  where  lie  will  be  preserved,  physical^  at  least,  until 
his  opportunity  comes.  With  the  city  negro,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  immediate 
rescue  or  destruction.  The  rural  negro  flees  from  the  country,  with  its  meager 
opportunities,  to  the  city,  with  its  congenial  social  circles  and  school  privileges, 
unmindful  of  the  fact  that  he  is  swapping  industrial  conditions  with  which  he  is 
familiar  for  those  of  which  he  has  no  knowledge.  This  constant  influx  of  raw 
rural  recruits  imposes  new  problems  upon  city  schools,  for  with  a  crude  and  unde¬ 
veloped  people  the  schools  must  fulfill  not  only  the  ordinary  function  of  education, 
but  must  supplement  defective  home  training.  The  city  negro  therefore  presents 
a  distinct  educational  problem  with  many  interesting  and  peculiar  features. 

In  the  rural  districts  of  the  South  the  school  fund  is  woefully  inadequate  to 
support  a  satisfactory  system.  The  duplication  of  schools  in  the  same  territory 
for  the  two  races  serves  to  accentuate  this  inadequacy.  In  the  cities  the  funds  are 
much  more  ample,  and  though  they  fall  far  short  of  the  educational  provisions 
made  in  the  other  sections  of  the  country,  nevertheless  they  are  sufficient  to  pro¬ 
vide  the  essential  facilities  of  instruction  and  to  keep  the  schools  in  operation  for 
the  full  length  of  term.  The  division  of  the  school  funds  on  racial  lines  does  not 
work  so  great  a  hardship  in  cities  as  in  rural  places,  where  the  population  is  sparse. 


Per  capita  school  funds  for  States  and  cities  of  the  South d 


State  and  city. 

Per  capitaf  or — 

State  and  city. 

Per  capita  for — 

State. 

Cities. 

State. 

Cities. 

Alabama: 

Mississippi,  Meridian . . 

$0. 75 

$2.37 

Birmingham . 

1 

Missouri: 

Mobile  - . . . 

f  $0.71 

$1.84 

Kansas  City _ _ 

}  2.31 

5.50 

Montgomery  _ _ 

St.  Louis _ _ _ _ 

Arkansas,  Little  Rock . 

1.04 

2. 61 

North  Carolina: 

.Florida: 

Charlotte . 

] 

Jacksonville _ 

1 

Newborn _ 

\  .59 

Key  West _ 

>  1.34 

1. 90 

Raleigh. _ _  . 

Pensacola . . . - . 

j 

Wilmington _ _ _ 

1 

Georgia: 

South  Carolina: 

Atlanta . . . 

1 

Charleston _ _ 

}  .57 

2.06 

Augusta _ _ _ 

Columbia  . . . . 

Macon  . . . 

.71 

2.60 

Tennessee: 

Columbus 

Chattanooga . 

] 

Savannah _ _ 

J 

Knoxville _ _ 

[  .83 

2.74 

Kentucky: 

Memphis . 

j 

Lexington . 

1  1. 48 

A  99 

Texas: 

Louisville . . . 

tfc. 

Galveston _ 

Louisiana,  New  Orleans . 

.82 

1.64 

Houston _ 

1  1.80 

3. 83 

Maryland,  Baltimore . . 

3.07 

Virginia _ 

1.19 

This  table  shows  the  school  funds  for  the  several  States  and  cities  under  dis¬ 
cussion,  and  the  cost  per  capita  for  school  expenditures.  It  is  seen  that  the  pro¬ 
visions  for  the  cities  enormously  exceed  those  for  the  State  at  large.  In  Alabama 
the  per  capita  cost  of  education  is  only  $0.71,  while  in  the  three  leading  cities  of 
that  State  it  is  $1.84.  In  South  Carolina  the  State  educational  fund  is  only  $0.57, 
while  for  Charleston  and  Columbia  it  is  $2.08.  If  we  should  separate  the  cities 
from  the  rural  districts,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  per  capita  cost  of  the  rural 
schools  would  fall  much  below  the  figures  in  the  table.  Let  us  not  forget,  also, 
the  relative  densities  of  the  population  as  an  essential  factor  of  efficiencjr. 

The  courses  of  instruction  for  the  colored  schools  embrace  the  ordinary  primary 
and  grammar  grades,  and  in  some  of  the  cities  high  schools  are  also  provided. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  has  recently  decided,  however,  that  a  city 
is  not  compelled  to  maintain  a  high  school  for  the  colored  race  because  it  main¬ 
tains  one  for  whites.1 2 


1  Population  for  1890  and  expenditure  for  1898-99. 

2  One  hundred  and  seventy -fifth  United  States  Reports,  p.  528,  decided  December  18, 1899. 


784 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901 


The  teaching  force  in  city  colored  schools  is  more  or  less  proficient  from  a  pro¬ 
fessional  standpoint.  The  colored  teachers  compare  quite  favorably  with  their 
white  colaborers.  The  schools  furnish  the  only  avenue  of  profitable  employment 
above  domestic  service  for  colored  women,  and  therefore  the  best  equipped  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  race  are  thus  engaged.  The  colored  school  teachers,  male  and  female, 
receive  on  an  average  better  pay  than  any  other  class  of  colored  men  or  women  in 
the  several  communities.  They  are  looked  up  to  as  leaders  in  social  life  and  public 
activities.  This  gives  to  the  colored  schools  a  relative  advantage  which  the  whites 
do  not  enjoy,  for  their  best  energies  flow  in  other  channels. 

On  the  whole,  it  might  be  said  that  the  urban  negro’s  educational  opportunities, 
so  far  as  elementary  instruction  is  concerned,  are  fairly  ample,  though  of  course 
far  from  ideal.  Intellectual  opportunities  are  open  to  every  colored  boy  or  girl 
which,  among  white  youth,  are  counted  sufficient  to  prepare  for  the  ordinary 
duties  of  life.  The  educational  facilities  for  colored  children  in  the  communities 
under  discussion  are,  perhaps,  superior  to  those  offered  the  white  race  on  a  similar 
scale  thirty  years  ago. 

The  true  aim  of  education  is  to  make  the  recipient  wiser  and  better  and  to  render 
him  a  more  efficient  instrument  for  service.  Its  beneficial  effect  is  measured  in 
terms  of  knowing,  being,  and  doing.  That  the  education  of  the  negro  has  vastly 
increased  his  knowledge  and  tightened  his  intellectual  grasp  upon  the  problems  of 
life  can  not  be  denied  or  doubted.  The  practical  function,  however,  is  far  from 
fulfillment.  The  industrial  life  of  the  race  has  in  no  sense  kept  pace  with  its  intel¬ 
lectual  improvement.  The  negro  labors  to-day  under  the  same  industrial  dis¬ 
abilities  as  he  did  thirty  years  ago.  His  education  has  neither  enabled  him  to 
counteract  the  effect  of  hostile  industrial  influences  nor  to  make  himself  independ¬ 
ent  of  them.  Indeed,  he  is  daily  losing  industrial  ground  which  he  occupied  when 
the  dissemination  of  knowledge  was  not  so  general.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  to  a 
large  degree  the  cause  of  industrial  decline  is  due  to  the  operation  of  social  forces 
which  he  can  in  no  way  direct  or  control;  but  the  plain  fact  remains,  and  the  edu-  * 
cational  effort  of  the  future  must  occupy  itself  largely  with  means  of  meeting 
these  industrial  deficiencies. 

Just  here  arises  the  perplexing  question  as  to  what  modifications  must  be  made 
in  the  general  pedagogical  programme  in  order  to  answer  the  peculiar  needs  of  the 
negro  race.  All  wTill  agree  that  in  any  rational  plan  of  education  the  scheme  of 
instruction  should  be  adapted  to  the  needs,  capacities,  and  probable  vocation  of 
those  for  whom  it  is  proposed. 

Existing  programmes  were  adapted  to  the  capacities  and  needs  of  the  white 
race,  and  handed  down  to  the  negro  on  the  somewhat  generous  principle  that 
what  is  good  for  the  white  goose  is  good  also  for  the  black  gander.  It  is  true  that 
in  fundamental  requirements  and  laws  of  growth  the  human  mind  is  one  and  has 
the  same  formative  needs.  Knowledge  and  virtue  have  no  ethnic  quality.  The 
multiplication  table  and  the  sermon  on  the  mount  do  not  accommodate  them¬ 
selves  to  local  environments.  The  mind  of  the  negro  has  the  same  faculties,  pow¬ 
ers,  and  susceptibilities  as*  that  of  his  white  confrere.  No  competent  authority 
has  ever  pointed  out  just  where  the  two  differ  in  any  evident  feature,  and  yet  the 
average  status  of  the  races  are  so  far  asunder  that  the  educational  needs  must  be 
divergent  at  many  points. 

It  would  not  be  wise  here  to  enter  upon  the  intricate  question  as  to  the  relative 
capacity  of  the  two  races.  Any  discussion  of  potential  capacity  would  be  wholly 
speculative  and  void  of  practical  value.  The  practical  educator  must  be  governed 
by  that  component  of  capacity  which  is  available  for  practical  work.  Suppose 
the  pupil  can  attend  school  only  a  fraction  of  the  time,  or  that  by  reason  of  neces¬ 
sary  detention  he  is  habitually  absent  or  tardy,  or  that  he  is  so  poorly  fed  and 
illy  clad  that  the  strain  and  stress  of  physical  necessity  enfeebles  his  intellectual 
energy,  or  that  the  course  and  tone  of  his  home  life  stifles  rather  than  stimulates 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


785 


his  budding  faculties.  Can  these  factors  be  ignored  with  impunity?  Would  it 
be  wise  to  proceed  as  if  such  obstacles  did  not  exist?  The  negro  constitutes  the 
submerged  element,  and  of  necessity  furnishes  an  excess  of  the  defective,  delin¬ 
quent,  and  unfortunate  classes.  We  should  not  forget  that  the  object  of  public 
schools  is  to  benefit  the  masses.  Their  plan  and  scope  should  be  adapted  to  the 
capacity  and  condition  of  those  for  whose  welfare  they  are  intended. 

The  main  concern  of  the  college  and  the  university  is  with  the  highest  common 
factor,  but  the  public  schools  must  deal  with  the  lowest  common  multiple.  There 
are  in  every  community  many  colored  children  who,  by  reason  of  exceptional 
faculties  or  good  early  influences,  would  easily  take  intellectual  rank  with  superior 
persons  of  the  dominant  race.  This  fact  is  demonstrated  wherever  mixed  schools 
exist.  But  the  negro  race  is  a  race  of  extremes;  there  is  little  continuity  of  devel¬ 
opment;  his  growth  is  by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  field  hand  or  house  servant  of 
yesterday  becomes  class  orator  at  a  Northern  college  to-morrow;  but  the  10,000 
field  hands  and  domestic  servants  whom  he  leaves  behind  continue  to  pursue  the 
daily  humdrum  of  their  stupid  toil.  It  is  perhaps  generally  true  that  the  effect  of 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge  is  to  increase  the  general  capacity  rather  than  to 
improve  the  extreme  cases  of  ability.  While  three  centuries  of  intensive  culture 
has  lifted  the  average  status  of  the  English  race  by  many  degrees,  it  has  not 
enabled  England  to  produce  individuals  superior  to  Shakespeare  or  Bacon.  If 
this  contention  be  correct,  it  is  but  natural  to  expect  that  the  exceptional  colored 
pupil  will  deviate  widely  from  the  normal  average.  This  fact  makes  a  just  and 
equitable  scheme  a  matter  of  great  perplexity.  The  main  feature  of  the  pro¬ 
gramme  should  be  placed  near  the  center  of  gravity,  with  as  wide  a  latitude  of 
privilege  as  is  compatible  with  the  main  purpose. 

If,  therefore,  it  should  appear  that  prevailing  schemes  are  not  suited  to  the 
exigencies  of  circumstances,  there  should  be  no  hesitancy  in  adopting  such  modi¬ 
fications  as  the  necessities  of  the  case  require.  No  maudlin  sentimentality  should 
be  allowed  to  prevent  such  sensible  adaptation. 

It  might  be  argued  with  a  considerable  show  of  reason  that  it  would  be  an 
unwise  and  dangerous  acquiescence  to  acknowledge  that  there  might  be  any 
divergence  in  the  plan,  scope,  or  method  of  public  instruction.  It  is  here  that  the 
humble  are  exalted  and  the  mighty  brought  low  until  they  meet  upon  a  common 
level.  The  rich  and  the  poor  meet  together;  the  state  is  the  teacher  of  them  all. 
The  state,  it  may  be  claimed,  has  no  right  to  discriminate  among  its  subjects. 
The  primary  fact  of  discrimination  is  seen  in  the  scholastic  separation  of  the 
races.  We  should  make  the  best  use  of  the  agencies  in  hand. 

It  might  also  be  argued  that  it  is  inexpedient  from  the  negro’s  standpoint  to 
acknowledge  that  the  negro  child  requires  any  treatment  different  from  that  of 
the  white  child.  This  feeling  is  already  too  prevalent,  and  if  once  the  precedent 
be  established  there  is  no  telling  where  the  innovation  will  end.  Many  believe 
that  the  whites  are  only  waiting  for  a  reasonable  excuse  to  readjust  the  negro’s 
education  to  what  they  think  it  ought  to  be.  This  objection  is  not  without  much 
validity  and  goes  tO'Show  that  such  modification  should  proceed  along  wise,  cau¬ 
tious,  and  conservative  lines,  effecting  only  a  sensible  adaptation  of  effort  to  con¬ 
dition.  Our  duty  is  to  our  day  and  generation.  Future  generations  will  have 
their  own  problems  and  their  own  facilities  for  solving  them.  We  can  no  more 
establish  educational  regimes  for  the  future  than  we  can  prescribe  the  style  of 
bonnet  or  cut  of  gown  for  our  great-granddaughters.  If  at  any  time  in  the  future 
the  social  and  economic  status  of  the  races  should  come  nearer  together  than  they 
are  to-day,  can  we  not  rely  upon  the  wisdom  and  good  sense  of  that  time  for  a 
wise  readjustment  of  regimes?  All  the  hopes  of  the  negro  for  a  larger  and  better 
future  rest  upon  the  basis  of  this  reliance. 

The  wild  clamor  for  identity  of  plan  and  method  without  examining  into  fitness 
and  adaptability  shows  a  lack  of  self-knowledge,  self-confidence,  and  self-respect. 

ED  1901 - 50 


786 


EDUCATION  EEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


Imitation  without  intelligence  leads  to  grotesque  and  dangerous  results.  It  is 
related  of  a  Chinaman  that  when  taking  his  first  lessons  in  cooking  he  observed 
that  his  preceptress  rejected  every  other  egg  out  of  a  dozen,  and  when  it  came  his 
turn  to  repeat  the  experiment  this  disciple  of  the  kitchen,  exercising  a  character¬ 
istic  facility  for  imitation,  rejected  the  eggs  in  the  same  order  in  which  he  observed 
his  mistress  had  done;  but  as  the  rotten  eggs  happened  to  be  differently  dis¬ 
tributed  in  the  two  cases,  the  pupil  was  subjected  to  the  double  chagrin  of  wasting 
his  mistress’s  eggs  and  of  spoiling  her  cake.  By  apish  imitation,  without  intelli¬ 
gent  discrimination,  we  may  waste  eggs  and  spoil  the  cake  in  a  pedagogical  as 
well  as  in  a  culinary  sense. 

Every  subject  in  a  programme  of  study,  as  well  as  every  plan  and  method  of 
impartation,  should  be  interpretable  in  terms  of  actual  needs  and  conditions.  In 
a  community  where  there  is  a  considerable  fraction  of  foreign  population,  there 
might  be  sufficient  reason  for  introducing  the  vernacular  of  that  element  in  the 
school  programmes.  Such  language  might  be  serviceable  in  the  conduct  of  business 
and  social  intercourse,  or  might  lead  to  a  cultivation  and  enjoyment  of  ancestral 
literature  and  life;  but  there  could  be  no  such  motive  for  adding  similar  lines  to 
the  colored  schools.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  educational  value  of  language,  but 
to  its  practical  bearing  and  use.  The  attempt  to  master  a  foreign  tongue  before 
the  pupil  can  secure  harmony  among  the  parts  of  speech  in  his  own  vernacular  is 
grotesque  and  irrational. 

A  large  proportion  of  white  pupils  on  leaving  school  will  enter  upon  business 
careers,  either  as  occupants  of  prepared  places  or  on  their  own  responsibility.  It 
is  but  reasonable,  therefore,  that  professional  business  courses  should  form  a  part 
of  their  regular  programme.  But  not  one  colored  child  in  a  hundred  is  likely  to 
enter  upon  such  a  career.  While  the  negro  needs  to  be  instructed  in  business 
forms  and  methods,  the  motive  in  the  two  cases  is  entirely  different.  The  subject 
should  be  approached  from  the  direction  of  the  motive,  reason,  and  end  in  view, 
and  not  in  the  spirit  of  observing  a  superficial  sameness.  Prof.  Booker  T.  Wash¬ 
ington  will  go  down  to  history  as  one  of  the  greatest  educators  of  his  day,  per¬ 
haps  as  the  greatest.  His  success  is  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  he  does  not  copy 
methods  that  have  been  exploited  under  other  and  more  favorable  conditions,  but 
has  devised  plans  for  his  constituency  adapted  to  their  present  environment. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  state  owes  less  to  the  colored  than 
to  the  white  child.  Although  the  needs  of  the  negro  child  may  often  differ  from 
those  of  the  white  child,  yet  they  are  rather  greater  than  less.  It  certainly  requires 
as  great  an  outlay  and  as  assiduous  an  effort  to  bring  him  up  to  the  required  stand¬ 
ard  of  good  citizenship. 

Let  us  now  consider  some  of  the  especial  and  distinctive  features  which  should 
be  made  prominent  in  colored  schools.  Although  many  of  these  features  are  com¬ 
mon  to  the  needs  of  all  schools,  nevertheless  in  their  application  to  the  negro  in 
the  present  state  of  his  needs  specialty  of  condition  demands  a  more  decided 
emphasis. 

There  is  much  dispute  among  educators  as  to  the  exact  function  and  value  of 
kindergarten  training,  but  all  will  agree  that  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  to 
children  of  the  neglected  classes.  No  clearer  statement  of  the  case  can  possibly  be 
made  than  was  done  by  the  superintendent  of  schools  for  Baltimore  in  a  recent 
annual  report: 

Many  children  are  compelled  to  leave  school  by  the  time  they  are  old  enough  to 
earn  wages  to  help  support  the  family.  Consequently  many  of  them  must  receive 
all  of  their  schooling  before  they  are  10  years  of  age.  In  order  to  afford  this  class  of 
children,  found  generally  in  the  slums  and  in  the  most  forlorn  parts  of  the  city, 
better  opportunities  for  improvement  it  is  very  desirable  to  organize  schools  in 
such  sections  for  the  instruction  of  children  between  3  and  6  years  of  age.  Kinder¬ 
gartens  would  lengthen  the  school  life  of  such  children  about  three  years  and 
rescue  them,  for  a  time  at  least,  during  the  most  impressionable  period  of  their 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


787 


lives  from  the  evil  influence  of  homes  in  which  idleness,  vice,  and  crime  are  the 
daily  examples  set  for  their  imitation.  If  the  young  children  of  idle,  thriftless 
parents  could  be  taken  from  their  homes  and  subjected  daily  to  the  humanizing 
and  enlightening  influences  of  good  schools,  in  charge  of  properly  qualified  teach¬ 
ers  especially  adapted  to  the  performance  of  such  work,  many  of  them  would  be 
doubtless  rescued  from  leading  such  lives  as  they  see  daily  those  among  them  liv¬ 
ing,  and  instead  of  growing  up  in  ignorance  and  vice,  to  increase  the  number  of 
idle  and  lawless,  they  would  become  industrious  and  law-abiding  citizens.  Such 
schools  must  constitute  an  important  feature  of  any  successful  scheme  the  city 
may  be  compelled  to  adopt  in  its  own  protection.1 

These  words  apply  with  especial  emphasis  to  the  colored  race,  which  supplies  a 
large  part  of  the  submerged  element.  The  criminal  and  vicious  tendency  of  a 
large  fraction  of  the  negro  population  is  alarming  in  its  proportions.  The  ordi¬ 
nary  process  of  education  seems  to  have  but  little  beneficial  influence.  Some 
method  must  be  devised  to  reach,  to  help,  and  to  save  them.  The  state  will  be 
forced  to  animadvert  to  this  matter  for  its  own  protection  and  defense.  The  kin¬ 
dergarten  is  the  only  institution  yet  proposed  which  promises  the  desired  relief. 
The  expense  of  such  schools  would  doubtless  be  enormous;  but  it  is  poor  econ¬ 
omy  that  saves  in  the  educational  department  only  to  add  to  the  criminal  budget. 

There  are  only  two  ways  by  which  children  of  degrading  environments  can  be 
rescued.  One  is  to  take  hold  of  them  at  a  tender  age,  before  they  reach  the  ordi¬ 
nary  school  period,  and  give  their  thoughts,  feelings,  and  aspirations  the  proper 
direction  and  trend.  The  other  is  to  keep  them  in  school  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  to  appreciate  the  transforming  power  and  refining  influence  of  knowledge 
and  culture.  So  far  as  the  masses  are  concerned  this  last  remedy  is  impossible. 
The  first  years  of  school  life  are  spent  in  mastering  the  hard  mechanics  of  learning. 
There  is  little  or  no  reflex  influence  upon  the  life  and  character.  This  must  come, 
if  at  all,  at  an  earlier  or  a  subsequent  date.  The  school  influence  must  reach  lower 
down  in  the  life  of  the  negro  child.  The  human  twig  is  given  its  moral  bent  and 
inclination  before  reaching  the  ordinary  school  period,  and  the  whilom  effect  of 
routine  instruction  can  scarcely  prevent  it  from  growing  into  a  twisted  and.  dis¬ 
torted  trunk. 

The  State  establishes  and  maintains  schools  for  the  sake  of  producing  a  better 
grade  of  citizenship.  In  order  to  succeed  with  the  submerged  element  it  must 
step  in  loco  parentis  and  take  hold  of  the  child  while  it  is  yet  susceptible  to  moral 
impressions.  This  is  not  a  charity  or  vicarious  benevolence,  but  a  plain  duty 
demanded  by  every  consideration  of  enlightened  self-interest.  It  is  as  essential 
that  the  State  protect  itself  from  such  internal  evils  as  it  is  to  maintain  the  Army 
and  Navy  to  ward  off  foreign  foes.  The  great  difficulty  with  the  ordinary  colored 
child  is  that  he  enters  the  school  too  late  and  leaves  too  soon  to  derive  from  it  the 
full  benefit  which  it  is  calculated  to  impart.  The  term  can  be  lengthened  more 
easily  and  more  profitably  from  below  than  from  above.  Let  the  education  of  the 
negro  reach  down  before  reaching  up,  and  if  there  needs  be  a  choice  let  it  reach 
down  rather  than  up,  but  let  it  always  reach  as  far  as  possible  in  both  directions. 

To  the  white  child  the  essential  aim  of  education  is  to  enable  him  to  fit  into 
an  established  social  and  industrial  order.  The  negro  child  must  endeavor  to 
improve  the  status  of  his  race.  There  is  no  one  who  has  gone  before  to  prepare  a 
place  for  him.  The  teacher  of  the  negro  child  needs  more  of  the  spirit  of  the  mis¬ 
sionary  to  arouse  and  quicken  his  lethargic  energies  into  life  and  activity.  Every 
successful  teacher  must  be  devoted  to  duty,  but  the  colored  teacher  should  be  con¬ 
secrated  to  a  cause.  He  needs  not  only  professional  zeal  for  the  work,  but  also 
the  ardent  devotion  of  a  moral  enthusiast.  Every  such  teacher  should  regard 
himself  as  a  laborer  in  the  vineyard  of  humanity  and  not  merely  as  a  pedagogue 
peddling  his  services  for  pay. 


1  Seventeenth  annual  report  of  the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Public  Schools  of  Baltimore, 
1898,  p.  102  et  seq. 


788 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  Northern  missionaries  who  came  South  immediately  after  the  war  to  labor 
among  the  recently  emancipated  slaves  would  hardly  be  accounted  educators  in 
the  modern  sense  of  that  term.  Many  of  them  wTere  not  even  educated,  and  yet 
by  reason  of  their  missionary  zeal  and  moral  enthusiasm  they  wrought  marvelous 
transformations.  The  State,  with  its  more  competent  secular  agencies,  has  sup¬ 
planted  them  in  the  educational  field,  but  it  can  neither  hire  nor  demand  the  subtle 
spirit.  It  can  only  exact  outward  decency  of  behavior  and  a  reasonable  proficiency 
of  service.  The  spirit  of  enthusiasm  and  consecrated  zeal  must  spring  from  the 
consciousness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  his  own  welfare  is  indissolubly  linked 
with  that  of  the  masses  whom  he  is  commissioned  to  enlighten. 

The  negro  child  needs  especially  to  be  rooted  and  grounded  in  the  concrete  prin¬ 
ciples  of  things.  It  is  characteristic  of  tropical  temperaments  to  revel  in  intellec¬ 
tual  subtleties  and  fine  flights  of  fancy  while  ignoring  the  material  things  by  which 
they  are  surrounded.  Races  and  nations  remain  in  a  backward  or  barbarous  state 
because  they  fail  to  heed  the  divine  injunction  to  subdue  the  earth.  All  attempt 
to  escape  the  difficulties  of  earth  by  building  a  tower  to  reach  to  the  skies  must 
end  in  a  confusion  of  tongues.  The  Anglo-Saxon  has  gained  his  present  eminence 
among  the  nations  because  he  is  of  the  earth  earthy.  He  delves  while  others  soar; 
he  applies  while  others  speculate.  The  Anglo-Saxon  is  not  superior  to  other  men 
in  intellectual  gifts  or  moral  endowments.  For  intellectual  subtlety  and  spiritual 
perception  the  Hindoo  is  conceded  to  be  his  equal,  if  not  his  superior,  and  yet  when 
it  comes  to  bringing  things  to  pass  one  Englishman  is  equal  to  a  thousand  Asiatics. 
A  close  study  of  the  Yankee  reveals  the  fact  that  he  is  equal  to  almost  any  practi¬ 
cal  emergency,  even  when  he  has  a  rather  slender  basis  of  intellectual  equipment. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  negro  is  rather  theoretical  than  practical.  He  knows 
immensely  more  than  he  can  do.  His  practical  prowess  has  by  no  means  kept  pace 
with  his  intellectual  achievements.  Slavery  taught  him  to  work  by  rule  and  rote, 
but  not  according  to  plan  and  method.  The  first  effect  of  intelligence  was,  natu¬ 
rally  enough,  to  disgust  him  with  manual  toil,  which  stood  to  him  as  a  reminder 
of  slavish  drudgery.  He  has  never  learned  the  gospel  of  work  or  the  joy  of  service, 
because  he  has  never  entered  into  it  with  intelligent  plan  and  purpose.  A  thought 
is  married  to  a  thing  and  an  enterprise  is  born,  but  when  thought  is  divorced  from 
things  there  is  nothing  but  sterile  speculation  and  barren  criticism. 

The  greatest  need  of  the  negro  is  to  bring  the  wild  energy  of  his  muscle  under 
the  guiding  intelligence  of  his  mind.  In  all  his  experience  he  has  not  been  com¬ 
pelled  to  observe  the  fine  adaptation  of  effort  to  task,  but  he  has  been  confined  to 
such  crude  lines  of  service  that  the  vaguest  approximation  was  deemed  sufficient. 

There  are  only  two  ways  by  which  a  people  may  gain  proficiency  in  practical 
things.  One  is  by  long  familiarity  and  practice  in  controlling  affairs  until  the 
habit  becomes  fixed  and  is  handed  down  by  heredity.  The  other  is  by  means  of 
education  of  the  young.  The  latter  process  is  by  far  the  more  rapid,  and  is  indeed 
the  only  course  open  to  the  negro  at  the  present  time.  The  child  learns  in  a  few 
years  what  it  took  the  race  half  a  dozen  generations  to  acquire.  If  education  can 
not  overcome  heredity,  it  can  at  least  discount  it  by  an  enormous  per  cent. 

The  negro  child  needs  to  be  trained  in  practical  judgment,  a  faculty  in  which  it 
must  be  coryceded  he  is  woefully  deficient.  He  is  too  apt  to  commit  to  memory 
rather  than  to  the  understanding.  If  the  average  child  were  put  to  the  test  as  to 
the  weight  and  value  of  things  which  have  become  familiar  by  glib  recital  or 
required  to  interpret  the  verbal  image  of  ideas  in  terms  of  their  concrete  equiva¬ 
lents,  the  results  would  be  grotesque  indeed.  His  information  should  be  inter¬ 
preted  in  terms  of  his  own  thoughts,  feelings,  and  volitions.  He  should  be  made 
to  feel  that  ail  lines  of  knowledge  radiate  from  him  as  a  conscious  center.  The 
method  of  impartation  should  be  actual,  tactual,  factual.  The  old  adage  tells  us 
that  knowledge  is  power,  but  this  applies  only  to  digested  and  assimilated  knowl- 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


789 


edge.  If  one  takes  food  into  his  stomach  and  fails  to  digest  it.  it  not  only  does  not 
give  him  added  strength,  but  saps  from  him  the  strength  already  acquired.  Intel¬ 
lectual  indigestion  acts  in  about  the  same  manner  as  the  corresponding  physical 
ailment,  Negro  youth  are  everywhere  suffering  from  intellectual  indigestion, 
and  there  is  danger  of  a  race  of  mental  dyspeptics.  The  only  remedy  is  through 
a  method  of  education  which  shall  observe  a  just  balance  between  the  abstract 
and  concrete. 

The  complaint  is  universal  that  our  school  curricula  are  overcrowded  and  that 
the  pupil  can  get  only  a  smattering  of  the  kaleidoscopic  programme.  If  this  be  a 
detriment  to  the  white  youth,  it  must  be  doubly  so  to  the  negro  child,  who  may 
be  the  first,  or  well  nigh  the  first,  in  the  history  of  his  race  who  has  learned  the 
use  of  letters.  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing,  and  especially  so  if  dissi¬ 
pated  over  too  wide  an  area.  The  white  child  is  apt  to  be  steadied  and  balanced 
by  his  setting  in  society;  the  negro  can  hope  for  no  such  corrective  influence.  He 
is  likely  to  overestimate  his  capacity  and  attainments  and  to  make  a  miserable 
fizzle  in  an  ambitious  career,  where  he  might  have  made  a  useful  and  respectable 
citizen  in  a  more  modest  sphere.  Or  he  may  become  a  vainglorious,  self-conceited 
egotist,  disgusting  sensible  men  with  a  showy  display  of  shallow  learning.  To 
correct  this  tendency  the  courses  should  be  judiciously  limited  in  range  and  scope 
and  a  thoroughness  of  mastery  rigidly  insisted  upon. 

All  that  has  been  said  under  the  head  of  concrete  methods  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  manual  training.  The  negro  was  brought  to  this  country  to  labor 
with  his  hands.  For  more  than  two  centuries  he  has  fulfilled  this  manual  mis¬ 
sion;  and  for  many  years  to  come  this  must  be  his  chief  function  in  society. 

He  should  be  taught  to  do  with  skill,  accuracy,  and  method  that  which  inevita¬ 
bly  devolves  upon  him.  Being  shut  out  from  the  shops  he  must  look  to  the  school 
for  the  only  means  through  which  he  may  be  prepared  to  gain  and  retain  a  satis¬ 
factory  status  in  the  industrial  order. 

Manual  training  must  be  carefully  discriminated  from  industrial  education. 
The  one  looks  forward  to  definitely  established  lines  of  work,  the  other  to  the 
acquisition  of  power.  So  far  as  we  can  judge  the  future  by  the  present,  it  would 
be  almost  useless  to  equip  any  considerable  number  of  our  colored  youth  in  our 
large  cities  with  mechanical  trades.  They  would  have  few  facilities  for  plying 
them.  The  colored  workman  is  rigorously  excluded  by  organized  effort.  He 
labors  under  the  double  disadvantage  of  being  weak  and  of  being  black.  This 
makes  the  negro's  industrial  outlook  a  very  unpromising  one.  The  real  hope  is 
that  he  may  be  driven  to  take  the  industrial  initiative,  as  the  spirit  of  caste  has 
already  developed  in  him  ecclesiastical  independence  and  social  self-sufficiency. 

The  real  demand  is  for  manual  training  which  will  enable  him  to  do  with  mind 
as  well  as  with  might  what  his  hands  may  find  to  do. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  negroes  in  cities  must  make  their  living  by  bodily  labor  and 
domestic  service.  More  skill,  intelligence,  and  character  must  be  put  into  these 
lines  of  work. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  universal  requirement  of  a  system  of  education 
in  the  abstract,  all  will  agree  that  the  practical  programme  must  have  reference 
to  the  probable  vocation  of  its  recipients.  The  negro  race  can  not  escape  this  law. 
The  bulk  of  them  for  all  time  that  we  can  foresee  must  earn  their  livelihood  by 
some  form  of  manual  labor.  The  following  table  shows  the  occupations  in  which 
city  negroes  are  generally  engaged.  There  are  no  potent  forces  at  work  which  will 
materially  modify  this  programme  within  any  calculable  period  of  time.  The 
table  shows  that  in  all  of  the  largest  cities  of  the  South  98,470  males  and  79,429 
females  were  employed  in  gainful  occupations,  making  a  total  of  177,899.  Of  this 
number  60,172  men  were  employed  as  laborers,  servants,  draymen,  teamsters, 
messengers,  etc.,  and  67,686  women  followed  domestic  and  laundry  service.  It  is 


790 


EDUCATION  REPOBT,  1900-1901. 

within  these  industrial  lines  that  the  negro  must  live  and  move  and  gain  a  liveli¬ 
hood.  His  education,  therefore,  should  have  direct  hearing  upon  that  sphere  of 
industrial  activity. 

Occupations  of  negroes  in  cities. 


MALES. 


City. 

All  occu¬ 
pations. 

Labor¬ 

ers. 

Serv¬ 

ants. 

Dray¬ 
men, 
team¬ 
sters, etc. 

Messen¬ 
gers,  por¬ 
ters,  etc. 

Atlanta,  Ga . 

7,916 

2,a57 

1,134 

775 

300 

Baltimore,  Md . 

19,342 

5,498 

3,507 

2,586 

1,139 

Charleston,  S.  C . 

8, 777 

2, 610 

852 

503 

280 

Kansas  City,  Mo . 

5,160 

1,528 

1,331 

383 

188 

Louisville,  Ky . . 

9,236 

3, 123 

1,356 

1,232 

288 

Memphis,  Tenn-.. . 

7,161 

1,143 

990 

1,052 

565 

Nashville,  Tenn . . . 

8,100 

2,566 

1, 017 

803 

324 

New  Orleans,  La . 

15,051 

7,455 

1,374 

1,096 

321 

Richmond,  Va . . . 

8,590 

2,248 

1,100 

805 

305 

St.  Louis,  Mo . . . 

9,137 

2,248 

1,542 

921 

519 

Total . . 

98, 470 

31, 584 

14,203 

10, 156 

4,229 

FEMALES. 


City. 

All  occu¬ 
pations. 

Serv¬ 

ants. 

Laun¬ 

dresses. 

All  other 
occu¬ 
pations. 

Atlanta, Ga,  _  _  _  .  _  _ 

6,857 
18. 676 

3,310 
10, 752 
2,319 
1,362 
3,229 

2,986 

561 

1,733 

2,141 

220 

Baltimore,  Md _ _ _ _ _ 

6, 191 
2,638 
972 

Charleston,  S.  C  .. . 

7,098 

2,554 

6,281 

Kansas  City,  Mo  . . . . . . . . . 

Louisville,  Ky . . . . . . . . . 

2,455 

597 

Memphis,  Tenn . . . 

6,010 

2,973 

2,283 

2,465 

4,635 

754 

Nashville,  Tenn . . . . . . . 

6,509 
12, 880 
8,238 

3,372 
5, 315 
4,500 
1,800 

672 

New  Orleans,  La . . . . 

2,930 

1,652 

483 

Richmond,  Va . . . . 

2.086 

2,043 

St.  Louis,  Mo . . . . 

4,326 

Total . . . 

79,429 

38,932 

28, 754 

11,743 

The  question  of  sex  as  a  factor  in  education  has  recently  received  much  atten¬ 
tion.  One  of  the  most  striking  phenomena  of  the  city  negro  is  the  relative  excess 
of  women.  Strangely  enough,  this  phenomenon  seems  to  have  escaped  attention. 
The  economic  conditions  which  prevail  in  the  rural  districts  are  sufficient  to 
account  for  this  condition  of  things.  The  women  are  not  well  suited  to  farm  labor; 
they  can  not  enter  into  competition  with  men  in  such  arduous  tasks.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  an  unlimited  demand  in  the  cities  for  competent  and  efficient  col¬ 
ored  females  in  the  domestic  sphere.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  an 
enormous  preponderance  of  women  in  the  large  centers.  This  excess  of  the  female 
element  conditions  all  phases  of  urban  negro  life,  whether  in  home  or  church  or 
general  society.  The  school  also  feels  its  controlling  influence. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO.  791 

Total  population,  school  population,  and  school  attendance  of  negroes  in  cities 
having  more  than  5,000  negro  inhabitants. 


Population. 

School  population. 

Number  of  pupils 
in  school. 

.  Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Males. 

Females. 

Alabama: 

Birmingham . 

5,511 

5,758 

1,716 

2,007 

664 

798 

Mobile . . „ . 

6,100 

7,547 

2, 293 

2, 603 

538 

612 

5, 413 

7,578 

1,994 

2,642 

Delaware: 

4,738 

4,311 

Arkansas: 

Little  Rock . 

4,362 

5,134 

1,429 

1,791 

653 

877 

District  of  Columbia: 

33, 831 

41,866 

12,083 

14,536 

Florida: 

Jacksonville . 

4, 662 

5,176 

1,624 

1,889 

690 

790 

Key  West  . . . . 

2,739 

2, 951 

928 

1,081 

277 

321 

Pensacola . 

2, 810 

2,939 

993 

1,118 

•  381 

415 

Georgia: 

12, 400 

15, 717 

4, 539 

5,673 

1,094 

1,240 

Augusta . . . . 

7,108 

8,797 

2,613 

3, 131 

692 

945 

Columbus  . 

3.526 

4,501 

1,316 

1,647 

484 

-  726 

Macon . . 

4,995 

6,210 

1,816 

2, 175 

229 

292 

Savannah . 

10,493 

12,485 

3,328 

4, 177 

620 

822 

Kentucky: 

Louisville . . 

13, 348 

15.324 

4,291 

4,836 

3,154 

2,675 

Lexington . 

3,915 

4;  632 

1,427 

1,517 

395 

502 

Louisiana: 

I 

Baton  Rouge . 

3,118 

2,916 

1,041 

1,094 

105 

114 

New  Orleans . . 

28.936 

35,727 

9,946 

11, 852 

2,595 

2,785 

Shreveport . 

3, 486 

4,054 

1,256 

1,495 

198 

214 

Maryland: 

Baltimore . . . . . 

29,165 

38,131 

8,595 

11,999 

3,073 

3,676 

Mississippi: 

Meridian . 

2,324 

2,858 

980 

1,123 

211 

275 

Natchez _ _ _ 

2,210 

3,033 

887 

1,060 

329 

421 

Vicksburg . 

3,139 

4,070 

1,099 

1,388 

313 

473 

Missouri: 

Kansas  City ... . 

7,053 

6,842 

1,897 

2,208 

948 

1,162 

St.  Louis . 

13,247 

13,819 

3,978 

4,399 

2,449 

2,573 

North  Carolina: 

Charlotte . . . 

2,280 

2,860 

888 

1,084 

257 

335 

Newbern _ „ _ 

2, 305 

2,966 

939 

1,049 

Raleigh. . 

3,396 

2,955 

1,130 

1,054 

633 

742 

Wilmington. . 

5,070 

6,225 

1,899 

2,152 

594 

693 

South  Carolina: 

Charleston . 

14, 187 

16,849 

4, 877 

5,729 

1,094 

1,390 

Columbia . 

4,366 

4,424 

1,512 

1,609 

362 

505 

Tennessee: 

Chattanooga . . . . . 

6,599 

5,976 

2,019 

2, 139 

897 

1,066 

Knoxville . 

3,101 

3,328 

1,012 

1,190 

346 

434 

Memphis _ _ _ _ „ _ 

13,333 

15'  396 

4,281 

5,091 

Nashville . 

13,334 

16,061 

4, 852 

5,518 

1,189 

1,577 

Texas: 

Dallas . . . . . 

4,114 

3,947 

1,341 

1,436 

400 

500 

Galveston . 

3,063 

3, 702 

1,013 

1,323 

392 

459 

Houston . . . 

4,792 

5,587 

1,619 

2, 125 

646 

776 

Virginia: 

Alexandria . 

2,393 

2,720 

975 

1, 015 

383 

378 

Danville . . . 

2,382 

3, 159 

878 

1,140 

401 

409 

Lynchburg . . 

4. 048 

5, 758 

1,593 

2, 182 

680 

993 

Norfolk . 

7,506 

8, 748 

2,293 

2, 811 

513 

745 

Petersburg . 

5,409 

6,815 

2,052  j 

2,441 

769 

1,055 

Richmond . . . 

14,216 

18, 138 

4,852 

6,300 

2, 110 

2,858 

Total . . . 

334, 433 

397,990 

111,074 

134,689 

30,758 

37,623 

This  table  shows  the  excess  of  colored  females  in  the  Southern  cities  which  con¬ 
tained  in  1890  more  than  5,000  colored  inhabitants.  There  is  an  excess  of  63,557 
colored  females,  who  are  in  the  majority  in  all  the  cities  named  except  Baton 
Rouge,  La.,  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Kansas  City.  Mo.,  and  Dallas, 
Tex.  The  preponderance  of  men  in  these  cities  can  be  explained  on  the  ground  of 
special  industrial  conditions.  It  is  known  that  there  is  great  demand  for  colored 
male  labor  in  the  works  of  Chattanooga;  and  the  excess  in  Kansas  City  can  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  males  outnumber  the  females  generally  through¬ 
out  the  Western  country.  The  relative  excess  of  females  of  school  age  can  not  be 


792 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


wholly  accounted  for  by  industrial  conditions,  and  is  a  phenomenon  which  still 
awaits  an  explanation.  That  there  should  be  68,000  more  females  than  males  in 
the  population  at  large,  or  119  females  to  every  100  males,  is  surely  a  less  striking 
phenomenon  than  that  for  ages  between  5  and  20  the  ratio  should  be  121  to  100. 
When  the  school  attendance  is  considered  the  disproportion  is  still  more  glaring, 
there  being  122  females  to  every  100  males.  These  figures  should  be  studied  in  the 
light  of  proportion  rather  than  as  absolute  numbers.  The  figures  relative  to  a  few 
cities  are  not  given.  For  example,  the  census  does  not  give  the  pupils  for  the  city 
of  Washington,  whose  numbers  would  have  much  weight  on  the  general  result; 
but  it  is  also  probable  that  the  omitted  figures  bear  about  the  same  disproportion 
as  those  which  are  presented,  so  that  the  value  of  the  table  is  not  affected  by  their 
omission. 

The  female  excess  for  the  11  cities  which  contained  in  1890  a  colored  population 
of  more  than  20,000  is  here  presented: 

Excess  of  colored  females  over  males. 


City. 

Colored 

males. 

Colored 

females. 

Excess  of 
females. 

Number 
of  fe¬ 
males  to 
100 

males. 

Baltimore . 

29, 165 

38, 131 

8,966 

131 

Richmond  . . . . 

14, 216 

18, 138 

3,922 

128 

Atlanta . . . . . . . 

12, 400 

15, 717 

3,317 

127 

Washington . 

33,831 

41,866 

8,035 

123 

New  Orleans . 

28,936 

35,  727 

6, 791 

123 

Nashville . 

13, 334 

16, 061 

2, 727 

120 

Charleston . . . . 

14,187 

16, 849 

2,662 

119 

Savannah . . . 

10, 493 

12, 485 

1,992 

119 

Memphis . 

13,333 

15, 396 

2, 063 

115 

Louisville . - . 

13,348 

15,324 

1,976 

115 

St.  Louis _  __  _ _ _ 

13. 247 

13, 819 

572 

104 

Total . . . . . 

196, 490 

239,513 

43,023 

121 

This  table  bears  out  the  general  tendency.  There  are  121  females  to  every  100 
males,  the  total  excess  of  females  being  43,023.  This  surplus  would  form  a  city  as 
large  as  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Such  a  disproportion  in  the  population  makes  an  unsatisfactory  condition  of 
society.  But  it  presents  a  problem  with  which  the  schools  must  grapple.  This  is 
especially  significant  as  applied  to  industrial  education.  These  girls  must  become 
wage-earners.  The  investigations  of  the  Atlanta  conference  showed  that  a  large 
per  cent  of  negro  homes  were  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  female  wage-earn¬ 
ers.1  The  preponderance  of  the  female  sex  renders  their  participation  in  wage¬ 
earning  pursuits  inevitable.  There  is  practically  but  one  field  open  for  them,  and 
that  lies  in  the  sphere  of  the  household  industries.  When  we  speak  of  industrial 
education,  reference  is  usually  had  to  work  in  wood  or  metal  or  training  in  some 
manly  vocation;  but  the  city  negro  presents  a  unique  industrial  problem.  The 
negro  male  has  no  fixed  industrial  status.  The  trade  organizations  exclude  him 
from  participation  in  the  higher  mechanical  pursuits.  There  is  no  assurance  that 
any  considerable  number  could  find  means  of  plying  their  trades,  even  if  they 
were  equipped  with  them.  It  is  true  that  the  spirit  of  trades  unionism  is  fiercest 
in  the  North,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  same  policy  will  be  adopted 
in  the  South  whenever  the  exigencies  of  industrial  rivalry  make  it  necessary.  The 
whites  belong  to  the  preferred  class,  and  the  negro  is  forced  out  of  any  pursuit 
which  they  wish  to  occupy  themselves.  This  unpleasant,  though  stubborn,  fact 
renders  a  programme  of  profitable  industrial  training  for  the  city  negro  very  dif¬ 
ficult  to  formulate. 


1  Bulletin  Labor  Bureau,  No.  10,  p.  267. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


793 


On  the  other  hand,  tbe  colored  woman  holds  undisputed  sway  in  the  field  of 
domestic  service,  and  nothing  but  her  own  incompetence  can  ever  dislodge  her. 
This  affords  one  of  the  chief  means  of  support  of  negro  families,  more  than  half 
of  whom  subsist  in  whole  or  in  part  by  such  service.  The  industrial  education  of 
the  city  negro  must  take  cognizance  of  these  facts  and  should  be  shaped  largely  to 
the  requirements  of  domestic  economy  and  household  industries. 

The  negro  pupil  should  be  taught  a  knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  circum¬ 
stances  of  his  race.  As  he  must  live  the  life  conditioned  by  his  race,  his  training 
should  give  him  some  adequate  notions  about  that  life.  The  German,  the  Irish¬ 
man,  the  Scandinavian,  or  any  other  element  of  our  cosmopolitan  population  need 
not  of  necessity  study  the  status  of  their  racial  stock.  What  to  them  may  be  a 
matter  of  sentiment  or  pride,  to  the  negro  is  a  stern  necessity.  They  are  not  com¬ 
pelled  to  live  the  life  of  their  race  unless  they  elect  to  do  so.  They  are  eligible  to 
become  at  once  full-fledged  American  citizens,  without  any  hyphenated  prefix. 
But  not  so  with  the  negro.  He  can  not  escape  the  onus  of  his  race.  Mr.  Douglass 
used  to  say  that  wherever  the  negro  goes  he  carries  himself  with  him.  Every  per¬ 
son  who  is  tainted  with  his  blood  is  circumscribed  and  conditioned  by  that  fact. 
If  it  is  the  function  of  education  to  teach  the  pupil  to  enter  upon  the  life  which 
lies  before  him,  should  not  the  negro  pupil  be  taught  something  of  that  life  of 
which  he  must  ever  form  a  part?  The  American  pupil  is  instructed  in  the  history, 
institutions,  and  traditions  of  his  country,  in  whose  economy  he  must  soon  take 
his  place.  The  negro  is  an  American,  but  he  is  none  the  less  a  negro.  Unlike  the 
Jew,  who  of  his  own  choice  prefers  to  cling  to  the  traditions  of  his  fathers,  the 
negro  has  little  opportunity  of  gaining  accurate  or  beneficial  knowledge  of  his 
race  through  personal  and  domestic  channels.  His  main  reliance  here,  as  in  all 
other  relations,  must  rest  in  the  schools. 

The  ordinary  text-books  that  treat  of  ethnological  topics  are  often  humiliating 
to  his  pride  and  revolting  to  his  sense  of  self-respect.  A  hideous  picture  of  an 
African  savage  and  some  reference  to  a  domesticated  race  are  about  all  he  can 
hope  to  find  about  himself  in  the  ordinary  text  which  is  placed  in  his  hands. 
Whatever  is  creditable  to  the  negro  is  merged  in  the  credit  of  the  general  popula¬ 
tion,  while  the  odious  and  repugnant  stand  out  in  bold  relief.  Some  special  cor¬ 
rective  influence  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  negro  may  not  despise  himself,  for 
no  class  of  people  who  despise  themselves  can  hope  to  gain  the  respect  of  the  rest 
of  mankind.  While  he  is  feasting  upon  the  fruits  of  the  tree  of  knowledge,  he 
should  beware  lest  he  should  be  eating  and  drinking  unto  his  own  damnation.  It 
is  folly  to  feed  the  intellect  and  starve  the  spirit.  The  negro  child  has  a  right  to 
know  of  the  contributions  and  achievements  of  his  race,  however  insignificant  these 
may  appear  in  the  eyes  of  his  white  neighbor.  “  These  little  things  are  great  to 
little  men.”  Inspiration  is  a  more  valuable  function  of  education  than  informa¬ 
tion.  Youth  are  inspired  to  noble  endeavor  mainly  by  the  deeds  of  those  of  their 
own  kind  and  condition. 

It  is  indeed  true  that  a  people  may  become  too  painfully  self-conscious.  This 
will  make  them  too  proud  and  elated  or  too  abject  and  mean.  The  negro  whose 
time  is  spent  in  lachrymal  lamentations  over  the  woes  and  miseries  of  his  race 
would  not  make  an  ideal  citizen.  The  colored  boy  or  girl,  on  the  other  hand,  who 
grows  up  ignorant  of  the  special  condition  of  the  class  to  which  he  is  relegated 
would  be  as  deficient  in  practical  knowledge  as  the  American  youth  who  knows 
nothing  of  the  history,  institutions,  and  laws  of  his  country.  No  negro  can  afford 
to  be  incurious  as  to  the  status  of  his  race.  It  would  be  as  great  a  manifestation 
of  folly  as  it  would  be  on  the  part  of  a  convict  to  attempt  to  ignore  the  fact  that 
he  is  in  durance  vile. 

Wherever  separate  schools  exist— and  the  fact  of  their  existence  is  the  most  per¬ 
suasive  argument  that  the  negro  is  shut  in  to  a  racial  circle  and  range — there 
should  be  some  definite  instruction  in  subjects  that  pertain  to  the  race.  Of  course, 


7  94 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


there  should  be  the  highest  prudence  and  caution  in  the  selection  of  subject-matter 
and  in  the  manner  of  impartation.  All  frictional  and  inflammatory  methods  should 
be  discarded,  and  only  subjects  that  are  accurate,  comprehensive,  and  sensible 
should  find  favor.  There  might  be  placed  in  parallel  columns  wrongs  suffered  and 
benefits  received,  rights  withheld  and  duties  neglected,  present  proscription  of 
privilege  and  the  larger  promise  of  the  future. 

We  have  in  the  city  negro  a  special  educational  problem  of  peculiar  importance. 
The  entire  negro  population  must  look  to  the  cities  for  diffusion  of  light.  The 
perfection  of  their  educational  regimes,  therefore,  is  not  only  of  prime  importance 
to  the  700,000  therein  collected,  but  also  to  the  8,000,000  who  are  scattered  abroad. 


PART  II.— THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 

I.  The  Intellectual  Capacity  of  the  Negro. 

The  negro  is  scarcely  ever  considered  with  reference  to  the  primary  problems  of 
life.  Those  needs  of  the  human  race  which  do  not  depend  upon  temporary  condi¬ 
tions  and  circumstances  are  not  generally  deemed  predicable  of  him.  The  African 
is  not  regarded  in  his  own  right  and  for  his  own  sake,  but  merely  with  reference 
to  the  effect  which  his  presence  and  activity  produce  upon  the  dominant  Aryan. 
He  is  merely  a  coefficient  which  is  not  detachable  from  the  quantity  whose  value 
it  may  either  increase  or  diminish.  The  black  object  is  always  projected  against 
a  white  background,  producing  a  grotesque  and  gloomy  silhouette.  The  whole 
history  of  the  contact  of  the  races  deals  with  the  negro  as  a  satellite  whose  move¬ 
ments  are  secondary  to  those  of  the  central  orb  about  which  it  revolves.  Civili¬ 
zation  was  not  thought  possible  for  the  sons  of  Ethiopia.  The  sable  livery  of  the 
Tropics  was  deemed  impervious  to  ennobling  influences.  The  negro  could  only 
contribute  to  the  wants  and  welfare  of  the  higher  race.  With  a  self- debasement 
surpassing  the  vow  of  the  anchorite,  he  was  expected  to  bow  down  to  this  white 
god  and  serve  him,  ascribing  unto  him  “the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  the  glory, 
forever.”  The  whole  scheme  of  the  subjugation  and  oppression  of  the  African  is 
based  upon  the  theory  that  the  negro  represents  an  inferior  order  of  creation,  and 
therefore  his  needs  are  secondary  to  and  derivable  from  those  of  his  white  lord 
and  master.  The  ordinary  attributes  and  susceptibilities  of  the  human  race  were 
denied  him.  When  it  was  first  proposed  to  furnish  means  for  the  development  of 
the  nobler  side  of  the  negro  race,  those  who  possessed  the  wisdom  of  their  day  and 
generation  entertained  the  proposition  either  with  a  sneer  or  with  a  smile.  Ridi¬ 
cule  and  contempt  have  characterized  the  habitual  attitude  of  the  American  mind 
toward  the  negro’s  higher  strivings.  The  African  was  brought  to  this  country 
for  the  purpose  of  performing  manual  labor.  His  bodily  powers  alone  were 
required  to  accomplish  this  industrial  mission.  No  more  account  was  taken  of 
his  higher  susceptibilities  than  of  the  mental  and  moral  faculties  of  the  lower 
animals.  The  white  man,  as  has  been  wittily  said,  saw  in  the  negro’s  mind  only 
what  was  apparent  in  his  face — “  darkness  there,  and  nothing  more.”  His  useful¬ 
ness  in  the  world  is  still  measured  by  physical  faculties  rather  than  by  qualities  of 
mind  and  soul.  Even  after  the  wonderful  transformations  of  the  past  thirty 
years,  many  claim  to  discern  no  function  which  he  can  fill  in  society  except  to 
administer  to  the  wants  and  wishes  of  others  by  means  of  bodily  toil.  The  merci¬ 
less  proposition  of  Carlyle,  ‘  ‘  The  negro  is  useful  to  God’s  creation  only  as  a  ser¬ 
vant,”1  still  finds  wide  acceptance.  It  is  so  natural  to  base  a  theory  upon  a  long- 
established  practice  that  one  no  longer  wonders  at  the  prevalence  of  this  belief. 
The  negro  has  sustained  servile  relations  to  the  Caucasian  for  so  long  a  time  that 

1  Occasional  Discourses  on  the  Nigger  Question. 


; 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO.  795 

it  is  easy,  as  it  is  agreeable  to  the  Aryan  pride,  to  conclude  that  servitude  is  his 
ordained  place  in  society. 

As  the  higher  susceptibilities  of  the  negro  were  not  needed,  their  existence  was, 
at  one  time,  denied.  The  eternal  inferiority  of  the  race  was  assumed  as  a  part  of 
the  cosmic  order  of  things.  History,  literature,  science,  speculative  conjectures, 
and  even  the  holy  Scriptures  were  ransacked  for  evidence  and  argument  in  sup¬ 
port  of  this  theory.  It  was  not  deemed  inconsistent  with  divine  justice  and  mercy 
that  the  curse  of  servitude  to  everlasting  generations  should  be  pronounced  upon 
a  race  because  their  alleged  progenitor  utilized  as  an  object  lesson  in  temperance 
the  indulgent  proclivity  of  an  ancient  patriarch.1  Science  was  placed  under 
tribute  for  support  of  the  ruling  dogma.  The  negro’s  inferiority  was  clearly 
deducible  from  physical  peculiarities.  In  basing  the  existence  of  mental,  moral, 
and  spiritual  qualities  upon  the  shape  and  size  of  skull,  facial  outline,  and 
cephalic  configuration,  the  antinegro  scientists  outdistanced  the  modern  .psychol¬ 
ogists  in  assuming  a  mechanical  equivalent  of  thought. 

But  in  spite  of  scientific  demonstration,  learned  disquisitions,  prohibitive  legis¬ 
lation,  and  alleged  divine  intendment,  the  negro’s  nobler  nature  persisted  in  mani¬ 
festing  itself.  The  love,  sympathy,  tender  fidelity,  and  vicarious  devotion  of  the 
African  slave,  the  high  spiritual  and  emotional  fervor  manifested  in  the  weird 
wailings  and  lamentations  of  the  plantation  melodies,  the  literary  taste  of  Phillis 
Wheatley,  the  scientific  acumen  of  Benjamin  Banneker,  the  persuasive  eloquence 
of  Frederick  Douglass,  were  but  faint  indications  of  smothered  mental,  moral,  and 
spiritual  power.  The  world  has  now  come  to  recognize  that  the  negro  possesses 
the  same  faculties,  powers,  and  susceptibilities  as  the  rest  of  mankind,  albeit  they 
have  been  stunted  and  dwarfed  by  centuries  of  oppression  and  ill  usage.  The 
negro,  too,  is  gradually  awakening  to  a  consciousness  of  this  great  truth.  The 
common  convergence  of  religious  and  secular  thought  is  toward  the  universal 
fatherhood  of  God  and  brotherhood  of  man.  This  universality  of  kinship  implies 
commonality  of  powers,  possibilities,  and  destiny.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the 
importance  of  this  belief  to  the  backward  races  of  the  earth.  We  have  of  late 
heard  a  strangely  discordant  jangle  from  the  jungles  of  India,  with  contemptuous 
reference  to  “lesser  breeds  without  the  law.”  Rudyard  Kipling  regards  all  other 
races  of  the  earth  only  as  contributory  factors  to  the  glory  of  his  own.  This  con¬ 
viction  is  betrayed  even  in  what  he  intends  for  a  kindly  reference: 

But  the  things  you  will  learn  from  the  yellow  an1  brown, 

They’ll  ’elp  you  and  ’eap  you  with  the  white.2 

The  backward  races,  according  to  this  new  light  of  Asia,  have  no  inherent 
capacities,  rights,  or  prospects,  but  are  merely  a  part  of  the  “white  man’s  bur¬ 
den,”  a  load  more  grievously  to  be  borne  than  the  weight  which  mythology 
assigned  to  the  back  of  the  ill-fated  Atlas.  But  this  note  is  strangely  discordant 
to  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  the  opening  century.  How  much  broader  in  com¬ 
prehension,  truer  in  prophecy,  and  nobler  in  sympathy  and  spirit  are  the  lines  of 
Walt  Whitman: 

A  man’s  body  at  auction! 

(For  before  the  war  I  often  go  to  the  slave  mart  and  watch  the  sale.) 

I  help  the  auctioneer,  the  sloven  does  not  half  know  his  business. 

Gentlemen,  look  on  this  wonder! 

Whatever  the  bids  of  the  bidders,  they  can  not  be  high  enough  for  it. 

For  it  the  globe  lay  preparing  quintillions  of  years  without  one  animal  or  plant. 

For  it  the  revolving  cycles  truly  and  steadily  rolled. 

In  this  head  the  all-baffling  brain. 

*  *  *  *  *  *  * 

Examine  these  limbs,  red,  black,  or  white,  they  are  cunning  in  tendon  and  nerve, 

*  *  *  *  *  *  * 


1  Genesis,  IX:  21-27. 


2  Seven  Seas,  p.  171. 


796 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


Exquisite  senses,  life-lit  eyes,  pluck,  volition, 

*  He  *  H«  H«  H«  # 

And  wonders  within  there  yet. 

Within  there  runs  blood, 

The  same  old  blood!  the  same  red  running  blood! 

There  swells  and  jets  a  heart,  there  all  passions,  desires,  Teachings,  aspirations, 

(Do  you  think  they  are  not  there  because  they  are  not  expressed  in  parlors  and  lecture- 
rooms?)  * 

This  is  not  only  one  man — this  the  father  of  those  who  shall  be  fathers  in  their  turns, 

In  him  the  start  of  populous  states  and  rich  republics, 

Of  him  countless  immortal  lives  with  countless  embodiments  and  enjoyments. 1 

It  is  a  matter  of  prime  importance  for  the  negro  to  feel  and  to  convince  his 
fellow-men  that  he  possesses  the  inherent  qualities  and  therefore  the  inherent 
rights  that  belong  to  the  human  race.  Carlyle,  though  blinded  by  narrow  preju¬ 
dice  when  handling  the  negro  in  the  concrete,  is  nevertheless  a  true  philosopher 
when  dealing  with  general  principles.  The  same  author  who  regards  the  negro 
as  an  “amiable  blockhead,”  and  amenable  only  to  the  white  man’s  “beneficent 
whip,”  also  exclaims,  “that  one  man  should  die  ignorant  who  had  the  capacity 
for  knowledge,  this  I  call  a  tragedy,  were  it  to  happen  more  than  twenty  times  in 
a  minute.”2  When  it  is  granted  that  the  negro  has  capacity  for  knowledge  and 
virtue,  all  of  his  other  problems  flow  as  corollaries  from  the  leading  proposition. 

The  lack  of  capacity  on  the  part  of  colored  youth  to  secure  the  higher  lines  of 
education  has,  until  recently,  in  this  country  at  least,  been  generally  assumed. 
The  few  negroes  who  showed  any  intellectual  development  during  slavery  days 
were  exceptions,  sufficient  only  to  prove  the  rule.  It  used  to  be  an  accepted  dic¬ 
tum  that  the  negro’s  skull  was  too  thick  to  learn.  This  dictum,  however,  seems 
to  have  been  founded  upon  a  desire  rather  than  a  belief;  for  in  order  to  justify  the 
assertion  laws  were  made  forbidding  the  attempt.  It  was  made  a  crime  for  the 
negro  to  perform  the  impossible.  Why  reenact  the  laws  of  God? 

It  will  be  noticed  that  those  who  deny  the  negro  mental  capacity  may  fairly 
be  suspected  of  a  motive.  This  was  certainly  true  in  the  case  of  the  slaveholders 
before  the  war.  It  is  equally  true  in  certain  quarters  to-day.  Men  will  resort  to 
all  kinds  of  arguments  in  order  to  shape  their  consciences  to  their  dealings.  All 
the  resources  of  knowledge  were  exhausted  to  show  that  the  negro  was  not  like 
other  men,  and  that  God  had  designed  him  for  an  inferior  station  in  life.  All 
this  was  undertaken  to  justify  the  system  of  slavery,  or,  slavery  being  dead,  to 
shut  out  the  negro  from  the  full  privileges  of  manhood  and  citizenship.  It  is  easy 
as  it  is  safe  to  shift  responsibility  from  men’s  guilty  consciences  and  place  it  upon 
divine  intendment.  The  process  was  a  logical  and  a  cunning  one.  Admit  the 
negro's  mental  and  moral  endowments  and  all  justification  for  inhuman,  unfair,  or 
proscriptive  treatment  falls  to  the  ground. 

If  I’ m  designed  yon  lording’s  slave, 

By  nature’s  law  designed; 

Why  was  an  independent  wish 
E’er  planted  in  my  mind? 3 

John  C.  Calhoun  was  by  all  odds  the  most  sagacious  defender  of  slavery.  He 
placed  its  j ustification  squarely  upon  the  ground  of  the  negro's  intellectual  and 
moral  inferiority.  He  is  reported  to  have  said  that  if  he  could  find  a  single  negro 
who  understood  the  Greek  syntax  he  woujd  regard  the  race  as  human  and  worthy 
to  be  treated  as  men.4  Thi3  statement  sounds  very  remarkable  in  the  light  of 

1  Leaves  of  Grass,  p.  85.  2 * *  Sartor  Resartus  (Helotage) .  8  Robert  Burns’s  Man  was  Made  to  Mourn. 

4  On  account  of  the  importance  and  widespread  currency  of  this  statement,  I  deem  it  advisable 

to  give  here  an  account  of  its  origin. 

The  late  Rev.  Alexander  Crummell,  founder  and  first  president  of  the  American  Negro 

Academy,  gives  the  following  account: 

In  the  year  1833  or  1834,  the  speaker  (Rev.  Alexander  Crummell)  was  an  errand  boy  in  the 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


797 


subsequent  developments.  If  Mr.  Calhoun  could  be  reincarnated  and  could  visit 
his  old  alma  mater  at  New  Haven,  he  would  undoubtedly  change  his  opinion. 
This  remarkable  statement  should  serve  to  make  us  heedless  of  all  sweeping 
denunciations  and  hostile  generalities  against  the  race,  however  arrogantly  they 
may  be  put  forth  or  with  however  high  authority  they  may  be  supported. 

The  mental  capacity  of  the  negro  with  reference  to  this  higher  education  gives 
rise  to  two  distinct  questions:  (1)  Can  he  master  and  assimilate  the  branches 
usually  placed  in  the  college  curriculum?  and  (2)  is  he  equal  in  capacity  to  the 
white  man? 

The  first  proposition  needs  no  argument.  Nobody  whose  opinion  is  worth  quot¬ 
ing  doubts  at  this  late  date  that  the  negro  can  master  the  higher  branches  of 
European  learning  and  interpret  them  in  thought  and  action.  Whoever  affects 
to  doubt  it  himself  needs  to  be  pitied  for  his  incapacity  to  grasp  the  truth.  The 
only  excuse  for  introducing  this  proposition  is  that  it  was  at  one  time  denied. 

Duty  depends  upon  and  is  proportionate  to  ability.  Even  though  it  be  shown 
that  the  white  man  has  larger  gifts  of  mind  than  the  negro,  that  does  not  relieve 
the  latter  from  the  duty  of  cultivating  his  mind  by  means  of  higher  education. 
If  the  Russians  should  find  that  they  are  intellectually  inferior  to  the  Germans, 
would  that  make  it  any  the  less  incumbent  upon  Russian  youth  to  cultivate  their 
minds  to  the  highest  possible  degree?  The  possessor  of  one  talent  is  called  upon  to 
make  returns  as  well  as  the  holder  of  ten.  It  is  only  the  sloth  who  hides  his  talent 
in  the  earth  because  he  imagines  that  somebody  else  has  a  larger  allowance.  The 
claim  for  the  higher  education  of  colored  youth  is  not  based  upon  relative  capacity, 
but  upon  their  ability  to  profit  by  it.  There  is  a  principle  in  mechanics  that  no 
more  work  can  be  gotten  out  of  a  machine  than  power  is  put  into  it.  The  problem 
of  machinery  is  to  so  adjust  force  and  friction  as  to  bring  out  the  largest  possible 
fraction  of  useful  work.  The  analogy  applies  with  much  strength  to  the  case  in 
hand.  It  is  not  attempted  to  create  capacity.  God  alone  can  do  that.  But  the 
problem  is  how  caii  we  best  prepare  the  negro  to  do  the  work  before  him  and  that, 
too,  with  the  capacity  with  which  God  has  endowed  him.  The  wisdom  of  man¬ 
kind  has  decided  that  the  best  preparation  for  any  serious  duty  is  a  careful  train¬ 
ing  and  discipline  of  the  mind. 

Although  the  relative  capacities  of  the  races  can  not  be  decided  by  arrogant 
assertions  on  the  one  hand  and  indignant  denials  on  the  other,  nevertheless  it  is  a 
matter  of  much  speculative  interest.  Affirmation  is  worth  no  more  than  denial, 
and  continued  asseveration  on  either  side  is  worth  little  more  than  a  spirited  con¬ 
test  of  “did  ”  and  “  didn’t  ”  between  two  pugnacious  boys. 

It  will  take  ten  generations  to  decide  this  question.  The  intellectual  ascendancy 
of  the  various  races  and  tribes  is  subject  to  strange  variability.  The  Egyptian, 
the  Jew,  the  Indian,  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  the  Arab,  and  the  modern  European 
has  each  had  his  turn  at  intellectual  domination.  When  the  early  nations  were 
at  the  zenith  of  art  and  thought  and  song,  Franks,  Britons,  and  Germans  were 
roaming  through  dense  forests,  groveling  in  subterranean  caves,  practicing  bar¬ 
barous  rites,  and  chanting  their  horrid  incantations  to  savage  gods.  In  the  days 
of  Aristotle  the  ancestors  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  Kent  and  Gladstone  could 
not  count  beyond  the  ten  fingers.  Tacitus  tells  us  that  the  British  youth  were 
incapable  of  learning  music  and  philosophy. 


antislavery  office  in  New  York  City.  On  a  certain  occasion  he  heard  a  conversation  between 
the  secretary  and  two  eminent  lawyers  of  Boston — Samuel  E.  Sewell  and  David  Lee  Child. 
They  had  been  to  Washington  on  some  legal  business.  While  at  the  capital  they  happened  to 
dine  in  the  company  of  the  great  John  C.  Calhoun,  the  Senator  from  South  Carolina.  It  was  a 
period  of  great  ferment  upon  the  question  of  slavery,  State’s  rights,  and  nullification;  and  con¬ 
sequently  the  negro  was  the  topic  of  conversation  at  the  table.  One  of  the  utterances  of  Mr. 
Calhoun  was  to  the  effect  that  if  he  could  find  a  negro  who  knew  the  Greek  S3rntas;  he  would 
then  believe  that  the  negro  was  a  human  being  and  should  be  treated  as  a  man.  (American 
Negro  Academy,  Occasional  Papers,  No.  3,  pp.  10-11.) 


798 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


To  affirm  that  all  races  are  equal  in  intellectual  capacity  is  a  rather  hazardous 
proposition.  There  is  not  wanting,  however,  eminent  authority  to  support  it. 
Leaving  this  broad  proposition  untouched,  let  us  now  deduce  some  of  the  argu¬ 
ments  which  support  the  negro's  claim  to  intellectual  capacity. 

1.  Within  the  limits  of  the  white  race  there  is  the  widest  possible  divergence  of 
mental  capability.  A  philosopher  and  an  idiot  may  not  only  be  members  of  the 
same  race,  but  of  the  same  family.  Such  divergence  is  equally  true  of  the  negro 
race.  No  intellectual  classification  is  possible  which  will  put  all  whites  in  one 
class  and  all  blacks  in  another.  Some  negroes  are  unquestionably  superior  in 
intellectual  endowment  to  most  white  men. 

2.  Where  mixed  schools  exist  there  is  no  discoverable  difference  of  capacity  or 
aptitude  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  of  the  two  races.  This  phenomenon  has  mani¬ 
fested  itself  not  only  in  the  case  of  the  negro  in  the  United  States,  but  it  is  equally 
true  of  the  children  of  all  the  so-called  inferior  races  who  have  been  brought  in 
intellectual  competition  with  Caucasian  children.  It  has  been  observed,  however^ 
and  remarked  upon  by  Herbert  Spencer,  that  the  children  of  weaker  races  do  not 
continue  their  mental  activity  after  reaching  maturity  with  the  same  vigor  as 
their  white  competitors.  This  inactivity  is  clearly  due  to  a  lack  of  stimulus  and 
incentive  and  not  to  incapacity. 

3.  Colored  students  pass  through  Northern  colleges  with  success  and  sometimes 
with  distinction.  Their  average  rank  is  exceptionally  high  when  we  consider 
their  early  environments  and  opx>ortunities.  From  time  immemorial  negro  stu¬ 
dents  from  Africa,  Haiti,  South  America,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea  have  passed 
through  the  universities  of  Europe.  This  occurrence  is  so  common  that  it  no 
longer  excites  remark. 

4.  The  race  has  produced  from  time  to  time  individuals  who  show  unmistakable 
evidences  of  the  highest  susceptibility  of  mind.  Such  instances  are  so  numerous 
that  it  would  be  invidious  to  mention  a  few  of  them,  not  being  able  to  mention  all. 

5.  Of  the  numerous  authorities  that  might  be  quoted  in  this  connection  I  will 
cite  only  a  few.  William  Matthews,  LL.  D.,  one  of  the  most  successful  American 
authors,  in  discussing  negro  intellect,  says: 

We  affirm  that  the  inferiority  of  the  negro  has  never  been  proved,  nor  is  there 
any  good  reason  to  suppose  that  he  is  doomed  forever  to  maintain  his  present  rela¬ 
tive  position,  or  that  he  is  inferior  to  the  white  man  in  any  other  sense  than  some 
white  races  are  inferior  to  others. 1 

Benjamin  Kidd,  author  of  Social  Evolution,  says: 

The  children  of  the  large  negro  population  in  that  country  [United  States]  are 
on  just  the  same  footing  as  children  of  the  white  population  in  the  public  elemen¬ 
tary  schools.  Yet  the  negro  children  exhibit  no  intellectual  inferiority;  they 
make  just  the  same  progress  in  the  subject  taught  as  do  the  children  of  the  white 
parents,  and  the  deficiency  they  exhibit  in  later  life  is  of  quite  a  different  kind.2 

Prof.  N.  F.  Shaler,  of  Harvard  University,  dean  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  writes  in  the  Arena: 

There  are  hundreds  and  thousands  of  black  men  in  this  country  who  in  capacity 
are  to  be  ranked  with  the  superior  persons  of  the  dominant  race,  and  it  is  hard  to 
say  that  in  any  evident  feature  of  mind  they  characteristically  differ  from  their 
white  fellow- citizens. 3 

The  following  citations  from  the  highest  academic  authority  furnish  valuable 
testimony  as  to  the  negro’s  intellectual  capacity:4 

1  North  American  Review,  July,  1889.  2  Social  Evolution,  p.  295.  3  Arena,  December,  1890. 

4  These  citations  are  taken  from  The  College-Bred  Negro,  p.  81  et  seq.  The  College-Bred 
Negro  appeared  as  Atlanta  University  Publications,  No.  5,  and  contains  the  fullest  extant  his¬ 
torical  and  statistical  account  of  the  negro’s  higher  educational  efforts.  Dr.  W.  E.B.  Du  Bois 
is  secretary  of  the  Atlanta  conference,  and  the  success  of  this  work  is  due  largely  to  his  efforts. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


799 


From  the  University  of  Kansas  we  learn  (January,  1900): 

I  am  pleased  to  state  that  this  year  we  have  twice  as  many  colored  students  in 
attendance  at  the  university  as  ever  before;  in  all,  28.  The  rule  is  that  no  student 
shall  be  allowed  to  take  more  than  three  studies.  If  he  fails  in  one  of  the  three,  it 
is  a  “single  failure;”  in  two  of  the  three,  a  “double  failure.”  The  latter  severs 
the  student's  connection  with  the  university.  There  are  1 ,000  students  in  attend¬ 
ance  at  the  present  time.  The  semiannual  examination  was  held  last  week,  and  as 
a  result  there  are  200  “  single  failures”  and  80  “  double  failures.”  The  gratifying 
part  of  it  is  that  not  one  of  the  colored  students  is  in  either  number. 

The  secretary  of  Oberlin  writes  (February,  1900)  in  sending  his  list:  “  It  is  a 
list  containing  men  and  women  of  whom  we  are  proud.” 

Colgate  University,  New  York,  writes  of  a  graduate  of  1874  as  “  a  very  brilliant 
student,”  who  “  was  graduated  second  best  in  his  class.  It  was  believed  by  many 
that  he  was  actually  the  leader,” 

A  graduate  of  Colby  College,  Maine,  is  said  by  the  librarian  to  have  been  “  uni¬ 
versally  respected  as  a  student,  being  chosen  class  orator.” 

Wittenberg  College,  Ohio,  has  two  colored  graduates.  “They  were  both  bright 
girls  and  stood  well  up  in  their  respective  classes.” 

A  negro  graduate  of  Washburn  College,  Kansas,  is  said  by  the  chairman  of  the 
faculty  to  be  “one  of  the  graduates  of  the  college  in  whom  we  take  pride.” 

The  dean  of  the  faculty  of  Knox  College,  Illinois,  writes  of  two  negro  students — 
Senator  Bruce,  of  Mississippi,  and  another — who  graduated  and  were  remembered 
because  of  “  their  distinguished  scholarship.” 

A  black  student  of  Adrian  College,  Michigan,  “  was  one  of  the  best  mathemati¬ 
cians  I  ever  had  in  a  class,”  writes  a  professor. 

Adelbert  College,  of  the  Western  Reserve  University,  Ohio,  has  a  negro  graduate 
as  acting  librarian  who  is  characterized  as  “one  of  the  most  able  men  we  know;” 
while  of  another  it  is  said,  “We  expect  the  best.” 

Lombard  University,  Illinois,  has  “  heard  favorable  reports  ”  of  its  single  negro 
graduate. 

The  dean  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa  writes  (December,  1899)  of  a  graduate 
of  1898: 

He  distinguished  himself  for  good  scholarship,  and  on  that  ground  was  admitted 
to  membership  in  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society.  He  is  a  man  of  most  excellent  char¬ 
acter  and  good  sense,  and  I  expect  for  him  a  very  honorable  future.  He  won  the 
respect  of  all  his  classmates  and  of  the  faculty.  As  president  of  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa 
Society,  I  received  him  into  membership  with  very  great  pleasure  as  in  every  way 
worthy  of  this  honor. 

Boston  University  writes  of  one  graduate  as  “a  fine  fellow.”  He  is  now  doing 
postgraduate  work  at  Yale,  and  the  agent  of  the  Capon  Springs  negro  conference 
writes  (November,  1900)  “I  continually  hear  him  mentioned  in  a  complimentary 
way.  On  the  other  hand,  two  negro  boys  were  in  the  freshman  class  not  long 
ago,  and  both  were  conspicuously  poor  scholars.” 

Otterbein  University,  Ohio,  has  a  graduate  who  “  was  a  most  faithful  and  capa¬ 
ble  student.  ” 

The  dean  of  Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire,  writes  (December,  1899)  of 
its  graduates: 

The  last  two  or  three  are  hardly  established  in  business  yet,  but  the  others  are 
doing  remarkably  well.  These  men  have  been  in  each  case  fully  equal  to  if  not 
above  the  average  of  their  class.  We  have  been  very  much  pleased  with  the  work 
of  the  colored  men  who  have  come  to  us.  They  have  been  a  credit  to  themselves 
and  their  race  while  here  and  to  the  college  since  graduation.  I  wish  we  had 
more  such. 

The  president  of  Tabor  College,  Ohio,  says  of  two  colored  graduates:  “They  are 
brainy  fellows  who  have  done  very  much  good  in  the  world.” 

One  of  the  most  prominent  colored  Methodist  ministers  in  Philadelphia  said  to 
the  president  of  Allegheny  College,  Pennsylvania,  speaking  of  a  colored  graduate: 
“Any  college  may  be  proud  to  have  graduated  a  man  like  him.” 


800  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

The  University  of  Idaho  graduated  in  1898  a  young  colored  woman  of  “excep¬ 
tional  ability.” 

Westminster  College,  Pennsylvania,  has  graduated  two  negroes.  “Both  were 
excellent  students  and  ranked  high  in  the  estimation  of  all  who  knew  them.” 

Of  a  graduate  of  Hamilton  College,  New  York,  the  secretary  says: 

He  was  one  of  the  finest  young  men  we  have  ever  had  in  our  institution.  He 
was  an  earnest  and  consistent  Christian,  and  had  great  influence  for  good  with  his 
fellow-students.  No  one  ever  showed  him  the  slightest  discourtesy.  On  leaving 
college  he  spent  three  years  in  Auburn  Theological  Seminary;  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  one  of  our  Northern  presbyteries,  and  then  went  to  Virginia,  near  Nor¬ 
folk,  where  he  built  a  church  and  gave  promise  of  great  usefulness,  when,  about 
two  years  ago,  he  suddenly  sickened  and  died.  He  had  many  friends  in  Clinton 
outside  of  the  college.  He  prepared  for  college  in  the  Clinton  Grammar  School. 
On  leaving  the  school  for  college  the  wife  of  the  principal  of  the  school  made  to 
me  the  remark  that  it  seemed  as  if  the  spirit  of  the  Lord  had  departed  from  the 
school.  I  received  him  into  the  church  and  was  his  pastor  for  a  number  of  years. 
Everybody  was  his  friend.  Members  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Clinton  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  erection  of  his  church  in  Virginia,  and  the  Sunday  school  has  edu¬ 
cated  his  sister.  Hi's  untimely  death  caused  deep  sorrow  in  this  community,  where 
he  was  greatly  beloved.  W e  felt  that  he  was  destined  to  become  a  power  for 
good  among  his  people  in  the  South. 

At  the  larger  colleges  the  record  of  the  negro  students  has,  on  the  whole,  been 
good.  At  Harvard  several  have  held  scholarships,  and  1  a  fellowship;  there  has 
been  1  Phi  Beta  Kappa  man,  1  class  orator,  2  commencement  speakers,  8  mas¬ 
ters  of  art,  and  1  doctor  of  philosophy.  In  scholarship  the  11  graduates  have 
stood:  4  good,  8  fair,  2  ordinary,  and  2  poor. 

At  Brown  one  of  the  most  brilliant  students  of  recent  years  was  a  negro;  he  was 
among  the  junior  8  elected  to  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa. 

At  Amherst  the  record  of  colored  men  has  been  very  good,  both  in  scholarship 
and  athletics.  A  colored  man  captained  the  Amherst  foot-ball  team  one  year  and 
is  now  one  of  the  chief  Harvard  foot-ball  coachers. 

At  Yale  and  Cornell  colored  men  have  held  scholarships  and  some  have  made 
good  records. 

But,  say  the  objectors,  if  the  negro  possesses  this  great  capacity  of  mind,  why 
has  he  not  given  the  world  the  benefit  of  it  during  the  course  of  history?  By  their 
fruits  ye  shall  know  them.  Mr.  Thomas  Nelson  Page,  in  his  otherwise  delightful 
book  on  the  Old  South,  asks  with  supercilious  disdain:  “What  of  value  to  the 
human  race  has  the  negro  race  produced?  In  art,  in  mechanical  development,  in 
literature,  in  mental  and  moral  science,  in  all  the  range  of  mental  action,  no  nota- 
able  work  has  up  to  this  time  come  from  a  negro.”1  Henry  Ward  Beecher’s  sneer 
against  the  negro  race  is  a  hackneyed  recital,  viz,  that  “  If  all  the  negroes  in  the 
world  were  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  the  bubbles  that  would  come  to  the 
top  would  be  of  as  much  benefit  to  civilization  as  the  bodies  that  went  down.” 

Mr.  Thomas  Nelson  Page  and  Mr.  Beecher  make  the  mistake  of  confounding 
intellectual  capacity  with  intellectual  activity.  Capacity  is  potential  and  not 
kinetic  energy.  Whatever  native  energy  the  mind  may  possess,  it  must  receive 
reenforcement  from  the  prevailing  tone  of  society  before  it  can  show  any  large 
results.  In  arithmetic  a  figure  has  an  inherent  and  a  local  value,  the  latter  being 
by  far  its  more  powerful  function  in  numerical  calculations.  So  it  is  with  intel¬ 
lectual  achievements.  The  individual  mind  may  count  for  much,  but  the  tone  of 
society  counts  for  more.  It  is  absolutely  impossible  for  a  Bacon  to  thrive  among 
barbarians  or  a  Herbert  Spencer  among  Hottentots. 

In  confirmation  of  this  view  let  us  for  a  moment  follow  the  career  of  the  Greeks, 
who  were  undoubtedly  the  most  intellectual  people  that  ever  lived. 

Mr.  Lecky  tells  us  in  his  History  of  European  Morals: 

I  regard  it  as  one  of  the  anomalies  of  history  that  within  the  narrow  limits 
and  scanty  population  of  the  Greek  states  should  have  arisen  men  who  in  almost 


The  Old  South,  p.  314. 


THE  EDUCATION  OE  THE  NEGRO. 


801 


every  conceivable  form  of  genius,  in  philosophy,  in  ethics,  in  dramatic  and  lyric 
poetry,  in  written  and  spoken  eloquence,  in  statesmanship,  in  sculpture,  in  paint¬ 
ing,  and  probably  also  in  music,  should  have  attained  almost  or  altogether  the 
highest  limits  of  human  perfection. 1 

-  Mr.  Galton,  in  his  Hereditary  Genius,  tells  us: 

We  have  no  man  to  put  beside  Socrates  and  Phidias.  The  millions  of  all 
Europe  breeding,  as  they  have  done,  for  the  subsequent  two  thousand  years  have 
never  produced  their  equals.  It  follows  from  all  this  that  the  average  ability  of 
th9  Athenian  race  is,  on  the  lowest  estimate,  very  nearly  two  grades  higher  than 
our  own;  that  is,  about  as  much  as  our  race  is  above  that  of  the  African 
negro.2 

These  remarkable  statements  are  supported  by  the  highest  possible  authority, 
and  yet  this  intellectual  race,  this  race  of  Phidias  and  Plato,  of  Homer  and  Soc¬ 
rates,  has  continued  for  two  thousand  years  in  a  state  of  complete  intellectual 
stagnation.  In  the  words  of  Macaulay,  “Their  people  have  degenerated  into 
timid  slaves  and  their  language  into  a  barbarous  jargon.”3 

Can  there  be  any  stronger  proof  of  the  fact  that  intellectual  activity  depends 
upon  the  environing  stimulus,  political  and  social  stability,  and  not  upon  capacity? 

It  is  often  said  that  no  negro  has  written  a  book  fit  for  a  white  man  to  read.  In 
so  far  as  this  is  true,  it  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  the  negro  has  not  had  favorable 
intellectual  environment.  The  Dumas,  pere  and  fils,  have  laid  the  world  under  a 
debt  of  literary  gratitude,  but  they  did  not  write  as  colored  men.  They  were  not 
hindered  by  the  environments  of  that  race. 

Our  own  country  has  not  escaped  the  odium  of  intellectual  inferiority.  The 
generation  has  scarcely  passed  away  in  whose  ears  used  to  ring  the  standing  sneer: 
“Who  reads  an  American  book?”  It  was  in  the  proud  days  of  Thomas  Jefferson 
that  a  learned  European  declared:  “America  has  not  yet  produced  one  good  poet, 
one  able  mathematician,  one  man  of  genius  in  a  single  art  or  science.  ”  In  response 
to  this  charge,  Jefferson  offers  an  eloquent,  special  plea.  He  says: 

When  we  shall  have  existed  as  a  people  as  long  as  the  Greeks  did  before  they 
produced  a  Homer,  the  Romans  a  Virgil,  the  French  a  Racine,  the  English  a 
Shakespeare  and  Milton,  should  this  reproach  be  still  true,  we  will  inquire  from 
what  unfriendly  cause  it  has  proceeded.4 

How  analogous  to  this  is  the  reproach  which  Mr.  Page  hurls  against  the  negro 
race!  Let  the  negro  shield  himself  from  the  reproach  of  Page  under  the  plea  of 
Jefferson. 

Quoting  again  from  Dr.  Matthews’s  contribution  to  the  North  American 
Review: 

Hardly  two  centuries  have  passed  since  Russia  was  covered  with  a  horde  of 
barbarians,  among  whom  it  would  have  been  as  difficult  to  find  any  example  of 
intellectual  cultivation  and  refinement  as  at  this  day  to  find  the  same  x>henomenon 
at  Timbuctoo  or  among  the  negroes  of  Georgia  or  Alabama. 

But  subsequent  events  have  shown  that  the  Russians  are  in  no  wise  inferior  to 
any  other  European  race. 

It  is  an  evident  fact  that  the  thought,  the  culture,  and  progressive  spirit  of  our 
country  is  confined  chiefly  to  certain  sections  and  localities.  According  to  Henry 
Cabot  Lodge’s  Distribution  of  Ability  in  the  United  States,5  Massachusetts  has 
contributed  more  stars  to  the  galaxy  of  America’s  intellectual  greatness  than  all 
the  South  and  West  combined,  leaving  out  the  single  State  of  Virginia.  Would 
it  be  fair,  therefore,  to  assert  that  an  inhabitant  of  Georgia  or  Illinois  is  God- 
ordained  to  be  intellectually  inferior  to  a  native  of  Massachusetts?  The  difference 
in  age,  wealth,  culture,  and  refinement  of  the  communities  accounts  for  the  dis¬ 
parity  in  the  results.  The  negro  claims  the  benefit  of  the  same  argument.  He 


1  History  of  European  Morals,  vol.  1,  p.  418.  2  Hereditary  Genius,  p.  331. 

3 Macaulay’s  Essays  (Mitford’s  History  of  Greece).  4  Jefferson’s  Notes  on  Virginia. 
5  The  Century,  September,  1891. 


ED  1901- 


■51 


802 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


has  never,  during  the  whole  course  of  history,  been  surrounded  by  those  influences 
which  tend  to  strengthen  and  develop  the  mind.  It  takes  long  generations  of  cul¬ 
ture  and  leisure  to  produce  the  best  results  in  scholarship  and  learning.  The 
negro  may  not  be  expected  to  equal  James  Russell  Lowell  in  letters,  or  Bancroft 
in  history,  or  John  Fiske  in  philosophy  until  the  community  in  which  he  lives,  as 
well  as  the  special  society  to  which  caste  assigns  him,  has  developed  a  correspond¬ 
ing  intellectual  tone. 

The  intellectual  equality  of  the  sexes  has  recently  gained  many  advocates,  and 
yet,  in  all  the  list  of  civilized  years,  the  feminine  sex  has  contributed  to  history 
scarcely  a  single  name  of  the  first  degree  of  luster.  The  explanation  is  offered 
that  their  energies  have  been  directed  along  other  lines  of  endeavor,  and  that  they 
have  not  been  competing  for  intellectual  distinction.  It  would  be  as  unfair  to 
upbraid  them  for  not  reaching  intellectual  heights  after  which  they  have  not  been 
striving  as  it  would  be  to  chide  them  for  not  shining  on  the  field  of  military  renown. 
The  cause  of  woman  and  the  contention  of  the  negro  have  many  interesting  par¬ 
allels,  but  none  more  striking  than  the  common  argument  which  they  advance  to 
account  for  the  lack  of  superior  intellectual  manifestations. 

Leaving  the  speculative  question  in  abeyance,  it  can  certainly  be  said  that  his¬ 
tory  fails  to  reveal  any  people  who,  under  such  adverse  circumstances  of  heredity 
and  environment,  have  ever  equaled  the  negro  in  the  exuberance  of  intellectual 
qualities. 

II.  The  Need  of  the  Higher  Education. 

Culture,  like  virtue,  is  its  own  reward.  It  needs  no  vicarious  excuse.  The  pos¬ 
session  of  a  faculty  justifies  the  development  of  it.  The  negro  needs  the  higher 
education  because,  as  was  shown  in  the  first  section,  he  is  susceptible  of  the  cul¬ 
ture  which  it  affords.  Civilization  is  due  to  the  evolutionary  process  and  grows 
by  slow  and  imperceptible  stages.  Each  generation  does  not  begin  its  acquisitions 
de  novo,  but  starts  with  the  inheritance  of  all  that  has  gone  before.  It  must,  how¬ 
ever,  take  some  time  to  digest  and  assimilate  its  inheritance.  Suppose  each  gen¬ 
eration  had  to  rediscover  for  itself  the  propositions  of  Euclid,  the  state  of  math¬ 
ematical  learning  would  always  remain  in  its  infancy.  This  principle  is  equally 
true  of  a  race  which  has  recently  entered  the  arena.  The  eleventh-hour  adven¬ 
turer  enters  into  equal  enjoyment  with  those  who  have  borne  the  heat  and  burden 
of  the  day.  No  greater  mistake  can  be  made  than  to  suppose  that  the  colored 
race  must  pass  through  every  variety  of  physical  and  mental  vicissitude  which 
the  Caucasian  race  has  undergone  before  it  can  attain  like  renown.  This  erroneous 
supposition  lies  at  the  basis  of  much  of  the  opposition  to  the  higher  education  of 
colored  youth.  Civilization  was  not  an  original  process  with  any  race  known  to 
history.  The  torch  is  handed  down  from  age  to  age  and  gains  in  brilliancy  as  it 
goes.  A  race  can  not  lift  itself  independently  into  civilization  any  more  than  a 
man  can  sustain  himself  by  pulling  against  the  straps  of  his  own  boots.  The  negro, 
as  much  as  any,  can  boast,  in  the  lines  of  Tennyson,  “  I,  the  heir  of  all  the  ages,  in 
the  foremost  ranks  of  time.”1  Other  men  have  labored,  and  he  has  entered  into 
their  labors.  In  order  for  the  negro  to  assimilate  the  civilization  into  which  he 
has  been  suddenly  thrust,  he  must  contemplate  its  highest  models  and  latest 
forms. 

It  is  said  that  the  negro  is  a  great  imitator.  This  is  a  compliment  rather  than  a 
reproach,  provided  only  that  he  imitates  the  purest,  the  loftiest,  and  the  best.  The 
wearisome  repetition  of  the  slow  steps  and  stages  by  which  present  heights  have 
been  attained  is  impossible  and  absurd.  It  will  be  readily  agreed  that  language  is 
the  surest  measure  and  gauge  of  a  civilization.  Wherever  the  language  of  a  people 
prevails,  their  customs,  laws,  and  institutions  are  sure  to  follow.  Would  anyone 
argue,  therefore,  that  because  the  negro  is  a  new  creature  in  modern  civilization 


1  Locksley  Hall. 


THE  EDUCATION-  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


803 


he  must  follow  the  course  of  historical  development  in  the  employment  and  use  of 
English  speech?  That  he  must  dwell  for  generations  upon  Anglo-Saxon  forms  and 
Chaucerian  diction  before  he  is  prepared  for  the  language  of  Gladstone  and  Lowell? 
Such  questions  need  no  answer.  Whites  and  blacks  have  the  same  linguistic  needs. 
They  study  the  same  forms  of  language  and  strive  alike  for  excellence  in  syntax 
and  diction,  in  spoken  and  written  style.  What  has  been  said  of  language  applies 
with  equal  force  to  all  the  complex  elements  of  modern  life.  The  higher  educa¬ 
tion  is  the  gateway  to  the  best  that  civilization  has  to  offer. 

Civilization  may  be  defined  as  the  sum  total  of  those  influences  and  agencies  that 
make  for  knowledge  and  virtue.  This  is  the  goal,  the  ultima  thule,  of  all  human 
strivings.  The  essential  factors  of  civilization  are  knowledge,  industry,  culture, 
and  virtue.  Knowledge  comprehends  the  facts  and  truths  of  the  universe;  indus¬ 
try  embodies  them  in  concrete  form;  culture  leads  to  rational  enjoyment;  virtue 
preserves  and  makes  eternal.  The  African  was  snatched  from  the  wilds  of  sav¬ 
agery  and  thrust  into  the  midst  of  a  mighty  civilization.  He  thus  escaped  the 
gradual  process  of  evolution,  and  education  must  span  the  gap.  Education  must 
accomplish  more  for  a  backward  people  than  it  does  for  those  who  are  in  the  fore¬ 
front  of  progress.  It  must  not  only  lead  to  the  unfoldment  of  faculties,  but  must 
fit  for  a  life  from  which  the  recipient  is  separated  by  many  centuries  of  develop¬ 
ment.  The  fact  that  a  backward  people  are  surrounded  by  a  civilization  which  is 
so  far  in  advance  of  their  own  is  by  no  means  an  unmixed  advantage.  In  the 
tempestuous  current  of  modern  life  the  contestant  must  either  swim  on  the  sur¬ 
face  or  sink  out  of  sight.  He  must  either  conform  or  succumb  to  the  inexorable 
law  of  progress.  The  African  chieftain  who  would  make  a  pilgrimage  from  his 
native  principality  to  the  city  of  Washington  might  accomplish  the  first  part  of 
his -journey  by  the  original  mode  of  transportation— in  the  primitive  dugout  and 
upon  the  backs  of  his  slaves — but  he  would  complete  it  upon  the  steamship,  the 
railway,  the  electric  car,  and  the  automobile.  How  swift  the  transformation, 
and  yet  how  suggestive  of  centuries  of  toil,  struggle,  and  mental  endeavor.  It 
required  the  human  race  thousands  of  years  to  bridge  the  chasm  between  savagery 
and  civilization;  but  now  it  must  be  crossed  by  a  school  curriculum  of  a  few  j^ears’ 
duration.  The  analytic  process  is  always  more  rapid  than  the  synthetic.  The 
embryologists  tell  us  that  the  individual,  in  developing  from  conception  to  maturity, 
must  pass  in  rapid  succession  through  all  the  stages  traversed  by  the  race  in  its 
struggle  upward.  We  are  also  informed  that  social  evolution  must  take  a  some¬ 
what  similar  course.  The  European  child  is  supposed  to  absorb  the  civilization 
of  his  race  in  about  twenty-five  years  of  formative  training.  The  negro  is  required 
to  master,  de  novo,  the  principles  of  civilization  in  a  similar  and,  indeed,  in  a 
shorter  time. 

In  a  settled  state  of  society  education  is  conservative  rather  than /progressive 
in  its  main  feature.  Its  chief  function  is  to  enable  the  individual  to  live  the  life 
already  attained  by  the  race.  The  initiative  of  progress  is  reserved  for  the  few 
choice  spirits  of  the  human  race.  The  bulk  of  any  people  can  only  live  up  to  the 
level  of  their  social  medium,  and  can  be  uplifted  only  by  social  impulses  imparted 
by  some  powerful  personality.  It  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature  that  large  bodies 
move  slowly,  otherwise  they  would  acquire  dangerous  momentum.  The  progress 
of  the  race  must  be  provokingly  slow  as  compared  with  that  of  the  individual. 
Education  prepares  for  a  statical  rather  than  a  dynamical  condition  of  society. 
And  yet,  notwithstanding  these  stern  truths,  every  educated  negro  must  be  a 
reformer,  a  positive,  aggressive  influence,  in  uplifting  the  masses,  and  that,  too,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  he  belongs  to  a  backward  breed  that  has  never  taken  the 
initiative  in  the  progressive  movements  of  the  world.  He  must  therefore  be 
aroused  to  a  consciousness  of  personal  power,  the  energy  of  the  will,  the  individ¬ 
ual  initiative,  that  subtle,  indefinable  quality  which  has  always  exerted  a  control- 


804 


EDUCATION  .REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ling  influence  upon  human  affairs,  in  spite  of  the  theories  of  doctrinaires  and  the 
formulas  of  philosophy. 

The  first  great  need  of  the  negro  is  that  the  choice  youth  of  the  race  should 
assimilate  the  principles  of  culture  and  hand  them  down  to  the  masses  below. 
This  is  the  only  gateway  through  which  a  new  people  may  enter  into  modern 
civilization.  Herein  lies  the  history  of  culture.  The  select  minds  of  the  back¬ 
ward  race  or  nation  must  first  receive  the  new  cult  and  adapt  it  to  the  peculiar 
needs  of  their  own  people.  Did  not  the  wise  men  of  Greece  receive  the  light  from 
Egypt?  The  Roman  youth  of  ambition  completed  their  education  at  Athens;  the 
noblemen  of  northern  Europe  sent  their  sons  to  the  southern  peninsulas  in  quest 
of  larger  learning;  and  up  to  the  present  day  American  youth  repair  to  the 
European  universities  for  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  culture  of  the  Old  World. 
Japan  looms  up  as  the  most  progressive  of  the  non- Ary  an  races.  This  wonderful 
progress  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  their  wise  plan  of  procedure.  They  send 
their  picked  youth  to  the  great  centers  of  Western  knowledge;  but  before  this 
culture  is  applied  to  their  own  needs  it  is  first  sifted  through  the  sieve  of  their 
native  comprehension.  The  graduates  of  the  higher  schools  of  learning  and  other 
institutions  are  forming  centers  of  civilizing  influence  in  all  parts  of  the  land,  and 
we  confidently  believe  that  these  grains  of  leaven  will  ultimately  leaven  the  whole 
lump. 

That  mere  contact  with  a  race  of  superior  development  can  not  of  itself  unfold 
the  best  possibilities  of  a  backward  people  is  a  proposition  which,  I  think,  no  stu¬ 
dent  of  social  phenomena  will  be  inclined  to  dispute.  For  four  hundred  years  the 
European  has  been  brought  in  contact  with  feebler  races  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
and,  in  most  cases,  this  contact  has  been  as  the  blighting  finger  of  death. 
Nowhere  do  we  find  a  single  instance  in  which  a  people  has  been  lifted  into  civili¬ 
zation  thereby.  Outward  conformity  may  be  enforced  by  a  rigid  discipline;  but 
outward  forms  and  fair  practices  are  of  little  or  no  avail  if  the  inward  apprecia¬ 
tion  be  wanting.  Civilization  is'  a  centrifugal  and  not  a  centripetal  process.  It 
can  not  be  injected  hypodermically.  Healthy  growth  can  not  be  secured  by  feed¬ 
ing  a  child  when  he  is  not  hungry  or  by  forcing  upon  him  a  diet  which  he  can 
neither  digest  nor  assimilate. 

Aside  from  political  ambition  and  commercial  exploitation,  the  chief  motive  of 
the  European  in  treating  with  feebler  races  has  been  to  civilize  and  enlighten 
them.  The  conversion  of  the  Indian  to  the  Christian  faith  was  the  chief  motive 
assigned  for  the  early  colonization  of  America,  and  yet  the  influence  of  such 
schools  as  Hampton  and  Carlisle  has,  perhaps,  done  more  to  uplift  the  red  man 
than  all  of  the  contact  with  the  white  race  since  Columbus  first  planted  his 
Catholic  cross  in  the  virgin  soil  of  a  new  world.  Indeed,  the  superficial,  the  friv¬ 
olous,  and  tfie  vicious  qualities  are  most  easily  communicable.  The  substantial 
qualities  of  mind  and  soul  can  only  be  developed  by  independent  activity. 

For  four  centuries  the  Portuguese  have  been  touching  the  life  of  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  with  their  missionary  propagandism,  commercial  enterprise,  and  gov¬ 
ernmental  policy,  but,  according  to  the  highest  testimony,  they  have  made  no 
more  abiding  impression  on  the  life  of  that  continent  than  one  might  make  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ocean  with  the  dent  of  his  finger. 

The  negro  has  now  reached  a  critical  stage  in  his  career.  The  point  of  attach¬ 
ment  between  the  races  which  slavery  made  possible  has  been  destroyed.  The 
relation  is  daily  becoming  less  intimate  and  friendly  and  more  business  like  and 
formal.  It  thus  becomes  all  the  more  imperative  that  the  race  should  gain  for 
itself  the  primary  principles  of  knowledge  and  culture.  Civilization  can  not  be 
imparted  by  attrition,  but  is  the  unfolding  of  the  seed  whose  potency  is  m  itself. 

It  becomes  all  the  more  needful  for  the  negro  to  pursue  the  higher  lines  of  edu¬ 
cation,  because  this  is  the  principal  avenue  of  refining  influence  now  open  to  him. 
There  is  no  long  line  of  ancestors  to  inspire  to  noble  thoughts  or  deeds.  The 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO. 


805 


present  basis  of  society  does  not  admit  the  negro  to  close  social  and  personal  touch 
with  the  best  forms  of  culture  and  refinement.  Just  as  it  is  more  needful  for  the 
crude  rustic  lad  to  study  English  syntax  than  it  is  for  the  son  of  a  refined  family 
who  gains  facility  of  speech  by  familiarity  and  use,  so  it  becomes  all  the  more 
necessary  for  the  colored  youth  of  crude  antecedents  and  environments  to  gain 
culture  and  refinement*  through  the  medium  of  the  school. 

That  servile  and  domestic  contact  has  greatly  benefited  the  race,  at  least  so  far 
as  outward  conformity  and  the  graces  of  life  are  concerned,  can  not  be  doubted. 
This  kind  of  contact  served  its  purpose  in  its  day,  but  its  spirit  is  repugnant  to 
the  instincts  of  manhood.  Slavish  conformity  growing  out  of  favor  or  fear  is  not 
the  kind  of  development  that  makes  men.  The  helping  hand  that  is  most  helpful 
must  not  be  inclined  downward,  but  stretched  out  on  the  horizontal.  The  alarm 
is  sounded  that  as  the  negro  is  being  freed  from  the  restraining  influence  of  the 
master  class  he  is,  in  some  localities  at  least,  relapsing  into  barbarism.  The  fact 
is,  slavery  has  never  lifted  them  much  above  that  deplorable  state.  The  boasted 
benefits  of  slavery  are  superficial,  not  real.  It  reminds  one  of  induced  electricity, 
that  lasts  only  so  long  as  the  inducing  influence  is  present.  Slavery  can  not  ele¬ 
vate  a  people.  The  real  uplifting*  influence  has  been  the  schoolhouse  and  the  col¬ 
lege.  These  are  to  become  more  and  more  effective  as  the  other  influences  are 
removed. 

Another  great  need  of  the  race,  which  the  schools  must  in  a  large  measure 
supply,  is  self-reliant  manhood.  Slavery  made  the  negro  as  dependent  upon  the 
intelligence  and  foresight  of  his  master  as  a  soldier  upon  the  will  of  his  com¬ 
mander.  He  had  no  need  to  take  thought  as  to  what  he  should  eat  or  drink  or 
wherewithal  he  should  be  clothed. 

Knowledge  necessarily  awakens  self-consciousness  of  power.  When  a  child 
learns  the  multiplication  table  he  gets  a  clear  notion  of  intellectual  dignity.  Here 
he  gains  an  acquisition  which  is  his  permanent,  personal  possession  and  which 
can  never  be  taken  from  him.  It  does  not  depend  upon  external  authority;  he 
could  reproduce  it  if  all  the  visible  forms  of  the  universe  were  effaced.  They  say 
that  the  possession  of  personal  property  is  the  greatest  stimulus  to  self-respect. 
When  a  man  can  read  his  title  clear  to  earthly  possessions,  it  awakens  a  consciousness 
of  the  dignity  of  his  own  manhood.  And  so  when  one  has  digested  and  assimilated 
the  principles  of  knowledge  he  can  file  his  declaration  of  intellectual  independence; 
he  can  adopt  the  language  of  Montaigne:  “Truth  and  reason  are  common  to  every¬ 
one  and  are  no  more  his  who  spake  them  first  than  his  who  speaks  them  after;  *tis 
no  more  according  to  Plato  than  according  to  me,  since  he  and  I  equally  see  and 
understand  them.”1 

Primary  principles  have  no  ethnic  quality.  We  hear  much  in  this  day  and  time 
of  the  white  man’s  civilization.  We  had  just  as  well  speak  of  the  white  man’s 
multiplication  table.  Civilization  is  the  common  possession  of  all  who  will  assimi¬ 
late  and  apply  its  principles.  England  can  utilize  no  secret  process  of  art  or  inven¬ 
tion  that  is  not  equally  available  to  Japan.  We  reward  ingenuity  with  a  patent 
right  for  a  period  of  years  upon  the  process  that  has  been  invented;  but  when  an 
idea  has  been  published  to  the  world  it  is  no  more  the  exclusive  property  of  the 
author  than  gold,  after  it  has  been  put  into  circulation,  can  be  claimed  by  the 
miner  who  first  dug  it  from  its  hiding  place  in  the  earth.  No  race  or  nation  can 
preempt  civilization  any  more  than  it  can  monopolize  the  atmosphere  which 
surrounds  the  earth  or  the  waters  which  hold  it  in  their  liquid  embrace. 

In  passing  through  the  streets  you  may  notice  a  young  man  accommodate  his  com¬ 
panion  with  a  light  from  his  cigar.  After  the  spark  has  once  been  communicated 
the  beneficiary  stands  upon  an  equal  footing  with  the  oenefactor.  In  both  cases 
the  fire  must  be  continued  by  drawing  fresh  supplies  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere. 


1  Essay  on  the  Education  of  Children. 


806 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


From  whatever  source  a  nation  may  derive  the  light  of  civilization,  it  must  be 
perpetuated  by  the  exercise  of  its  own  faculties.  All  of  the  visible  forms  of  civili¬ 
zation  have  been  dug  out  of  the  ground.  We  boast  of  our  towns  and  cities,  of 
our  steamships  and  railways,  and  of  the  mighty  works  of  art  and  invention,  but 
the  voice  of  time  is  ever  whispering,  “Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest.”  But 
after  all  these  shall  have  crumbled  into  dus„  the  ingenuity  of  man  will  be  able  to 
produce  mightier  works  than  those  that  perished.  Mind  and  matter  are  the 
irreducible  elements.  Mind  is  the  common  heritage  of  man,  and  matter  is 
indestructible. 

The  negro  race  has  not  yet  directed  its  energy  to  the  solution  of  primary  prob¬ 
lems.  It  has  been  content  to  receive  the  crumbs  that  fall  from  the  white  man's 
table. 

Several  years  ago*I  received  from  my  florist  a  fine  rosebush  that  had  been  grafted 
upon  a  Manetti  stem,  with  instructions  that  the  Manetti  must  be  buried  out  of 
sight  and  that  its  shoots  must  be  pinched  back  as  fast  as  they  appeared  above  the 
ground.  The  strength  which  its  hardy  roots  derived  from  the  soil  was  to  be 
diverted  from  the  natural  course  of  developing  the  plant  itself  and  inf  used  into 
the  more  lordly  rose,  thus  insuring  greater  vigor  of  growth  and  brilliancy  of 
bloom.  I  was  forcibly  reminded  of  the  analogous  situation  of  the  negro  in  the 
industrial  world.  While  the  race  has,  in  a  sense,  been  dealing  with  industrial  first 
principles,  it  has,  nevertheless,  served  only  a  vicarious  purpose.  The  negro  has 
been  suppressed  below  the  social  surface,  and  wherever  an  individual  emergence 
appeared  it  was  forthwith  pressed  back  to  the  common  level.  The  substance 
which  his  sinews  derived  from  the  soil  went  to  enrich,  adorn,  and  glorify  another 
race.  But  now,  under  the  guidance  of  intelligence,  the  substance  of  his  toil  must 
be  utilized  to  promote  his  own  growth  and  expansion.  ‘  ‘  Each  plant  must  grow 
from  its  own  roots  ”  is  the  botanical  equivalent  of  the  old  mechanical  adage, 
“Every  tub  must  rest  on  its  own  bottom.” 

The  negro  race  hitherto  bas  been  as  the  vine,  which  must  cling  to  the  tree  or 
trail  in  the  dust;  but  now  it  must  imitate  the  oak,  which  gains  independence  of 
foothold  and  dignity  among  its  rivals  of  the  forest  by  sending  its  roots  into  the 
soil  and  expanding  its  foliage  upon  the  happy  air.  It  is  knowledge  that  must 
rouse  the  negro  to  self-conscious  activity. 

Whatever  system  of  education  is  good  for  Anglo-American  youth  is  good  also 
for  Afro-American  youth,  who  have  to  confront  the  same  issues,  and  that,  too, 
under  much  severer  conditions.  White  youth,  fortified  and  reenforced  as  they  are 
by  every  advantage  of  opportunity  and  environment,  find  it  necessary  to  pursue 
the  higher  education  in  order  to  equip  themselves  for  the  duties  of  life  which  lie 
before  them.  Should  colored  youth  be  less  well  prepared?  Are  their  tasks  any 
less  difficult?  Do  the  problems  that  await  them  call  for  an  inferior  order  of  ability 
or  tact?  The  arbiter  of  success  is  a  cruel  master,  reaping  where  he  has  not  sown, 
gathering  where  he  has  not  strewn,  demanding  fruit  in  abundance  where  he  has 
not  planted  the  seed  of  advantage.  The  stream  of  modern  competition  is  a  tem¬ 
pestuous  current.  The  contestant  must  either  swim  on  the  surface  or  sink  out  of 
sight.  The  world  in  its  cruel  demands  will  accept  no  excuse.  It  makes  little  or 
no  allowance  for  a  man  because  his  ancestors  lived  under  a  vertical  sun.  If  you 
can  not  do  the  world’s  work,  it  will  say  to  you,  if  it  is  in  the  humor  to  stop  long 
enough:  “’Tis  true  ’tis  pity;  and  pity  'tis  ’tis  true,”  and  pass  on  to  some  one  who 
can.  Men  demand  the  best  services  available  for  their  needs.  No  one  is  willing 
to  trust  his  life  in  sickness,  his  cause  in  litigation,  nor  yet  his  moral  and  spiritual 
needs  to  half-trained  or  incompetent  hands.  That  the  higher  education  increases 
the  efficiency  of  service  goes  without  saying.  If  it  is  believed  that  the  negro  race 
is  doomed  to  everlasting  servility,  and  that  its  ordained  mission  is  to  hew  wood 
and  carry  water,  then  discouragement  of  higher  education  is  consistent.  If  all 
the  ennobling  vocations  are  to  be  filled  by  white  men  only  and  menial  stations 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGBO. 


807 


assigned  to  the  negro,  then  his  higher  culture  is  a  delusion  and  a  snare.  But  if 
the  negro  has  wrapped  up  in  him  all  the  possibilities  of  humanity,  he  should  pre¬ 
pare  himself  for  the  larger  responsibilities. 

Again,  the  class  of  men  who  justify  human  degradation  has  not  yet  passed  away. 
Great  learning  and  scholarship  have  always  been  employed  against  the  negro. 
Men  of  great  ingenuity  and  mental  cleverness  have  always  been  arrayed  against 
human  rights.  History,  anthropology,  ethnology,  and  the  whole  range  of  the 
inexact  sciences,  from  which  men  derive  the  doctrines  they  are  looking  for,  have 
been  ransacked  for  testimony  against  the  African.  Our  magazines  frequently 
startle  us  with  some  amazing  article,  from  authority  of  high  repute,  tending  to 
degrade  and  belittle  the  race.  Scholarship  must  be  combated  with  scholarship. 
The  situation  calls  for  negroes  who  shall  be  able  to  accept  the  challenge  on  any 
plane  and  to  meet  and  match  the  adversary  in  deep  research,  in -logical  acumen, 
in  persuasive  rhetoric,  or  disquisitional  skill. 

The  work  of  educated  colored  men  is  largely  that  of  leadership.  They  require, 
therefore,  all  the  discipline,  judgment,  and  mental  balance  that  long  preparation 
can  afford.  The  more  ignorant  and  backward  the  masses,  the  more  skilled  and 
efficient  should  the  leaders  be.  It  is  easier  to  lead  a  trained  army  than  a  mob  of 
raw  recruits,  ignorant  of  the  discipline  and  tactics  of  war.  It  requires  less  wis¬ 
dom  to  direct  those  who  need  no  guidance  than  to  control  those  who  do  not  know 
their  intellectual  right  hand  from  the  left.  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  the 
matters  in  which  the  negroes  are  to  be  directed  are  of  the  highest  importance.  It 
requires  high  qualification  to  deal  wisely  with  finance,  economics,  and  the  general 
matters  of  government  and  state.  But  does  it  not  require  superior  wisdom  to  deal 
wisely  with  human  hopes  and  destiny?  No  man  or  set  of  men  can  be  too  learned 
or  too  profound  into  whose  hands  are  committed  the  temporal  and  eternal  welfare 
of  a  people. 

Leaders  will  arise  whether  qualified  or  not.  If  the  blind  lead  the  blind  all  will 
land  in  the  ditch.  Who  does  not  know  of  the  harm  which  such  leaders  have 
inflicted  by  their  rash  judgment  and  ill-advised  counsel?  It  is  not  contended  that 
a  college  education  makes  a  man  a  leader  or  that  a  lack  of  liberal  culture  disquali¬ 
fies  him  for  useful  service.  America  has  produced  scores  of  men  of  the  highest 
renown  who  were  not  the  product  of  the  schools.  There  are  negroes,  not  a  few, 
who  are  doing  valiant  service  for  the  race  by  means  of  their  virile  common  sense 
and  untutored  energy.  Far  be  it  from  me  to  detract  one  iota  from  their  useful¬ 
ness  or  dim  the  luster  of  their  renown.  But  when  all  that  has  been  claimed  is 
conceded  the  balance  of  advantages  will  be  found  on  the  side  of  culture.  The 
whole  trend  of  liberal  learning  is  toward  noble  manhood  and  exalted  service. 
The  situation  is  too  serious,  the  crisis  too  critical,  to  neglect  any  means  whereby 
help  might  come. 

In  selecting  the  choice  youth  of  a  backward  race  and  giving  them  a  liberal  edu¬ 
cation  as  the  best  means  oi  preparing  them  to  uplift  their  own  people,  we  are  only 
following  ancient  precedent.  The  Hebrews  labored  under  disadvantages  remark¬ 
ably  similar  to  those  of  the  American  negro.  God's  idea  of  a  leader  was  a  man 
identified  in  blood  and  sympathy  with  the  downtrodden  races,  who  should  be 
learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  his  day  and  generation.  He  must  be  able  to  cope 
with  the  wisdom  of  Pharaoh’s  court.  It  seems  that  in  ancient  as  in  modern 
times  learning  frequently  arrayed  itself  on  the  side  of  arrogance  aud  oppression. 
Moses,  in  order  to  succeed  in  his  mission,  must  match  the  wisdom  of  Egypt  in 
logical  argument,  in  persuasive  speech,  and  in  the  manifestation  of  magical 
power.  If  the  wise  men  of  the  Nile  could  perform  wonders,  he  must  do  mightier 
works  than  these.  His  serpent  must  swallow  up  the  rest,  The  culture  of  Moses, 
however,  was  of  the  greatest  service  to  him  in  leading  the  undisciplined  hosts 
through  the  wilderness  and  in  laying  the  foundation  of  their  national  and  perma¬ 
nent  greatness.  Can  we  not  learn  lessons  from  history?  Although  under  the 


808 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


present  circumstances  a  single  commanding  leader  is  almost  or  altogether  impos¬ 
sible,  nevertheless  the  same  principle  holds  now  as  then.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
there  were  to  be  found  both  Egyptians  and  Hebrews  who  decried  giving  a  Hebrew 
youth  an  Egyptian  education,  on  the  ground  that  it  unfitted  him  for  his  place  and 
made  him  think  that  he  was  as  good  as  Egyptians. 

It  was  the  common  practice  of  Rome  to  select  the  most  promising  youth  of  the 
provinces  and  give  them  a  complete  education  in  order  that  they  might  dissemi¬ 
nate  an  uplifting  influence  among  their  own  people.  To-day  the  Japanese  send 
their  choicest  youth  to  the  universities  of  Europe  and  America  as  the  best  means 
of  transplanting  Western  civilization  to  oriental  soil.  It  is  the  highest  ambition 
of  missionaries  in  all  parts  of  the  world  to  send  the  best  specimens  of  the  native 
youth  to  the  home  country  to  take  on  the  higher  education  and  bring  back  the 
good  influence  to  their  own  race.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  these  cases  it  is  the 
higher  education  that  is  sought  for— the  highest  that  the  recipient  will  take.  The 
select  negro  youth  of  this  country  have  as  much  need  to  absorb  the  higher  culture 
and  disseminate  the  beneficial  influence  throughout  the  race.  This  race  needs 
teachers,  preachers,  physicians,  and  lawyers,  aggregating  more  than  50,000,  all  of 
whom  will  be  the  better  prepared  for  their  functions  by  the  higher  education,  or 
at  least  by  a  flavor  of  its  influence.  The  higher  education  tends  to  develop  supe¬ 
rior  individuals  who  may  be  expected  to  exercise  a  controlling  influence  over  the 
multitude.  The  individual  is  the  proof,  the  promise,  and  the  salvation  of  the 
race.  The  undeveloped  races,  which  in  modern  times  have  faded  before  the  breath 
of  civilization,  have  perished  probably  because  of  their  failure  to  produce  com¬ 
manding  leaders  to  guide  them  wisely  under  the  stress  and  strain  which  an 
encroaching  civilization  imposed.  A  single  Indian  with  the  capacity  and  spirit  of 
Booker  T.  Washington  might  have  solved  the  red  man’s  j)roblem  and  averted  his 
impending  doom. 

The  contention  among  scholars  as  to  what  place  the  classical  or  dead  languages 
should  occupy  in  a  system  of  education  is  of  much  general  interest.  The  friends 
of  liberal  learning  need  to  stand  firm  against  all  short  cuts  to  culture  and  the  mad 
rushes  after  practical  results.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the  educators  of  col¬ 
ored  youth  to  adhere  to  the  orthodox  standards  of  culture  approved  by  long  cen¬ 
turies  of  trial  and  usage.  The  safest  road  to  culture  runs  through  Greece  and 
Rome.  “From  thence,”  says  Macaulay,  “have  sprung  directly  or  indirectly  all 
the  noblest  creations  of  the  human  intellect.”  It  is  especially  necessary  for  col¬ 
ored  youth  to  acquire  acquaintance  with  classical  institutions  and  life.  The 
negro  borrows  his  civilization  from  those  who  borrowed  in  their  turn.  A  recent 
writer  argues:1 

It  is  quite  important  that  the  higher  education  of  the  negro  should  include 
Latin  and  Greek.  The  Anglo-Saxon  civilization  in  which  he  lives  is  a  derivative 
one,  receiving  one  of  its  factors  from  Rome  and  the  other  from  Athens.  The 
white  youth  is  obliged  to  study  the  classic  languages  in  order  to  become  conscious 
of  these  two  derivative  elements  in  his  life,  and  it  is  equally  important  for  the 
colored  youth.  A  liberal  education  by  classic  study  gives  the  youth  some 
acquaintance  with  his  spiritual  embryology. 

The  belief  that  a  sound  scholastic  education  will  enable  the  negro  to  discrimi¬ 
nate  between  the  real  things  of  life  and  the  superficial  appearances  is  clearly  set 
forth  in  the  following  citation: 

They  say  that  egotism  and  self-conceit  are  characteristic  of  the  African  race, 
and  especially  the  Afro-American  of  academic  training.  You  will  have  to  deal 
with  a  population  that  places  a  premium  upon  bombastic  display  and  a  discount 
upon  unpretentious  merit.  You  should  devote  your  powers  to  the  masses  to 
uplift  them  and  not  to  exploit  them  for  your  vainglory  and  unrighteous  self- 
aggrandizement.  It  is  said  that  a  native  African  struts  proudly  when  decorated 
with  flaming  European  neckwear  of  the  latest  Parisian  pattern,  though  he  wear 


1  W.  T.  Harris  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  June,  1892. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


809 


not  a  single  other  article  of  dress.  Men  cross  the  seas,  and  even  go  to  college,  with¬ 
out  changing  their  natures.  Witness  those  Afro-Americans  who  decorate  them¬ 
selves  with  the  highest-sounding  literary  and  scholarly  degrees,  making  heavy 
demands  upon  the  alphabet  to  express  them,  without  a  single  other  item  of  intel¬ 
lectual  adornment  to  support  this  gaudy  display.  Reprobate  all  such  childish 
infirmity.  It  will  only  make  you  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  sensible  men.  Be  nat¬ 
ural.  Be  simple.  “Be  whatever  you  may,  but  yourself  first.”  Do  not  impose 
cheap  and  shoddy  standards  upon  the  masses,  but  teach  them  to  appreciate  the 
noblest  and  the  best.  Grasp  the  real  things  of  life  rather  than  the  superficial  and 
showy.  It  is  perfectly  natural  for  a  people  who  are  rapidly  acquiring  civilization, 
and  in  whom  the  faculty  of  imitation  is  strong,  to  be  captivated  by  the  superficial 
aspect  of  things,  to  grasp  after  the  frith  and  froth  rather  than  the  life-giving 
liquid  upon  which  it  floats.  If  a  wild  man  from  Borneo  should  plunge  into  the 
gayeties  of  the  European  capitals,  should  become  initiated  into  the  latest  style  of 
dress  and  forms  of  fashionable  display,  he  might  vainly  flatter  himself  that  he  had 
leveled  the  immense  lift  between  savagery  and  civilization,  totally  oblivious  of 
the  fact  that  he  is  separated  from  that  life  whose  forms  he  slavishly  imitates  by 
ten  centuries  of  solid  development.  It  is  true  that  other  men  have  labored  and 
you  have  entered  into  their  labors,  but  you  must  prove  your  right  to  this  inherit¬ 
ance  by  striving  to  comprehend  its  inner  spirit  and  meaning,  and  to  unravel  its 
secret  and  method.  I  have  said  that  your  education  has  brought  you  in  touch 
with  the  fundamental  things  of  life.  Return  ever  and  anon  to  these  first  princi¬ 
ples  as  your  standards  and  data  of  reference.  In  Greek  mythology  we  learn  that 
Antaeus,  the  giant,  in  wrestling  with  Hercules,  received  new  vigor  whenever  he 
touched  his  mother  earth;  but  Hercules,  discovering  the  secret  of  his  strength, 
lifted  him  into  the  air  and  squeezed  him  to  death  in  his  herculean  grasp.  I  advise 
you  to  make  sure  of  the  firmness  and  fixture  of  your  foothold  in  the  basis  of  solid 
things  for  fear  that  you  be  lifted  into  the  delusive  realm  of  unreal  allurements 
and  be  intoxicated  by  the  frivolous  demigod  of  this  unsubstantial  region.1 

In  the  same  discourse  it  is  also  shown  that  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  growth 
of  human  institutions  will  give  the  negro  a  larger  patience  with  the  temporary 
ills  of  his  lot. 

Do  not  waste  time  complaining  against  the  existing  order  of  society.  Enter  a 
manly  protest  against  all  forms  of  wrongs  and  injustice,  but  do  not  pass  your 
days  in  wailful  lachrymations  against  the  regulations  of  a  civilization  whose 
grandeur  you  have  done  nothing  to  make  and  whose  severities  you  are  doing 
nothing  to  mollify.  Leave  that  to  the  ignorant  demagogue.  Bring  your  knowl¬ 
edge  of  history  and  of  human  nature  to  bear  upon  the  situation.  I  have  already 
pointed  out  to  you  that  the  adjustment  of  man's  relation  to  man  constitutes  one 
of  the  primary  problems  of  life.  Where  this  adjustment  is  complicated  by  diverse 
physical  peculiarities  and  by  different  inherited  or  acquired  characteristics  the 
problem  becomes  one  of  the  greatest  intricacy  that  has  ever  taxed  human  wisdom 
and  patience  for  solution.  Race  prejudice  is  as  much  a  fact  as  the  law  of  gravi¬ 
tation,  and  it  would  be  as  suicidal  to  ignore  the  operation  of  the  one  as  that  of  the 
other.  Mournful  complaint  is  as  impotent  as  an  infant  crying  against  the  fury  of 
the  wild  wind.  History  has  taught  you  that  the  path  of  moral  progress  has  never 
taken  a  straight  line,  but  has  ever  been  a  zigzag  course  amid  the  conflicting  forces 
of  right  and  wrong,  truth  and  error,  justice  and  injustice,  cruelty  and  mercy. 
Do  not  be  discouraged^,  then,  that  all  the  wrongs  of  the  universe  are  not  righted 
at  your  bidding.  The  great  humanitarian  movement  which  has  been  sweeping 
over  the  civilized  world  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  present 
time,  manifesting  itself  in  political  revolutions,  in  social  and  moral  reforms,  and 
in  works  of  love  and  mercy,  affords  the  amplest  assurance  that  all  worthy  elements 
of  the  population  will  ultimately  be  admitted  to  share  in  the  privileges  and  bless¬ 
ings  of  civilization  according  to  the  measure  of  their  merit.2 

One  of  the  chief  functions  of  higher  education  for  the  negro  is  to  stimulate  his 
industrial  energies. 

Many  able  and  earnest  advocates  of  the  negro’s  cause  seem  to  have  lost  the 
power  of  binocular  vision  and  have  become  one-eyed  enthusiasts  over  a  narrow 
feature.  The  two  forms  of  education  are  not  antagonistic,  but  supplemental;  the 
one  applies  to  the  few,  the  other  to  the  many;  the  one  supplies  the  motive,  the 
other  the  method.  The  negro  needs,  first  of  all,  lofty  ideals.  The  surest  way  to 


1  Address  to  graduating  class,  Howard  University,  June.,  1898,  by  Kelly  Miller,  p.  10. 

2  Ibid  ,  p  li. 


810 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


induce  a  people  to  provide  for  the  material  needs  of  life  is  to  teach  them  that  “life 
is  more  than  meat.”  In  order  that  the  negro  may  feel  a  zest  for  work  and  enter 
into  the  joy  of  service  he  must  have  prospect  and  vista. 

The  day  laborer  pursues  the  mechanical  rounds  of  his  stupid  toil,  conscious  only 
of  the  fact  that  “time  and  hour  run  through  the  whole  day.”  Under  a  more 
enlightened  view  he  would  be  inspired  and  sustained  by  the  anticipated  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  the  fruits  of  toil.  The  negro  lacks  enlightened  imagination.  While 
slavery  inculcated  the  regular  habit  of  labor,  it  held  out  no  incentive  beyond  the 
master’s  crib.  The  negro  does  not  make  provision  because  he  lacks  prevision. 
The  prayer  “Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread”  to  him  has  a  material  and  literal 
significance.  The  industrial  incapacity  of  the  negro  is  due  largely  to  the  fact 
that  he  has  been  confined  to  the  low  grounds  of  drudgery  and  toil  without 
being  permitted  to  so  much  as  cast  his  eyes  unto  the  hill  of  aspiration  and  promise. 
“The  man  with  the  hoe  ”  is  of  all  men  most  miserable,  unless,  forsooth,  he  has  also 
a  hope;  but  if  he  be  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  hope  and  promise  he  can  wield  the 
hoe  with  as  much  zest  and  satisfaction  as  any  other  instrument  of  service. 

It  is  true  that  a  people  must  be  rooted  and  grounded  in  the  concrete  principles 
of  things.  When  a  seed  is  sown  in  the  ground  it  first  sends  its  root3  into  the  soil, 
but  only  that  it  may  rise  out  of  it,  so  as  to  bring  forth  foliage  and  flower  and 
fruit  in  the  air  above.  The  incentive  to  noble  endeavor  comes  from  a  rational 
conception  of  the  true  end  of  existence.  We  can  not  reach  the  sky  on  a  pedestal 
of  brick  and  mortar,  and  all  attempt  to  do  so  must  end  in  bewilderment  and  con¬ 
fusion,  as  it  did  on  the  plains  of  Shinar  in  days  of  old.  Even  the  builders  of  the 
tower  of  Babel  derive.d  their  inspiration  from  above.  They  were  inspired  by  the 
conceit  that  they  were  descended  from  the  skies,  and  sought  by  mechanical  con¬ 
trivance  only  to  regain  the  blissful  seat.  The  negro  needs  a  wider  and  a  larger 
range  of  vision.  He  can  not  see  beyond  the  momentary  gratification  of  his 
desires.  He  does  not  look  before  and  after.  The  most  effective  prayer  that  can  be 
uttered  for  him  is,  Lord,  open  Thou  his  eyes.  Such  influences  can  be  brought 
to  him  by  means  of  the  higher  culture  only. 

Prof.  Booker  T.  Washington  is  the  greatest  man  which  the  race,  under  freedom, 
has  produced.  But  his  success  is  due  wholly  to  his  intellectual  and  moral  facul¬ 
ties — his  enlightened  mind,  consecrated  zeal,  and  persuasive  ability.  The  mastery 
of  a  hundred  handicrafts  would  add  nothing  to  his  usefulness  or  power.  Those 
leaders  who  have  been  most  effective  in  guiding,  directing,  and  controlling  the 
life,  in  stimulating  the  lethargic  energies,  and  in  quickening  the  zeal  of  the  masses, 
have  derived  their  inspiration,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  from  contact  with 
higher  culture.  This  is  true  of  Douglass,  the  orator;  of  Washington,  the  educa¬ 
tor,  and  of  Dunbar,  the  poet.  The  architect  must  plan  before  the  artisan  can  exe¬ 
cute.  The  idea  comes  from  above  and  descends  until  it  strikes  the  basis  of  popular 
needs,  and  then  rebounds,  bringing  the  concrete  fulfillment  up  toward  the  level  of 
the  ideal  from  which  it  sprang. 

III.  Objections  to  the  Higher  Education  of  the  Negro  Answered-. 

Of  late  it  has  been  all  but  the  universal  fashion  to  discourage  and  discredit  the 
higher  education  of  the  negro.  So  widespread  has  this  spirit  become  that  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  proposition  to  afford  facilities  for  the  higher  education  of 
this  class  would  receive  substantial  support  were  it  now  made  for  the  first  time. 
Indeed,  many  who  were  most  enthusiastic  in  making  the  experiment  have  become 
hostile  or  indifferent  in  the  light  of  experience. 

In  the  first  place,  we  are  told  that  the  cost  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  result; 
that  the  higher  education  has  been  fostered  at  the  expense  of  primary  and  indus¬ 
trial  instruction,  which  are  more  essential  in  the  present  state  of  need.  The  late 
Charles  D.  Warner,  who  had  been  a  lifelong  friend  and  advocate  of  the  negro’s 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO. 


811 


cause,  espoused  this  view  in  his  last  striking  public  utterance.  In  his  notable 
address  delivered  before  the  American  Social  Science  Association,  in  1900,  he  said: 

But  the  effort  at  education  went  further  than  the  common  school  and  the  pri¬ 
mary  essential  instruction.  It  introduced  the  higher  education.  Colleges — usu¬ 
ally  called  universities — for  negroes  were  established  in  many  Southern  States, 
created  and  stimulated  by  the  generosity  of  Northern  men  and  societies  and  often 
aided  by  the  liberality  of  the  States  where  they  existed.  The  curriculum  in  these 
was  that  in  colleges  generally — the  classics,  the  higher  mathematics,  science, 
philosophy,  the  modern  languages,  and  in  some  instances  a  certain  technical 
instruction,  which  was  being  tried  in  some  Northern  colleges.  The  emphasis, 
however,  was  laid  on  liberal  culture.  This  higher  education  was  offered  to  the 
mass  that  still  lacked  the  rudiments  of  intellectual  training,  in  the  belief  that 
education — the  education  of  the  moment,  the  education  of  superimposed  informa¬ 
tion — can  realize  the  theory  of  universal  equality. 

This  experiment  has  now  been  in  operation  long  enough  to  enable  us  to  judge 
something  of  its  results  and  its  promises  for  the  future.  These  results  are  of  a 
nature  to  lead  us  seriously  to  inquire  whether  our  effort  was  founded  upon  an 
adequate  knowledge  of  the  negro,  of  his  present  development,  of  the  requirements 
for  his  personal  welfare  and  evolution  in  the  scale  of  civilization,  and  for  his  train¬ 
ing  in  useful  and  honorable  citizenship.  I  am  speaking  of  the  majority,  the  mass 
to  be  considered  in  any  general  scheme,  and  not  of  the  exceptional  individuals — 
exceptions  that  will  rapidly  increase  as  the  mass  is  lifted — who  are  capable  of  tak¬ 
ing  advantage  to  the  utmost  of  all  means  of  cultivation,  and  who  must  always  be 
provided  with  all  the  opportunities  needed. 

Millions  of  dollars  have  been  invested  in  the  higher  education  of  the  negro, 
while  this  primary  education  has  been,  taking  the  whole  mass,  wholly  inadequate 
to  his  needs.  This  has  been  upon  the  supposition  that  the  higher  would  compel 
the  rise  of  the  lower  with  the  undeveloped  negro  race  as  it  does  with  the  more 
highly  developed  white  race.  An  examination  of  the  soundness  of  this  expecta¬ 
tion  will  not  lead  us  far  astray  from  our  subject.1 

This  is  not  saying  that  the  higher  education  is  responsible  for  the  present  con¬ 
dition  of  the  negro.  Other  influences  have  retarded  his  elevation  and  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  proper  character,  and  most  important  means  have  been  neglected.  I 
only  say  that  we  have  been  disappointed  in  our- extravagant  expectations  of  what 
this  education  could  do  for  a  race  undeveloped  and  so  wanting  in  certain  elements 
of  character,  and  that  the  millions  of  money  devoted  to  it  might  have  been  much 
better  applied. 2 

Dr.  G-.  A.  Alderman,  president  of  Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  has  quite 
recently  claimed  that  the  money  contributed  to  negro  education  by  Northern 
philanthropy  has  been,  for  the  most  part,  literally  wasted.3 

These  views  have  been  assigned  to  these  distinguished  persons  rather  for  the 
sake  of  definite  location  than  for  the  weight  of  personal  authority,  for  they  repre¬ 
sent  stock  assertions  which  have  gained  much  headwTay  by  persistent  asseveration. 
And  yet,  when  we  look  the  facts  squarely  in  the  face,  the  charge  that  the  money 
spent  on  the  higher  education  of  the  colored  race  has  been  wasted  or  even  misap¬ 
plied  is  indeed  a  remarkable  one. 

Does  this  charge  come  from  the  South?  When  we  consider  that  it  was  through 
Northern  philanthropy  that  a  third  of  its  population  received  its  first  impulse  to 
better  things;  that  these  higher  institutions  prepared  the  30,000  negro  teachers 
whose  services  are  utilized  in  the  public  schools;  that  the  men  and  women  who 
were  the  beneficiaries  of  this  philanthropy  are  doing  all  in  their  power  to  control, 
guide,  and  restrain  the  South’s  ignorant  and  vicious  masses,  thus  lifting  the  gen¬ 
eral  life  to  a  higher  level  and  lightening  the  public  burden;  that  these  persons  are 
almost  without  exception  earnest  advocates  of  harmony,  peace,  and  good  will 
between  the  races,  to  say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  these  vast  philanthropic  contri¬ 
butions  have  passed  through  the  trade  channels  of  Southern  merchants,  it  would 
seem  that  the  charge  is  strangely  incompatible  with  that  high-minded  disposition 
and  chivalrous  spirit  which  the  South  is  so  zealous  to  maintain. 


1  Education  of  the  Negrro,  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  pp.  4-5. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  13.  3  Independent,  September  5, 190L 


812 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


Does  this  charge  come  from  the  North?  It  might  not  be  impertinent  to  pro¬ 
pound  a  few  propositions  for  consideration. 

Is  it  possible  to  specify  a  like  sum  of  money  spent  upon  any  other  backward 
race  which  has  produced  greater  results  than  the  amount  spent  upon  the  Southern 
negro?  Is  it  the  American  Indian,  upon  whom  four  centuries  of  missionary  effort 
has  produced  no  more  progress  than  is  made  by  a  painted  ship  on  a  painted  sea? 
Is  it  the  Hawaiian,  who  will  soon  be  civilized  off  the  face  of  the  earth?  Is  it  the 
Chinese,  upon  whom  the  chief  effect  of  Christian  philanthropy  is  to  excite  them  to 
breathe  out  slaughter  against  the  strangers  within  their  gates?  It  is  incumbent 
upon  him  who  claims  that  this  money  has  been  wasted  to  point  out  where,  in  all 
the  range  of  Christian  activity,  the  contributions  of  philanthropy  have  been  more 
profitably  spent. 

Those  who  disparage  the  higher  education  because  it  has  not  banished  ignorance 
and  poverty  and  obliterated  vicious  tendencies  are  too  impatient.  If  it  takes 
twenty-five  years  to  educate  a  white  boy,  it  must  require  an  incalculably  longer 
period  to  educate  a  black  race.  It  is  true  that  $40,000,000  or  $50,000,000  have  been 
already  contributed  by  philanthropy  for  the  education  of  the  negro.  This  is  about 
equal  to  the  biennial  expenditure  of  the  city  of  New  York  for  educational  pur¬ 
poses.  And  yet,  if  we  are  to  believe  the  reports  of  the  low  state  of  municipal 
morality  and  the  rumors  of  corruption  and  wrongdoing,  we  see  that  education 
has  by  no  means  done  its  perfect  work  in  our  national  metropolis.  Then  why 
should  we  rave  at  the  heart  and  froth  at  the  mouth  because  a  sum  of  money  scarcely 
equal  to  the  biennial  educational  cost  of  a  single  American  city,  when  scattered  over 
a  territory  of  a  million  square  miles  and  distributed  through  a  period  of  thirty 
years  has  not  completely  civilized  an  undeveloped  race  of  some  ten  million  souls? 

The  American  people  must  yet  learn  to  apply  the  simple  principles  of  political 
economy  to  the  race  problem.  A  dollar  contributed  by  philanthropy  is  not  neces¬ 
sarily  any  more  efficacious  than  one  appropriated  out  of  the  public  treasury. 
Money  devoted  to  the  education  or  the  black  race  need  not  be  expected  to  yield 
any  greater  return,  either  of  knowledge,  virtue,  or  practical  capacity,  than  a  like 
sum  devoted  to  the  white  race.  Although  the  Southern  States  have  contributed 
to  the  full  amount  of  their  ability,  it  is  still  true  that  the  combined  contributions 
of  Northern  philanthropy  and  Southern  statesmanship  have  been  woefully  inad¬ 
equate  to  the  task  imposed.  Fifty  millions  of  dollars  is  indeed  a  princely  sum, 
but  on  examination  we  find  that  it  would  not  average  one  dollar  a  year  for  each 
negro  child  to  be  educated.  Why'  should  we  marvel,  then,  that  the  entire  mass 
of  ignorance  and  corruption  has  not  put  on  enlightenment  and  purity?  We  should 
be  patient  with  the  slow  evolution  of  social  forces.  The  human  race  makes  very 
slow  progress  toward  the  goal  of  righteousness.  After  the  lapse  of  nineteen  cen¬ 
turies  of  Christian  endeavor  the  curse  of  sin  is  still  in  the  world.  It  is  no  mar¬ 
vel,  then,  that  the  negro  has  not  put  on  the  perfect  dress  of  civilization  and  right¬ 
eousness  because  exhorted  to  do  so  in  proverb  and  psalm. 

Wisdom  is  justified  by  her  children.  As  an  illustration  of  the  value  of  the 
higher  education  to  the  negro  race,  I  point  to  Howard  University,  which  is  the 
largest  and  best  equipped  institution  of  its  class.  The  establishment  and  main¬ 
tenance  of  this  institution  during  the  past  thirty-four  years  has  cost  between 
$2,000,000  and  $3,000,000.  As  the  returns  on  this  investment,  it  has  sent  into  the 
world,  in  round  numbers,  200  ministers  of  the  gospel,  700  physicians,  pharmacists 
and  dentists,  300  lawyers,  and  600  persons  with  general  collegiate  and  academic 
training,  together  with  thousands  of  sometime  pupils  who  have  shared  the  partial 
benefits  of  its  courses.  These  graduates  and  sometime  pupils  are  to  be  found 
in  every  district  and  county  where  the  negro  population  resides,  and  are  filling 
places  of  usefulness,  honor,  and  distinction,  as  well  as  performing  works  of  mercy 
and  sacrificial  service  for  social  betterment.  Not  a  half  dozen  of  the  entire 
number  have  a  criminal  record.  They  serve  as  an  inspiration  and  a  stimulus, 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


813 


quickening  the  dormant  energies  of  the  people  and  urging  them  to  loftier  ideals 
and  nobler  modes  of  life.  It  devolves  upon  the  complainant  to  present  some  plan 
by  which  a  like  sum  of  money,  in  a  like  space  of  time,  can  be  expended  so  as  to 
produce  a  more  wholesome  or  more  widespread  effect  upon  the  general  social 
uplift. 

Another  potent  objection  against  the  higher  education  is  that  it  has  not  checked 
the  evil  disposition  and  vicious  tendencies  of  the  race.  Prof.  John  Roach  Straton, 
in  the  North  American  Review,  sets  forth  this  view  with  much  erudition  and  argu¬ 
mentative  skill.1  As  this  phase  of  the  question  has  never  had  a  more  learned  or 
effective  advocate,  it  seems  well  to  consider  at  length  the  arguments  which  Pro¬ 
fessor  Straton  advances. 

In  the  first  place,  he  contrasts  the  present  criminal  status  of  the  race  with  its 
moral  behavior  under  the  regime  of  slavery. 

Several  weighty  considerations  must  have  escaped  the  author  while  he  had  this 
topic  under  discussion. 

Slavery  did  not  improve  the  moral  nature  of  the  negro,  but  merely  compelled  out¬ 
ward  conformity  by  physical  force.  If  convicts  in  prison  arc  wtdl  behaved,  it  is 
from  physical  necessity  and  not  from  moral  choice.  Herein  lay  the  chief  evil  of 
slavery.  It  suppressed  overt  manifestations  of  wrongdoing,  but  did  not  implant  the 
corrective  principle.  When  the  physical  restraint  was  removed  there  was  no  corre¬ 
sponding  moral  restraint  to  take  its  place.  It  was  inevitable  that  when  let  loose 
this  pent-up  momentum  would  expend  itself  in  wild  license  and  excessive  indul¬ 
gence.  It  is  manifestly  unfair  to  compare  the  behavior  of  the  race  under  freedom 
of  action  and  liberty  of  choice  to  its  conduct  when  under  the  control  of  an  alien 
will. 

The  parallel  increase  of  crime  and  intelligence  is  not  peculiar  to  the  negro,  but 
is  a  common  phenomenon  of  the  country  at  large.  “After  the  war  the  education 
of  the  negro  began  and  rapidly  advanced,  but  side  by  side  with  it  has  gone  his 
increase  in  crime  and  immorality  in  even  greater  ratio.”2  If  the  author  had  left 
out  the  word  “began ”  and  substituted  “  the  American  people”  for  “  the  negro” 
in  this  recital,  he  would  have  told  the  whole  truth  and  not  merely  a  disjointed 
fragment,  to  the  disadvantage  of  a  discredited  class. 

The  negro  constitutes  the  lower  stratum  of  society,  where  the  bulk  of  crime  is 
always  committed.  His  social  degradation  is  the  greatest  factor  contributive  to 
his  high  criminal  record.  If  corresponding  social  classes  among  the  whites  could 
be  segregated  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  equally  damaging  conclusions  would 
doubtless  be  revealed.  The  foreign  element  of  our  cosmopolitan  population  shows 
a  much  higher  criminal  average  than  the  native  whites,  because  they  represent  a 
lower  social  stratum,  and  they  have  not  yet  become  adjusted  to  their  new  environ¬ 
ment.  Both  of  these  arguments,  with  intensified  force,  apply  to  the  case  of  the 
negro.  The  polished  granite  may  look  with  contempt  upon  the  rough  and  uncut 
stone  buried  beneath  the  mud  and  mire,  but  its  lordly  eminence  is  due  to  the 
unseemly  foundation  which  it  affects  to  disdain.  The  amplest  proof  that  the 
criminal  record  of  the  negro  race,  alarming  though  it  be,  is  not  due  to  inherent 
trait  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  negroes  in 
any  community  does  not  increase  its  total  criminal  average.  While  it  is  true  that 
12  per  cent  of  the  population  commit  30  per  cent  of  the  crime,  does  anyone  believe 
that  if  this  12  per  cent  were  supplanted  by  a  corresponding  class  of  the  white  race 
the  criminal  quality  of  the  whole  population  would  be  improved?  According  to 
the  Eleventh  Census  the  North  Atlantic  Division  of  States,  in  which  the  negro  ele¬ 
ment  constitutes  only  a  slight  sprinkling,  had  833  prisoners  to  every  million 
inhabitants;  the  South  Atlantic  Division,  where  the  race  is  densest,  had  only  831, 

1  North  American  Review,  June,  1900.  See  also  Booker  T.  Washington’s  reply  to  Professor 
Straton,  North  American  Review,  August,  1900. 

2  Professor  Straton  in  North  American  Review,  June,  1900. 


814 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


while  the  Western  section,  where  the  negro  is  a  negligible  quantity,  had  1,300. 
The  same  condition  of  things  is  revealed  if  we  limit  our  study  to  States  and 
municipalities.  In  1890  New  York  had  1,369  prisoners  to  the  million,  California 
1,703,  Alabama  720.  According  to  the  police  reports  of  1896  the  percentage  of 
arrests  in  Boston  was  9.37,  whereas  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  one- third  of  whose 
population  is  colored,  it  was  only  a  slight  fraction  above  8.1  If  it  were  asked  why, 
according  to  the  revelation  of  statistics,  the  white  people  of  the  North  Atlantic 
States  were  not  so  well  behaved  as  the  mixed  population  of  the  South  Atlantic 
Division,  or  why  New  York  and  California  have  a  higher  criminal  record  than 
Alabama  and  South  Carolina,  or  why  Boston  has  a  greater  percentage  of  arrests 
than  Washington,  it  would  be  manifestly  unkind  to  attribute  the  lower  ethical 
average  of  the  higher  tier  of  States  to  race  degeneracy  or  to  superior  education. 

Professor  Straton  urges  as  unassailable  proof  of  his  position  the  fact  that  the 
Northern  negro  is  two  or  three  times  as  criminal  as  his  more  unfortunate  brother 
in  the  South.  He  fails,  however,  to  make  suitable  allowance  for  the  restlessness 
and  recklessness  due  to  unsettled  conditions.  The  Northern  negro  population  is 
recruited  very  largely  by  emigration  from  the  South,  many  of  whom  leave  their 
homes  for  reasons  best  known  to  the  police.  He  is  apt  to  mistake  liberty  for 
license,  and  to  make  the  largest  possible  use  of  his  new-found  privilege  of  apparent 
social  equality,  which  culminates  in  the  dens  of  vice  and  crime.  The  employment 
of  the  Northern  negro  is  unsteady  and  intermittent,  affording  a  wide  latitude  of 
idleness,  thus  giving  the  evil  one  his  coveted  opportunity  for  mischief.  Again, 
the  Northern  negro  meets  with  a  wider  hostile  area  than  his  Southern  brother, 
and  is  more  apt  to  resent  insult  from  the  white  race.  The  prejudice  in  the  North 
is  as  narrowing  and  as  harrowing  as  it  is  in  the  South,  albeit  it  may  reveal  itself 
under  a  different  mode  of  manifestation.  The  disparity  between  profession  and 
performance  in  the  North  is  as  great  a  provocative  as  the  repressive  treatment  of 
the  South. 

It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  gainsay  the  alarming  criminality  of  the  negro,  so  far 
as  this  can  be  tested  by  statistics.  The  facts  presented  by  Professor  Straton  are 
not  disputed,  only  he  fails  to  credit  them  to  the  proper  account.  It  is  environ¬ 
ment,  not  race;  condition,  not  color;  and  education,  instead  of  being  a  contribu¬ 
ting  factor,  as  the  author  avers,  is  a  partial  though  not  a  complete  deterrent. 

Our  philanthropists  have  expected  too  much  from  education,  especially  when 
it  is  applied  to  the  negro.  It  is  folly  to  suppose  that  the  moral  nature  of  the  child 
is  improved  because  it  has  been  taught  to  read  and  write  and  cast  up  accounts. 
Tracing  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with  a  pen  has  no  bearing  upon  the  golden  rule. 
The  spelling  of  words  by  sound  and  syllable  does  not  lead  to  the  observance  of  the 
Ten  Commandments.  Drill  in  the  multiplication  table  does  not  fascinate  the 
learner  with  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Rules  in  grammar,  dates  in  history,  sums 
in  arithmetic,  and  points  in  geography  do  not  necessarily  strengthen  the  grasp 
upon  moral  truth.  These  things  constitute  the  mere  mechanics  of  knowledge. 
It  is  only  when  the  pupil  begins  to  feel  its  vitalizing  power  that  it  begins  to 
react  upon  the  life  and  to  fructify  in  character.  While  the  criminal  tendency  of 
the  race,  so  far  as  it  can  be  tested  by  the  statistician,  shows  an  alarming  tendency 
to  increase,  it  is  notable  that  the  products  of  those  schools  with  prolonged  courses 
of  study  and  continuous  discipline  have  met  every  expectation  from  the  stand¬ 
point  of*  conduct  and  demeanor.  We  do  not  hear  one  word  of  criticism  as  to  the 
behavior  of  the  graduates  of  Howard,  Fisk,  Atlanta,  Hampton,  Shaw,  Wayland, 
and  other  institutions  of  rank. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  higher  education  of  the  negro  will  carry  him  beyond 
his  race  and  make  him  dissatisfied  with  his  lot.  Discontent  is  a  necessary  condi¬ 
tion  of  progress.  What  American  is  there  who  is  not  trying  to  improve  his  lot? 


1  See  police  reports  for  Boston  and  Washington,  1898. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


815 


Then,  why  should  the  negro  he  satisfied  with  his,  which  is  the  most  miserable 
of  all? 

If  nature  intends  one  for  a  fool  no  amount  of  education  can  alter  the  design. 
Intellectual  sham,  vainglorious  display,  and  pompous  pretense  are,  unfortunately, 
unavoidable.  This  is  the  fault  of  too  little  rather  than  too  much  education.  The 
familiar  lines  of  Pope  are  pertinent: 

A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing; 

Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring; 

There  shallow  draughts  intoxicate  the  brain, 

And  drinking  largely  sobers  us  again. 

There  is  no  danger  that  education  will  lift  the  recipient  above  the  needs  of 
humanity.  The  missionary  work  among  crude  and  primitive  peoples  calls  for 
men  of  the  best  minds  as  well  as  the  highest  consecration.  Jonathan  Edwards, 
who,  perhaps,  possessed  the  most  philosophical  mind  that  America  has  yet  pro¬ 
duced,  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  as  preacher  among  the  savage  Indians.  The 
schooling  which  leads  away  from  sympathy  with  the  race  is  a  perversion  which 
experience  shows  to  be  quite  unusual.  Prejudice,  relentless  and  cruel  as  it  is  at 
points,  is  nevertheless  not,  perhaps,  an  unmixed  evil.  It  keeps- within  the  race 
serviceable  elements  which  otherwise  would  be  lost  to  it.  All  such  volatile  ele¬ 
ments  are  thrown  back  upon  the  race  by  the  repellent  power  of  prejudice.  The 
attempt  to  escape  is  as  suicidal  as  the  conduct  of  the  caged  eagle  which  beats  its 
wings  to  insensibility  against  the  iron  bars  of  its  prison  house.  Give  the  negro 
the  higher  education  and  his  sense  of  duty  and  love  of  humanity  will  make  it 
effective  for  the  good  of  his  race;  or,  this  failing,  a  meaner  motive  necessitated  by 
prejudice  will  make  it  available  also. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  negroes  are  leaving  the  farm  and  the  shop  and  are  rush¬ 
ing  in  disproportionate  numbers  to  the  college  and  the  university.  This  race  is 
affected  with  great  material  and  intellectual  poverty.  After  abstracting  all  who 
are  able  to  think  there  will  be  left  sufficient  to  toil. 

The  following  table  taken  from  the  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  ought 
to  forever  silence  this  assertion: 


Number  of  pupils  in  secondary  and  higher  institutions  in  the  United  States. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

Year. 

Population. 

Number  of 
secondary 
and  higher 
students. 

Same  per 
million  of 
popula¬ 
tion. 

Number  of 
pupils  in  sec¬ 
ondary  and 
elementary 
public 
schools. 

Percent¬ 
age  of  col¬ 
umn  3  on 
column  5. 

1879-80 . . 

50,155,783 

62,622,250 

1 72, 800, 000 

218, 809 
437, 308 

4,362 

6,982 

10,342 

9,867,505 

12,721,581 

15,038,636 

2. 22 

1889-90 . 

3.44 

1897-98 . . 

752, 776 

5. 01 

THE  COLORED  RACE. 


1879-80 . 

6, 106, 695 

7,874 

1,289 

2  784, 709 

1.00 

1889-90- . . . . 

6, 954, 840 

14, 338 

2,061 

1,296,959 

1.11 

1897-98 . 

1  7, 923, 000 

17,446 

3  2, 202 

1,506,742 

1.16 

1  Estimated.  2  Former  slave  States.  3  2,517  in  1899-1900. 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hilyer,  in  commenting  upon  these  figures,  says: 

This  table  shows  that  the  proportionate  number  of  secondary  and  higher  stu¬ 
dents  to  the  whole  number  of  children  attending  school  in  the  United  States  as  a 
whole  had  increased  from  2.22  per  cent  in  1879  to  5.01  per  cent  in  1897,  nearly  two 
and  one-half  times,  while  the  proportion  of  colored  in  secondary  schools  and  colleges 


816 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


had  increased  very  little,  indeed,  from  1  per  cent  to  only  1.16  per  cent,  and  that  now, 
at  the  height  of  all  this  outcry  against  any  further  aid,  public  or  private,  for  the 
higher  education  of  colored  youth,  there  is  only  one-fifth  as  many  colored  students 
in  secondary  and  higher  institutions  as  the  average  for  the  United  States  as  a 
whole.  But  the  story  is  not  yet  half  told.  According  to  the  Report  of  the  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Education,  1897-98,  volume  2,  page  2097,  the  total  number  of  stu¬ 
dents  taking  the  higher  education  in  the  United  States  as  a  whole  was  144,477, 
being  1,980  to  each  million  of  the  total  population,  The  same  Report,  page  2480, 
gives  the  total  number  of  students  pursuing  collegiate  courses  in  these  much- 
discussed  colleges  as  2,492.  This  is  only  310  to  the  million  of  colored  popula¬ 
tion;  whereas  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  as  shown  above,  had  1,980  to  the 
million,  nearly  six  and  one-half  times  as  many  in  proportion  to  population. 

This  does  not  look  as  though  the  whole  of  the  colored  race  is  rapidly  stampeding 
to  the  higher  education,  or  that  the  labor  supply  in  the  Southern  States  is  falling 
off  from  this  cause.  This  is  an  age  of  higher  education  for  the  masses.  The 
increase  in  the  number  of  students  taking  the  secondary  and  higher  education  in 
the  United  States  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been  phenomenal — unprecedented. 
Is  the  person  of  color  so  much  superior  to  the  white  that  he  does  not  need  so  much 
educational  training?  I  think  not.  In  view  of  the  history  and  present  condition 
of  this  race  the  obvious  necessity  for  a  large  number  of  educated  and  trained 
teachers,  ministers,  physicians,  lawyers,  and  pharmacists;  and  in  view  of  the  sta¬ 
tistical  fact  that  this  race  has  only  one-fifth  of  its  quota  pursuing  studies  above 
the  elementary  grades,  what  fair  mind  will  not  say  there  is  great  need  of  more  of 
the  secondary  and  higher  education  for  the  colored  youth  instead  of  less  of  it? 

According  to  the  Report  above  cited,  there  are  161  academies  and  colleges  for 
colored  youth  in  the  United  States.  The  total  number  enrolled  was  42,328,  of 
whom  2,492 1 2  were  reported  in  collegiate  grades,  13,669  in  secondary  grades,  and 
26,167  in  elementary  grades.  Even  in  these  colored  colleges  less  than  6  per  cent 
of  their  students  are  pursuing  collegiate  courses,  and  perhaps  not  more  than  2 
per  cent  are  pursuing  a  college  course  equal  to  that  offered  at  Howard.  Nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  total  enrollment  in  these  colored  colleges  are  receiving  elemen¬ 
tary  instruction  in  “readin’,  ’ritin’,  and  ’rifmetic.”  Classified  by  courses  of 
study,  1,711 — 217  in  a  million — were  taking  the  classical  course;  1,200 — 150  in  a 
million — the  scientific;  4,440 — 555  to  the  million — the  normal  course,  preparing  for 
teaching;  1,285 — 160  in  a  million— professional  courses;  9,724  English,  and  244  the 
business  course.  In  each  of  these  courses  the  colored  race  has  only  about  one- fifth 
or  one-sixth  of  its  quota.  Is  there  anything  in  these  figures  to  alarm  the  nation? 

About  one- third  of  the  total  number  of  students  in  these  161  colored  schools  and 
colleges  are  taking  industrial  training.-2  There  is  surely  no  need  of  further  proof 
or  assertion  on  this  score. 

Again,  we  hear  that  higher  education  for  the  negro  does  not  solve  the  race 
problem.  It  was  a  shallow  philosophy  that  predicted  this  result  in  the  first  place. 
The  race  problem  divides  itself  into  two  leading  divisions;  First,  the  development 
of  a  backward  race,  and,  second,  the  adjustment  of  two  races  with  widely  diver¬ 
gent  ethnic  characteristics. 

These  two  factors  are  in  many  respects  antagonistic  to  each  other.  The  more 
backward  and  undeveloped  the  negro,  the  easier  is  the  process  of  adjustment  to 
the  white  lord  and  master,  but  when  you  give  him  Greek  and  Latin  and  meta¬ 
physics  he  begins  to  feel  his  manhood  stirring  within  him  and  frictional  problems 
inevitably  arise.  The  good  old  negro  servant,  ever  loyal  and  true,  is  esteemed 
and  honored,  but  his  more  ambitious  son  with  a  Harvard  diploma  in  his  knapsack 
is  persona  non  grata.  Under  slavery  the  adjustment  between  the  races  was  com¬ 
plete,  but  the  bond  was  quickly  burst  asunder  when  the  negro  was  made  a  free 
man  and  clothed  with  full  civil  and  political  privilege.  It  would  be  rather  a  haz¬ 
ardous  statement  to  affirm  that  education  wiil  solve  social  and  ethnic  problems. 
The  development  of  humanity  would  be  a  simple  task  indeed  if  a  few  years  school¬ 
ing  could  facilitate  the  adjustment  between  the  European  and  Asiatic,  African 
and  Arj^an.  The  adjustment  of  peoples,  races,  and  social  systems  lies  in  the 
sphere  of  statesmanship,  philanthropy,  and  religion. 


1  The  investigations  of  Professor  Du  Bois  show  that  there  can  not  be  more  than  1,000  negro 
students  of  collegiate  grade,  according  to  the  average  American  standard. 

2  Popular  Science  Monthly,  August,  1900. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


81? 


The  function  of  education  is  to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  individual  in  order 
to  fit  him  for  the  life  of  that  society  of  which  he  forms  a  part.  The  function  of 
the  education  of  the  negro  is  to  develop  in  the  individual  and  in  the  race  the 
requisite  degree  of  personal  and  social  efficiency.  And  if  it  does  not  eradicate 
deep-seated  prejudices  and  batter  down  race  and  ethnic  barriers,  it  is  because  the 
wrong  remedy  has  been  applied  to  the  disease.  Wise  men  do  not  expect  to  gather 
grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  of  thistles. 

IV.— The  Relative  Claims  of  Industrial  and  Higher  Education. 

Whenever  the  higher  education  of  colored  youth  is  advocated  somebody  is  sure 
to  suggest  industrial  training  as  a  counterirritant.  The  higher  and  industrial 
phases  of  education  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  and  neither  can  properly  be  played 
off  against  the  other.  They  are  both  essential  to  the  symmetrical  development  of 
any  people.  Both  factors  are  equally  essential  to  the  common  product.  The 
one-sided  advocates  of  a  particular  kind  of  education  for  all  colored  youth 
remind  us  of  the  disputants  in  rural  debating  societies  who  decide,  once  for  all, 
the  momentous  question:  “Which  is  the  more  indispensable  element  of  civiliza¬ 
tion,  fire  or  water?”  The  fact  is,  civilization  could  not  exist  without  either  of 
these  elements,  neither  can  the  negro  race  reach  the  full  measure  of  develop¬ 
ment  without  receiving  both  kinds  of  education.  It  is  deemed  timely,  how¬ 
ever,  to  point  out  and  compare  the  relative  advantages  to  the  negro  derivable 
from  industrial  training  and  the  higher  education,  and  especially  so  since  the 
trades  school  is  being  prescribed  as  a  panacea  for  all  the  ills  of  the  situation, 
while  literary  culture  is  being  decried  and  disparaged.  As  there  are  several 
parties  to  this  contention,  it  may  be  well  to  analyze  the  motives  that  give  rise  to 
the  prevailing  preference  for  industrialism. 

1.  The  vast  majority  of  white  people  in  this  country  believe  that  the  ordained 
mission  of  the  negro  is  to  do  manual  labor — to  perform  personal  and  domestic 
service.  This  belief  is  vaguely  founded  upon  a  scriptural  reference:  “  Cursed  be 
Canaan;  a  servant  of  servants  shall  he  be  unto  his  brethren.”  The  old  method  of 
textual  interpretation  has  been  superseded  by  Biblical  research  and  rational  criti¬ 
cism.  The  traditional  classification  of  the  human  family  has  been  abandoned  by 
most  authors  of  scholarly  repute.  The  Hametic  origin  of  the  negro  race  is 
accepted  by  few  modern  archaeologists,  yet  the  agreeable  belief  in  the  ordained 
servility  of  the  negro  still  lingers.  It  was  on  the  basis  of  this  belief  that  the- 
African  was  first  enslaved.  Las  Casas,  the  philanthropic  priest,  first  suggested 
the  enslavement  of  the  African  as  a  means  of  merciful  relief  to  the  poor  Indian, 
who  sickened  and  died  in  the  house  of  bondage.  The  negro  was  brought  across 
the  sea  to  be  made  a  hewer  of  wood  and  a  carrier  of  water.  Human  slavery  had 
a  benevolent  origin.  It  was  regarded  more  philanthropic  to  enslave  captives  in 
war  than  to  slay  them.  But  there  was  not  a  bit  of  phiianthrophy  in  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  African  slavery.  It  was  a  business  measure  pure  and  simple.  The  only 
part  of  the  negro  deemed  to  be  valuable  was  his  hands.  No  account  was  taken  of 
his  mind,  his  soul,  or  his  all-baffling  brain.  For  well-nigh  three  hundred  years 
he  fulfilled  the  purpose  of  his  enslavers.  Although  the  civil  war  overthrew  the 
system  of  slavery  it  did  not  materially  alter  the  minds  of  the  white  people  as  ta 
the  negro’s  place  in  the  social  scale.  He  is  still  looked  upon  as  a  servant  whose 
mission  is  to  minister  to  the  wants  of  others.  Among  men  of  this  way  of  think¬ 
ing  it  is  easy  to  gain  popularity  by  advocating  industrial  training  for  negroes — 
any  policy  that  has  work  for  its  main  object  is  heartily  approved,  but  the  higher 
education  is  held  up  to  ridicule  and  scorn. 

2.  The  second  class  to  this  controversy  may  be  called  the  philanthropists,  or 
those  who  have  a  special  friendly  interest  in  the  colored  race.  It  is  this  class  that 
has  already  done  so  much  to  rescue  the  perishing  and  to  lift  up  the  fallen.  They 

ED  1901 - 52 


818 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  3900-1901. 


have  sent  millions  of  dollars  into  the  South  to  educate  and  enlighten  the  blacks, 
and  have  hitherto  constituted  the  leading  factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  race.  It 
is  easy  to  discern  that  their  sentiment  also,  during  the  last  few  years,  is  shading 
toward  industrial  training,  to  the  disparagement  of  higher  culture.  This  is  easily 
intelligible.  Charity  should  be  applied  where  it  is  most  needed  and  where  it  will 
reach  the  largest  possible  number  of  the  helpless*  Its  aim  is  to  help  those  who 
are  lowest  in  the  scale  of  want  and  distress.  Benevolent  people  are  easily  and 
willingly  persuaded  that  assistance  rendered  an  industrial  institution  will  be 
more  widespread  in  its  application  than  if  given  to  a  college.  Colored  universi¬ 
ties  have  almost  without  exception  added  on  industrial  courses,  largely  for  the 
sake  of  gaining  the  favor  of  Northern  philanthropists.  The  literary  education  of 
colored  youth  is  so  far  discredited  in  the  public  mind  that  institutions  of  higher 
learning  have  to  attach  industrial  courses  in  order  to  gain  financial  favor  and 
support.  This  is  practical  wisdom,  if  not  pedagogical  prudence.  Experience 
bears  out  the  opinion  that  trades  schools  and  colleges  should  be  maintained  as 
separate  and  distinct  institutions,  unless  reasons  of  financial  policy  suggest  other¬ 
wise.  Blending  of  the  two  reminds  us  of  Horace's  ridiculous  picture  with  the 
head  of  a  beautiful  woman  and  the  tail  of  a  horrid  fish.  But,  as  suggested  above, 
the  drift  of  benevolent  sentiment  is  easy  explainable.  Charity  aims  to  help  the 
beneficiary  to  go  so  far  and  no  farther.  We  do  not  aim  by  charity  to  lift  others 
into  complete  equality  with  ourselves.  It  is  not  human  nature  to  assist  those 
whom  we  deem  our  inferiors  to  reach  our  own  plane.  The  unwritten  law  of 
human  charity  demands  that  we  relieve  acute  distress  when  it  is  easily  within  our 
power  to  do  so,  but  our  civilization  is  not  yet  sufficiently  altruistic  to  require  us 
to  take  the  unfortunate  creatures  thus  relieved  on  terms  of  equality  with  our¬ 
selves.  We  give  a  crust  to  the  starving  poor.  Even  Lazarus  in  the  parable  fed 
of  the  crumbs  that  fell  from  the  rich  man’s  table.  But  we  do  not  invite  them 
to  attend  the  banquet  which  we  spread  for  our  friends.  Let  us  marvel  not, 
then,  that  benevolent  friends  are  ready  to  assist  the  negro  to  a  knowledge  of  letters 
and  the  use  of  tools,  but  are  totally  indifferent  as  to  whether  or  not  he  studies 
Creek  philology,  or  the  differential  calculus.  They  do  not  feel  any  obligation  to 
sustain  the  beneficiary  in  those  pursuits  of  truth  and  beauty  which  themselves  and 
their  children  enjoy.  A  donation  to  Harvard  or  Yale  can  hardly  be  called  charity; 
it  is  simply  giving  on  one’s  own  level,  to  perpetuates  one's  own  name  or  to 
advance  some  favorite  idea.  But  colored  schools  need  not  expect  gifts  of  this 
character  from  white  men;  in  all  such  benefactions  eleemosynary  intent  is  plainly 
apparent.  Industrial  education  of  the  colored  race  will  doubtless  continue  to  be 
considered  of  more  importance  than  literary  culture  by  Northern  philanthropists, 
and  will  continue  to  receive  the  bulk  of  their  benefactions. 

3.  The  negro  himself  is  the  most  interested  party  to  this  contention.  He  bears 
the  same  relation  to  the  race  problem  that  a  beast  does  to  the  burden  which  has 
been  placed  upon  its  back.  How  does  he  think  that  the  youth  of  the  race  should 
be  educated?  The  time  has  come  when  the  race  should  do  its  own  original  think¬ 
ing  on  such  vital  questions,  and  not  regulate  its  conduct  according  to  the  opinion 
of  white  men.  However  kindly  the  intentions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  may  be,  still  it 
seems  impossible  for  him  to  view  the  situation  under  the  negro’s  angle  of  vision. 
The  sentiment  of  the  white  race  is  well-nigh  unanimous  that  the  colored  race 
should  confine  its  energies  chiefly  to  manual  and  industrial  pursuits,  and  they 
will  make  it  so  in  so  far  as  they  can  control  the  situation.  But  the  negro  can 
not  accept  the  estimate  which  the  white  race  places  upon  him,  and  consequently 
must  in  a  large  measure  reject  the  treatment  prescribed.  The  sentiment  of  every 
self-respecting  negro,  when  clothed  in  his  right  mind,  must  be:  “I  am  a  man,  and 
all  things  which  are  human  appertain  to  me,  although  circumstances  and  environ¬ 
ments  may  hamper  me  for  a  season,  I  will  suffer  it  to  be  so  now,  but  will  relin¬ 
quish  none  of  the  ultimate  claims  of  my  species.” 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


819 


There  are  two  leading  aims  of  education :  (1 )  To  develop  the  faculties  and  powers 
of  the  mind,  the  accomplishment  of  which  is  a  uniform  and  invariable  process, 
the  same  for  all  minds  under  all  conditions  of  outward  life;  and  (2)  to  prepare 
the  individual  for  the  special  work  which  he  has  to  perform;  this  preparation 
varies  according  to  environment,  opportunity,  or  the  ambition  and  aptitude  of  the 
learner.  In  any  well-regulated  community  the  inhabitants  will  be  distributed 
among  the  various  industries,  trades,  and  professions  according  to  the  needs  and 
opportunities  of  the  community  and  the  capacity,  aptitude,  and  natural  bent  of 
individuals.  The  negro  race  in  this  land  occupies  a  peculiar  and  unique  position. 
The  vast  majority  of  them  follow  agricultural  pursuits,  domestic  service,  and 
other  forms  of  crude,  unskilled  labor.  The  number  outside  of  these  lines  is  so 
small  that  it  would  hardly  form  a  homeopathic  fraction  of  the  population.  They 
are  also  the  creatures,  or  rather  the  victims,  of  circumstances  over  which  they 
have  no  control.  In  this  discussion,  then,  we  are  shut  up  to  special  circum¬ 
stances  rather  than  general  principles.  The  unwisdom  of  an  exclusive  industrial 
and  mechanical  education  of  the  colored  race  will  appear  from  the  following 
considerations: 

1.  It  would  be  almost  useless  to  equip  a  considerable  number  of  colored  men 
with  the  mechanical  trades,  for  they  could  find  no  opportunity  to  ply  them.  This 
is  an  age  of  great  combinations;  both  capital  and  labor  are  organized  and  solidi¬ 
fied.  What  the  trusts  are  to  capital  the  trades  unions  are  to  labor.  Neither  the 
small  dealer  nor  the  individual  workman  can  compete  with  these  gigantic  monopo¬ 
lies.  This  is  an  age  in  which  “the  individual  withers  and  the  trust  is  more  and 
more.”  These  trades  unions  will  not  admit  the  negro,  in  large  numbers,  on  equal 
terms,  and  he  is  absolutely  powerless  to  combat  them.  They  will  not  combine 
with  him,  and  he  can  not  compete  with  them.  If  any  one  industrial  fact  in  our 
history  is  clearly  demonstrated  it  is  that  white  labor  will  not  compete  with  black 
labor.  The  poor  whites  of  the  South,  rather  than  compete  with  negro  labor, 
betook  themselves  to  the  woods,  and  lived  in  the  mountains  and  pine  thickets  in 
idleness  and  poverty,  constituting  that  thriftless  element  known  far  and  wide  as 
“poor  white  trash.”  The  complaint  goes  up  from  all  sections  of  the  country  that 
white  men  are  driving  negroes  out  of  employments  which  were  hitherto  consid¬ 
ered  peculiarly  theirs.  It  is  not  because  the  negro  is  not  a  competent  and  efficient 
workman  in  these  lines  that  he  is  thus  supplanted,  but  it  is  simply  a  case  of  the 
stronger  element  driving  the  weaker  to  the  wall.  The  Asiatics  were  excluded 
from  the  western  coast  because  they  manifested  too  much  skill,  thrift,  and  econ¬ 
omy.  They  were  shut  out  on  the  plea  that  competition  with  them  would  lower 
the  American  white  laborer  to  the  level  of  Mongolian  life.  The  same  argument 
could  and  would  be  advanced  against  the  negro.  As  a  further  evidence  that  it  is  not 
a  lack  of  skill  which  renders  the  negro  unable  to  hold  his  own  in  the  labor  world, 
he  is  being  crowded  out  of  occupations  where  no  complaint  has  ever  been  uttered 
against  his  efficiency,  and  where  his  supplanters  are  not  more  apt  or  competent 
than  the  black  competitors.  It  is  a  notorious  fact  that  in  all  the  large  centers  of 
population  positions  of  waiters,  coachmen,  and  barbers  are  being  filled  by  white 
men  to  the  exclusion  of  his  brother  in  black,  or  rather,  his  brother  in  colors.  The 
competency  of  the  colored  waiter  has  never  been  questioned.  White  men  do  not 
make  more  courteous,  safe,  and  reliable  coachmen.  The  whole  world  acknowl¬ 
edges  that  the  negro  is  an  expert  with  the  razor.  The  labor  wars  between  the 
races  precipitated  in  the  mines  of  Tennessee  and  Alabama  and  along  the  levees  of 
New  Orleans  were  not  inaugurated  because  of  the  inefficiency  of  colored  labor, 
but  because  white  men  wanted  the  places.  It  is  the  policy  of  most  Southern  rail¬ 
roads  to  employ  negro  firemen,  but  with  the  express  understanding  that  they  shall 
never  be  promoted  to  positions  of  engineers.  No  incapacity  is  alleged;  but  whit© 
labor  zealously  guards  all  such  employments  against  black  encroachment. 


820 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


There  was  a  time  when  the  mechanical  work  of  the  South  was  performed  by 
colored  men;  but  the  Northern  laborer  has  gone  there  and  carried  his  trades  unions 
and  his  exclusive  policy,  and  the  result  is  the  negro  is  being  relegated  to  the  rear. 
The  industrial  war  has  been  carried  into  Africa.  It  requires  no  gift  of  prophecy 
to  predict  that  in  the  near  future  negro  mechanics  will  be  as  rare  in  Richmond 
and  Atlanta  as  they  are  in  Boston  and  Philadelphia.  All  will  agree  that  under 
the  present  circumstances  the  negro  can  not  compete  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  for 
political  domination;  he  is  equally  incapable  of  sustaining  the  contest  for  indus¬ 
trial  supremacy.  The  stronghold  of  the  race  hitherto  has  been  its  ability  to  do 
crude,  unskilled  work,  along  lines  where  white  men  did  not  care  to  compete;  to 
work  with  the  body  under  a  tropical  sun  where  the  white  man  pants  for  rest  and 
shade.  But  it  has  not  been  able  to  stand  the  onward  march  of  skilled  labor  and 
machinery.  It  was  announced  some  time  ago  that  a  machine  had  been  invented 
for  picking  cotton.  An  influential  Southern  journal  announced  with  triumph 
that  the  introduction  of  this  invention  would  settle  the  race  problem  for  all  time. 
The  picture  is  indeed  a  dark  one.  The  situation  calls  for  the  highest  wisdom  on 
the  part  of  negro  leaders  and  the  friends  of  the  race.  But  it  is  more  than  foolish 
to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  facts  before  us.  It  is  absolute  folly  to  advise  remedies 
which  reason  tells  us  in  advance  can  not  be  effective. 

The  chief  value  of  the  mechanical  and  industrial  schools  in  the  South  is  that  they 
inculcate  in  the  minds  of  the  crude  agricultural  population  notions  of  thrift,  econ¬ 
omy,  and  decency,  and  not  because  they  teach  the  mechanical  and  scientific  trades. 
Hampton,  Tuskegee,  and  Claflin  are  among  the  most  useful  institutions  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  because  their  graduates  go  to  and  fro  throughout  the  South  and  carry  with 
them  their  newly  acquired  notions  of  character  and  life,  and  disseminate  them 
among  the  people.  They  are  for  the  most  part  engaged  in  teaching  school.  I  ven¬ 
ture  the  assertion  that  not  one  such  graduate  in  ten  finds  an  opportunity  to  ply 
the  trade  which  he  learned  in  school.  The  literary  and  moral  features  of  their 
courses  are  after  all  of  the  greatest  value.  Prof.  Booker  T.  W ashington  is  the  most 
remarkable  product  of  this  class  of  schools.  No  colored  man  of  his  generation  has 
rendered  a  moiety  of  the  service  which  he  has  done  in  a  visible,  tangible  shape. 
He  is  justly  accounted  one  of  the  great  men  of  America.  But  the  chief  element 
of  his  success  has  been  his  mind,  heart,  and  character,  and  his  unselfish  devotion 
to  the  welfare  of  his  race.  No  mere  artisan  or  mechanic  could  do  the  work  which 
Professor  Washington  has  done;  no,  nor  10,000  of  them  rolled  into  one.  Professor 
Washington  is  endowed  by  nature  with  splendid  mental  and  moral  gifts  which  he 
has  developed  by  wide  observation  and  study.  He  possesses  the  sagacity  to  see 
the  needs  suggested  by  special  circumstances,  and  the  constructive  ingenuity  to 
devise  ways  of  meeting  those  needs. 

2.  A  supply  of  labor,  skilled  or  unskilled,  can  never  create  a  demand  for  it;  but 
where  there  is  a  demand  the  supply  is  always  forthcoming.  Where  is  the  demand 
for  colored  mechanics?  It  certainly  is  not  in  the  North;  it  is  not  in  the  large  cities 
North  or  South.  There  is  no  considerable  demand  for  colored  mechanics  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  Washington,  and  I  fear  notin  Richmond,  Atlanta, 
or  New  Orleans.  When  there  was  a  demand  for  such  workmen  they  were  always 
to  be  found.  If  there  were  5,000  such  artisans  in  Washington  City,  as  skilled  as 
the  master  workman  whom  King  Hiram  sent  to  Solomon  to  build  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem,  they  would  starve  to  death  under  the  shadow  of  the  national  Capitol 
for  the  want  of  employment.  The  trades  schools  may  turn  out  these  workmen,  but 
they  can  not  create  a  demand  for  them.  It  is  not  wise  to  have  in  a  community  a 
number  of  men  with  trades  but  with  no  opportunity  of  plying  them;  they  usually 
have  not  the  aptitude  or  willingness  to  turn  to  any  work  except  their  particular 
trade,  and  the  last  state  of  the  community  will  be  worse  than  the  first.  It  is  often 
urged  as  an  argument  against  the  negro's  higher  education  that  after  he  has  filled 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


821 


his  mind  with  knowledge  he  can  not  find  a  field  in  which  to  nse  it;  hut  can  not 
this  objection  be  urged,  and  that,  too,  with  a  greater  show  of  probability, 
against  too  much  industrial  training?  A  trained  mind  is  likely  to  be  more  fertile 
in  expedients  than  a  mere  “hand;”  if  it  does  not  find  a  way  it  will  make  one. 
The  one  will  do  with  his  might  what  his  hands  find  to  do;  the  other  will  find 
with  his  mind  what  his  hands  might  do. 

3.  The  educational  impulse  proceeds  from  above  downward.  “  Mens  agitat 
molein.”  I  am  not  arguing,  be  it  borne  in, mind,  against  industrial  education  in 
its  proper  place,  and  under  those  favorable  circumstances  where  it  can  be  wisely 
applied;  but  against  the  general  policy  of  shutting  up  the  negro  to  a  particular 
kind  of  training.  It  is  sometimes  objected  that  the  negro  race  began  on  top.  The 
top  is  the  natural  birthplace  of  progress.  Does  Jewish  history  boast  of  greater 
names  than  Abraham  and  Moses,  the  one  the  founder  of  the  race  and  the  other 
of  the  nation?  Does  not  every  good  and  perfect  gift  come  from  above?  The  phi¬ 
losophy  of  evolution  has  clearly  established  a  close  analogy  between  the 
development  of  organic  life  and  the  growth  of  human  society.  Even  biolog¬ 
ical  progress,  it  is  claimed,  is  from  above  downward.  Some  individual  by  acci¬ 
dent  acquires  some  valuable  acquisition  to  the  life  of  the  race,  and  by  a  slow 
process  it  infiltrates  into  the  life  of  the  species  and  finally  lifts  it  up  to  the 
level  of  the  lucky  individual.  History  reveals  the  fact  that  the  same  law 
governs  the  growth  of  races,  states,  empire,  and  republics.  It  seems  as  if  Provi¬ 
dence  raises  up  in  the  outset  some  commanding  genius  so  that  the  common  peo¬ 
ple  may  have  some  model  to  work  to.  Then  why  should  the  negro  race  not  strive 
to  imitate  worthy  models  and  lofty  ideals?  Stimulus  can  not  come  from  the 
workbench,  the  furrow,  and  the  dull  routine  of  daily  toil,  but  must  be  handed 
down  from  “the  radiant  summit.”  True,  great  lights  have  arisen  from  lowly 
occupations,  but  it  was  because  their  avocations  could  not  contain  them;  they 
burst  their  bands  asunder  and  swiftly  leaped  beyond  them.  In  a  certain  industrial 
school  which  is  deservedly  famous  throughout  the  country  a  majority  of  the 
instructors  in  influential  positions  are  college- bred  men  and  women.  This  is  only 
natural;  the  educated  mind  will  direct  its  energies  where  the  need  is  greatest. 
All  true  progress  grows  out  of  applying  the  thought  within  to  the  thing  with¬ 
out;  but  the  thought  is  the  primary  agency,  and  the  outward  thing  only  the 
object  operated  upon. 

4.  The  negro  is  a  man  and  is  entitled  to  all  of  the  privileges  of  manhood.  Why 
should  his  education  be  circumscribed  and  limited?  Why  should  the  larger  ele¬ 
ments  of  his  nature  be  left  unnurtured,  while  the  mechanical  side  only  is  developed? 
Life  is  more  than  meat.  As  important  as  the  material  element  is  in  our  civiliza¬ 
tion,  there  is  danger  of  pushing  it  too  far.  The  highest  possessions  of  man  do  not 
consist  in  material  wealth.  A  slaveholder  was  once  asked  what  was  his  object 
in  farming.  He  replied,  “  I  raise  corn  to  raise  hogs;  I  raise  hogs  to  raise  niggers; 
I  raise  niggers  to  raise  corn.”  Thus  the  gross  material  circle  begins  and  ends  in 
itself.  The  great  evils  which  confront  the  negro  race  are  rather  of  a  moral  than 
of  a  material  nature.  Truth  and  justice  do  not  hinge  upon  industrialism  and 
trade,  but  are  abstract,  eternal  verities.  The  negro  cries  for  justice  and  is  offered 
a  trade;  he  pleads  for  righteous  laws,  and  is  given  an  industrial  school.  The  case 
is  wrongly  diagnosed;  the  remedy  does  not  apply  to  the  disease.  It  is  sometimes 
urged  upon  the  negro  to  get  money  as  the  surest  means  of  solving  the  race  problem. 
Those  who  argue  thus  show  themselves  ignorant  of  the  law  of  moral  reforms.  In 
all  the  history  of  the  human  race,  the  possession  of  money  has  never  corrected  an 
evil  or  righted  a  wrong.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  lies  at  the  bottom  of  most  of 
the  ills  which  our  nature  is  heir  to.  The  greed  for  gold  is  the  fundamental  cause 
of  the  negro’s  misfortune  in  this  land.  Will  this  same  love  for  gold  when  trans¬ 
ferred  from  the  white  man  to  his  victim  remedy  the  evil?  The  accumulation  of 


822 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

evils  do  not  usually  counteract,  but  aggravate  each  other.  The  love  of  money  is 
the  root,  not  the  remedy,  of  all  evil.  God’s  truth  will  not  be  altered  in  order  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  the  negro. 

That  the  negro  can  have  no  great  industrial  future  in  the  large  cities,  especially 
where  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  that  white  men  are  willing  and  able  to 
work,  has  been  clearly  seen  by  students  of  social  problems  for  many  years.  There 
are  sufficient  white  men  in  such  communities  to  perform  the  skilled  mechanical 
work,  and  as  they  belong  to  the  preferred  class  they  will  always  receive  first  con¬ 
sideration.  They  will  not  combine  with  the  negro,  nor  are  they  willing  to  com¬ 
pete  with  him  on  terms  of  equality.  This  intolerant  policy  relegates  the  negro  to 
those  classes  of  work  which  white  men  do  not  particularly  care  for. 

The  negro  is  excluded  not  so  much  because  he  is  black  but  because  he  is  weak. 
The  same  exclusive  policy  is  exercised  toward  all  feeble  classes,  because  there  is 
not  enough  of  the  higher  lines  of  work  for  all  of  the  contestants.  The  negro  is 
being  driven  out  of  his  erstwhile  industrial  strongholds.  The  colored  coachman, 
barber,  waiter,  and  private  domestic  is  a  vanishing  quantity  in  all  of  the  large 
cities.  The  white  workmen  have  filled  up  the  ranks  of  their  accustomed  voca¬ 
tions  and  are  pushing  over  the  boundaries  into  the  territory  occupied  by  their 
weaker  neighbors.  This  industrial  contest,  or  rather  conquest,  is  exactly  analo¬ 
gous  to  what  is  taking  place  in  the  political  world.  As  fast  as  the  stronger  and 
more  powerful  nations  have  populated  their  own  countries  up  to  the  limit  of  com¬ 
fortable  subsistence,  they  push  over  the  boundaries  into  the  possessions  of  the 
weak,  helpless,  and  feeble  races.  In  sociology,  as  in  physics,  when  a  stronger 
body  comes  in  contact  with  a  weaker  one,  the  motion  of  the  weaker  is  reversed 
and  that  of  the  stronger  proceeds  in  the  same  direction  as  before,  though  with  a 
lesser  velocity. 

It  is  true  that  industrial  discrimination  lies  at  the  base  of  much  of  the  negro’s 
social  degradation.  We  may  say  that  it  is  unjust,  un-Christian,  and  unreasonable, 
but  still  the  fact  persists;  nor  is  its  force  or  sanction  one  whit  diminished  by  the 
bitter  denunciation.  The  industrial  rivalry  is  fierce  and  brutal.  Kindness  is  not 
characteristic  of  sharp  competition.  It  is  an  old  maxim  that  business  and  philan¬ 
thropy  are  dissociable.  Each  competitor  is  bound  to  use  every  advantage  at  his 
disposal.  To  suppose  that  the  white  man  is  going  to  voluntarily  surrender  the 
advantage  which  his  color  confers,  in  order  to  admit  the  negro  into  industrial 
rivalry  on  equal  footing  with  himself,  is  to  expect  too  much  of  weak  human 
nature.  Mankind  is  not  yet  sufficiently  sanctified  for  such  sublime  acts  of  self¬ 
surrender. 

Of  late  we  can  hear  nothing  but  the  hue  and  cry  about  the  industrial  education 
of  the  colored  race,  and,  indeed,  great  good  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  come 
from  this  worthy  movement.  A  training  in  system,  order,  and  method,  and  a 
knowledge  of  how  to  do  things  with  skill,  accuracy,  and  science  will  be  of  incal¬ 
culable  advantage  to  the  possessor  in  whatever  station  of  life  he  may  be.  But  who 
believes  that  the  industrial  disadvantages  of  the  negro,  in  the  large  cities  at  least, 
can  be  overcome  or  even  materially  altered  by  industrial  education?  To  equip  a 
considerable  number  of  colored  boys  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  Washington 
with  the  mechanical  trades  would  be  simply  to  furnish  them  with  edged  tools 
without  anything  to  cut. 

That  form  of  industrial  training  which  alone  offers  any  considerable  relief  lies 
in  the  field  of  agriculture  and  the  domestic  industries.  It  is  encouraging  to  note 
that  thoughtful  colored  people  are  giving  this  matter  serious  attention.  The 
resolution  touching  this  topic,  adopted  by  the  Second  Hampton  Negro  Conference,1 
is  significant: 


1  Report  of  Second  Hampton  Negro  Conference. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


823 


W e  call  upon  our  teachers  and  preachers  in  the  country  districts  to  advise  the 
people  to  develop  the  agricultural  and  industrial  resources  of  their  respective 
communities,  and  not  to  be  deceived  by  the  glare  and  glitter  of  city  life.  The 
flocking  of  the  agricultural  masses  to  the  cities  constitutes  one  of  the  great  social 
evils  of  the  period.  This  evil  is  especially  emphasised  in  the  case  of  the  negro 
immigrants.  They  do  not  form  a  part  of  the  industrial  current  and  are  apt  to 
drift  into  the  alleys  and  dens  of  squalor  and  vice,  and  their  last  state  becomes 
worse  than  their  first.  On  the  contrary,  every  effort  should  be  put  forth  to  induce 
those  who  are  now  in  the  alleys  and  byways  of  the  city  to  seek  the  country.  No 
one  should  be  encouraged  to  migrate  from  the  country  to  the  city  unless  he  or  she 
hasisome  definite  employment  or  plan  of  work  previously  determined  upon. 

The  negro  must  dig  his  civilization  out  of  the  ground,  as  all  other  races  have 
done.  In  the  country  the  competition  is  not  so  sharp  and  color  forms  no  barrier. 
The  rain  falls  and  the  sun  shines  on  white  and  black  alike.  The  earth  will  yield 
for  him  just  as  much  as  his  skill  and  industry  can  persuade  her  to  bring  forth. 
Corn  and  cotton  are  supremely  indifferent  to  the  color  of  the  planter.  The  mar¬ 
kets  ask  only  the  quality  of  the  produce  and  not  the  color  of  the  producer.  He 
who  succeeds  in  inducing  the  negroes  to  work  out  their  industrial  salvation  in  the 
fertile  soil  of  the  South  and  under  conditions  with  which  they  are  familiar,  rather 
than  to  rush  to  the  large  centers  of  population,  where  they  have  no  industrial 
status,  and  whose  evils  they  know  not  of,  may  truly  be  denominated  their  guide, 
philosopher,  and  friend.  But  in  every  instance  it  will  be  found  that  .the  wisdom 
which  comes  from  the  higher  culture  is  alone  profitable  to  direct. 

Y. — The  Higher  Education  of  Colored  Women. 

If  the  higher  education  of  the  colored  man  seems  or  seemed  ridiculous  in  the 
eyes  of  the  wise  and  prudent,  that  of  the  colored  woman  must  appear  too  absurd 
for  a  moment’s  consideration.  The  function  of  the  higher  culture  for  the  female 
element  of  a  backward  race  still  waits  to  be  clearly  set  forth. 

The  cause  of  woman  in  general  bears  many  analogies  to  that  of  the  negro. 
They  are  both  characterized  by  weakness  and  have  had  to  fight  every  inch  of 
their  way  to  their  present  degree  of  opportunity.  All  of  the  arguments  which  are 
now  being  urged  against  the  education  of  the  negro  were  at  one  time  put  forth 
against  the  enlightenment  of  woman.  The  general  attitude  on  this  question  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  well  expressed  in  the  following  citation; 

In  the  very  first  year  of  our  century,  the  year  1801,  there  appeared  in  Paris  a 
book  by  Sy  lvain  Marechal  entitled  ‘  ‘  Shall  W oman  Learn  the  Alphabet?”  The  book 
proposes  a  law  prohibiting  the  alphabet  to  women,  and  quotes  authorities,  weighty 
and  various,  to  prove  that  the  woman  who  knows  the  alphabet  has  already  lost 
part  of  her  womanliness.  The  author  declares  that  woman  can  use  the  alphabet 
only  as  Moliere  predicted  they  would,  in  spelling  out  the  verb  “amo;”  that  they 
have  no  occasion  to  peruse  Ovid's  Ars  Amoris,  since  that  is  already  the  ground 
and  limit  of  their  intuitive  furnishing;  that  Madame  Guyon  would  have  been  far 
more  adorable  had  she  remained  a  beautiful  ignoramus,  as  nature  made  her;  that 
Ruth,  Naomi,  the  Spartan  woman,  the  Amazons,  Penelope,  Andromache,  Lucre- 
tia,  Joan  of  Arc,  Petrarch’s  Laura,  and  the  daughters  of  Charlemagne  could  not 
spell  their  names;  while  Sappho,  Aspasia,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  and  Madame  de 
Stael  could  read  altogether  too  well  for  their  good;  finally,  that  if  women  were 
once  permitted  to  read  Sophocles  and  work  with  logarithms  or  to  nibble  at  any 
side  of  the  apple  of  knowledge  there  would  be  an  end  forever  to  their  sewing  on 
buttons  and  embroidering  slippers.1 

This  sounds  very  much  like  the  objections  that  used  to  be  put  forth,  and,  indeed, 
in  some  quarters  are  still  putting  forth,  against  the  higher  education  of  the  negro. 

There  has  been  a  radical  change  of  sentiment  on  this  question  during  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Indeed,  this  century  did  more  than  all  the  list 
of  preceding  years  to  emancipate  the  weak  and  lowly  and  to  place  them  on  equal 


A  Voice  from  the  South,  hy  Mrs.  Anna  J.  Cooper,  pp.  48-49. 


824 


EDUCATION  REPOBT,  1900-1901. 


footing  with  the  rich  in  the  rivalry  of  life.  Educational  facilities  have  been  fur¬ 
nished  for  women  on  a  scale  and  schedule  approximating  those  provided  for  men. 
In  this  matter,  as  in  all  other  phases  of  human  emancipation  and  broadening  of  the 
bounds  of  opportunity,  the  United  States  has  taken  the  leading  part  and  played  the 
most  conspicuous  role.  All  of  this,  however,  has  had  reference  mainly  to  the  gen¬ 
tler  sex  of  the  favored  race.  But  while  the  showers  of  blessings  were  scattering  so 
freely,  some  of  the  surplus  droppings  have  fallen  even  upon  the  weaker  sex  of  the 
weaker  race.  The  negro  woman  represents  the  most  unfortunate  class  of  Ameri¬ 
can  womanhood.  The  mere  contemplation  of  her  condition  fills  the  soul  with 
infinite  pity.  No  negro  can  think  of  the  unfortunate  status  of  the  womanhood  of 
his  race  without  feeling  the  force  of  the  wailful  plaint  of  the  prophet  of  old:  “Oh, 
that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain  of  tears,  that  I  might  weep 
day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  the  daughter  of  my  people.”1  The  sins  and  weak¬ 
nesses  of  both  races  were  and  are  visited  upon  her.  No  one  has  described  the  con¬ 
dition  out  of  which  negro  womanhood  sprung  with  more  clearness  and  accuracy 
than  the  late  Dr.  Alexander  Crummell: 

In  her  girlhood  all  the  delicate  tenderness  of  her  sex  has  been  rudely  outraged. 
In  the  field,  in  the  rude  cabin,  in  the  press  room,  in  the  factory,  she  was  thrown 
into  companionship  of  coarse  and  ignorant  men.  No  chance  was  given  her  for 
delicate  reserve  or  tender  modesty.  From  her  childhood  she  was  the  doomed  vic¬ 
tim  of  the  grossest  passions.  All  the  virtues  of  her  sex  were  utterly  ignored.  If 
the  instinct  of  chastity  asserted  itself,  then  she  had  to  fight  like  a  tigress  for  the 
ownership  and  possession  of  her  own  person,  and  ottentimes  had  to  suffer  pains 
and  lacerations  for  her  virtuous  self-assertion.  When  she  reached  maturity  all 
the  tender  instincts  of  her  womanhood  were  ruthlessly  violated.'2 

Her  home  life  was  of  the  most  degrading  nature.  She  lived  in  the  rudest  huts, 
and  partook  of  the  coarsest  food,  and  dressed  in  the  scantiest  garb,  and  slept  in 
multitudinous  cabins  upon  the  hardest  boards.3 

Gross  barbarism,  which  tended  to  blunt  the  tender  sensibilities,  to  obliterate 
feminine  delicacy  and  womanly  shame,  came  down  as  her  heritage  from  genera¬ 
tion  to  generation;  and  it  seems  a  miracle  of  providence  and  grace  that  notwith¬ 
standing  these  terrible  circumstances  so  much  struggling  virtue  lingered  amid 
these  rude  cabins;  that  so  much  womanly  worth  and  sweetness  abided  in  their 
bosoms.4 

On  first  view  one  would  say  that  bringing  the  facilities  for  the  higher  culture 
within  the  reach  of  such  a  condition  is  like  casting  pearls  before  swine.  But  it 
has  been  abundantly  demonstrated  that  the  influence  of  culture  is  able  to  reach 
and  to  relieve,  even  unto  the  uttermost  limit  of  degradation.  The  world  has 
probably  never  witnessed  a  more  heroic  struggle  than  these  women,  hampered,  as 
it  were,  with  a  millstone  chained  about  their  necks,  have  made  and  are  making  for 
virtue,  knowledge,  and  light. 

Mrs.  Mary  Church  Terrell,  ex-president  of  the  National  Association  of  Colored 
Women,  who  is  herself  a  college- bred  woman,  and  whose  life  adds  emphasis  and 
exemplification  to  her  words,  says: 

Nothing,  in  short,  that  could  degrade  or  brutalize  the  womanhood  of  the  race 
was  lacking  in  that  system  from  which  colored  women  then  had  little  hope  of 
escape.  So  gloomy  were  their  prospects,  so  fatal  the  laws,  so  pernicious  the  cus¬ 
toms,  only  fifty  years  ago.  But  from  the  day  their  fetters  were  broken  and  their 
minds  released  from  the  darkness  of  ignorance  to  which  for  more  than  two 
hundred  years  they  had  been  doomed,  from  the  day  they  could  stand  erect  in  the  dig¬ 
nity  of  womanhood,  no  longer  bond,  but  free,  till  now,  colored  women  have  forged 
steadily  ahead  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  in  the  cultivation  of  those  vir¬ 
tues  which  make  for  good.  To  use  a  thought  of  the  illustrious  Frederick  Douglass, 
if  judged  by  the  depths  from  which  they  have  come  rather  than  by  the  heights  to 
which  those  blessed  with  centuries  of  opportunities  have  attained,  colored  women 
need  not  hang  their  heads  in  shame.  Consider,  if  you  will,  the  almost  insur- 


1  Jeremiah,  ix,  1. 


2  Africa  and  America  (The  Black  Woman  of  the  South),  p.  64. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  65.  4  Ibid.,  p.  66. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGKO. 


821? 


mountable  obstacles  which  have  confronted  colored  women  in  their  efforts  to 
educate  and  cultivate  themselyes  since  their  emancipation,  and  I  dare  assert,  not 
boastfully,  but  with  pardonable  pride,  I  hope,  that  the  progress  they  have  made 
and  the  work  they  have  accomplished  will  bear  a  favorable  comparison  at  least 
with  that  of  their  more  fortunate  sisters,  from  whom  the  opportunity  of  acquiring 
knowledge  and  the  means  of  self-culture  have  never  been  entirely  withheld;  for 
not  only  are  colored  women  with  ambition  and  aspiration  handicapped  on  account 
of  their  sex,  but  they  are  everywhere  baffled  and  mocked  on  account  of  their  race. 
Desperately  and  continuously  they  are  forced  to  fight  that  opposition,  born  of  a 
cruel,  unreasonable  prejudice  which  neither  their  merit  nor  their  necessity  seems 
able  to  subdue.  Not  only  because  they  are  women,  but  because  they  are  colored 
women,  are  discouragement  and  disappointment  meeting  them  at  every  turn. 
Avocations  opened  and  opportunities  offered  to  their  more-favored  sisters  have 
been  and  are  closed  and  barred  against  them.  While  those  of  the  dominant  race 
have  a  variety  of  trades  and  pursuits  from  which  they  may  choose,  the  woman 
through  whose  veins  one  drop  of  African  blood  is  known  to  flow  is  limited  to  a 
pitiful  few.  So  overcrowded  are  the  avocations  in  which  colored  women  may 
engage  and  so  poor  is  the  pay,  in  consequence,  that  only  the  barest  livelihood  can 
be  eked  out  by  the  rank  and  file.  And  yet,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  encountered 
and  the  obstacles  opposed  to  their  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  their  accumula¬ 
tion  of  property,  the  progress  made  by  colored  women  along  these  lines  has  never 
been  surpassed  by  that  of  any  people  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Though  the 
slaves  were  liberated  less  than  forty  years  ago,  penniless  and  ignorant,  with  neither 
shelter  nor  food,  so  great  was  their  thirst  for  knowledge  and  so  herculean  were 
their  efforts  to  secure  it,  that  there  are  to-day  hundreds  of  negroes,  many  of  them 
women,  who  are  graduates,  some  of  them  having  taken  degrees  from  the  best 
institutions  of  the  land.  From  Oberliu,  that  friend  of  the  oppressed,  whose  name 
will  always  be  loved  and  whose  praise  will  ever  be  sung  as  the  first  college  in  the 
country  which  was  just,  broad,  and  benevolent  enough  to  open  its  doors  to  negroes 
and  to  women  on  an  equal  footing  with  men;  from  Wellesley  and  Yassar,  from 
Cornell  and  Ann  Arbor,  from  the  best  high  schools  throughout  the  North,  East, 
and  West,  colored  girls  have  been  graduated  with  honors,  and  have  thus  forever 
settled  the  question  of  their  capacity  and  worth.  But  a  few  j^ears  ago  in  an 
examination  in  which  a  large  number  of  young  women  and  men  competed  for  a 
scholarship,  entitling  the  successful  competitor  to  an  entire  course  through  the 
Chicago  University,  the  only  colored  girl  among  them  stood  first  and  captured 
this  great  prize.  And  so  wherever  colored  girls  have  studied  their  instructors 
bear  testimony  to  their  intelligence,  diligence,  and  success. 

V/ith  this  increase  of  wisdom  there  has  sprung  up  in  the  hearts  of  colored 
women  an  ardent  desire  to  do  good  in  the  world.  No  sooner  had  the  favored  few 
availed  themselves  of  such  advantages  as  they  could  secure  than  they  hastened  to 
dispense  these  blessings  to  the  less  fortunate  of  their  race.  With  tireless  energy 
and  eager  zeal  colored  women  have,  since  their  emancipation,  been  continuously 
prosecuting  the  work  of  educating  and  elevating  their  race,  as  though  upon  them¬ 
selves  alone  devolved  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  task.  Of  the  teachers 
engaged  in  instructing  colored  youth  it  is  perhaps  no  exaggeration  tp  say  that 
fully  90  per  cent  are  women.1  In  the  backwoods,  remote  from  the  civilization 
and  comforts  of  the  city  and  town,  on  the  plantations,  reeking  with  ignorance  and 
vice,  our  colored  women  may  be  found  battling  with  evils  which  such  conditions 
always  entail.  Many  a  heroine,  of  whom  the  world  will  never  hear,  has  thus  sac¬ 
rificed  her  life  to  her  race,  amid  surroundings  and  in  the  face  of  privations  which 
only  martyrs  can  tolerate  and  bear.  Shirking  responsibility  has  never  been  a 
fault  with  which  colored  women  might  be  truthfully  charged.  Indefatigably  and 
conscientiously  in  public  work  of  all  kinds  they  engage  that  they  may  benefit 
and  elevate  their  race.  The  result  of  this  labor  has  been  prodigious  indeed.  By 
banding  themselves  together  in  the  interest  of  education  and  morality,  by  adopt¬ 
ing  the  most  practical  and  useful  means  to  this  end,  colored  women  have  in  thirty 
short  years  become  a  great  power  for  good.2 

The  home  life  of  a  people  lies  at  the  basis  of  its  progress,  and  by  the  intendment 
of  nature  and  the  decree  of  society  woman  is  regnant  in  the  domestic  sphere.  Let 
it  be  frankly  conceded  that  the  education  of  the  colored  woman  should  be  mainly 
of  an  industrial  and  domestic  character.  The  higher  education  has  a  much  nar¬ 
rower  function  in  general  for  woman  than  it  has  for  man.  In  its  application  to 
the  colored  race  its  function  is  proportionately  restricted  for  the  two  sexes.  If 


This  estimate  is  too  high. 


Progress  of  Colored  Women,  pp.  7-{ 


826 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


the  demand  for  college-bred  men  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  population,  that  for 
colored  women  is  indefinitely  more  so. 

The  programme  laid  down  by  Dr.  Crnmmell  for  the  education  of  the  colored 
woman  of  the  South  has  never  been,  and  perhaps  can  not  be,  improved  upon:1 

1.  Boarding  schools  for  industrial  training. 

2.  Intellectual  training  in  the  rudimentary  branches. 

3.  Domestic  industries. 

4.  The  cultivation  of  flowers,  fruits,  and  vegetables. 

But  there  is  ample  scope  for  the  few  ambitious  and  determined  spirits  in  the 
higher  reaches  of  intellectual  pursuits.  School- teaching  is  very  largely  in  the 
hands  of  colored  women,  and  it  is  necessary  for  those  who  would  occupy  com¬ 
manding  places  in  the  educational  arena  to  equip  themselves  thoroughly  for  such 
exalted  stations.  There  are  other  fields  calling  for  higher  preparation  on  the  part 
of  colored  women.  Not  a  few  such  women  have  entered  the  arena  as  authors, 
lecturers,  and  as  practitioners  in  the  learned  professions.  The  distinctive  schools 
for  colored  girls  which  have  done  and  are  doing  so  much  to  elevate  negro  woman¬ 
hood  are  Scotia  Seminary,  in  North  Carolina;  Spellman  Academy,  in  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  and  Hawthorn  College,  in  Richmond,  Va.  These  schools  do  little  more  than 
cover  the  scope  as  laid  down  in  Dr.  CrummelTs  programme,  although  they  make 
excursions  into  the  field  of  secondary  studies. 

Most  of  the  institutions  for  the  education  of  the  colored  race  admit  women  on 
equal  terms  with  men.  Females  are  to  be  found  in  all  of  the  courses,  although 
they  do  not  so  generally  x>atronize  the  higher  reaches  of  the  curricula. 

The  number  of  graduates  from  the  collegiate  courses  can  be  seen  from  the  accom¬ 
panying  table: 

Colored  women  college  graduates  to  1888 . 

FROM  NORTHERN  INSTITUTIONS.2 


Oberlin  College . .  55 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University _  4 

University  of  Kansas . .  3 

University  of  Michigan . .  3 

Cornell  University  . . 3 

Wellesley  College _ 2 

Wittenberg  University .  2 

Geneva  University .  2 

Butler  U ni versify . .  1 


University  of  Iowa . 1 

Adrian  College . 1 

University  of  Idaho _ _  1 

Bates  College _ _ . _  1 

V assar  College . 1 

Mount  Holyoke  College .  1 

Me  Ken  dree  University  . .  1 

Total _ 82 


FROM  SOUTHERN  INSTITUTIONS. 


Fisk  University . 31 

Shaw  University .  21 

Wilber  force  University .  19 

Paul  Quinn  College . . .  13 

Knoxville  College  . . 10 

Atlanta  U niversity . .  8 

Southland  University  . . 8 

Howard  University . .  8 

Central  Tennessee  College .  7 

Rust  University . .  7 

Livingstone  College . 6 

Claflin  University . . .  6 

New  Orleans  University. . .  5 

Philander  Smith  College .  5 


Roger  Williams  University _  5 

Berea  College _  4 

Leiand  University . .  1 

Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  In¬ 
stitute  _ 1 

Paine  Institute _ _ 1 

Straight  University . . 1 

Branch  University _ 1 

Clark  University . 1 

Allen  University . 1 

Total . 170 

Grand  total . . 252 


1  Africa  and  America,  p.  80. 


2  Du  Bois:  College-bred  Negro,  p.  55. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


827 


There  have  been  82  colored  women  to  graduate  from  Northern  and  170  from 
Southern  colleges.  Of  the  colored  colleges,  only  two  institutions,  both  of  which 
are  under  control  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  do  not  admit  girls. 

In  the  year  1898-99,  of  the  college  students  of  Howard,  Atlanta,  Fisk,  and 
Shaw  22  per  cent  were  females.  The  proportion  shows  a  decided  tendency  to 
increase. 1 

Of  100  college-bred  women  reporting  their  conjugal  condition,  one-half  had  been 
married.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  tendency  of  college-bred  women  to  marry 
and  develop  cultivated  homes.  The  great  need  of  the  negro  is  to  develop  a  higher 
tone  of  family  life.  The  highest  culture  of  negro  women  will  not  have  been  in 
vain  if  it  is  exploited  in  the  domestic  sphere.  There  have  been  2,272  college-bred 
negro  men  and  252  negro  women,  making  a  total  of  2,524,  of  whom  the  females 
constitute  10  per  cent.  These  college-bred  women  are  or  have  been  for  the  most 
part  engaged  in  the  work  of  teaching.  Their  influence  for  good  has  been  felt  in 
scores  of  communities  throughout  the  country.  Many  of  them  have  become  wives 
of  influential  colored  men,  and  have  thus  merged  their  talent  and  influence  with 
the  work  of  their  helpmates  and  the  development  of  cultivated  family  life. 

Mention  might  be  made  of  a  few  college-bred  women  who  may  be  regarded  as 
typical,  albeit  perhaps  a  little  more  conspicuous  than  the  general  average  of  their 
class. 

Mrs.  Fannie  Jackson  Coppin:2  Fannie  M.  Jackson  was  born  a  slave  in  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  in  1837,  and  was  purchased  by  her  aunt.  She  was  sent  to  Oberlin 
College,  where  she  was  graduated  with  honor. 

She  has  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  colored  person  to  teach  a  class  at  Ober¬ 
lin  College,  which  she  taught  with  good  success  for  two  years.  In  1865  she  took  a 
position  in  the  Institute  for  Colored  Youth,  Philadelphia,  and  in  1869  was  made 
principal  of  that  institution,  which  position  she  has  held  for  thirty  years.  She  is 
the  wife  of  Bishop  Levi  J.  Coppin,  of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Perhaps  no  single  individual  influence  among  the  colored  race  has  done  so  much  to 
stimulate  high  aspirations  and  zeal  for  knowledge  and  service  as  Fannie  Jackson 
Coppin. 

‘'Without  doubt  she  is  the  most  thoroughly  competent  and  successful  of  the 
colored  women  teachers  of  her  time,  and  her  example  of  race  pride,  industry, 
enthusiasm,  and  nobility  of  character  will  remain  the  inheritance  and  inspiration 
of  the  pupils  of  the  school  she  helped  to  make  the  pride  of  the  colored  people  of 
Pennsylvania.  ” 3 

Miss  Lucy  E.  Laney  is  a  graduate  of  Atlanta  University.  She  has,  mainly  by 
her  own  endeavor,  built  up  the  Haines  Institute,  of  Augusta,  Ga. ,  of  which  she  is 
principal.  This  institution  is  under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
is  one  of  the  best  secondary  schools  in  the  South. 

Mrs.  Booker  T.  Washington,  wife  of  Prof.  Booker  T.  Washington,  principal  of 
Tuskegee  Institute,  Tuskegee,  Ala.,  was  graduated  from  Fisk  University  in  the 
class  of  1889.  She  was  a  teacher  at  Tuskegee,  where  she  met  and  married  Pro¬ 
fessor  Washington.  She  is  a  co worker  with  her  distinguished  husband  and  has 
been  very  successful  in  improving  the  social  life  of  the  black  people  in  the  black 
belt  of  Alabama.  She  is  vice-president  of  the  National  Association  of  Colored 
Women. 

Mrs.  Anna  J.  Cooper  was  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C.  Mrs.  Cooper  entered  Oberlin 
College  in  1881,  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  Rev.  G.  A.  C.  Cooper,  a  talented 


1  College-bred  Negro,  p.  57. 

2  The  interesting  work,  Women  of  Distinction,  by  L.  A.  Scruggs,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  published  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  1893,  contains  an  account  of  a  long  list  of  notable  colored  women.  Much  of  the 
information  presented  is  from  this  book,  although  it  has  been  confirmed  by  other  sources  of 
information  and  brought  nearer  to  date. 

3  Williams’s  History  of  the  Negro  Race,  Vol.  II,  p.  449. 


828 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Episcopal  divine.  She  was  graduated  from  Oberlin  in  1884  and  has  taught  at 
Wilherforce  University,  Wilberforce,  Ohio,  St.  Augustine  Normal  School,  Raleigh, 
N.  0.,  and  the  Colored  High  School,  W ashington,  D.  C.,  of  which  she  is  at  present 
the  principal.  Her  booh,  A  Voice  from  the  South,  has  elicited  flattering  enco¬ 
miums  from  competent  critics  and  forms  a  valuable  part  of  the  literature  of  the 
the  race  problem. 

Mrs.  Mary  Church  Terrell  was  born  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  was  graduated 
from  Oberlin  College  in  1884.  She  has  taught  at  Wilberforce  University  and  the 
Washington  High  School;  has  served  as  trustee  of  the  public  schools  of  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.,  and  was  the  first  president  of  the  National  Association  of  Colored 
Women.  Mrs.  Terrell  is  listed  among  the  regular  lecturers  before  the  Western 
Summer  Chautauquas,  where  her  addresses  are  always  well  received. 

Mrs.  Josephine  Turpin  Washington  was  born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  and  was  grad¬ 
uated  from  Howard  University  in  1888.  She  taught  for  several  years  in  her  alma 
mater  before  she  was  married  to  Dr.  S.  S.  H.  Washington,  of  Alabama.  She  has 
written  quite  widely  in  Southern  and  Northern  papers  and  magazines  and  is 
well  known  as  a  worker  for  the  general  social  betterment  of  the  people. 

College-bred  women  are  everywhere  doing  their  full  share  to  lift  the  social 
life  of  the  race  to  a  higher  level,  which  is  ample  justification  of  the  training  they 
have  received. 

The  strivings  and  triumphs  of  colored  women  are  well  expressed  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  citation: 

And  so,  lifting  as  we  climb,  onward  and  upward  we  go.  struggling  and  striving 
and  hoping  that  the  buds  and  blossoms  of  our  desires  will  burst  into  glorious  frui¬ 
tion  ere  long.  With  courage  born  of  success  in  the  past,  with  a  keen  sense  of  the 
responsibility  which  we  shall  continue  to  assume,  we  look  forward  to  a  future 
large  with  promise  and  hope.1 

In  the  fruition  of  these  desires  and  the  fulfillment  of  this  crescent  promise  the 
higher  education  will  exercise  no  inconsiderable  influence. 

VI.— The  Origin  of  the  Negro  College. 

Before  plunging  “in  medias  res,”  as  Horace  would  say,  let  us  take  a  brief  sur¬ 
vey  of  the  educational  opportunities  of  the  colored  race  before  the  war.  Schools 
for  persons  of  color  had  been  established  and  maintained  at  scattered  points 
throughout  the  North  for  well  nigh  two  hundred  years.  These  schools  usually  met 
with  the  good  will  and  approval  of  the  white  people  in  the  several  communities, 
although  in  some  instances  hostility  and  opposition  were  encountered.  Several 
States  from  the  earliest  times  admitted  colored  pupils  to  the  general  school  system 
without  distinction.  One  searches  their  records  in  vain  for  any  legislation  upon 
this  question.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  colored  girl  who  was  the  initial, 
though  innocent,  cause  of  Miss  Prudence  Crandall's  troubles  had  received  her  pri¬ 
mary  education  in  the  district  schools  of  Connecticut  along  with  white  pupils. 
In  general,  however,  it  might  be  said  that  the  ante-helium  opportunities  for  an 
education  on  the  part  of  the  colored  man  were  few  and  far  apart.  The  training 
obtained  in  the  schools  was  of  the  most  meager  and  rudimentary  sort.  It 
embraced  the  fundamental  processes,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  and  but 
little  more.  In  the  larger  centers,  such  as  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Balti¬ 
more,  efforts  wTere  made,  with  more  or  less  success,  to  establish  academies  and 
schools  of  higher  training.  A  few  white  institutions  would  now  and  then  admit 
a  colored  man  who  was  preparing  for  the  ministry.  An  occasional  college  would 
open  its  doors  to  him,  but  not  very  often  and  not  very  wide.  It  was  late  in  the 
forties,  1  believe,  when  Harvard  first  let  him  in.  When  the  colored  applicant* 


1  The  Progress  of  Colored  Women,  by  Mrs.  Mary  Church  Terrell,  p.  15. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


829 


Williams  by  name,  first  knocked  at  the  door  of  this  ancient  seat  of  learning  there 
was  great  confusion  and  uproar.  The  usual  tactics  were  resorted  to— the  patrons 
threatened  to  withdraw  their  support— but  President  Everett  manifested  that 
deliberate  courage  which  always  conquers.  He  informed  the  objectors  that  if 
every  other  student  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  institution  he  would  use  all  of 
its  resources  and  machinery  to  educate  this  sole  colored  man.  Dartmouth  College 
was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  for  the  education  of  the 
Indians.  So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  it  has  never  made  any  discrimi¬ 
nation  on  account  of  race  or  color.  Those  who  have  gone  unto  her  with  the 
proper  intellectual  and  moral  qualifications  she  has  in  no  wise  cast  out. 

By  all  odds  the  greatest  stimulus  which  the  educational  interest  of  the  colored 
race  received  before  the  war  was  the  foundation  of  Oberlin  College  in  1833.  A 
few  other  institutions  extended  to  colored  youth  a  cold  permission;  Oberlin  a  warm 
welcome.  She  cordially  invited  all  colored  people  who  were  hungering  and  thirst¬ 
ing  after  knowledge  to  come  unto  her  and  be  supplied.  This,  indeed,  they  did. 
They  flocked  to  her  in  such  numbers  that  in  1865  fully  one-third  of  the  students 
of  Oberlin  College  were  of  the  colored  race.  The  policy  of  Oberlin  in  this  regard 
can  not  be  better  set  forth  than  was  done  by  Miss  Sophia  Jex  Blake,  an  English 
woman,  who  visited  the  leading  American  schools  and  colleges  in  1865,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  studying  their  coeducational  feature  as  applied  to  women.  In  her  report 
published  in  England,  entitled  A  Visit  to  American  Schools,  we  read: 

In  1834-35,  the  trustees  [of  Oberlin]  took  up  their  definite  position  with  regard 
to  one  of  the  questions  then  even  more  bitterly  agitated  than  now,  and  decided  it 
by  the  free  admission  of  all  colored  students  on  equal  terms  with  the  whites.  This 
step  marks  an  epoch  in  the  educational  history  of  America;  for  though  solitary 
colored  students  had  been  admitted  to  Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire,  and 
possibly  elsewhere,  no  such  proclamation  of  welcome  had  hitherto  gone  forth 
from  any  educational  body,  and  the  extreme  opposition  which  the  measure  called 
forth  is  the  best  testimony  to  the  merits  of  its  supporters. 

The  Ashum  Institute  was  established  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1853,  and 
chartered  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1854.  Its  aim  and  purpose  are 
clearly  set  forth  by  the  action  cf  the  Presbytery  which  founded  it:  “There  shall 
be  established  within  our  bounds  and  under  our  supervision  an  institution  called 
the  Ashum  Institute,  for  the  scientific,  classical,  and  theological  education  of  col¬ 
ored  youth  of  the  male  sex.”  This  institution  still  survives  under  the  name  of 
Lincoln  University.  It  is  the  largest  and  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  useful  of 
the  negro  colleges. 

When  we  turn  from  the  North  to  the  South,  we  are  confronted  by  an  appalling 
situation.  As  we  look  upon  the  intellectual  horizon  and  mental  sky,  despair  and 
gloom  are  everywhere— “  darkness  there  and  nothing  more.”  Here  and  there  it 
was  indeed  possible  to  find  a  few  negroes  who  had  furtively  snatched  a  few  mor¬ 
sels  of  knowledge.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  slavery,  it  was  not  uncommon  to  find 
slaves  who  had  been  taught  to  read  and  write.  But  the  Missouri  compromise,  the 
Nat  Turner  insurrection,  and  the  growing  abolition  sentiment  of  the  North  in¬ 
flamed  the  Southern  passion.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  antinegro  sentiment 
reached  the  acute  stage  of  malignity.  The  legislation  of  most  of  the  Southern 
States  forbidding  the  teaching  of  negroes  bears  about  the  same  date. 

The  educational  value  of  slavery  is  thus  portrayed  by  Col.  George  W.  Williams: 

The  institution  of  A.merican  slavery  needed  protection  from  the  day  of  its  birth 
to  the  day  of  its  death.  Whips,  thumbscrews,  and  manacles  of  iron  were  far 
less  helpful  to  it  than  the  thraldom  of  the  intellects  of  its  helpless  victims,1 

The  real  intellectual  life  of  the  race  began  with  the  overthrow  of  slavery.  This 
applies  to  the  North  as  well  as  to  the  South.  When  the  smoke  of  war  had  blown 


1  History  of  the  Negro  Race,  by  George  W.  Williams,  Vol.  II,  p.  147. 


830 


EDUCATION  EE  PORT,  1900-1901. 


away,  when  the  cessation  of  strife  proclaimed  the  end  of  the  great  American  con¬ 
flict,  when  “  the  war  drum  throbbed  no  longer,  and  the  battle  flags  were  furled,” 
there  emerged  from  the  wreck  and  ruin  of  war  4,000,000  of  human  chattels,  who 
were  transformed,  as  if  by  magic,  in  a  moment,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  from 
slavery  to  freedom,  from  bondage  to  liberty,  from  death  unto  life.  These  people 
were  absolutely  ignorant  and  destitute.  They  had  not  tasted  of  the  tree  of  knowl¬ 
edge  which  is  the  tree  of  good  and  evil.  This  tree  was  guarded  by  the  flaming 
swords  of  wrath,  kept  keen  and  bright  by  the  avarice  and  cupidity  of  the  master 
class.  No  enlightened  tongue  had  explained  to  them  the  deep  moral  purpose  of 
the  Ten  Commandments  and  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  They  were  blind  alike 
as  to  the  intellectual  and  moral  principles  of  life.  Ignorance,  poverty,  and  vice, 
the  trinity  of  human  wretchedness,  brooded  over  this  degraded  mass  and  made  it 
pregnant.  The  world  looked  and  wondered.  What  is  to  be  the  destiny  of  this 
people?  Happily  at  this  tragic  juncture  of  affairs,  they  were  touched  with  the 
magic  wand  of  education.  The  formless  mass  assumed  symmetry  and  shape. 
Order  began  to  rise  out  of  chaos.  Contrast  that  day  with  this  day.  Turn  back 
40  pages  of  the  leaves  of  history.  Look  on  this  picture,  and  then  on  that.  The 
words  of  prophecy  are  fulfilled:  “  Though  ye  have  lien  among  the  pots,  yet  shall 
ye  be  as  the  wings  of  a  dove  covered  with  silver,  and  her  feathers  with  yellow 
gold.”  Nowhere  in  the  whole  sweep  of  history  has  the  transforming  effect  of 
intelligence  had  a  higher  test  of  its  power.  Nothing  is  great  or  small,  high  or 
low,  except  by  comparison.  The  same  power,  mainly  educational,  that  has  brought 
the  negro  safe  thus  far,  will  lead  him  on  and  on  until  he  reaches  the  climax  of  his 
destiny. 

The  circumstances  amid  which  this  work  had  its  inception  read  like  the  swift¬ 
changing  scenes  of  a  mighty  drama.  The  armies  of  the  North  are  in  sight  of  victory. 
Lincoln  issues  his  immortal  emancipation  proclamation;  Sherman,  with  consum¬ 
mate  military  skill  destroys  the  Confederate  base  of  supplies  and  marches  through 
Georgia  triumphant  to  the  sea;  Grant  is  on  his  road  to  Richmond;  the  Confederate 
flag  has  fallen;  Lee  has  surrendered;  the  whole  North  joins  in  one  concerted  chorus: 
“  Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord.”  These  thrilling  epi¬ 
sodes  will  stir  our  patriotic  emotions  to  the  latest  generations.  But  in  the  track 
of  the  Northern  army  there  followed  a  band  of  heroes  to  do  battle  in  a  worthier 
cause.  Theirs  was  no  carnal  warfare.  They  did  not  battle  against  flesh  and 
blood,  but  against  the  powers  of  darkness  intrenched  in  the  ignorance  of  a  degraded 
people.  A  worthier  band  has  never  furnished  theme  or  song  for  sage  or  bard. 
These  noble  women — for  these  noble  people  were  mostly  of  the  female  sex — left 
homes,  their  friends,  their  social  ties,  and  all  that  they  held  dear,  to  go  to  the  far 
South  to  labor  among  the  recently  emancipated  slaves.  Their  courage,  their  self- 
sacrificing  devotion,  sincerity  of  purpose  and  purity  of  motive,  and  their  unshaken 
faith  in  God  were  their  pass  keys  to  the  hearts  of  those  for  whom  they  came  to 
labor.  They  were  sustained  by  an  unbounded  enthusiasm  and  zeal  amounting 
almost  to  fanaticism.  No  mercenary  or  sordid  motive  attaches  to  their  fair 
names.  They  gave  the  highest  proof  that  the  nineteenth  century,  at  least,  has 
afforded  that  Christianity  has  not  yet  degenerated  into  a  dead  formula  and  barren 
intellectualism,  but  that  it  is  a  living,  vital  power.  Their  works  do  follow  them. 
What  colored  man  is  there  in  all  this  land  who  has  not  felt  the  uplifting  effect  of 
their  labors?  Their  monument  is  builded  in  the  hopes  of  a  race  strugglingupward 
from  ignorance  to  enlightenment,  from  corruption  to  purity  of  life.  These  are  they 
who  sowed  the  seed  of  intelligence  in  the  soil  of  ignorance  and  planted  the  rose  of 
virtue  in  the  garden  of  dishonor  and  shame.  They  had  no  foregoers;  they  have 
left  no  successors.  It  is  said  that  gratitude  is  the  fairest  flower  which  sheds  its 
perfume  in  the  human  heart.  As  long  as  the  human  heart  beats  in  grateful 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


831 


response  to  benefits  received,  these  women  shall  not  want  a  monument  of  living 
ebony  and  bronze. 

The  National  Government  inaugurated  the  work  of  education  among  the  colored 
people  of  the  South.  Early  in  the  war,  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant  appointed  Rev.  John 
Eaton,  afterwards  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  to  take  charge  of 
the  instruction  of  the  colored  people  who  were  following  in  the  wake  of  his  army. 
The  work  developed  into  enormous  proportions.  General  Banks  undertook  similar 
work  in  New  Orleans.  The  Union  Army  was  turned  into  a  band  of  schoolmasters. 
Teachers  from  the  North  came  down  to  work  under  the  protection  of  the  Federal 
Army.  Northern  churches  and  benevolent  associations  soon  entered  the  field. 
Freedmen’s  aid  societies  were  organized  in  all  the  leading  denominations.  Con¬ 
tributions  poured  in  both  from  this  country  and  from  Europe.  This  work  on  the 
part  of  the  Government  soon  grew  too  large  and  bulky  to  be  wisely  managed  by 
disjointed  agencies.  In  1864  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  was  organized,  with  Gen. 
O.  O.  Howard  at  its  head.  The  working  of  this  bureau  is  too  well  known  to  need 
comment  here.  The  reports  of  General  Alvord,  the  superintendent  of  education 
for  the  bureau,  are  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of  this  subject.  The 
work  of  the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  was  largely  that  of  education.  It  confined  its 
efforts  chiefly  to  building  schoolhouses  and  furnishing  facilities  of  instruction, 
leaving  Northern  benevolence  to  supply  and  support  teachers.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  General  Government  thus  spent  fully  $5,000,000  for  the  education  of  the 
freedmen. 

The  need  of  the  higher  education  was  soon  felt.  Teachers  and  leaders  must  be 
provided.  Hence  arose  the  negro  college  and  university.  When  the  Freedmen’s 
Bureau  came  to  an  end  it  turned  its  educational  interests  over  to  religious  and 
benevolent  societies,  which  had  cooperated  with  it  in  the  wTork.  About  this  time 
also  the  reconstruction  movement  was  under  way.  A  great  many  things  have 
been  written  in  condemnation  of  this  unwise  experiment  in  government.  The 
rule  of  black  ignorance  under  the  guidance  of  white  villainy  proved  a  failure. 
But  it  has  left  the  South  one  monument  that  should  take  away  some  of  the  unsa¬ 
vory  flavor  from  its  memory.  It  established  the  public-school  system  throughout 
the  South,  and  thereby  conferred  upon  that  section  the  greatest  boon  which  it  has 
received  since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  It  i3  upon  this  corner  stone  that 
the  South  must  build  all  her  hopes  for  future  years.  Naturally  enough  the  reli¬ 
gious  and  denominational  associations  did  not  want  their  work  swallowed  up  in 
the  public-school  system.  These  schools  became  chartered  institutions.  They 
assumed  the  high-sounding  name  of  college  or  university,  while  their  work  was 
mostly  of  an  elementary  character. 

In  addition  to  the  institutions  of  the  class  above  described,  almost  every  South¬ 
ern  State  has  established  a  State  college  for  colored  youth  as  an  offset  to  the  State 
institutions  maintained  for  the  whites.  The  National  Government  appropriates  a 
large  sum  of  money  for  colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  Wherever 
a  State  has  separate  schools  it  is  stipulated  that  the  division  of  this  fund  between 
the  races  must  be  in  numerical  proportion  to  their  numbers.  Thus  the  negro 
colleges  were  born  in  weakness.  May  they  be  raised  in  power. 

The  accompanying  table  will  show  the  order  in  wdiich  the  negro  colleges  were 
established,  and  under  what  auspices  they  were  founded  and  supported. 


832 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
Negro  colleges ,  in  the  order  of  establishment. 


College 

depart¬ 

ment 

estab¬ 

lished. 


Name. 


Founded  by — 


1864. 

lsr,6. 

1868. 


Lincoln  University . 

Wilberforce  University. 
Howard  University - 


1869. 

1870. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 
1872. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 
1874. 
1874. 
1874. 

1874.. 
1878. 

1878.. 

1879.. 

1879 .. 

1880.. 
1880. . 
1882.. 
1883.. 

1883.. 

1885 .. 
1885 .. 

1885.. 

1890.. 

1890.. 

1893.. 

1894.. 
1894 .. 
1894.. 


Berea  College . 

Leland  University . 

Benedict  College . . . 

Fisk  University . 

Atlanta  University.. . 

Biddle  University . 

Southland  College. . 

Roger  Williams  University . 

Central  Tennessee  College . . . . 

New  Orleans  University . 

Shaw  University  . . 

Rust  University . . . 

Straight  University  . . . 

Branch  College  (Arkansas) . 

Claflin  University . . 

Knoxville  College . . . . . 

Clark  University . . 

Alcorn  University  (Mississippi) . . 

Wiley  University . . 

Paine  University . . . . 

Allen  University  . . . . 

Livingstone  College . 

Talladega  College . . . . . 

Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  Institute 

Paul  Quinn  College . . 

Lincoln  Institute . . 

Morris  Brown  College . 

Atlanta  Baptist  College . . 

Georgia  State  Industrial  College . 

Delaware  State  College . 

Philander  Smith  College . . 


Presbyterians. 

African  Methodists. 

Freedman’s  Bureau,  United  States 
Government. 

American  Missionary  Association. 
Mr.  H.  Chamberlain. 

Baptists. 

American  Missiouarv  Association. 
Do. 

Presbyterians. 

Friends. 

Baptists. 

Methodists. 

Do. 

Baptists. 

Methodists. 

American  Missionary  Association. 
State. 

Methodists. 

Presbyterians. 

Methodists. 

State. 

Methodists. 

Southern  Methodists. 

African  Methodists. 

Zion  Methodists. 

American  Missionary  Association. 
State. 

African  Methodists. 

Colored  soldiers  and  State. 

African  Methodists. 

Baptists. 

State. 

Do. 

Methodists. 


1  Taken  from  the  College-Bred  Negro. 

VII,  Work,  Ways,  and  Future  of  Negro  Colleges. 

“New  occasions  teach  new  duties.”  The  conditions  out  of  which  the  colored 
institutions  grew  are  quite  different  from  those  by  which  they  are  surrounded 
to-day.  A  great  wave  of  philanthropic  enthusiasm  swept  the  country  immedi¬ 
ately  after  the  war.  Institutions  had  been  founded  to  meet  the  immediate  needs 
of  the  situation.  These  schools  must  adjust  themselves  to  the  change  of  environ¬ 
ments.  The  experimental  stage  has  passed.  The  following  announcement  of  the 
trustees  of  the  John  F.  Slater  fund  is  eloquent  with  suggestion: 

“The  trustees  believe  that  tlie  experimental  period  in  the  education  of  the 
blacks  is  drawing  to  a  close.  Certain  principles  that  were  doubted  thirty  years 
ago  now  appear  to  be  generally  recognized  as  sound.  In  the  next  thirty  years 
better  systems  will  undoubtedly  prevail.”1 

When  these  schools  were  first  founded  the  work  was  an  untried  experiment, 
now  it  is  settling  into  definite' lines;  then  the  great  demand  was  to  provide  teach¬ 
ers,  now  there  are  more  teachers  than  can  be  supplied  with  schools;  then  the 
public-school  system  had  not  been  organized  in  the  South,  now  schools  are  well 
established  in  all  the  States;  then  high  and  normal  schools  were  unknown,  now 
each  Southern  State  has  one  or  more  of  them  under  its  jurisdiction.  The  relation 
between  private  and  public  schools  is  one  of  primary  importance.  There  is  some 
jealousy  and  not  a  little  rivalry  between  them  in  many  instances.  The  private 
schools  were  first  in  the  field  and  do  not  wish  to  give  way.  It  is,  however,  decid¬ 
edly  unwise  for  private  instruction  to  rival  the  public  Schools  in  their  legitimate 


The  trustees  of  the  John  F.  Slater  fund,  Occasional  Papers,  No.  1,  page  4. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


833 


territory.  According  to  our  theory  of  government  primary  education  is  the  duty 
of  the  State.  It  is  true  that  the  Southern  States  are  too  poor  to  do  their  full  duty 
in  this  regard.  The  effort  which  they  put  forth,  however,  is  commendable  in  th© 
highest  degree.  No  other  community  in  this  country  lays  such  heavy  propor¬ 
tional  taxes  upon  itself  for  school  purposes  as  the  South. 

Any  supplement  to  the  public  schools  of  the  South  has  always  been  welcome. 
The  Peabody  and  Slater  funds  have  added  greatly  to  the  educational  progress  of 
that  section.  But  the  question  arises  as  to  the  wisdom  of  private  institutions, 
calling  themselves  colleges  and  universities,  duplicating  the  work  of  the  public 
schools.  An  examination  of  the  catalogues  of  many  of  the  colored  colleges  will 
show  that  they  are  for  the  most  part  huge  primary  schools  with  the  college  course 
attached  for  ornament  and  style. 

Proportion  of  college  students  to  total  enrollment  in  negro  colleges ,  1898-99, 


College. 

College 

students. 

Secondary 

students. 

Primary 

students. 

Lincoln _ ............ _ ... _ ....... _ _ 

135 

0 

0 

Biddle  . 

69 

135 

0 

Fisk  . . . . . . . 

51 

180 

183 

Howard _  _ .... _ _ _ _ _ 

42 

325 

0 

Shaw.  _ _ _ _ _ 

37 

225 

0 

Atlanta . . . 

33 

230 

22 

Wilberforce _ _ _ _ _ _ 

31 

159 

59 

Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  Institute _ 

28 

138 

162 

Lelan d  ..  .  .  _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ _ 

20 

34 

33 

Livingstone  - _ - _ - _ _ _ _ 

20 

52 

159 

Allen  _  .  .  _ _ _ 

19 

111 

149 

State  College  (Delaware). _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

18 

21 

0 

Knoxville _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ .... 

18 

94 

145 

Claflin  (1897-98) . . . 

17 

109 

553 

Clark . . . . . . . . . . . 

16 

108. 

322 

Philander  Smith _ _ _ _ _ _ 

15 

69 

238 

Roger  Williams . . . . . . . . . . 

15 

99 

74 

New  Orleans  _ _ _ _ _ 

14 

37 

275 

Georgia  State  . . . . . . . . 

12 

72 

140 

Paine  _ _ _ _ 

10 

180 

80 

Talladega _ _ _ _ _ 

9 

66 

129 

Rust . . . . . . . 

9 

76 

125 

Atlanta  Baptist  ■  _  __  _  _  .  . 

9 

25 

66 

Arkansas  Baptist . . . . . . . 

9 

32 

142 

Straight . . . . . . . . 

8 

131 

382 

Southland . . . . . . . . . 

8 

57 

70 

Southern . . . . . . 

7 

66 

341 

Wiley . . . 

5 

49 

288 

Branch  (Arkansas) . 

2 

57 

129 

The  poet  Horace  tells  us  that  a  lawyer  of  mediocre  ability  may  be  held  in  high 
esteem,  though  he  be  not  so  eloquent  as  Messalla  nor  so  learned  as  Aulus;  but 
neither  gods  nor  men  nor  booksellers  will  tolerate  a  mediocre  poet.  What  the 
Apulian  bard  remarks  of  the  poet  will  apply  with  equal  force  to  a  college.  There 
can  be  no  excuse  or  toleration  for  an  inferior  institution  of  high  pretension.  The 
old  adage,  “a  whole  loaf  or  none,”  suggests  a  principle  that  is  at  once  salutary 
and  sound .  One  had  better  remain  untaught  in  the  higher  branches  of  learning 
than  to  be  imperfectly  instructed.  From  an  intellectual  standpoint  it  is  better 
not  to  see  at  all  than  to  see  through  a  glass  darkly.  The  worst  possible  condition 
of  the  mind  is  to  have  it  crammed  with  smatterings  of  undigested  and  unassimilated 
knowledge.  This  is  the  state  of  mind  from  which  spring  bigotry,  conceit,  and 
shallow  pretense.  A  self-respecting  individual  can  not  afford  to  be  very  different 
in  his  dress  and  habits  of  life  from  the  society  in  which  he  moves;  if  he  finds  it 
too  difficult  to  keep  pace  with  his  class,  he  is  relegated  to  the  grade  below  by  the 
law  of  social  gravitation.  So  it  is  with  an  institution  of  learning;  it  can  not 
afford  to  be  much  different  from  other  schools  of  like  grade  and  pretension ;  and 
if  it  can  not  maintain  itself  on  such  a  plane,  it  had  better  fall  back  to  the  next 
lower  grade  of  academy  or  htting  school.  Colored  colleges  need  not  expect 

ED  1901 - 53 


834 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


exemption  from  the  usual  tests  of  excellence.  Knowledge  is  color-blind.  Science 
and  philosophy  do  not  accommodate  themselves  to  the  various  hues  of  the  human 
species. 

The  requirements  for  admission  to  colored  colleges,  as  well  as  the  extent  of 
courses  and  allotment  of  time  to  the  several  subjects  of  study,  may  be  seen  from 
the  accompanying  tables: 


j Requirements  for  admission  to  negro  colleges. 


Length 

Number  of  years  of  preparatory  study 
required  in— 

Weeks 

of 

study 

per 

year. 

Institution. 

of  pre¬ 
paratory 
course. 

Latin. 

Greek. 

Mathe¬ 

matics. 

English. 

Other 

impor¬ 

tant 

studies. 

Lincoln . 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

i 

32 

Biddle . 

2 

2 

1 

li 

1 

1 

35 

Fisk . . 

3 

3 

2 

2 1 

0 

21 

37 

Howard . - . 

4 

4 

2 

24 

It 

2 

36 

Shaw . 

2 

2 

1 

o' 

o 

2 

32 

Atlanta . 

3 

3 

1 

o 

1 

3 

34 

Wilberforce . . . 

Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  In¬ 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

If 

39 

stitute  . 

2 

2 

0 

If 

If 

U 

33 

Leland . . 

4 

3 

2 

3  f 

* 

If 

31 

Livingstone . 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

5 

28 

Paul  Quinn . 

3 

3 

2 

3 

0 

2 

36 

From  this  it  would  seem  that  these  colleges  ranked  in  the  severity  of  their 
entrance  requirements  about  as  follows: 

1.  Howard:  Nearly  equal  to  the  smaller  New  England  colleges. 

2.  Fisk,  Atlanta,  Wilberforce,  .Leland,  Paul  Quinn:  From  one  to  two  years 
behind  smaller  New  England  colleges. 

3.  Biddle,  Shaw,  Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  Institute,  Livingstone:  From 
two  to  three  years  behind  smaller  New  England  colleges. 

4.  Lincoln:  A  little  above  an  ordinary  New  England  high  school. 

Table  showing  what  fractional  part  of  the  four-years’  college  course  is  devoted  to 

certain  studies. 


Institution. 

College 

pre¬ 

paratory 

course 

of— 

1 

English. 

Modern 

lan¬ 

guages. 

Ancient 

lan¬ 

guages. 

Natural 

science. 

Political 
science, 
history, 
and  phi¬ 
losophy. 

Mathe¬ 

matics. 

Howard _ _ 

Years. 

4 

1-8 

1-16 

1-4 

1-8 

1-4 

1-16 

Fisk . . . 

3 

1-30 

1-6 

1-3 

1-5 

1-6 

1-8 

Atlanta _ _ 

3 

1-16 

1-13 

1-3 

1-6 

1-4 

1-7 

Wilberforce . 

3 

1-18 

1-2 

1-5 

1-9 

1-7 

Leland . . . . 

4 

1-15 

1-3 

1-4 

1-5 

1-7 

Paul  Quinn . 

3 

1-20 

1-20 

1-3 

1-5 

1-5 

1-7 

Biddle . 

2 

1-12 

1-12 

1-3 

1-6 

1-7 

1-6 

Shaw . 

2 

1-6 

1-8 

1-5 

1-5 

1-6 

1-8 

Virginia  Normal  and  Colle¬ 
giate  Institute . 

2 

1-15 

1-8 

1-3 

1-9 

1-7 

1-5 

Livingstone _ _ 

2 

1-10 

1-2 

1-9 

1-10 

1-6 

Lincoln . . . . . 

1-7 

2-5 

1-9 

1-9 

1-5 

THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO, 


835 


Approximate  distribution  of  work  in  negro  colleges. 
[Hours  of  recitation  per  week  for  the  year.] 
FRESHMEN. 


Howard. 

Fisk. 

Atlanta. 

Wilberforce. 

Leland. 

Paul  Quinn. 

Biddle. 

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and  Collegiate 

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1  Ten  additional  hours  to  be  chosen  from  these.  The  figures  in  parentheses  indicate  a  prob¬ 
able  course. 

2  Five  and  one-third  hours  of  electives  to  be  chosen  from  these.  The  figures  in  parentheses 
indicate  a  probable  course. 

The  best  of  these  schools  are  almost  on  par  with  the  average  New  England 
college,  so  far  as  standard  of  admission  and  reach  and  range  of  curriculum  are 
concerned.  Howard  University  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list.  It  would  certainly 
not  fall  far  below  the  prevailing  collegiate  standard,  with  Fisk  and  Atlanta  as 
close  seconds.  From  these  the  range  is  downward  until  they  reach  the  level  of  a 
New  England  fitting  school. 

The  chartered  institutions  are  usually  located  in  the  large  centers  of  population, 
where  the  provisions  for  public  institutions  are  more  or  less  ample.  Men  who 


836 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


have  carefully  studied  the  situation  are  asking  themselves  the  question  whether 
it  is  good  policy  to  entreat  Northern  philanthropy  to  carry  on  a  work  which  the 
States  themselves  can  more  easily  perform.  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  will  be 
outside  benevolence  to  assist  in  this  work  for  a  long  time  to  come.  Begging  at 
best  is  a  disagreeable  task.  It  should  never  be  indulged  in  unless  there  is  some 
overshadowing  necessity.  It  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  thoughtful  observers, 
as  well  as  the  dictate  of  common  prudence,  that  these  institutions  should  relegate 
to  the  public  schools  all  the  work  that  properly  belongs  there,  and  should  confine 
their  energies  to  that  class  of  work  which  falls  beyond,  or  at  least  outside  of,  the 
range  of  public  instruction. 

The  relative  influence  of  white  and  colored  men  in  the  management  and  conduct 
of  the  schools  is  a  matter  of  much  moment  and  not  a  little  delicacy.  This  ques¬ 
tion,  however,  is  a  persistent  one.  It  will  not  down  at  our  bidding  and  has  no 
regard  for  our  delicate  scruples;  it  requires  brave,  heroic  treatment;  it  should  be 
handled  wTith  all  the  plainness  of  English  speech.  Most  of  these  schools  are  under 
the  management  and  control  of  some  church  or  religious  organization.  These 
societies  have  founded  the  work,  developed  the  plants,  and  accumulated  the 
property.  This  class  of  schools  is  usually  directed  and  officered  by  white  men. 
There  is  a  good  deal  of  human  nature  even  in  the  persons  who  are  engaged  in 
missionary  work.  Nowhere  do  we  find  it  a  common  thing  for  men  to  voluntarily 
yield  up  authority  when  it  is  possible  for  them  to  retain  it.  It  is  only  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  this  class  of  schools  will  continue  to  be  dominated  by  white  men. 
The  argument  is  advanced  that  white  people  furnish  the  means,  and  it  is  but  fair 
that  they  should  dispose  of  it  in  any  manner  which  they  deem  fit.  It  is  true  that 
practically  all  of  the  money  for  this  work  is  furnished  by  the  whites.  However 
it  may  be  liked  or  disliked,  it  will  probably  continue  to  be  the  fact  that  as  long  as 
the  whites  contribute  the  support  they  will  continue  to  wield  the  dominant 
influence. 

Those  institutions  which  are  supported  by  the  States  are  under  the  control  of 
colored  men.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  South  to  let  the  negro  manage  his  own  affairs. 
It  is  found  that  those  institutions  which  are  under  colored  management  are  in  no 
wise  behind  the  rest  in  point  of  discipline,  order,  and  good  results. 

There  is  still  another  class  of  institutions,  originally  supported  and  managed 
wholly  by  colored  men.  These  are  to  be  found  for  the  most  part  within  the  limits 
of  the  A.  M.  E.  Church.  There  are  as  many  as  40  such  institutions,  several  of 
which  take  high  rank  as  colleges.  It  is  here  that  we  must  look  for  the  best  illus¬ 
trations  of  independent  action  in  many  directions.  These  institutions  are  of  the 
colored  people,  by  the  colored  people,  and  for  the  colored  people. 

The  resources  of  these  schools  are  a  matter  of  serious  concern.  The  total  pro¬ 
ductive  endowment  of  all  the  higher  institutions  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mil¬ 
lion  dollars.  This  is  about  sufficient  to  run  one  small  college  alone.  The  small 
amount  which  colored  men  have  contributed  to  these  funds  is  remarkable.  There 
have  been  several  illustrious  examples  of  colored  men  in  the  A.  M.  E.  Church  who 
have  left  the  bulk  of  their  fortunes  to  the  educational  institutions;  but  I  know  of 
no  others  who  have  followed  their  example.  The  race  spends  immense  sums  of 
money  for  the  support  of  their  religion,  but  very  little  for  education.  The  value 
of  negro  church  property  is  placed  at  $26,000,000,  all  of  which  has  been  contrib¬ 
uted  or  solicited  by  themselves;  but  their  contribution  to  education  would  hardly 
amount  to  a  tenth  part  of  that  sum.  One  thing  seems  to  be  certain,  the  sup¬ 
port  as  well  as  the  management  of  colored  institutions  must  ultimately  be 
transferred  from  the  white  to  the  colored  race,  if  they  are  to  be  permanent.  The 
resources  of  charity  will  not  last  forever.  A  people  who  really  deserve  and  appre¬ 
ciate  institutions  for  their  moral  and  intellectual  welfare  will  sustain  them.  It  is 
a  physical  impossibility  for  a  body  to  remain  in  stable  equilibrium  whose  center  of 
gravity  falls  outside  of  the  basis  of  support. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


There  are  entirely  too  many  of  these  colleges.  Every  school  that  teaches  the 
least  hit  of  classics  is  ambitious  to  confer  the  academic  degrees.  There  is  not  a 
fitting  school  pure  and  simple  in  the  whole  range  of  the  educational  work.  There 
are  more  universities  for  colored  people  in  the  United  States  than  there  are  alto¬ 
gether  in  England  or  France  and  quite  as  many  as  there  are  in  Germany.  If  the 
educational  work  could  be  harmonized  and  systematized,  so  that  a  majority  of  the 
universities  could  be  reduced  to  fitting  schools  and  academies,  leaving  two  or  three 
stronger  ones  to  carry  on  the  higher  lines  of  study,  the  work  could  be  done  with 
half  the  present  expense  and  with  thrice  the  efficiency.  * 

The  denominational  feature  is  largely  responsible  for  the  great  number  of  insti¬ 
tutions  with  high-sounding  names.  Every  denomination  is  anxious  to  have  its 
own  schools,  to  enforce  its  own  principles,  and  inculcate  its  own  doctrines.  Hence 
it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  two  or  three  universities  of  as  many  different 
denominations  in  a  single  Southern  city.  Any  unity  of  action  or  harmony  of  plan 
is  made  exceedingly  difficult  on  account  of  this  denominational  rivalry. 

A  university  in  its  complete  growth  and  equipments  represents  the  ripest  product 
of  a  civilization.  The  colored  schools,  notwithstanding  their  shortcomings,  repre¬ 
sent  more  fully  than  anything  else  the  progress  of  the  race.  They  not  only  show 
what  has  already  been  accomplished,  but  are  the  surest  promise  of  what  is  to  be. 

The  collegiate  prerogative  of  conferring  degrees  is  one  which  these  schools  exer¬ 
cise  without  the  least  modesty.  Degrees  were  originally  conferred  upon  students 
as  a  license  to  teach.  In  course  of  time  they  came  to  stand  for  various  achieve¬ 
ments  in  several  branches  of  learning.  Some  of  them  indicated  the  courses  of 
study  pursued,  while  others  stood  for  eminence  or  proficiency  in  the  arts  and 
sciences.  A  love  of  cheap  distinction  seems  to  be  the  greatest  malady  which  afflicts 
the  American  mind.  The  theory  is  that  under  democratic  institutions  the  love  of 
titular  distinctions  is  eradicated.  Our  Government  grants  no  titles  of  nobility. 
To  be  an  American  citizen  is  supposed  to  be  honor  enough  for  any  man.  W e  laugh 
at  the  number  of  worn-out  counts  and  earls  and  what-nots  of  the  old  world,  but 
we  can  overmatch  them  in  the  number  and  variety  of  degrees.  Few  people  seem 
to  be  satisfied  with  a  plain  name;  they  want  some  addition  either  before  or  after 
it.  Our  civilians  who  never  saw  action  in  the  field  and  who  know  no  more  about 
military  operations  than  Shakespeare’s  arithmetician  are  dubbed  “  captain,”  “colo¬ 
nel,”  or  “general.”  Men  are  called  “judge”  whose  judgment  would  not  be 
respected  on  a  single  item  of  human  interest  from  a  horse  race  to  metaphysics. 
Masonic  societies  load  down  their  votaries  with  a  list  of  degrees  that  seem  to  exhaust 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  American  heiresses  swap  their  millions  for  a  titled 
name. 

It  should  not  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  colleges,  which  hold  the  exclusive 
patent  of  literary  degrees,  should  partake  of  this  same  lavish  spirit.  The  smaller 
and  feebler  colleges  seem  to  make  up  their  deficiencies  by  the  number  and  variety 
of  degrees  which  they  confer.  It  is  said  that  in  many  cases  they  are  sold  out¬ 
right.  The  story  is  told  of  a  certain  Southern  institution  that  its  faculty  con¬ 
sisted  of  two  members  of  the  same  family.  The  father  was  president  and  the  son 
was  professor  of  the  whole  curriculum.  The  faculty  met  on  a  day  and  voted  to 
confer  the  degree  of  LL.  D.  upon  the  president,  and,  in  order  to  return  the  compli¬ 
ment,  the  president  conferred  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  upon  the  faculty.  The  writer 
is  familiar  with  the  facts  of  the  following  case:  An  eminent  divine  was  invited  to 
deliver  the  commencement  address  before  a  certain  college  class.  After  having  per¬ 
formed  the  task  to  the  best  of  his  ability  the  institution  offered  either  to  pay  his 
railroad  fare  or  to  give  him  a  D.  D.  The  railroad  fare  was  preferred.  This  evil 
has  become  so  prevalent  that  not  only  educators  but  common-sense  men  in  all 
walks  of  life  have  become  aroused  to  its  serious  nature.  Several  of  the  leading 
institutions  have  decided  not  to  confer  any  more  honorary  degrees.  Mr.  James  R. 
Garfield  has  recently  introduced  a  measure  in  the  Ohio  legislature  to  have  that 


838 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


body  regulate  the  matter  of  degrees  from  the  colleges  of  the  State.  President 
Cleveland  several  years  ago  declined  the  honor  of  an  LL.  D.  from  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity;  more  recently  he  has  declined  the  same  proffer  from  Wilberforce.  His 
declension  is  based  on  the  ground  that  he  is  not  a  college  graduate  and  is  not  other¬ 
wise  entitled  to  literary  distinctions. 

What  has  been  said  so  far  upon  this  topic  refers  to  the  abuse  of  degrees  in  gen¬ 
eral  and  is  not  especially  applicable  to  colored  schools.  This  abuse  is  a  general 
one.  Our  400  or  more  colleges  have  so  flooded  the  land  with  learned  degrees 
that  they  have  lost  their  intended  significance.  They  are  not  recognized  by  the 
institutions  of  Europe.  There  is  an  old  adage  in  the  South,  “  If  you  want  to  see 
a  thing  run  in  the  ground,  let  the  negroes  get  hold  of  it.”  This  adage  has  been 
more  than  justified  in  the  present  instance.  The  matter  of  degrees  has  been  car¬ 
ried  to  ridiculous,  even  to  disgusting,  extremes.  The  extravagant  lavishness  with 
which  persons  who  in  the  nature  of  the  case  can  have  no  claim  to  them  are  loaded 
with  literary  degrees  would  be  amusing  if  it  were  not  so  amazing.  Colored  men 
are  no  longer  willing  to  have  their  attainments  properly  characterized  by  the 
three  R's;  they  must  be  represented  by  the  various  combinations  of  L’s  and  D’s. 
It  has  been  facetiously  stated  that  a  great  many  colored  men  who  stagger  under 
the  heavy  load  of  A.  B.,  A.  M.,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D.,  etc.,  would  have  their  acquisitions 
more  accurately  described  by  A  B  C  and  the  other  letters  of  the  alphabet.  There 
are  hundreds  of  colored  men  dubbed  D.  D.  who  can  not  give  a  critical  rendering 
of  a  single  passage  of  Scripture  in  the  original  or  give  an  opinion  on  any  phase  of 
theology  that  would  challenge  respect,  or  write  a  single  line  on  any  topic,  sacred 
or  secular,  that  will  live  six  hours  after  they  are  dead.  Many  of  these  degrees 
have  been  conferred  on  account  of  useful  work,  pious  life,  holy  consecration,  or 
ecclesiastical  eminence.  Too  much  can  not  be  said  in  praise  of  these  things.  But 
it  is  pure  mockery,  a  travesty  upon  learning,  to  decorate  such  persons  with  honors 
which  they  do  not  deserve  and  whose  significance  they  can  not  appreciate.  Do 
men  gather  grapes  of  thorns  or  figs  of  thistles?  So  far  has  this  practice  prevailed 
that  when  it  is  announced  that  the  Rev.  Mr.  Blank,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D.,  is  going  f,o 
preach  at  such  and  such  a  church,  we  no  longer  think  of  a  learned  scholar  who 
can  partake  of  the  things  of  God  and  show  them  unto  us  with  logical  clearness 
and  power,  but  instead  our  risible  emotions  are  aroused.  Ecclesiastical  degrees 
are  not  more  abused  than  those  of  purely  literary  or  scientific  import.  Many  of 
the  colleges  fall  short  of  the  average  standard.  Their  regular  degrees,  therefore, 
do  not  stand  for  a  fair  amount  of  culture.  The  goods  are  not  properly  labeled. 
Thus  the  land  is  full  of  A.  B.’s  and  A.  M.’s  which  could  not  stand  the  test  of 
severe  standards.  It  was  but  yesterday  that  the  negro  race  first  saw  the  light 
of  intellectual  day.  The  bulk  of  the  race  is  still  illiterate  or  nearly  so.  So  it  is 
marvelous  beyond  words  that  so  many  of  them  have  reached  the  highest  pitch 
of  literary  honors.  Where  else  in  history  is  there  such  a  sharp  contrast  of  bright 
lights  and  deep  shadows?  When  we  think  of  the  suddenness  with  which  this  has 
been  brought  about,  we  can  but  suppose  that  these  learned  men  must  have  sprung 
into  being  full  fledged,  like  the  Grecian  Minerva  from  the  brain  of  Zeus. 

This  question  has  its  serious  as  well  as  its  facetious  side.  It  points  out  an  evil 
and  suggests  a  duty.  It  is  positively  damaging  to  sound  scholarship  and  to  high 
standards.  If  the  highest  honors  are  so  easily  won,  and  when  won  are  of  so  little 
significance  and  worth,  what  stimulus  is  there  for  young  men  to  struggle  for 
honest  acquisitions?  There  needs  to  be  cultivated  a  wholesome  public  sentiment 
which  will  not  tolerate  such  intellectual  sham.  Institutions  which  have  no  higher 
appreciation  for  this  collegiate  function  than  to  abuse  it  so  shamefully  should  meet 
with  stern  popular  disfavor.  The  educators  of  colored  youth  can  render  no  greater 
service  to  the  intellectual  welfare  of  the  race  than  to  discourage  intellectual  dis¬ 
honesty  under  the  guise  of  unmerited  degrees.  These  colleges  and  universities 
should  see  to  it  that  these  bogus  honors  are  stopped. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGBO, 


839 


Negro  college  graduates  of  white  colleges,  according  to  institutions. 


(A)  THE  LARGER  UNIVERSITIES. 


Name  of  college. 

Total 

gradu¬ 

ates. 

Name  of  college. 

Total 

gradu¬ 

ates. 

Harvard _ _  _ _ _ _ _ 

11 

Catholic . . . . 

3 

Yale  _ _ _ 

10 

Chicago . 

2 

Michigan  . .  .... _ _ - _ 

10 

Stanford . 

2 

Coi’nell 

8 

rinhimViin.  .  _  _ .... 

4 

Total . 

54 

Pennsylvania . 

4 

(B)  COLLEGES  OF  SECOND  RANK. 


Oherlin  _ _ _ _ _ 

128 

University  of  Nebraska . . 

2 

University  of  Kansas 

16 

Wesleyan  (Connecticut,) _ 

2 

Bates  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

15 

Radcliff  e . 

9 

Hoi p^ate  _  .  ._  _ 

9 

Wellesley _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

Brown 

8 

Northwestern  . . 

1 

Dartmouth  _ _ ....... _ _ 

7 

Rutgers  _ 

1 

Amherst,  _.  _  _  _ 

7 

Bowdoin _ _ _ _ _ 

1 

Bucknell  _ _ ...... 

7 

Hamilton _ _ _ 

1 

Ohio  State  _ _ _ _ ...... 

7 

New  York  University  . . . 

L 

Williams  _  .  _ _ 

4 

Rochester _ _ _ 

1 

Boston  University _ _ 

3 

Denver _ _ _ _ 

1 

University  of  Minnesota _ ..... 

3 

De  Pauw . . . . 

1 

Indiana _ _ _ ....... _ _ _ .... _ 

3 

Mount  Holyoke . . 

1 

Arlelhert,  _ _ 

3 

V  assar . . . . . 

1 

Beloit 

3 

flrYIhy  _ _  _ 

3 

Total  _.  .  _ _ _  ._  _ 

245 

University  of  Iowa . . 

2 

(C)  OTHER  COLLEGES. 


South  Carolina _ _ _  _ 

10 

Ohio  Wesleyan.... _ _ _ _ _ 

9. 

Geneva _ _ _ _ _ ... 

9 

Lombard _ _ 

1 

Hillsdale _ _ _ _  _  _  . 

7 

Otter bein  .  ..  _ 

1 

Lafayette _ _ _ _ 

6 

Southwestern  Kansas . . . . 

1 

Wesleyan  (Iowa) _ _ 

4 

Allegheny . . . . 

1 

Dennison _ _ _ _ _ 

4 

Olivet . . 

1 

Baldwin  . . . . . . 

4 

Albion _ _  _ _ 

1 

Western  of  Pennsylvania  _ _ 

3 

University  of  Idaho 

1 

Hiram _ _ _ 

3 

Iowa  College  ..  _ _ 

1 

Wittenberg _ 

3 

Upper  Iowa  University . . . 

1 

Butler’s _ 

3 

University  of  Omaha _ _ 

1 

W estminster .... _ 

3 

Mc.Kendree _ 

1 

St.  Stephen’s _ 

3 

Illinois  . . . . . 

1 

Antioch _ _ _ 

3 

Ohio  U  ni  versity . . 

1 

Tabor 

2 

Knox . . . . . . . 

2 

Total . . . 

90 

W  ashburn 

2 

Adrian . . . . 

2 

Grand  total . . 

389 

Washington  and  Jefferson . 

2 

Negro  college  graduates  from  negro  colleges. 


Name  of  college. 


Total 

gradu¬ 

ates. 


Name  of  college. 


Total 

gradu¬ 

ates. 


Howard . 

Fisk . . . 

Atlanta . . . 

Wilberforce . . . 

Lei  and  . . . 

Paul  Quinn . 

Biddle . . 

Shaw . . . . . . 

Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  In¬ 
stitute . . . . 

Livingstone . . . . 

Lincoln. . . . . . ' _ 

Berea . . . . 

Allen . . . . . 

State  College  of  Delaware . 

Knoxville . . 

Clailin . 


96 

194 

94 

130 

16 

18 

140 

106 

27 

38 

616 

29 

24 

6 

44 

46 


Clark . 

Philander  Smith.... 

Roger  Williams . 

New  Orleans . 

Georgia  State . 

Paine _ _ 

Talladega . . 

Rust . 

Atlanta  Baptist _ 

Arkansas  Baptist... 

Straight . 

Southland _ _ _ _ 

Wiley  . . 

Branch,  Arkansas . . . 
Lincoln  Institute  ... 

Bennett . 

Central  Tennessee... 


21 

29 
76 

30 

1 

11 

5 

30 

7 

4 

11 

19 


3 

46 


840 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


There  have  been  1,941  graduates  from  negro  colleges,  and  389  from  white  insti¬ 
tutions.  Their  occupations,  usefulness,  and  influence  must  be  taken  as  the  high¬ 
est  measure  of  the  value  and  importance  of  the  higher  education.  The  fifth  Atlanta 
conference  was  at  great  pains  to  study  this  phase  of  the  question.  The  1,312  negro 
graduates  reporting  were  distributed  as  follows  among  the  several  vocations: 


Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Teachers _ 

701 

53.4 

In  business . . . . 

47 

3.6 

Clergymen _ _ _ _ 

001 

16.8 

Farmers  and  artisans . 

35 

2.7 

Physicians _ 

83 

6.3 

Clerks,  secretaries,  etc _ 

22 

2.2 

Students 

74 

5. 6 

Editors . . . 

9 

Lawyers  _  -  -  - 

62 

4.7 

Miscellaneous . 

5 

In  Government  service . 

53 

4 

Commenting  on  these  figures,  the  report  continues: 

These  figures  illustrate  vividly  the  function  of  the  college- bred  negro.  He  is,  as 
he  ought  to  be,  the  group  leader;  the  man  who  sets  the  ideals  of  the  community 
where  he  lives,  directs  its  thought,  and  heads  its  social  movements.  It  need  hardly 
be  argued  that  the  negro  people  need  social  leadership  more  than  most  groups. 
They  have  no  traditions  to  fall  back  upon,  no  long-established  customs,  no  strong 
family  ties,  no  well-defined  social  classes.  All  these  things  must  be  slowly  and 
painfully  evolved.  The  preacher  was,  even  before  the  war,  the  group  leader  of 
the  negroes,  and  the  church  their  greatest  social  institution.1  Naturally,  this 
preacher  was  ignorant  and  often  immoral,  and  the  problem  of  replacing  the  older 
type  by  better-educated  men  has  been  a  difficult  one.  Both  by  direct  work  and 
by  indirect  influence  on  other  preachers  and  on  congregations,  the  college- 
bred  preacher  has  an  opportunity  for  reformatory  work  and  moral  inspiration, 
the  value  of  which  can  not  be  overestimated.  The  report  of  the  Atlanta  confer¬ 
ence  on  “Some  efforts  of  American  negroes  for  their  own  social  betterment,” 
shows  the  character  of  some  of  this  work. 

It  has,  however,  been  in  the  furnishing  of  teachers  that  the  negro  college  has 
found  its  peculiar  function.  Few  persons  realize  how  vast  a  work,  how  mighty  a 
revolution  has  been  thus  accomplished.  To  furnish  5,000,000  and  more  of  ignorant 
people  with  teachers  of  their  own  race  and  blood  in  one  generation  was  not  only 
a  very  difficult  undertaking  but  a  very  important  one,  in  that  it  placed  before  the 
eyes  of  almost  every  negro  child  an  attainable  ideal.  It  brought  the  masses  of  the 
blacks  in  contact  with  modern  civilization,  made  black  men  the  leaders  of  their 
communities  and  trainers  of  the  new  generation.  In  this  work  college-bred 
negroes  were  first  teachers  and  then  teachers  of  teachers.  And  here  it  is  that  the 
broad  culture  of  college  work  has  been  of  peculiar  value.  Knowledge  of  life  and 
its  wider  meaning  has  been  the  point  of  the  negro’s  deepest  ignorance,  and  the 
sending  out  of  teachers  whose  training  has  not  been  merely  for  bread  winning,  but 
also  for  human  culture  has  been  of  inestimable  value  in  the  training  of  these  men.2 

Another  question  which  philanthropists  have  a  right  to  ask  about  these  gradu¬ 
ates  is,  What  are  they  doing  for  the  general  social  betterment  of  the  race  aside 
from  the  vocations  from  which  they  derive  a  livelihood?  The  following  table 
throws  much  light  on  this  question,  which  gives  a  list  of  college-bred  negroes  who 
are  engaged  in  religious,  philanthropic,  and  literary  work: 


Occupation . 

Number. 

Occupation. 

Number. 

Active  in  religious  service . 

101 

Organized  charity  . . . . 

15 

Investing  in  negro  business  enter¬ 
prises  . . 

48 

Kindergartens  and  mothers’  meet- 

ing« . . . . 

7 

Contributing  to  newspapers  J 

105 

Building  associations 

7 

Editing  and  publishing  newspapers.. 

40 

Hospitals . . . 

10 

Lecturers _ _ _ 

21 

Farming  and  truck  gardens _ 

4 

College  and  student  aid . 

20 

Savings  banks . . . . 

10 

Benevolent  club  work . . 

9 

Contributing  to  magazines  . . . 

11 

Nurseries,  orphanages,  and  homes  ... 

12 

Papers  before  gocietes . 

9 

Slum,  prison,  and  temperance  work.. 

16 

1  Cf.  The  New  World,  December,  1900,  article  Religion  of  American  Negro. 

2  College-bred  Negro,  p.  65. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


841 


It  is  true  that  the  college-bred  negro  has  not  as  yet  entered,  in  appreciable  num¬ 
bers,  upon  productive  pursuits,  but  has  followed  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and 
fitted  into  positions  that  were  already  prepared.  The  college-bred  men  of  New 
England,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  sought  the  ranks  of  the  learned 
professions  and  political  careers,  but  seldom  entered  upon  practical  pursuits. 
When  the  educated  negro  finds  prepared  places  all  occupied,  he  too  will  be  com¬ 
pelled  to  launch  out  into  profitable  industry  and  productive  enterprises.  And 
then  he  will  be  found  to  be  a  captain  of  industry,  just  as  he  is  now  the  leader  in 
the  more  leisurely  and  learned  callings. 

The  negro  college  has  a  valuable  function  in  the  general  educational  equation 
and  will  occupy  an  important  place  among  American  institutions  of  the  future. 
They  have  been  centers  of  light  that  have  illuminated  the  darksome  path  of  an 
entire  race.  They  antedated  the  public  schools,  and  gave  to  the  negro  his  initial 
impulse  toward  the  better  things  of  life.  There  is  scarcely  an  educated  colored 
man  or  woman  in  the  South  who  has  not  been  touched  by  their  beneficent  influ¬ 
ence.  The  value  of  an  object  is  enhanced  by  contemplating  its  absence  or  with¬ 
drawal.  We  do  not  dare  even  think  what  the  condition  of  the  negro  would  be  if 
it  had  not  been  for  these  colleges.  It  is  equally  painful  to  speculate  as  to  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  the  future  if  these  institutions  should  be  withdrawn.  How  could  the 
preachers,  of  whom  there  is  need  for  many  thousands,  be  prepared  for  the  work? 
Where  would  the  lawyers  and  doctors  and  teachers  in  the  higher  range  of  instruc¬ 
tion  qualify  for  their  function? 

The  vital  question  of  perpetuity  is  one  of  financial  support.  Only  two  of  them, 
the  Gammon  School  of  Theology  and  the  Lincoln  University,  are  adequately 
endowed.  The  others  must  depend  for  the  most  part  upon  current  contributions 
from  the  State,  religious  denominations,  and  private  philanthropy.  Those  schools 
which  have  been  fostered  by  religious  denominations  will  doubtless  continue  to 
receive  such  support  as  a  means  of  religious  propagandism.  Fisk  University  and 
the  Union  University  at  Richmond,  Va.,  will  doubtless  be  upheld  as  representing 
the  highest  expression  of  the  missionary  and  philanthropic  endeavor  of  their 
respective  denominations.  The  future  of  those  schools  which  have  no  definite 
mooring,  but  which  must  depend  upon  the  ebb  and  flow  of  public  and  private 
favor,  is  more  precarious  and  uncertain. 

It  can  not  be  denied  that  the  trend  of  private  philanthropy  is  toward  the  indus¬ 
trial  and  practical  idea  to  the  discouragement  of  the  higher  culture.  This  turn  in 
public  sentiment  is  scarcely  due  to  the  abiding  conviction  that  the  industrial  policy 
will  come  any  nearer  solving  unsettled  problems  than  the  higher  knowledge,  but 
is  perhaps  the  outgrowth  of  the  feverish  spirit  of  the  Athenian,  which  is  ever  in 
quest  of  some  new  thing.  When  the  new  idea  has  been  exploited  as  fully  as  the 
old,  there  will  in  all  probability  be  a  redistribution  of  public  favor  between  the 
two  according  to  their  proper  proportion  and  balance. 

The  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  State  colleges  is  to  eliminate  everything  that 
flavors  of  the  higher  culture,  and  to  adapt  their  courses  to  the  requirements  of  an 
agricultural  and  industrial  regime.  There  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  State 
institutions  will  relinquish  wThat  little  claim  they  now  have  to  collegiate  distinc¬ 
tion  and  take  rank  in  the  more  elementary  and  practical  class. 

There  is  need  of  a  sensible  adaptation  of  the  negro  college  to  the  requirements 
of  its  function  in  the  light  of  what  experience  has  taught  us. 

1.  Let  it  be  conceded  that  a  backward  and  suppressed  race  must  of  necessity  be 
afflicted  with  great  intellectual  poverty.  Such  a  race  can,  at  best,  produce  only 
a  small  number  of  youth  who,  with  their  present  incumbrances,  are  likely  to  profit 
by  the  advanced  courses  of  learning.  The  mass  of  any  people  must  ever  fall  short 
of  the  collegiate  grade.  At  present  the  negro  shows  only  1  student  in  3,000  of  the 
population,  who  by  the  widest  stretch  of  courtesy  can  be  said  to  be  pursuing  the 


842  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900’1901. 

higher  education.  After  abstracting  all  who  are  able  to  think,  there  will  be  left 
sufficient  to  toil. 

2.  The  courses  of  study  should  be  thorough  and  the  instruction  competent. 
Nothing  is  so  dangerous  to  a  backward  race  as  a  smattering  of  learning.  The 
people  need  sane,  safe,  cautious,  conservative  standards.  They  are  already  too 
prone  to  superficiality  and  show. 

8.  The  Northern  college  is  not  likely  to  inspire  colored  youth  with  enthusiasm 
and  fixed  purpose  for  the  work  which  destiny  has  assigned  them.  The  white  col¬ 
lege  does  not  contemplate  the  needs  of  the  negro  race.  American  ideals  could 
not  be  fostered  in  the  white  youth  of  the  country  by  sending  them  to  Oxford  or 
Berlin  for  their  tuition.  No  more  can  the  negro  gain  racial  inspiration  from 
Harvard  or  Yale.  And  yet  it  would  be  a  calamity  to  cut  them  off  from  these 
great  centers  of  learning.  They  need  the  benefit  of  contact  and  comparison,  as 
well  as  the  greater  facilities  which  they  afford.  If  the  negro  is  shut  in  wholly  to 
himself  he  becomes  too  painfully  self-conscious;  on  the  other  hand,  if  allowed  to 
stray  too  far  from  his  race,  he  finds  himself  stranded  on  the  barren  shores  of  cul¬ 
ture,  or,  like  Mohammed’s  coffin,  suspended  in  mid-air,  without  upper  or  nether 
support.  The  negro  college  in  the  South  and  the  larger  institutions  of  the  North 
will  preserve  a  just  balance  between  these  conflicting  principles. 

4.  Negroes  should  contribute  liberally  toward  their  own  higher  education.  You 
who  have  been  benefited  ought  therefore  to  be  enlarged.  Thousands  of  colored 
people  are  better  able  to  contribute  to  such  movements  than  many  of  the  regular 
contributors  in  the  North.  No  equilibrium  can  be  stable  when  the  center  of  grav¬ 
ity  falls  outside  of  the  basis  of  support. 

5.  There  are  by  far  too  many  schools  which  claim  the  collegiate  function.  The 
number  might  well  be  reduced  to  three  or  four— perhaps  one  for  each  of  the  lead¬ 
ing  denominations  and  a  central  one  in  the  city  of  Washington. 

6.  There  is  a  great  need  of  fitting  schools  which  should  be  content  to  do  thor¬ 
ough  secondary  work  without  the  ambition  to  assume  full  academic  prerogative. 
Most  of  the  schools  which  now  call  themselves  colleges  and  universities  might 
easily  confine  themselves  to  this  work  without  suffering  the  least  in  real  character. 

7.  The  work  of  primary  grades,  now  a  prominent  feature  of  most  of  the  negro 
universities,  should  be  relegated  to  the  public  schools,  and  their  courses  should  be 
confined  to  those  lines  of  instruction  which  fall  beyond,  or  at  least  outside  of,  the 
scope  of  public  instruction.  The  work  now  undertaken  could  thus  be  done  at  a 
tithe  of  the  present  cost  with  thrice  the  efficiency.  The  higher  educational  inter¬ 
est  of  the  race  needs  to  be  rationally  modified  and  sensibly  adopted.  There  should 
be  a  sharp  definition  of  the  function  and  sphere  of  the  college  and  those  of  the 
industrial  school.  Appeals  should  be  made  to  philanthropic  sources  on  the  basis  of 
relative,  not  rival  claims.  It  would  be  as  unwise  policy  on  the  part  of  philan¬ 
thropy  to  abandon  the  higher  education  of  the  negro  as  it  would  be  to  give  up  his 
industrial  training.  They  are  supplementary  parts  of  a  symmetrical  whole.  This 
ought  ye  to  have  done  and  not  to  have  left  the  other  undone. 

VIII.  The  Negro  in  Northern  Colleges. 

There  are,  or  were  in  1890,  442  universities  or  colleges  in  the  United  States, 
counting  the  good,  the  indifferent,  and  the  bad.  Many  of  these — generally  the 
poorer  and  feebler  ones — are  located  in  that  section  of  the  country  where  the  races 
are  not  accustomed  to  be  taught  together.  The  largest,  richest,  and  most  influen¬ 
tial  of  these,  however,  are  open  to  all,  without  regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous 
servitude,  regardfql  only  of  the  present  intellectual  rating  of  the  applicant. 
There  are  25  or  more  universities,  for  the  most  part  courteously  so  called,  which 
were  established  for  the  benefit  of  the  negro  race.  These  schools,  together  with 
the  higher  institutions  of  the  North,  are  open  to  colored  youth.  Let  us  now  con¬ 
sider  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two  classes  of  institutions  to  the  negro. 

♦ 


THE  EDUCATION  OE  THE  NEGBO. 


843 


It  is  not  perhaps  profitable  to  discuss  the  larger  question  of  mixed  schools, 
except  in  so  far  as  the  logical  exigencies  of  the  subject  require.  It  offers  such 
wide  latitude  for  difference  of  opinion  and  friction  of  feeling  that  I  would  gladly 
avoid  it  altogether  if  the  subject  in  hand  permitted  me  to  do  so.  Some  notice  of 
it  here,  however,  is  unavoidable.  A  stranger  with  a  keen,  inquiring,  critical 
sense  and  unbiased  prepossessions  who  should  visit  a  community  for  the  first  time 
and  should  notice  the  existence  of  parallel  courses  of  instruction,  maintained  at 
increased  public  cost  and  care,  for  different  elements  of  population  would  begin 
to  suspect  that  there  must  be  some  maladjustment  of  social  forces.  If,  on  closer 
scrutiny,  he  should  find  that  the  same  distinction  obtains  in  all  the  other  relations 
of  life,  in  business,  in  politics,  in  society,  and  even  in  religion,  and  that  the  sepa¬ 
ration  in  each  case  rested  upon  a  racial  basis,  he  would  speedily  conclude  that 
there  must  be  a  race  problem  on  hand.  He  would  also  be  convinced  that  separate 
schools  do  not  form  an  isolated  distinction,  but  are  only  a  part  of  the  prevailing 
social  status  of  the  two  races.  Nor  would  he,  if  he  were  wise  and  liberal  minded, 
rail  against  the  existence  of  separate  schools,  knowing  in  the  fullness  of  his  wis¬ 
dom  that  they  were  expedient  just  so  long  as  the  causes  that  make  them  necessary 
exist;  seeing  also  that  protest  would  be  of  no  avail,  but  would  serve  only  to  engen¬ 
der  bad  feelings  and  harmful  friction.  Separate  schools  are  not  the  cause,  but 
simply  one  of  the  effects  of  the  race  problem.  The  effect  is  less  than  the  cause. 
This  problem  will  be  on  our  hands  for  many  a  long  day,  and  that,  too,  whether 
our  schools  be  separate  or  mixed. 

The  advantage  claimed  for  mixed  schools  is  that  the  colored  pupils  gain  much 
by  contact  with  the  white  race,  and  that  the  two  races  being  brought  into 
close  association  will  learn  to  appreciate  and  respect  each  other.  It  is  argued,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  where  mixed  schools  prevail  the  negro  teacher  is  excluded, 
and  the  colored  pupil,  accustomed  to  seeing  all  ennobling  stations  filled  by  white 
men  and  women,  imbibes,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  a  feeling  of  the  inferiority 
of  his  race,  and  consequently  loses  ambition  and  self-confidence.  The  isolated 
instances  of  colored  teachers,  whose  tenure  of  office  is  more  or  less  precarious  in 
such  schools,  do  not  materially  relieve  the  situation.  Some  advocates  of  mixed 
schools  are  so  enthusiastic  as  to  claim  that  they  will  furnish  a  panacea  for  all  the 
ills  which  the  race  suffers.  Unfortunately,  this  roseate  view  is  not  sustained  by 
the  facts  of  experience.  Those  who  believe  that  prejudice  is  not  strong  enough  to 
survive  class-room  contact  are  greatly  mistaken.  The  Jews  in  Germany  attend  the 
universities  and  rise  to  the  highest  ranks  by  reason  of  their  undoubted  mental 
endowments,  and  yet  prejudice  against  them  seems  to  abate  no  whit  on  that 
account.  The  University  of  Salerno,  founded  in  Italy  in  the  ninth  century, 
received  Jews  both  as  students  and  teachers  at  a  time  when  persecution  against 
that  unfortunate  race  was  at  its  highest  pitch.1  There  is,  indeed,  a  democracy  of 
letters,  but  its  liberality  of  spirit  is  largely  confined  to  its  own  domain.  The  ineffi¬ 
cacy  of  mixed  schools  in  our  land  to  solve  the  race  problem  is  too  painfully  appar¬ 
ent.  It  has  nowhere  been  shown  that  they  have  had  any  appreciable  effect  in  sof¬ 
tening  the  asperities  of  prejudice.  On  the  other  hand,  many  honest  observers  are 
convinced  that  prejudice  in  the  North  is  more  hurtful  than  in  the  South,  and  that 
it  is  on  the  increase.  True,  it  takes  on  another  form,  but  only  to  accommodate 
itself  to  a  change  of  circumstances.  Nor  have  mixed  schools  produced  such  strik¬ 
ing  results  for  the  good  of  the  race  as  to  justify  us  in  ascribing  to  them  any 
extravagant  advantage. 

No  one,  I  presume,  would  undertake  to  justify  separate  schools,  unless  it  be  on 
the  ground  of  expediency.  The  ideal  school  system  is  one  in  which  such  questions 
as  we  have  beeh  discussing  do  not  enter,  but  where  all  elements  of  the  population 
stand  on  an  equal  footing  in  management,  instruction,  and  pupilage.  But,  unfor- 


Britannica  Encyclopedia— Uni versities. 


844 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


tunately,  we  are  creatures  of  circumstances.  We  have,  therefore,  to  deal  with 
things  as  they  are,  and  not  as  we  fancy  they  ought  to  be.  It  is  a  fact  which  is  as 
certain  and  as  convincing  as  the  law  of  gravitation  that  where  the  colored  people 
form  a  considerable  fraction  of  the  population  the  races  are  taught  in  separate 
schools;  wherever  there  is  sufficient  of  the  African  element  to  give  decided  color, 
it  is  secluded  and  set  apart.  This  is  not  a  question  of  geographical  lines  and 
political  divisions.  It  depends  simply  upon  the  relative  weight  of  the  colored 
element  in  the  community.  The  negro  is  the  weaker  vessel.  He  can  only  accept, 
it  may  be  with  an  ineffectual  protest,  conditions  which  are  forced  upon  him.  His 
frantic  outcry  against  existing  discriminations  will  have  no  more  effect  than  the 
wail  of  an  infant  crying  in  the  night. 

There  are  three  elements  of  greatness  in  an  institution:  (1)  Great  wealth,  which 
enables  it  to  secure  the  best  equipments  and  facilities  of  instruction  and  to  sur¬ 
round  itself  with  learned  professors  and  distinguished  scholars;  (2)  age  and  schol¬ 
arly  tradition,  filling  the  atmosphere  with  a  bracing  influence  and  intellectual 
tone;  (3)  an  enthusiastic  constituency  and  a  large  and  widespread  body  of  influ¬ 
ential  alumni.  The  better  colleges  of  the  East  possess  all  these  elements  of 
strength.  Contrasted  with  these,  the  negro  colleges  are  young,  poor,  and  strug¬ 
gling.  It  must  not  be  taken  for  granted,  however,  that  because  a  college  is  small 
and  comparatively  poor  it  can  not  do  good  and  efficient  work.  If  such  an  institu¬ 
tion  has  sufficient  funds  to  employ  a  competent  faculty,  and  adhere  to  a  conserva¬ 
tive  policy  of  restricting  its  energies  to  a  definite,  limited  range  of  work,  there  is 
no  reason  why  it  might  not  accomplish  as  much  in  its  scope  as  a  school  of  greater 
pretensions.  Success  in  the  ordinary  studies  of  a  college  curriculum  does  not 
depend  so  much  upon  large  libraries  and  laboratories,  showy  and  imposing  sur¬ 
roundings,  nor  yet  upon  the  exalted  abilities  of  the  professors,  beyond  a  fair  degree 
of  competency,  as  upon  faithfulness,  diligence,  efficient  direction,  wholesome 
enthusiasm,  and  serious  purpose.  The  smaller  college  can  not  rival  the  great  uni¬ 
versities  in  the  range  and  variety  of  courses,  in  the  liberty,  sometimes  amounting 
to  license,  of  electives,  nor  in  the  upper  reaches  of  post-graduate  and  special  lines 
of  work.  The  mission  of  the  small  college  is  to  do  faithful  and  efficient  work 
along  definite  if  somewhat  limited  lines,  stamping  a  deep  moral  and  intellectual 
impress  upon  its  products;  to  turn  out  handmade  instead  of  manufactured  articles, 
not  hiding  the  man  in  the  multitude.  Many  of  the  best  scholars  and  most  promi¬ 
nent  citizens  are  products  of  feeble  colleges. 

The  colored  student  is  drawn  to  the  Northern  university  because  of  the  impos¬ 
ing  surroundings  and  the  attractive  power  of  a  great  name.  His  ambition  is 
indeed  noble,  his  motive  worthy.  It  is  also  true  that  the  colored  man  who  attends 
a  white  school  seems  to  gain,  for  a  time  at  least,  an  enhanced  preferment  among 
his  own  race.  This  can  be  explained  partly  because  of  his  supposed  superior 
equipment  and  partly  on  the  same  ground  that  a  New  Englander,  in  years  gone 
by,  who  had  visited  the  national  capital  was  looked  upon  with  something  of 
bewilderment  by  his  less  fortunate  associates.  The  old  doggerel  couplet,  though 
wanting  perhaps  in  dignity,  is  not  without  direct  applicability: 

How  much  a  monkey  that  has  been  to  Rome 

Excels  a  monkey  that  has  stayed  at  home. 

The  colored  youth  from  the  South,  on  entering  a  Northern  institution,  finds 
himself  in  such  different  relations  to  white  men  from  those  which  he  has  been 
accustomed  to  sustain  (and  which,  alas,  he  is  not  destined  to  sustain  again)  that 
he  is  often  carried  beyond  himself  by  the  first  heat  of  enthusiasm.  In  the  minds 
of  many  the  fear  exists  that  the  Southland  may  be  thus  decimated  of  its  best  intel¬ 
ligence  and  strength.  This  would  indeed  be  regretful— a  sheer  waste  of  energy. 
The  negro,  under  the  present  circumstances,  can  add  nothing  to  the  civilization  of 
the  North.  If  the  intelligence  and  vigorous  manhood  of  the  colored  race  be  thas 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


845 


wasted  in  unprofitable  fields,  the  negro  youth  would  take  to  the  North  that  which 
does  not  enrich  it,  but  would  rob  the  race  in  the  South  of  that  which  leaves  it 
poor  indeed.  Education  should  not  cause  the  recipient  to  shrink  from  duty,  how¬ 
ever  difficult  or  disagreeable,  but  to  meet  it  manfully  and  to  bring  all  of  one’s 
added  mental  resources  to  bear  upon  its  accomplishment.  The  claim  of  the  col¬ 
ored  colleges  is  advocated  on  several  grounds: 

1.  The  existence  of  a  colored  college  does  not  prevent  those  colored  youth  who 
prefer  to  do  so  from  going  to  Northern  institutions.  It  rather  stimulates  them  to 
go.  There  has  recently  been  planted  at  Washington  the  Catholic  University  of 
America,  but  that  does  not  .  imply  that  all  Catholic  students  will  forthwith  cease 
to  attend  Protestant  schools.  Denominational  institutions  never  include  all  the 
students  of  a  particular  faith.  It  need  not  be  supposed,  then,  that  negro  schools 
muse  include  all  negro  pupils.  It  would  be  a  great  misfortune  if  the  colored 
race  were  cut  off  from  intellectual  contact  with  the  Caucasian.  The  negro  has 
not  yet  learned  a  tithe  of  what  the  white  man  can  teach  him.  The  time  has  not 
yet  come  for  a  declaration  of  intellectual  independence.  I  adopt  for  the  purposes 
of  this  argument  the  words  of  the  late  W.  W.  Patton,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  president  of 
Howard  University.  “But,”  he  says  in  his  inaugural  address,  “to  secure  this 
result  (th8  higher  education  of  the  negro) ,  so  difficult  and  yet  so  essential,  the  proc¬ 
ess  must  be  such  as  to  throw  the  colored  man  under  every  possible  quickening 
influence.  Hence  it  is  not  best  to  separate  him  carefully  from  his  white  brother 
and  raise  him  in  an  institution  by  himself,  like  a  tender  plant  in  a  hothouse.  He 
needs  the  contact  with  the  more  advanced  race.  The  acknowledgment  of  his 
manhood  thus  given  will  add  to  his  self-respect  and  will  fire  his  nobler  ambition.” 1 

I  will  venture  the  proposition  that  the  most  wholesome  and  beneficial  contact 
between  the  races  in  the  schools  is  to  be  found  in  those  cases  where  the  colored 
student  has  first  passed  through  some  first-class  negro  college,  and  afterwards 
goes  to  a  Northern  institution  for  work  in  special  lines  or  professional  equipment. 
This  view  is  borne  out  partly  by  facts  of  experience  and  partly  by  considerations 
of  a  general  nature.  So  far  as  the  results  of  experience  are  concerned,  let  each 
look  around  and  judge  for  himself.  On  general  principles,  it  might  be  said,  the 
graduate  of  the  colored  school  has  been  trained  in  the  atmosphere  in  which  his 
future  lot  must  be  cast.  He  is  impressed  on  every  hand  by  the  vast  magnitude  of 
the  work  which  awaits  him.  If  urged  on  by  a  desire  to  extend  his  knowledge  in 
a  greater  school,  he  does  so  with  the  fixed  purpose  of  applying  his  wider  acquisi¬ 
tions  to  the  needs  of  his  race.  He  has  also  a  definite  attachment  to  some  school 
as  his  alma  mater;  his  zeal  for  the  advancement  of  education  is  thus  localized  and 
heightened.  Mr.  S.  W.  Powell,  writing  in  the  Century  Magazine  on  a  topic  of 
like  import,  says:  “  By  getting  their  education  where  they  would  be  brought  face 
to  face  with  the  heartbreaking  destitutions  of  their  race,  they  would  be  more  apt 
to  acquire  the  enthusiasm  and  fixed  purpose  of  the  missionary.  Lack  of  these  is 
one  of  the  most  marked  defects  of  the  negro  who  has  a  little  education.  Unless 
these  qualities  are  developed  in  those  of  higher  gifts  and  attainments  the  task  of 
elevating  the  race  will  be  much  more  formidable.”  Graduates  of  colored  schools, 
having  reached  a  considerable  degree  of  maturity  and  soberness,  are  not  likely  to 
be  carried  away  by  false  enthusiasm  and  lose  their  racial  balance  because  of  a  quasi 
equality  with  white  men,  artificially  fostered,  and  destined  to  last  only  for  a  day. 
The  graduates  of  these  schools  should  not  limit  their  further  search  after  knowl¬ 
edge  to  American  schools,  but  should  be  encouraged  to  go  to  the  English,  German, 
and  French  universities,  and  to  gather  the  sparkling  gems  of  knowledge  wherever 
they  glitter^ 

2.  The  colored  college  serves  to  develop  negro  scholarship  by  giving  members  of 
the  race  an  opportunity  to  make  their  education  effective.  The  scholar  must  have 


Inaugural  address  as  president  of  Howard  University. 


846 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


time,  leisure,  and  opportunity  to  observe,  study,  and  reflect.  Many  usually  finish* 
their  education,  in  the  strict  literary  sense,  at  the  college  commencement,  unless, 
luckily,  their  vocation  in  life  calls  for  constant  literary  activity.  A  college  is  a 
seat,  and  not  merely  a  dispensary  of  learning.  It  is  not  more  a  distributing  center 
than  a  depository  of  knowledge,  The  mission  of  the  college  professor  is  not  merely 
to  teach,  but  to  study,  to  investigate,  and  to  grow.  The  great  minds  of  Europe 
are  gathered  in  the  universities.  Harvard,  Yale,  and  Princeton  mean  most  to 
American  scholarship.  If  the  negro  student  is  to  be  permitted  to  go  to  the  uni¬ 
versities,  but  is  to  be  given  no  opportunity  to  develop  beyond  graduation,  the 
intellectual  status  of  the  race  will  always  be  low. 

One  of  the  striking  peculiarities  of  the  colored  race  is  that  its  members  are  not 
inspired  by  the  great  achievements  of  white  men.  It  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted 
that  the  Caucasian  should  do  great  things.  The  negro  seems  to  think  that  the 
white  man  is  removed  from  his  plane  of  competition.  It  seldom,  if  ever,  occurs 
to  the  colored  pupil  to  equal  or  surpass  his  white  teacher.  He  is  at  most  a 
pupil,  never  a  disciple  of  his  Caucasian  master.  But  when  one  colored  man 
rises,  every  other  colored  man  begins  to  look  upward.  The  negro  does  not 
care  how  far  the  white  man  outstrips  him,  but  will  do  his  level  best  to  keep  pace 
with  one  of  his  own  color.  There  should  be  colored  men  of  approved  character, 
culture,  and  racial  enthusiasm  conspicuously  at  the  front  in  these  schools  of  higher 
learning.  They  stand  out  before  the  students  as  a  typical  embodiment  of  the 
possibilities  of  their  kind.  The  abolition  of  the  negro  college  would  be  the  death 
knell  of  the  higher  education  of  the  race.  Colored  youth  would  soon  cease  to 
attend  Northern  colleges  if  there  were  no  stimulus  beyond  the  commencement. 
The  negroes  of  the  North  have  often  been  upbraided  for  not  taking  better  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  educational  facilities  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  They  answer 
this  reproach  with  the  query,  “Cui  bono?”  Let  us  notice  the  harmful  effect  of 
this  principle  when  applied  to  another  situation.  In  a  publication  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education,  entitled  Education  in  Maryland,  the  author  attributes  the  back¬ 
wardness  of  that  State  in  higher  educational  matters,  until  quite  recently,  largely 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  early  history  of  the  colony  the  youth  were  sent  abroad  for 
their  higher  education,  to  the  neglect  of  home  institutions.  Some  went  to  William 
and  Mary  in  Virginia,  others  to  England,  and  still  others  of  Catholic  parentage, 
like  Charles  Carroll,  were  educated  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

3.  “  Practical  education”  is  the  cant  phrase  of  the  hour.  Let  us  repudiate  the 
cheap  sentiment  that  all  negroes  should  be  taught  a  mechanical  trade.  What  is 
here  meant  by  a  practical  education  is  one  that  will  enable  the  recipient  to  deal 
wisely  with  the  issues  which  he  must  grapple  with  in  after  life.  One’s  educa¬ 
tion  should,  as  far  as  possible,  fit  for  the  special  circumstances  of  his  environ¬ 
ment.  Dr.  Edward  W.  Blyden,  the  world-renowned  negro  scholar,  tells  us:  “  The 
object  of  all  education  is  to  secure  growth  and  efficiency,  to  make  a  man  all  that 
his  natural  gifts  will  allow  him  to  become,  to  produce  self-respect,  a  proper 
appreciation  of  our  own  powers  and  the  powers  of  other  people,  to  beget  a  fitness 
for  one’s  sphere  in  life  and  action,  and  an  ability  to  discharge  the  duties  it 
imposes.” 1  The  negro’s  “  sphere  of  life  and  action  ”  in  this  land  is  well  known. 
The  American  negro  may  attempt  great  works,  may  plant  fields  and  build  houses, 
may  gather  silver  and  gold  and  the  precious  treasures  of  the  earth — yea,  may  turn 
himself  to  the  pursuit  of  wisdom  and  surround  himself  with  the  highest  delights 
known  to  the  sons  of  men — but  unless  he  measures  it  all  by  the  gauge  of  his  racial 
circumstances  he  will  find  that  it  is  all  vanity  and  vexation  of  spirit.  During  the 
civil  war  all  of  the  moral,  mental,  muscular,  and  material  resources  gf  the  North 
were  called  into  use  to  defend  and  uphold  the  Union.  The  skilled  mechanic  must 
build  ships  and  devise  engines  of  war;  the  chemist  must  invent  destructive  com- 


Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,  p.  85. 


THE  EDUCATION  OE  THE  NEGRO. 


84T 


pounds;  the  philosopher  must  uphold  the  theory  of  the  government  in  dispute  by 
his  erudition;  the  scholar  must  write  books  and  the  poet  must  sing  songs  full  of 
the  Union  sentiment  and  patriotic  devotion.  The  negro  race  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
life  and  death  struggle  for  a  higher  existence,  for  racial  development  and  manly 
recognition.  All  available  powers  need  to  be  impressed  into  service.  The  colored 
college  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  youth  may  be  educated  consciously  and 
enthusiastically  as  to  the  needs  of  the  race. 

4.  The  courses  of  study  in  the  Northern  colleges  do  not  contemplate  the  needs 
of  the  negro.  They  were  made  out  without  reference  to  him,  and  indeed  without 
any  thought  that  he  would  ever  participate  in  them.  These  may  include  subjects 
which  to  the  negro  student’s  manly  instinct  and  sense  of  self-respect  are  worse 
than  a  chilling  blast.  In  one  of  the  most  liberal  of  American  universities  there  is, 
or  was,  a  distinguished  professor  who  is  the  author  of  a  book  which  sinks  the 
negro  to  the  lowest  depths  of  degradation,  from  which,  according  to  its  learned 
dictum,  he  shall  be  lifted  nevermore.  Think  of  a  self-respecting  colored  student 
learning  the  science  of  man  from  such  a  source!  I  can  more  easily  think  of  a 
Baptist  minister  putting  his  children  under  the  tutelage  of  a  Jesuit  priest,  or  a 
Union  general  during  the  war  sending  his  son  to  school  in  South  Carolina.  Quot¬ 
ing  Dr.  Blyden  once  more:  “In  all  English-speaking  countries  the  mind  of  the 
intelligent  negro  child  revolts  against  the  descriptions — given  in  elementary  books, 
geographies,  travels,  histories — of  the  negro;  but  though  at  first  he  experiences  an 
instinctive  revulsion  from  the  caricatures  and  misrepresentations,  he  is  obliged  to 
continue,  as  he  grows  in  years,  to  study  such  pernicious  teachings.  After  leaving 
school  he  finds  the  same  thing  in  newspapers,  in  reviews,  novels,  in  quasi  scien¬ 
tific  works,  and  after  a  while,  saepe  cadendo,  they  begin  to  seem  the  proper  thing  to 
say  about  his  race.  ” 1  There  is  to  the  colored  race  a  baneful  influence  lurking  in 
that  literature  which  sets  forth  the  negro  in  every  mood  and  tense  of  contempt. 

The  Southern  white  people,  if  we  omit  a  single  issue,  possess  many  admirable 
traits  and  qualities.  Their  sense  of  self-respect  is  most  highly  commendable.  No 
Southerner  would  send  his  child  to  a  school  where  any  doctrine  was  taught  repug¬ 
nant  to  his  sense  of  dignity  and  self-esteem.  No  text-book  reflecting  in  any  way 
on  Southern  character  can  be  introduced  into  their  schools. 

The  new  woman,  clamoring  for  what  she  considers  to  be  her  rights,  has  learned 
the  same  lesson.  No  institution  is  too  venerable,  no  book  too  sacred  to  be 
attacked,  if  in  her  opinion  it  degrades  and  humiliates  her  sex.  She  has  rendered 
a  new  interpretation  of  the  Bible  itself  in  accordance  with  the  new  notion  of  the 
dignity  and  elevation  of  womanhood.  A  distinguished  bishop  of  an  influential 
denomination  has  suggested  a  new  rendering  of  the  sacred  book  in  its  reference  to 
the  negro.  All  these  parties  are  doubtless  extreme  in  their  sensitiveness,  but  the 
whole  trend  of  manhood  is  to  accept  nothing  that  insults  one’s  own  soul.  The 
negro  university,  then,  in  its  fuller  development,  can  be  a  bulwark  of  strength  to 
the  race  as  a  friendly  interpreter  of  science  and  learning. 

5;  It  would  be  very  unfortunate  if  the  negro  in  Texas  who  desired  a  higher 
education  should  have  to  go  all  the  way  to  Massachusetts  to  procure  it.  Should 
there  not  be  some  higher  institutions  of  learning  accessible  to  him  nearer  home? 
Emperor  Frederick  II  gave  as  his  reason  for  founding  the  University  of  Naples  in 
1225  that  his  subjects  in  his  Kingdom  of  Naples  should  find  in  the  capital  ade¬ 
quate  instruction  in  every  branch  of  learning  and  4  4  not  be  compelled  in  the  pur¬ 
suit  of  knowledge  to  have  recourse  to  foreign  nations  or  to  beg  it  in  other  lands.”2 

6.  It  is  not  wise  to  depend  wholly  upon  the  Northern  institutions  for  the  higher 
education  of  colored  youth.  It  can  not  be  predicted  at  what  point  they  may  fail. 
Prejudice  is  a  capricious  frenzy.  It  obeys  no  law  and  is  subject  to  no  rational 
principle.  Its  slightest  whim  will  put  to  naught  our  profoundest  plans  and  pur- 


•Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,  p.  88. 


a  Encyclopedia  Britannica— article  Universities. 


848 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


poses.  It  is  impossible  to  make  the  operation  of  prejudice  conform  to  the  formu¬ 
las  of  logic.  It  is  illogical  and  inconsistent  and  cares  nothing  for  the  discomfiture 
of  its  victim.  If  prejudice  orders  it  so  an  institution  will  close  its  doors  to  the 
negro  to-morrow,  notwithstanding  it  received  him  yesterday  with  open  arms. 
Can  anyone  predict  what  would  be  the  policies  of  the  universities  of  the  North 
should  the  negro  contingency  become  “  too  numerous?”  Dr.  J.  E.  Rankin,  presi¬ 
dent  of  Howard  University,  in  a  notable  utterance  before  the  second  Mohawk 
Conference  on  the  Negro  Question,  tells  us:  “It  is  true  that  colored  men  can  go 
to  Northern  institutions  of  learning;  that  is,  as  an  individual — one  of  him.  But 
ten  of  him  would  break  up  any  college  class.  Even  Harvard  would  cease  to  elect 
him  class  orator.  He  can  not  be  educated  in  large  numbers  except  in  institutions 
established  for  his  benefit.  Christian  as  are  our  theological  seminaries,  I  believe 
that  the  white  students  of  a  class  would  regard  one  colored  man  as  a  curiosity,  a 
phenomenon,  and  two  colored  men  as  a  double  enigma,  but  ten  colored  men 
would  put  10,000  of  them  to  flight.”  1 

7.  It  is  objected  that  separate  institutions  tend  to  perpetuate  prejudice.  There 
is  time  and  patience  for  but  a  word  to  objectors  of  this  class.  The  best  possible 
way  to  perpetuate  prejudice  is  for  the  negro  to  do  nothing  and  to  have  nothing, 
but  to  live  like  the  sponge  and  the  parasite.  If  the  time  is  to  come  when  the 
foundations  of  prejudice  are  to  be  broken  up,  separate  institutions,  especially  if 
they  be  good  ones,  will  not  stand  in  the  way.  The  wisest  way  to  break  down 
prejudice,  if  that  is  possible  to  be  done,  is  for  the  negro  to  have  something  which 
white  men  want  and  not  always  be  wanting  something  which  they  have. 

IX.  Colored  Men  in  the  Professions. 

In  a  homogeneous  society  where  there  is  no  racial  cleavage,  only  the  select  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  favored  class  occupy  professional  stations.  In  India  it  is  said  that  the 
populace  is  divided  horizontally  by  caste  and  vertically  by  religion;  but  in  Amer¬ 
ica  the  race  spirit  serves  both  as  a  horizontal  and  vertical  separation.  The  isola¬ 
tion  of  the  negro  in  all  social  and  semi3ocial  relations  necessitates  independent 
ministrative  agencies  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  rungs  on  the  ladder  of  serv¬ 
ice.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  colored  race  demands  that  its  preachers,  teachers, 
physicians,  and  lawyers  shall  be  for  the  most  part  men  of  their  own  blood  and 
sympathies.  Strangely  enough  this  feeling  first  asserted  itself  in  the  church — 
that  organization  founded  upon  the  universal  fatherhood  of  God  and  brotherhood 
of  man.  In  the  estimation  of  its  founder  there  is  neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  Bar¬ 
barian,  Scythian,  bond  nor  free.  According  to  a  strict  construction  of  its  require¬ 
ments,  there  is  no  difference  in  kind  among  those  who  are  spiritually  akin.  And 
yet  the  organic  separation  of  the  races  first  asserted  itself  in  the  matter  of  religion. 
Whenever  the  colored  adherents  became  sufficiently  large  to  excite  attention,  they 
were  set  apart,  either  in  separate  communion  or  in  separate  assignment  of  place 
in  the  house  of  worship.  When  the  negro  worshiper  gained  conscious  self-respect, 
he  grew  tired  of  the  back  pews  and  upper  galleries  of  the  white  churches,  and 
sought  places  of  worship  more  compatible  with  his  sense  of  freedom  and  dignity. 
Hence  arose  the  negro  church  and  the  negro  clergy.  This  was  the  first  profes¬ 
sional  class  to  arise,  and  is  still  relatively  the  most  numerous.  The  religious  inter¬ 
ests  of  the  race  are  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the  colored  clergy.  Outside  of 
the  Catholic  Church  it  is  almost  as  difficult  to  find  a  white  clergyman  over  a  col¬ 
ored  congregation  as  it  is  to  meet  with  the  reverse  phenomenon.  The  two  denom¬ 
inations,  Methodists  and  Baptists,  that  are  wholly  under  negro  ecclesiastical 
control,  include  well-nigh  the  entire  colored  race. 

The  proportional  number  of  church  communicants  for  the  colored  race  exceeds 

1  Report  of  second  Mohawk  Conference  on  the  Negro  Question. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO.  849 


that  for  the  white  race.  In  1880  the  colored  race  had  one  communicant  for  every 
2.79  of  the  negro  population,  while  the  whites  had  one  out  of  every  3.04. 

The  negro  church  communicants  were  distributed  as  follows  among  the  several 
religious  denominations: 


Regular  Baptists  . . . 

African  Methodist  Episcopal _ 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion 

Methodist  Episcopal _ 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal _ 

Regular  Baptist  North _ _ 

Disciples  of  Christ _ _ _ 

Primitive  Baptist  . . . 

Presbyterian  (Northern) _ 

Roman  Catholic . . 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  _ _ 

Other  denominations  (17) . . 


1, 348, 989 
452, 725 
349, 788 
248, 249 
129, 383 
35, 221 
18, 578 
18,162 
14, 961 
14,  517 
12, 956 
34, 448 


Total _ _ _ _  2,673,977 

This  vast  host  of  church  members  is,,  as  above  stated,  almost  wholly  under 
colored  ecclesiastical  control.  There  is  need  for  at  least  25,000  trained  men  to 
administer  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  this  multitude.  Herein  lies  one  of  the  most 
powerful  arguments  for  the  higher  education  of  select  members  of  the  negro  race. 
The  tendency  of  the  times  is  to  require  of  candidates  for  the  professions  sound 
academic  training  as  a  preparatory  basis  for  their  professional  equipment.  It  is 
idle  to  say  that  because  the  negro  race  is  ignorant  and  undeveloped  therefore  it3 
clergy  need  not  measure  up  to  the  average  of  professional  requirements.  It  surely 
requires  as  much  discretion,  resourcefulness,  and  sense  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
lowly  as  to  administer  to  those  who  are  already  exalted.  It  is  true  that  the  negroes 
have  been  gathered  in  the  church  in  great  multitudes  under  the  guidance  of  men 
who  had  little  academic  equipment  for  their  work;  but  we  know  full  well  that 
this  is  but  the  first  step  in  their  spiritual  development,  and  that  their  future  wel¬ 
fare  requires  not  only  men  of  consecration,  but  men  of  definite  training  for  their 
work.  Let  us  not  forget  also  that  the  negro  church  has  a  larger  function  than  the 
white  church.  Therefore  the  negro  preacher  must  be  not  only  the  spiritual  leader 
of  his  flock,  but  also  the  general  guide,  philosopher,  and  friend. 

The  rise  of  the  colored  teacher  is  due  almost  wholly  to  the  outcome  of  the  civil 
war.  The  South  soon  hit  upon  the  plan  of  the  scholastic  separation  of  the  races, 
and  assigned  colored  teachers  to  colored  schools  as  the  best  means  of  carrying  out 
this  policy.  Hence  a  large  professional  class  was  at  once  injected  into  the  arena. 
As  the  negro  preacher  is  responsible  for  the  spiritual  life  of  the  race,  so  the  negro 
teach  er  is  charged  with  its  intellectual  enlightenment.  The  2,000,000  negro  children 
of  school  age  constitute  the  charge  committed  to  the  keeping  of  30,000  negro  teach¬ 
ers.  There  were  at  the  inception  a  great  many  white  laborers  who  generously 
entered  upon  this  work,  of  whom  there  still  remains  a  goodly  sprinkling.  But 
their  function  was  and  is  mainly  to  prepare  colored  men  and  women  for  the 
responsible  tasks.  It  was  inevitable  that  many  of  the  teachers,  for  whom  there 
was  such  a  sudden  demand,  should  have  been  illy  prepared  for  the  task 
imposed.  It  was  and  still  is  in  many  cases  a  travesty  upon  terms  to  speak  of  such 
work  as  most  of  these  teachers  were  able  to  do  as  professional  service.  We  find 
here  as  strong  an  argument  for  the  secondary  and  higher  education  of  the  negro 
as  was  furnished  by  ecclesiastical  necessities.  The  duty  imposed  upon  negro 
teachers  is  as  onerous  and  requires  as  high  a  degree  of  knowledge  and  professional 
equipment  as  that  imposed  upon  any  other  class  engaged  in  educational  work. 

ED  1901 - 54 


850 


EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1901. 


The  special  needs  of  their  constituency  call  for  a  higher  rather  than  a  lower  order 
of  training,  preparation,  and  fitness. 

The  colored  doctor  and  lawyer  have  only  recently  entered  the  field  in  anything 
like  sufficient  numbers  to  attract  attention.  The  same  spirit  that  demanded  the 
negro  preacher  has  also  operated  in  favor  of  the  negro  doctor.  The  relation 
between  patient  and  physician  is  close  and  confidential.  The  social  barrier  between 
the  races  often  operates  against  the  acceptability  of  a  physician  of  the  opposite  race. 
The  success  of  the  colored  physician  has  often  been  little  less  than  marvelous. 

The  colored  lawyer  has  not  been  so  fortunate  as  his  medical  confrere.  The  rela¬ 
tion  between  client  and  attorney  is  not  necessarily  close  and  personal,  but  par¬ 
takes  of  a  business  nature.  The  client's  interest  is  also  dependent  upon  the  court 
and  jury,  with  whom  the  white  attorney  is  generally  supposed  to  have  greater 
weight  and  influence.  For  such  reasons  the  negro  lawyer  has  not  made  the  head¬ 
way  that  has  been  accomplished  in  the  other  professions. 

It  must  be  said  for  the  professions  of  law  and  medicine  that  the  applicants  are 
subjected  to  a  uniform  test,  and  therefore  colored  and  white  candidates  are  on  the 
same  footing.  Colored  practitioners,  therefore,  must  have  a  fair  degree  of  pre¬ 
liminary  training  and  professional  preparation. 

Macon  B.  Allen  was  the  first  colored  attorney  regularly  admitted  to  practice  in 
the  United  States.  He  was  admitted  in  Maine  in  1844.  It  is  claimed  by  some 
that  the  husband  of  Phyllis  Wheatley  was  a  lawyer.  Robert  Morris  was  admitted 
to  the  Boston  bar  in  1850,  on  motion  of  Charles  Sumner,  where  he  practiced  with 
splendid  success  until  his  death,  in  1882.  Prof.  John  M.  Langston  was  admitted 
to  the  Ohio  bar  in  1854.  James  Durham  was  born  a  slave  in  Philadelphia  in  1762. 
His  master  was  a  surgeon.  He  purchased  his  freedom  and  became  one  of  the 
most  noted  physicians  in  New  Orleans.  His  practice  is  said  to  have  been  worth 
$3,000  a  year.  The  following  account  attests  the  success  of  a  black  physician: 

Dr.  David  Buggies,  poor,  blind,  and  an  invalid,  founded  a  well-known  water- 
cure  establishment  in  the  town  where  I  write  (Northampton,  Mass.),  erected 
expensive  buildings,  won  fashionable  distinction  as  a  most  skillful  and  successful 
practitioner,  secured  the  warm  regard  and  esteem  of  this  community,  and  left  a 
name  established  in  the  hearts  of  many  who  feel  that  they  owe  their  life  to  his 
skill  and  careful  practice. 1 

Dr.  John  V.  Degrass  was  admitted  in  due  form  as  a  member  of  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Medical  Society  in  1854. 

The  above  are  only  samples  of  negroes  in  the  learned  professions  before  the  civil 
war.  Of  course,  there  was  a  larger  number  of  ministers  and  teachers.  Out  of 
such  meager  beginnings  has  grown  the  great  number  of  professional  colored  men 
and  women  of  to-dav. 

The  number  and  distribution  of  colored  and  white  men  among  the  different 
professions  for  the  sixteen  former  slave  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia  can 
be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

Professional  occupations. 2 


ALABAMA. 


Profession. 

Number. 

Number  of  per¬ 
sons  to  each. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

TVaohers  . _ _  _ . . _ _  _ 

3,188 

1,798 

1,298 

1,016 

946 

28 

13 

799 

262 

464 

642 

799 

718 

24,618 

52,254 

850 

Doctors  _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _ _ - _ _ ...... _ 

Lawyers  ...... _ ....... _ _ _ _ 

Clergymen . . . . 

1  Wendell  Phillips  in  introduction  to  W.  C.  Nell's  Colored  Patriots  of  the  American  Revolu¬ 
tion,  1852. 

2  Eleventh  Census. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGBO, 


851 


Professional  occupations — Continued. 

ARKANSAS. 


Profession. 

Number. 

Number  of  per¬ 
sons  to  each. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Teachers.  ..  _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ 

2, 792 

612 

293 

506 

Doctors.  _  _  _ _  _  _ 

2,224 

1,052 

40 

369 

7,761 

10,313 

465 

Lawyers  _ _ - _ _ _ 

30 

816 

Clergymen  ..  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1,138 

666 

719 

DELAWARE. 


Teachers . . 

Doctors _ 

Clergymen 
Lawyers  .. 


677 

42 

207 

679 

231 

2 

606 

14,214 

192 

72 

7,29 

395 

155 

1 

903 

14, 427 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 


Teachers . . 

996 

361 

155 

209 

Clergymen  _ .  _  _ 

255 

129 

606 

587 

Doctors. . . . . 

692 

37 

224 

2,046 

Lawyers . 

1  375 

26 

112 

2,911 

FLORIDA. 


Teachers _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1,204 

486 

417 

187 

397 

Clergymen _ _ _ _ _ 

433 

464 

385 

Doctors _ _ _ ... _ _ ....... _ ...... _ 

620 

12 

363 

13, 873 

Lawyers  .  ..  _  _  _  .  . 

561 

13 

401 

12,806 

GEORGIA. 


Teachers . . . . . . . . . . 

3,999 

1,240 

2,343 

1,713 

1,535 

1,270 

40 

247 

Clergymen . . . . . . 

790 

Doctors . . . 

411 

Lawyers _ _ _ _ _ _ 

17 

KENTUCKY. 


Teachers . . . . . . . 

7,290 

1,897 

3,214 

2,339 

711 

218 

■ 

377 

Clergymen . 

651 

838 

412 

Doctors . . . . . . . 

42 

495 

6, 385 

Lawyers . 

14 

680 

19, 155 

LOUISIANA. 


Teachers  . . 
Clergymen 

Doctors _ 

Lawyers 


628 

198 

892 

639 

1,061 

871 

38 

467 

14,926 

30 

537 

15,339 

MARYLAND. 


Teachers  . . 
Clergymen 

Doctors _ 

Lawyers  .. 


4, 595 

382 

180 

565 

1,188 

287 

696 

752 

1,663 

37 

497 

5, 563 

1,161 

23 

712 

8,592 

852 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


Professional  occupations — Continued. 

MISSISSIPPI. 


Profession. 

Number. 

Number  of  per¬ 
sons  to  each. 

White. 

Colored. 

White. 

Colored. 

Teachers  _  __  .  _  __  _  _ __ _ _  _  -  .  _ _ .  _  _ 

3,157 

814 

1,546 

989 

173 

483 

Clergymen _ _ _  _ 

688 

758 

Doctors _ 

1,634 

873 

34 

335 

21,905 

28,644 

Lawyers . . . . . . ._ . . . 

36 

626 

MISSOURI. 


Teachers  _  _  _  _  _ 

13, 689 

546 

189 

Clergymen  _ _ _ ... _ _ 

3,439 

402 

735 

Doctors _ _ _ _ _ 

5,225 

28 

484 

Lawyers  .  _ _ _ _ _ 

3,943 

8 

641 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 


Teachers . . . . . . . 

3,679 

1,385 

1,091 

855 

287 

516 

Clergymen  _ _ _ _  _ 

762 

658 

Doctors _ _ 

1,488 

978 

46 

709 

12,229 
40, 183 

Lawyers . 

14 

1,079 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Teachers . . . . . . . . 

2,130 

747 

889 

217 

775 

Clergymen . . . . . 

876 

618 

787 

Doctors  _ _ _ ...... _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1,099 

748 

30 

420 

22,971 

29,963 

Lawyers . . . . . . . . . 

23 

617 

TENNESSEE. 


Teachers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

5,485 

1,862 

3,283 

1,562 

1,093 

812 

245 

Clergymen . . . - . . 

712 

Doctors  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

102 

407 

Lawyers  . . . . . . . . . 

76 

856 

TEXAS. 


Teachers . . . . . 

7,388 

2,518 

4,288 

3,540 

1,473 

836 

236 

332 

Clergymen _ _ _ _ 

694 

586 

Doctors _ _ _ _ _ _ 

54 

408 

9,068 
40, 799 

Lawyers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

12 

493 

VIRGINIA. 


Teachers.. _ _ _ _ _  .  _ _ _ _ _ 

6,026 
1,417 
1, 892 
1,611 

1, 459 
747 

169 

435 

Clergymen . . . . . . . . . . 

720 

851 

Doctors _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

39 

539 

16,253 

18,733 

Lawyers . 

38 

633 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Teachers . . . . . . . 

3,823 

910 

134 

191 

244 

Clergymen .  _  _  _  _  _  _ 

77 

802 

425 

Doctors  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1,022 

935 

4 

714 

8,179 

Lawyers . 

2 

789 

16,358 

The  colored  preachers  are  quite  as  numerous  in  proportion  to  the  population  as 
the  white,  and  in  some  cases  more  so.  In  West  Virginia  there  are  425  whites  and 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


853 


only  802  blacks  to  each  minister  of  the  respective  raxes.  One  might  expect  a  pre¬ 
ponderance  of  colored  ministers  for  two  reasons:  (1)  There  is  a  larger  relative 
church  membership;  and  (2)  the  colored  population  has  not  more  than  half  the 
density  of  that  of  the  white  in  the  area  under  consideration.  In  the  State  of  Mis¬ 
souri,  for  example,  735  colored  preachers  cover  the  same  territory  as  3,439  white 
ministers;  and  while  each  of  the  former  has  on  an  average  375  persons  to  the  parish 
to  the  latter’s  735,  yet  his  geographical  area  is  five  times  as  extensive.  If  we  turn 
to  the  States  where  the  negroes  predominate,  we  may  expect  to  find  a  reversal  of 
conditions.  In  Mississippi  and  South  Carolina  the  colored  parish  is  smaller  in 
area  but  more  populous  than  that  of  the  whites.  The  clerical  demand  of  the  negro 
population  is  fully  supplied  in  a  numerical  sense,  albeit  there  is  much  need  for  a 
higher  standard  of  professional  equipment  for  its  most  arduous  and  delicate 
duties. 

In  no  case  has  the  colored  race  as  many  teachers  in  proportion  to  the  population 
as  the  white.  In  some  cases,  like  South  Carolina  and  Alabama,  the  disproportion 
is  glaring,  the  number  of  persons  to  each  teacher  being  217  to  775  in  the  former, 
and  262  to  718  in  the  latter,  in  favor  of  the  more  fortunate  race.  It  must  be  said, 
however,  that  the  number  of  persons  to  each  teacher  does  not  necessarily  represent 
the  actual  distribution  of  the  work  between  the  races;  for  it  is  known  that  in  every 
Southern  State  there  are  white  teachers  working  among  colored  people.  These 
are  mainly  in  private  and  philanthropic  schools,  however,  and  do  not  materially 
affect  the  general  equation,  or  rather  the  inequality,  of  educational  conditions. 
If  we  take  geographical  conditions  into  account,  and  the  fact  that  the  two  sets  of 
teachers  operate  over  the  same  area,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  disparity  is  greatly 
enhanced.  Taking  all  in  all,  it  appears  that  the  negro  teaching  force  is  in  no  sense 
adequate  to  the  task  imposed  upon  it. 

The  colored  lawyers  and  doctors  form  so  small  a  proportion  of  the  general  popu¬ 
lation  as  scarcely  to  merit  mention  as  a  professional  class.  In  Texas  there  is  1 
negro  doctor  in  9,000  and  1  negro  lawyer  in  40,000  of  the  population,  while  in 
South  Carolina  there  are  22,000  and  29,000  to  a  colored  practitioner  in  the  respec¬ 
tive  professions.  In  Alabama  there  is  1  black  doctor  to  look  after  24,000  patients, 
and  each  colored  lawyer  has  52,000  clients.  The  work  in  these  professions  is  con¬ 
ducted  mainly  by  the  whites,  although  the  Twelfth  Census  will  undoubtedly  show 
a  large  increase  in  the  colored  practitioners.  Where  numbers  are  small,  propor¬ 
tions  are  sensitive.  The  number  of  persons  to  each  practitioner  will  be  materially 
reduced.  The  argument  which  we  sometimes  hear  that  negroes  are  leaving  the 
farm  and  the  shop  to  rush  into  the  learned  professions  is  not  borne  out  by  the  col¬ 
lected  facts  in  the  case.  In  Alabama,  for  instance,  only  1  negro  in  50,000  has 
entered  upon  the  practice  of  law  and  1  in  25,000  upon  the  profession  of  medicine. 
While  it  is  true  that  there  is  no  large  demand  for  colored  men  in  these  professional 
pursuits,  especially  outside  of  the  large  centers,  nevertheless  the  steady  progress 
of  the  people  in  property,  intelligence,  and  diversified  material  and  commercial 
interests  calls  for  a  conservative  increase  in  the  number  of  professional  colored 
men  both  in  medicine  and  in  law. 

It  can  not  be  claimed  that  the  colored  race  has  developed  superlative  names  in 
the  several  professions.  There  are  not  a  few  ministers  of  piety  and  eloquence. 
The  teacher  in  the  public  service  must  maintain  the  average  proficiency  of  the  sys¬ 
tem  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  white  superintendents.  The  negro  lawyers  are  in 
open  competition  with  their  white  colaborers,  and  must  render  satisfactory  service, 
else  they  would  have  no  clients.  Colored  physicians  generally  have  a  good  record 
for  professional  skill  and  integrity.  There  is  no  movement  affecting  the  lot  and 
life  of  the  colored  race  so  suggestive  of  its  educational  needs  as  the  size  of  the  pro¬ 
fessional  class. 


854 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


X.  Negroes  who  have  Achieved  Distinction  along  Lines  calling  for 
Definite  Intellectual  Activity. 

The  individual  is  the  proof  of  the  race,  the  first  unfoldment  of  its  potency  and 
promise.  The  glory  of  any  people  is  perpetuated  and  carried  forward  by  the 
illustrious  names  which  spring  from  among  them.  As  we  contemplate  the  great 
nations  and  peoples,  whether  of  the  ancient  or  of  the  modern  world,  their  command¬ 
ing  characters  rise  up  before  us,  typifying  their  contribution  to  the  general  wel¬ 
fare  of  the  human  race.  On  the  contrary,  no  people  can  hope  to  gain  esteem  and 
favor  which  fails  to  produce  distinguished  individuals  illustrative  and  exemplary 
of  its  possibilities. 

For  four  centuries  the  African  race  has  been  brought  in  contact  with  the 
European  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  This  contact  has  not  been  of  an  ennobling 
character,  but  of  the  servile  sort,  affording  little  opportunity  for  the  development 
of  those  qualities  which  the  favored  races  hold  in  esteem.  And  yet  there  has  arisen 
from  this  dark  and  forbidden  background  not  a  few  striking  individual  emana¬ 
tions.  This  race,  through  a  strain  of  its  blood,  has  given  to  Russia  her  national 
poet  and  to  France  her  most  distinguished  romancer.  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  the 
negro  patriot,  is  the  most  commanding  historical  figure  of  the  entire  West  Indian 
Archipelago.  In  South  America  persons  of  negro  blood  have  gained  the  highest 
political  and  civil  renown. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  deals  with  backward  peoples  on  a  different  basis  from  the 
Latin  races.  While  he  has  a  keener  sense  of  justice  and  is  imbued  with  a  spirit  of 
philanthropic  kindness,  yet  he  builds  up  a  barrier  between  himself  and  them  which 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  overcome.  To  him  personal  solicitude  and  good  will  and 
racial  intolerance  are  not  incompatible  qualities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Latin 
races,  while  possessing  a  much  lower  order  of  general  efficiency,  accept  on  equal 
terms  all  who  conform  to  the  prevailing  standards.  Under  the  Latin  dispensation 
color  offers  not  the  slightest  bar  to  the  individual  who  exhibits  high  qualities  of 
mind  or  soul.  We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  to  find  that  the  colored  men 
who  have  reached  the  highest  degree  of  fame  should  have  sprung  from  the  Latin 
civilization.  The  persons  of  African  blood  who  are  most  nearly  comparable  with 
names  of  the  first  order  of  renown  among  Europeans  are  Toussaint  L’Ouver- 
ture,  of  Haiti;  Alexander  Pushkin,  of  Russia;  Alexander  Dumas,  of  France.  In 
France,  Italy,  or  Spain  color  is  only  a  curious  incident.  The  Afro-American 
therefore  belongs  in  a  category  by  himself.  His  circumstances  and  conditions  are 
so  different  from  those  of  his  European  brother  that  although  of  same  color  they 
are  not  of  the  same  class. 

Several  lists  of  distinguished  colored  men  have  been  prepared,  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  of  which,  perhaps,  was  published  by  Abbe  Gregoire,  and  was  prepared  to 
answer  the  argument  of  Thomas  Jefferson  and  others,  who  undertook  to  prove 
the  negro’s  intellectual  inferioritj7.  This  work  contains  accounts  of  negroes  in  all 
countries  who  had  reached  eminence  and  distinction  in  ail  lines  of  endeavor.1  An 
account  of  the  part  played  by  colored  men  in  the  Revolutionary  war  contains  the 
deeds  and  achievements  of  noted  negroes.'2  Rev.  William  J.  Simmons  brings  the 
former  work  nearer  to  date  and  includes  many  colored  men  now  living.3  A  list  of 
distinguished  colored  women  has  also  been  compiled.4 

Numerous  magazine  articles  have  appeared  on  this  subject  from  time  to  time. 

1  De  la  litterature  des  Negres,  ou  Recherches  sur  lem*  facultes  intellectuelles,  leur  qualites 
morales,  et  leur  litterature;  suivies  par  notices  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  des  Negres  qui  se  sont 
distingues  dans  les  sciences,  les  lettres  et  les  arts.  Par  H.  Gr6goire.  Paris,  1808. 

2  Colored  Patriots  of  the  American  Revolution,  by  William  Cooper  Nell,  with  introduction  by 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe.  Boston,  1855. 

3  Men  of  Mark,  1141  pages,  by  William  J.  Simmons,  D.  D.  Cleveland,  1887. 

4  Women  of  Distinction,  by  A.  L.  Scruggs,  M.  D.  Raleigh,  1893. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


855 


The  two  which  are,  perhaps,  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  which  include  the 
substance  of  the  rest,  appeared  in  the  International  Quarterly  Review 1  and  in  the 
North  American  Revie  2 

An  interesting  syllabus  has  recently  been  prepared  by  Mr.  A.  O.  Stafford  on 
“Negro  ideals,”  which  gives  a  good  outline  of  the  efforts  of  the  negro  toward 
better  things.3 

It  is  with  some  hesitancy  that  a  few  names  of  the  more  distinguished  A.fro- 
Americans  are  here  presented.  In  such  a  restricted  list  it  is  inevitable  that  many 
should  be  omitted  who  are  equally  worthy  as  some  who  are  mentioned.  The 
names  here  presented  have  not  been  selected  because  of  general  distinction,  but 
rather  for  technical,  artistic,  and  intellectual  achievements  in  the  scholastic  sense. 

Only  those  have  been  included  of  whose  achievements  the  world  takes  account. 
There  is  no  name  in  the  list  which  may  not  be  found  in  Appleton's  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Biography.  Nothing  is  great  or  small  except  by  comparison.  The 
names  here  presented  are  at  least  respectable  when  measured  by  European  stand¬ 
ards.  It  is  true  that  no  one  of  them  reaches  the  first,  or  even  the  second  degree  of 
luster  in  the  galaxy  of  the  world’s  greatness.  The  competing  number  has  been  so 
insignificant  and  the  social  atmosphere  has  been  so  repressive  to  their  budding 
aspirations  that  it  would  be  little  short  of  a  miracle  of  genius  if  any  member  of 
this  race  had  reached  the  highest  degree  of  glory.  It  is  true  that  if  not  one  of 
these  had  ever  been  born  the  bulk  and  quality  of  science,  literature,  and  art 
would  not  be  appreciably  affected. 

While  these  contributors  must  be  measured  in  terms  of  European  standards  in 
order  that  there  may  be  a  sane  and  rational  basis  of  comparison,  yet  there  is 
another  measure  which  takes  account  of  the  struggles  and  strivings  out  of  which 
they  grew.  In  the  light  of  European  comparison  it  appears  that  they  represent 
more  than  the  marvelous  vision  of  a  one-eyed  man  among  the  blind,  but  rather 
the  surprising  visual  power  of  a  one-eyed  man  among  two-eyed  men.  The  sig¬ 
nificance  of  these  superior  manifestations,  however,  must  not  be  measured 
solely  by  their  intrinsic  value.  They  serve  both  as  an  argument  and  an  inspira¬ 
tion.  They  show  the  American  people  that  the  negro,  at  his  best,  is  imbued  with 
their  own  ideas  and  strives  after  their  highest  ideals.  To  the  negro  they  serves  as 
models  of  excellence  to  stimulate  and  encourage  his  hesitant  and  disheartened 
aspirations. 

One  will  be  struck  by  the  versatility  and  range  of  the  names  in  the  list.  They 
cover  well-nigh  every  field  of  human  excellence.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  imi¬ 
tative  and  esthetic  arts  predominate  over  the  more  solid  and  severe  intellectual 
acquisitions.  Is  this  not  the  repetition  of  the  history  of  culture?  The  poet  and 
the  artist  precede  the  scientist  and  the  engineer.  This  meager  fruitage  does  not 
furnish  cause  of  self-complacent  glorification  on  the  past  of  the  negro,  but  is  only 
an  index  of  the  promise  of  the  tree  of  which  they  are  the  initial  bearings.  With 
its  extended  range  and  scope,  the  rising  generation  can  look  upon  them  in  the 
light  of  promise  rather  than  fulfillment. 

That  which  they  have  done  but  earnest  of  the  things  that  they  shall  do.4 

Phyllis  Wheatley  was  born  in  Africa  and  was  brought  to  America  in  1761.  She 
was  bought  from  the  slave  market  by  John  Wheatly,  of  Boston,  and  soon  devel¬ 
oped  remarkable  acquisitive  faculties.  In  sixteen  months  from  her  arrival  she 
could  read  English  fluently.  She  soon  learned  to  write,  and  also  studied  Latin. 
She  visited  England  in  1774  and  was  cordially  received.  After  returning  to  Boston 

1  “  The  intellectual  position  of  the  negro,”  by  Prof.  Richard  T.  Greener.  International  Quar-A 
terly  Review,  July,  1880. 

2  “  Negro  intellect,”  by  William  Matthews.  North  American  Review,  July,  1889.  j 

3  Hampton  Sumner  Normal  Institute  Papers,  July,  1901. 

4  Tennyson’s  “Locksley  Hall.” 


856 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


she  corresponded  with  Countess  Huntington,  the  Earl  of  Dartmouth,  Rev.  George 
Whitfield,  and  others,  and  wrote  many  poems  to  her  friends.  She  addressed  some 
lines  to  Gen.  George  Washington,  which  were  afterwards  published  in  the  Penn¬ 
sylvania  Magazine  for  April,  1776.  General  Washington  wrote  a  courteous 
response  and  invited  her  to  visit  the  Revolutionary  headquarters,  which  she  did, 
and  was  received  with  marked  attention  by  Washington  and  his  officers.  Her 
principal  publications  are  An  Elegiac  Poem  on  the  Death  of  George  Whitfield; 
Poems  on  Various  Subjects,  Religious  and  Moral,  published  in  London  in  1773, 
and  republished  as  The  Negro  Equalled  by  Few  Europeans,  two  volumes,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  1801.  The  letters  of  Phyllis  Wheatley  were  printed  in  Boston  in  1864, 
collected  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society.1 

Benjamin  Banneker  was  born  November  9, 1731,  near  Ellicotts  Mill,  Md.  Both 
his  father  and  grandfather  were  native  Africans.  He  attended  a  private  school 
which  admitted  several  colored  children  along  with  the  whites.  Although  his 
early  educational  facilities  were  scanty,  young  Banneker  soon  gained  a  local  repu¬ 
tation  as  a  miracle  of  wisdom.  In  1770  he  constructed  a  clock  to  strike  the  hours, 
the  first  to  be  made  in  America.  This  he  did  with  crude  tools  and  a  watch  for  his 
model,  as  he  had  never  seen  a  clock.  Through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Ellicott,  who 
was  a  gentleman  of  cultivation  and  taste,  he  gained  access  to  his  valuable  collec¬ 
tion  of  books,  and  was  thus  inducted  into  the  study  of  astronomy.  In  this  study 
he  gained  great  proficiency  and  constructed  an  almanac  adapted  to  the  local 
requirements  of  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  Maryland,  This  was  the  first  alma¬ 
nac  constructed  in  America,  and  was  published  by  Goddard  &  Angell,  Baltimore. 
Banneker ’s  Almanac  -was  published  annually  from  1792  to  1806,  the  year  of  his 
death.  It  contained  the  motions  of  the  sun  and  moon;  the  motions,  places,  and 
aspects  of  the  planets;  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  and  the  rising,  setting, 
southing,  place,  and  age  of  moon,  etc.,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  main  depend¬ 
ence  of  the  farmers  in  the  region  covered.  He  lived  mainly  from  the  royalty 
received  from  this  publication.  Banneker  sent  a  copy  of  this  almanac  to  Thomas 
Jefferson,  which  elicited  a  flattering  acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  the  philoso¬ 
pher  and  statesman.  Banneker  assisted  the  commissioners  in  laying  out  the  lines 
of  the  District  of  Columbia.  A  life  of  Banneker  was  published  by  Hon.  J.  H.  B. 
Latrobe,  Baltimore,  1845,  and  another  by  J.  S.  Norris,  1854. 2  That  Thomas  Jeffer¬ 
son  believed  in  the  intellectual  capacity  of  the  negro  and  appreciated  the  force  of 
the  argument  that  the  treatment  of  this  race  found  justification  in  its  assumed 
low  state  of  mental  possibility  is  revealed  by  his  letter  to  Benjamin  Banneker, 
the  black  astronomer: 

Sir:  I  thank  you  sincerely  for  your  letter  of  the  19th  instant  and  for  the 
almanac  it  contained.  Nobody  wishes  more  than  I  do  to  see  such  proofs  as  you 
exhibit  that  nature  has  given  to  our  black  brethren  talents  equal  to  those  of  the 
other  colors  of  men,  and  that  the  appearance  of  a  want  of  them  is  owing  merely 
to  the  degraded  condition  of  their  existence,  both  in  Africa  and  America.  I  can 
add  with  truth  that  nobody  wishes  more  ardently  to  see  a  good  system  commenced 
for  raising  the  condition  both  of  their  body  and  mind  to  what  it  ought  to  be  as 
fast  as  the  imbecility  of  their  present  existence  and  other  circumstances  which 
can  not  be  neglected  will  admit.  I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  sending  your 
almanac  to  M.  de  Condorcet,  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  and 
member  of  the  Philanthropic  Society,  because  I  considered  it  as  a  document  to 
which  your  color  had  a  right  for  their  justification  against  the  doubts  which  have 
been  entertained  of  them. 

I  am.  with  great  esteem,  sir, 

Your  most  obedient  humble  servant, 

Thomas  Jefferson. 

Mr.  Benjamin  Banneker, 

Near  Ellicotts  Lower  Mills,  Baltimore  County. 3 


1  See  Appleton’s  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  419,450. 

2  Williams's  History  of  the  Negro  Race,  Vol.  I,  pp.  385-398. 

3  Jefferson’s  Works,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  291. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO. 


857 


Lemuel  Haynes  was  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  July  18,  1753.  His  father  was  an 
African,  his  mother  a  white  woman.  He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  A.  M. 
from  Middlebury  College  in  1804.  After  completing  a  theological  course  he 
preached  in  various  places  and  settled  in  West  Rutland,  Vt.,  in  1788,  where  he 
remained  for  thirty  years  and  became  one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  in  the 
State.  He  was  characterized  by  a  subtle  intellect,  keen  wit,  and  eager  thirst  for 
knowledge.  His  noted  sermon  from  Genesis  3  and  4  was  published  and  passed 
through  nine  or  ten  editions.  His  controversy  with  Hosea  Ballou  became  of 
world- wide  interest.  The  life  of  Lemuel  Haynes  was  written  by  James  E.  Cooley, 
New  York,  1848. 

Ira  Aldridge  was  born  at  Belaire,  Md.,  about  1810. 1  There  is  some  dispute  as  to 
the  exact  composition  of  his  blood,  some  claim  that  he  was  of  pure  African  descent, 
while  others  contend  that  he  was  of  mixed  extraction.  He  was  early  brought  in 
contact  with  Mr.  Kean,  the  great  tragedian,  and  in  1826  accompanied  him  to 
Europe.  Mr.  Kean  encouraged  his  dramatic  aspiration,  and  on  one  occasion,  at 
least,  permitted  him  to  appear  as  Othello,  while  he  himself  took  the  part  of  Iago. 
As  an  interpreter  of  Shakespeare  he  was  very  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  best 
and  most  faithful.  He  appeared  at  Covent  Garden  as  Othello  in  1833,  and  in  Sur¬ 
rey  Theater  in  1848.  On  the  Continent  he  ranked  as  one  of  the  greatest  tragedians 
of  his  time.  Honors  were  showered  upon  him  wherever  he  appeared.  He  was 
presented  by  the  King  of  Prussia  with  the  first-class  medal  of  arts  and  sciences, 
accompanied  by  an  autograph  letter  from  the  Emperor  of  Austria;  the  Grand 
Cross  of  Leopold;  a  similar  decoration  from  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  and  a  mag¬ 
nificent  Maltese  cross,  with  the  medal  of  merit,  from  the  city  of  Berne.  'Similar 
honors  were  conferred  by  other  crowned  heads  of  Europe.  He  was  made  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Prussian  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  and  holder  of  the  large  gold 
medal;  member  of  the  Imperial  and  Arch  Ducal  Institution  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Manger  in  Austria;  of  the  Russian  Hof-Versamlung  of  Riga;  honorary  member 
of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  many  others. 
Aldridge  appeared  with  flattering  success  in  Amsterdam,  Brussels,  Berlin,  Bres¬ 
lau,  Vienna,  Pesth,  The  Hague,  Dantsic,  Konigsberg,  Dresden,  Berne,  Frankfort- 
on- the-Main,  Cracow,  Gotha,  and  numerous  other  cities  in  the  leading  parts  of 
the  standard  plays  of  the  times.  He  was  an  associate  of  the  most  prominent  men 
of  Paris,  among  whom  was  Alexander  Dumas.  When  these  two  met  they  always 
kissed  each  other,  and  Dumas  always  greeted  Aldridge  with  the  words  “mon 
confrere.”  Aldridge  died  at  Lodz,  in  Poland,  1867. 

Col.  George  W.  Williams  was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1849.  He  was  educated 
in  public  and  private  schools  and  completed  his  theological  training  at  West  New¬ 
ton  Theological  Seminary.  His  History  of  the  Negro  Race  in  America  is  the  sole 
existing  authority  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats,  and  forms,  without  doubt,  as 
valuable  a  literary  monument  as  any  yet  left  by  a  colored  man. 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar  is  still  a  young  man  under  30  years  of  age.  He  has 
already  made  an  impression  on  American  literature  that  can  never  be  effaced. 
He  has  published  Oaks  and  Ivy,  Majors  and  Minors,  Lyrics  of  Lowly  Life,  and 
Lyrics  of  the  Hearthstone,  together  -with  half  a  dozen  volumes  of  fiction  and 
short  stories.  Several  of  his  works  have  been  reprinted  in  England.  Speaking  of 
his  early  poems,  William  Dean  Howells  says:  “Some  of  these  [poems  in  literary 
English]  I  thought  very  good.  What  I  mean  is,  several  people  might  have  writ¬ 
ten  them,  but  I  do  not  know  am/one  else  at  present  who  could  quite  have  written 
his  dialect  pieces.  There  are  divinations  and  reports  of  what  passes  in  the  hearts 
and  minds  of  a  lowly  people  whose  poetry  had  hitherto  been  inarticulately 

1  There  is  some  dispute  as  to  the  exact  date  of  his  birth;  1804  is  the  time  given  by  Simmons  in 
Men  of  Mark. 


858 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


expressed,  but  now  finds,  for  the  first  time  in  our  tongue,  literary  interpretation 
of  a  very  artistic  completeness.” 1 

Henry  O.  Tanner,  son  of  Bishop  B.  T.  Tanner,  of  the  African  Methodist  Church, 
was  born  in  Pittsburg,  Pa. ,  in  1859.  His  early  educational  opportunities  were  good, 
having  studied  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  subsequently  at 
Paris.  His  pictures  have  been  hung  on  the  line  in  many  a  salon  exhibition,  and 
now  the  Government  of  France  has  crowned  the  long  list  of  medals  and  prizes 
which  Mr.  Tanner  has  received  by  buying  one  of  his  most  important  works,  The 
Raising  of  Lazarus,  for  the  Luxemburg  Gallery.  The  picture  has  already  been 
hung  in  the  Luxemburg  Gallery,  and  in  the  course  of  time  will  naturally  be 
transferred  to  the  Louvre.  Other  notable  pictures  by  the  same  artist  are  Nicode- 
mus,  owned  by  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia;  The  Annunciation,  which 
now  hangs  in  the  Memorial  Hall,  Philadelphia;  the  Betrayal,  in  the  Carnegie 
Gallery,  at  Pittsburg.2 

Dr.  Daniel  H.  Williams,  of  Chicago,  is  widely  known  throughout  the  medical 
profession.  He  has  performed  several  noted  operations  that  taxed  the  skill  of  sur¬ 
gical  science. 

In  1897  Dr.  Williams  performed  an  operation  on  account  of  a  stab  wound  of  the 
heart  and  pericardium,  a  report  of  which  was  published  in  the  Medical  Record, 
March  27,  1897,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  entire  medical  and  surgical  frater¬ 
nity,  and  was  published  in  the  medical  journals  of  nearly  every  country  and  lan¬ 
guage.  It  has  also  been  referred  to  in  most  recent  works  on  surgery,  especially  in 
International  Text- Book  on  Surgery  and  Da  Costas  Modern  Surgery. 

An  article  on  “  Ovarian  cysts  in  colored  women,”  by  Dr.  Williams,  published  in 
the  Philadelphia  Medical  Journal,  December  29, 1900,  had  for  its  purpose  the  refu¬ 
tation  of  the  idea  that  had  been  almost  universal  among  surgeons,  that  colored 
women  did  not  have  ovarian  tumors.  The  record  of  the  cases  collected  by  Dr.  Wil¬ 
liams  furnishes  sufficient  data  to  sustain  his  contention.  It  is  also  shown  in  this 
article  that  the  same  may  be  said  of  fibrous  tumors.  This  article  has  been  consid¬ 
ered  of  such  value  to  the  profession  that  it  has  been  copied  extensively  in  medical 
literature  and  notably  in  some  of  the  best  German  and  French  medical  journals. 

Dr.  Williams  has  performed  various  important  operations  that  have  been  pub¬ 
lished  in  medical  journals  and  widely  commented  upon  in  the  medical  world.  He 
was  surgeon  in  chief  of  the  Freedmen’s  Hospital,  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  from 
1898  to  1897. 

Charles  W.  Chestnut  was  born  in  Fayetteville,  N.  C.,  about  fifty  years  ago.  He 
moved  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  'where  he  was  employed  as  court  stenographer.  Mr. 
Chestnut  has  written  several  wTorks  of  fiction  which,  according  to  competent 
critics,  place  him  among  the  foremost  story  tellers  of  the  time.  The  Wife  of  My 
Youth,  The  House  Behind  the  Cedars,  and  the  Marrow  of  Tradition  are  published 
by  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Prof.  W.  S.  Scarborough  was  born  in  Georgia  in  1852,  was  graduated  from 
Oberlin  College  in  1875,  and  is  professor  of  Greek  at  Wilberforce  University.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  American  Philological  Society  and  of  the  Modern  Language 
Association.  He  has  published  First  Lessons  in  Greek  (New  York,  1881),  and  the 
Theory  and  Functions  of  the  Thematic  Yowel  in  the  Greek  Verb. 

Prof.  W.  E.  B.  DuBois  was  born  in  Massachusetts  about  thirty-three  years  ago. 
He  was  graduated  from  Fisk  University  and  subsequently  from  Harvard,  after 
which  he  studied  two  years  in  Germany  and  earned  his  Ph.  D.  degree  from  Har¬ 
vard.  He  has  been  a  teacher  in  Wilberforce  University,  associate  in  sociology  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  professor  of  history  and  political  economy  at 
Atlanta  University.  His  chief  works  are  The  Suppression  of  the  African  Slave 


1  Introduction  to  Lyrics  of  Lowly  Life,  by  W.  D.  Howells. 

2  See  “A  negro  artist  of  unique  power,”  by  Elbert  Prances  Baldwin,  Outlook,  April,  1900. 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGEO. 


859 


Trade,  published  in  the  Harvard  Historical  Series;  The  Philadelphia  Negro,  pub¬ 
lished  under  the  auspices  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  numerous  special 
studies  and  investigations  that  have  appeared  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Atlanta 
conferences  and  the  bulletins  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor,  as  well  as  sundry  magazine 
articles,  Mr.  Du  Bois  has  done  more  to  give  scientific  accuracy  and  method  to  the 
study  of  the  race  question  than  any  other  American  who  has  essayed  to  deal 
with  it. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  while  the  negro  possesses  the  imitative  he  lacks  the 
initiative  faculty;  that  while  he  can  acquire  what  has  already  been  accumulated, 
he  can  not  inquire  info  the  unrevealed  mystery  of  things.  As  an  illustration  of 
how  easy  it  is  for  the  achievements  of  the  negro  to  escape  his  fellow-colaborers, 
the  following  incident  may  be  regarded  as  typical.  The  Patent  Office  sent  out 
circulars  inquiring  as  to  the  number  and  extent  of  colored  patentees.  One  of  the 
leading  patent  attorneys  responded  that  he  had  never  heard  of  the  negro  invent¬ 
ing  anything  except  lies;  yet  the  Patent  Office  record  reveals  250  colored  patentees 
and  more  than  400  patents.  Many  of  these  show  the  highest  ingenuity  and  are 
widely  used  in  the  mechanical  arts. 

Granville  T.  Woods  was  born  in  Ohio,  and  is  44  years  old.  He  has  more  than 
twenty  patents  to  his  credit.  Mr.  Woods  is  the  inventor  of  the  electric  telephone 
transmitter,  which  he  assigned  to  the  American  Bell  Telephone  Company  for  a 
valuable  consideration,  said  to  amount  to  $10,000.  This  transmitter  is  used  in 
connection  with  all  the  Bell  telephones. 

Elijah  T.  McCoy,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  has  taken  out  30  patents,  mainly  devoted  to 
the  improvement  of  lubricating  devices  for  stationary  and  locomotive  machinery. 
His  inventions  are  in  general  use  on  locomotive  engines  of  leading  railways  in  the 
Northwest,  on  the  lake  steamers,  and  on  railways  in  Canada. 

There  are  numerous  colored  people  who  have  achieved  distinction  in  fields  call¬ 
ing  for  practical  energy,  moral  courage,  sound  intelligence,  and  intellectual 
resource.  Mr.  Frederick  Douglass  and  Prof.  Booker  T.  Washington  are,  in  gen¬ 
eral  average  of  distinction,  the  most  renowned  of  their  race,  although  their  fields 
of  exertion  are  not  mainly  intellectual,  in  the  academic  sense  of  the  term — and 
yet  Mr.  Douglass  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  American  orators,  and  his  autobi¬ 
ography  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  literature  of  the  antislavery  struggle;  and 
Mr.  Washington’s  Up  from  Slavery  is  one  of  the  most  popular  books  printed  in 
the  first  year  of  the  twentieth  century.  As  Mr.  Douglass’s  life  is  woven  in  the 
warp  and  woof  of  the  great  epoch  ending  in  the  civil  war,  so  Mr.  Washington's 
life  and  work  have  become  a  vital  part  of  current  educational  literature,  and  his 
place  in  the  history  of  education  is  assured. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


NOTICES  OF  SOME  EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON 
EDUCATION, 

WITH  DESCRIPTIONS,  EXTRACTS,  AND  NOTES. 

By  Professor  Foster  Watson, 

Of  University  College ,  Aberystwyth ,  Wales. 


CONTENTS. 

Note.— The  date  given  in  the  left-hand  column  is  the  date  of  the  earliest  edition  of  the  work. 
Date.  Page. 

1180.  Myrrour  of  the  Worlde,  translated  by  Wm.  Caxton . . .  862 

La  Tour  Landry  (Geoffroy  de). 

liSi.  Tales  for  his  daughters . . . - .  862 

Juliana  Bernes. 

1486.  Boke  of  S.  Albans . . .  863 

1520.  The  Wyse  Chylde . 864 

1527.  Coleti  AMitio .  864 

Desiderius  Erasmus  (lhG6-l536). 

1529.  An  Exhortation .  866 

1530.  The  Colloquia  (1519) . . . - .  867 

1532.  Booke  of  Maners . - . - .  869 

1539.  Adagia  (1508) . - .  870 

1542.  Apophthegmes  (Nicholas  Udall’s  translation) .  870 

1549.  Praise  of  Folie .  872 

lo50.  Infant  Education . 873 

Sir  Thomas  Elyot  ( lh90-15kG ). 

1531;  The  Boke  named  the  Governour  . .  874 

1533.  The  Wise  Man .  877 

1534.  Sermon  of  S.  Cyprian . . . . .  877 

1534.  Doctrinal  of  Princes . . . 878 

1539.  Bankette  of  Sapience . 878 

1538.  The  Dictionary . . ; .  878 

1535.  Plutarch’s  Education .  878 

1534.  Defence  of  Good  Women  - .  878 

1541.  The  Image  of  Governance . 879 

1533.  Pasquyll  the  Playne . 879 

1534.  The  Castell  of  Heltii .  879 

n.  d.  Plutarch’s  Profite  of  Enemyes .  879 

1545.  A  Preservative  agaynste  Deth  . . 879 

John  Baret, 

John  Baret's  Alvearie . „ .  880 

Dictionaries  and  Dictionary-making .  881 


861 


862 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


1480.  Mirror  of  the  World  (Caxton's  translation): 

Hier  hegynneth  the  book  called  the  myrrour  of  the  worlde,  etc.  (W.  Caxton: 
Westminster.  1480.)  fol. 

The  myrrour  and  descrypcyon  of  the  Worlde,  etc.  (reprinted  with  some  altera¬ 
tions  from  W.  C.’s  translation).  (1527?)  fol. 

Thymage ,  or  Myrrour  of  the  Worlde.  Emprysed  and  Fynyshed  in  the  xxi  year 
of  the  regne  of  the  most  crysten  Kyng,  Kyng  Edward  the  fourth. 

The  following  chapters  are  of  educational  import: 

Cap. 


Wherefore  and  how  the  vii  Arts  liberal  were  found,  and  of  their  order .  v 

Of  three  manner  of  people,  and  how  clergy  came  first  into  France .  vi 

And  first  it  speaketh  of  grammar .  vii 

After  of  logic . . - .  viii 

And  after  of  rhetoric . - .  ix 

And  after  of  ars  metrike,  and  whereof  itproceedeth... . . . .  x 

After  of  geometry  . . - .  xi 

After  of  music . . .  xii 

And  then  of  astronomy . . . . .  xiii 


Similarly  in  the  work  ascribed  to  John  Lydgate:  The  Werks  {or  Court)  of 
Sapience ,  1510,  4%  there  is  a  “distinct  survey  throughout  the  palace  and  domains 
of  Sapience,  of  all  the  products  of  nature,  in  distinct  chapters,  and  of  arts  and 
sciences;  with  further  reference  at  the  end  of  each  to  the  authors  who  have  writ¬ 
ten  on  them.” 

1484.  La  Tour  Landry  (Geoffroy  de). 

Begin.  Here  hegynneth  the  book  ichiche  the  knyght  of  the  toure  made,  and 
speketli  of  many  fayre  ensamples  and  thensygnementys  and  techyng  of  his 
daughters  {translated  oute  of  Frenssh  in  to  *  *  *  Englysshe  by  W.  Cax¬ 
ton)  B.  L.  enprynted  at  Westmynstre  {by  W.  Caxton),  the  last  day  of  Ianyuer 
the  fyrst  yere  of  the  regne  of  Kynge  Ry chard  the  thyrd,  (1484).  fol. 

(Reprinted  in  the  E.  E.  T.  S.’s  publications,  ed.  by  Thomas  Wright,  M.  A.,  F.  S.  A.,  1868.) 

Written  by  Geoffroy  de  la  Tour  Landry  in  1371  for  his  three  daughters,  it  is 
essentially  a  “treatise  on  the  domestic  education  of  women.”  La  Tour  Landry 
had  previously  written  a  parallel  book  for  the  right  bringing  up  of  young  men. 
Many  of  the  stories  which  are  given  to  incite  to  good  conduct  or  to  give  a  warning 
against  bad  conduct  are  taken  from  the  Scriptures  or  from  the  lives  of  saints. 
Other  stories  are  taken  from  popular  tales.  The  collection  of  “  ensamples  ”  brings 
out  very  clearly  the  ideal  of  women’s  education  at  the  time.  The  knight  was 
assisted  in  his  work  by  two  priests  and  two  clerks.  The  book  was  very  popular. 
The  first  edition  in  English  was  printed  by  William  Caxton,  as  stated  above,  in 
1484. 

There  are  sections  of  great  interest  in  connection  with  women’s  education  in — 

Womankind  in  Western  Europe,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  seventeenth  century ,  by  Thomas 
Wright.  London,  1869.  4to. 

Miss  A.  T.  Drane,  in  her  interesting  account  of  “  English  Education  in  the  Four¬ 
teenth  Century,”  in  Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  gives  the  following  summary 
of  the  rules  for  the  regulation  of  his  household  drawn  up  by  Elzear: 

Every  one  in  my  family  shall  daily  hear  Mass.  Let  no  one  curse,  swear  or  blas¬ 
pheme,  under  pain  of  chastisement.  Let  all  persons  honour  chastity,  for  no 
impure  word  or  deed  shall  go  unpunished  in  the  house  of  Elzear.  The  men  and 
women  shall  confess  their  sins  every  week,  and  communicate  every  month,  or  at 
the  least  at  the  chief  festivals,  viz.  Christmas,  Easter  and  Pentecost,  and  on  the 
feasts  of  our  Lady.  No  one  shall  be  idle,  but  in  the  morning  after  prayers,  let  all 
go  to  their  work,  the  men  abroad,  the  women  at  home.  The  life  of  the  pious 
woman  is  not  merely  to  pray,  but  to  ply  her  work,  and  take  care  of  her  household. 
Therefore,  the  ladies  shall  read  and  pray  in  the  mornings,  and  afterwards  spend 
their  time  in  useful  work  of  some  kind.  Every  evening  all  my  family  sha:l  assem¬ 
ble  for  a  pious  conference,  in  which  they  shall  hear  something  said  for  the  salva- 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


868 


tion  of  their  souls.  And  let  none  be  absent  on  pretence  of  attending  to  my  affairs, 
I  have  no  affairs  so  near  my  heart  as  the  salvation  of  those,  who  serve  me.  I  will 
•have  no  playing  at  dice  or  games  of  hazard;  there  are  plenty  of  innocent  diver¬ 
sions,  and  time  passes  soon  enough  without  being  thrown  away;  yet  I  do  not  wish 
my  castle  to  be  a  cloister,  nor  my  people  hermits.  Therefore  let  them  be  merry 
but  without  offending  God.  If  any  quarrel  fall  out,  let  not  the  sun  set  before  it  be 
appeased.  And  I  strictly  command  all  under  my  jurisdiction  to  hurt  no  man  in 
goods,  honour,  or  reputation. 

Miss  Drane  holds  that  this  household-education  of  Elzear,  and  Delphina  his 
wife,  was  not  exceptional,  but  rather  the  type  of  that  of  most  of  the  knightly 
houses,  in  which  numbers  of  youth  were  received  to  be  brought  up.  Dr  Furni- 
vall,  in  his  Forewords  to  Manners  and  Meals  in  Olden  Times,  for  the  Early  Eng¬ 
lish  Text  Society  (1887),  gives  a  number  of  instances  taken  from  English  history. 

The  account  of  the  lives  of  Elzear  and  his  wife  appeared  in  English  in — 

The  Lives  and  singular  vertues  of  Saint  Elzear ,  Count  of  Sabran ,  and  of  his  wife ,  the  blessed 
Countesse  Delphina  *  *  *  Written  in  French  by  R.  F.  Stephen  Binet ,  S.  J.  and  Translated 
into  English  by  Sr  T.  H.  Land.  1638.  8vo.  (I.  e.,  Sir  Thomas  Hawkins.) 

Further  accounts  of  early  education  in  England  wall  be  found  in  Thomas 
Wright's  The  Homes  of  Other  Days:  a  History  of  Domestic  Manners  and  Senti¬ 
ments  in  England  from  the  earliest  known  Period  to  Modern  Times.  Lond.,  1871. 

Robert  Henry  in  his  History  of  England  gives  sections  at  the  end  of  each  period 
dealing  with  the  learning  and  education  of  the  period. 

For  English  Home  Life  and  Education  in  later  times  see  Henry  Barnard's 
English  Pedagogy ,  2nd  Series  pp.  889-400. 

1486.  Bernes  (Juliana). 

The  Gentleman’s  Academie  or  The  Boke  of  S.  Albans.  Compiled  by  J.  B. 
Printed  by  the  Schoolmaster  at  S.  Albans,  1486.  Revised  by  Gervase  Mark¬ 
ham  1595.  4to. 

(Fac-simile  reprint,  ed.  ty  Wm  Blades,  published  by  Eliot  Stock,  London,  1881.) 

The  first  two  sections — on  Hawking  and  Hunting — may  be  described  as  the  first 
English  treatise  on  courses  of  physical  training.  It  is  indeed  curious  that  the 
first  book  on  men’s  sports  should  be  by  a  woman,  Dame  Juliana  Bernes.  Very 
little  is  known  of  this  lady.  She  probably  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  cen¬ 
tury.  Though  no  doubt  great  credit  is  due  to  Dame  Bernes  for  her  treatises  (on 
Hawking,  Hunting  and  Heraldy,  and,  in  a  separate  volume,  on  Fishing),  yet  they 
are  probably  founded  on  earlier  writings.  Mr  Blades,  very  justly,  drew  attention 
to  the  similarity  between  Dame  Bernes's  opening  verses  on  hunting  and  some 
lines  in  a  small  MS  in  the  Bodleian: 

Bodleian  MS. 

Mi  dere  sones,  where  ye  fare,  be  frith  or  by  fell, 

Take  good  hede  in  his  tyme  how  Tristam  wol  tell. 

Dame  Bernes. 

Wheresoever  ye  fare,  by  frith  or  by  fell, 

My  dear  child,  take  heed  how  Tristam  doth  you  tell. 

The  authoress,  in  the  treatise  on  Hunting,  gives  an  account  of  different  kinds 
of  beasts,  and  a  very  full  nomenclature.  There  is  also  a  dialogue  between  the 
master  of  the  hunt  and  his  man.  It  is  worth  noting  that  throughout  the  book, 
remarks  are  addressed  to  ‘  ‘  my  deare  childe  “  Do  so,  my  child  ”.  ‘ f  Think  what 

I  say,  my  son”.  “My  lief  ehilder”,  and  so  on.  Clearly,  as  Mr.  Blades  points 
out,  the  portions  where  such  expressions  occur  were  written  “  for  a  mother  to  use 
as  a  school-book,  which  her  son  would  learn  to  read,  and  at  the  same  time,  become 
familiar  with  the  terms  of  venery  ”. 

As  illustration  of  the  connexion  of  treatises  such  as  these  with  the  school,  it 
may  be  mentioned: 

1.  The  schoolmaster  printer  supplies  the  “Prologues”  to  the  Book  of  Hawking, 
the  Book  of  Hunting,  and  the  Book  of  Coat  Armour. 


804 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

2.  The  Bodleian  MS,  quoted  above,  contains  as  colophon,  Explicit,  expliceat, 
ludere  scriptor  eat,  giving  plausibility  to  the  conjecture  that  the  MS  was  “copied 
by  a  youth”. 

1520.  Child. 

Here  begynneth  a  lytell  treatyse  called  the  wyse  chylde  of  thre  yere  olde.  The 
enfant  sage  beynge  of  thre  yeres  of  age  demaunded  by  Adryan  Emperoure. 
The  whiche  hym  answered  unto  everythinge  he  ashed.  B.  L.  Imprynted  in 
london  in  Fletestrete  at  the  sygne  of  the  Sonne  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  (1520?) 
4to. 

This  is  a  short  book  of  little  more  than  nine  pages.  Answers  are  given  by  a 
child  of  three  years  to  questions  put  by  the  Emperor  Adrian.  There  is  no  idea  of 
appropriateness  to  the  age  of  the  child  in  the  answers  given,  but  some  insight  is 
afforded  as  to  what  knowledge  wTas  considered  of  most  worth.  One  of  the  earliest 
questions  asked  is  to  explain  the  Trinity.  The  child  explains  by  reference  to  the 
sun  (curiously  enough  Wynkyn  de  Worde 's  sign),  which  contains  substance, 
shining,  and  heat.  The  following  are  amongst  the  subjects  of  enquiry:  Time  of 
creation  of  world;  chance  of  salvation  for  merchants  (little) ;  for  labourers 
(great) ;  number  of  wajrs  a  man  may  be  saved  (baptism,  martyrdom,  confession 
and  penance,  tears  weeping,  alms-deeds,  indulgences,  works  of  mercy) ;  creation 
of  woman;  growth  of  the  soul;  the  hour  at  which  Adam  ate  of  the  forbidden  tree; 
number  of  languages  in  the  world  (seventy-two  is  the  answer,  why  that  number 
is  not  explained) ;  who  made  the  first  church  (S.  Paul);  Noah’s  ark;  the  present 
position  of  the  ark  (in  Armenia) ;  the  greatest  gift  ever  asked  by  man  (the  body 
of  Christ,  asked  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea);  the  reasons  for  fasting  on  Friday 
(seven);  the  ways  in  which  a  man  may  be  damned  (four,  viz.,  negligence,  anger 
and  open  sin,  doubt  as  to  troubling  over  amending  his  sins,  and  to  be  constantly 
in  sin);  the  first  to  sing  mass  (Melchisedech) ;  the  composition  of  man  (five  things 
“principally,”  viz.:  the  flesh  is  made  of  the  slime  of  the  earth,  the  blood  of  the 
water  of  the  sea,  the  bones  of  the  stones,  the  breath  of  the  wind,  and  the  soul  of 
the  Holy  Ghost).  The  child  also  states  the  main  positions  of  the  Apostles'  Creed. 
1527.  Coleti  JEditio,  of  the  Introduction  to  the  Latin  Grammar,  commonly  called 

Lily's  Latin  Grammar. 

John  Colet  is  so  well-known  as  the  founder  of  St.  Pauls  School,  that  everyone 
feels  sure  he  has  only  to  look  up  his  name  in  a  catalogue  to  see  his  works.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  he  left  very  little.  The  Rev.  J.  H.  Lupton  has  assiduously  and 
worthily  gathered  the  little  together,  and  published  it;  but  Colet  wrote  no  educa¬ 
tional  treatise.  To  what  is  known  as  the  Coleti  JEditio  of  1527,  Colet  contributed 
the  following: 


A  LYTELL  PROHEME  TO  THE  BOKE. 

Albeit  many  have  written  and  have  made  certain  introductions  in  to  Latin 
speech,  called  Donates  and  Accidens,  in  Latin  tongue  and  in  English,  in  such 
plenty  that  it  should  seem  to  suffice.  Yet  nevertheless  for  the  Love  and  the  Zeal 
that  I  have  unto  the  new  school  of  Paul's,  and  to  the  children  of  the  same,  some¬ 
what  I  have  also  compiled  of  the  matter,  and  of  the  Y1I1  parts  of  grammar,  have 
made  this  little  book,  not  thinking  that  I  could  say  any  thing  better  than  hath 
been  said  before,  but  I  took  this  business,  having  great  pleasure  to  show  the  testi¬ 
mony  of  my  good  mind  unto  the  school.  In  which  little  work  if  an>  new  things 
be  of  use,  it  is  alonely  that  I  have  put  these  parts  in  a  more  clear  order  and  have 
made  them  a  little  more  easy  to  young  wits  than  (methinketh)  they  were  before. 
Judging  that  no  thing  may  be  too  soft  nor  too  familiar  for  little  children,  specially 
learning  a  tongue  unto  them  all  strange.  In  which  little  book  I  have  left  many 
things  out  of  purpose,  considering  the  tenderness  and  small  capacity  of  little 
minds:  and  that  I  have  spoken,  also,  I  have  affirmed  it  none  otherwise  but  as  it 
happeth  most  commonly  in  Latin  tongue.  For  many  be  the  exceptions,  and  hard 
it  is  anything  generally  to  assure  in  a  speech  so  various.  I  pray  God  all  be  to  his 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


865 


honour,  and  to  the  erudition  and  profit  of  children,  my  countrymen,  Londoners 
especially,  whom  digesting  this  little  work  I  had  always  before  mine  eyen,  consid¬ 
ering  more  what  was  for  them  than  to  show  any  great  cunning,  willing  to  speak 
the  things  often  before  spoken  in  such  manner  as  gladly  young  beginners  and 
tender  wits  might  take  and  conceive.  Wherefore  I  pray  you,  all  little  babes,  all 
little  children,  learn  gladly  this  little  treatise,  and  commend  it  diligently  unto 
your  memoiies.  Trusting  of  this  beginning  that  ye  shall  proceed  and  grow  to 
perfect  literature,  and  come  at  the  last  to  be  great  clerks.  And  lift  up  your  little 
white  hands  for  me,  which  prayeth  for  you  to  God.  To  whom  be  all  honour  and 
imperial  majesty  and  glory.  Amen.  Prologi  finis. 

As  Colet  is  a  prominent  figure  in  the  education  of  his  period,  though  he  wrote 
so  little  on  education,  I  give  the  following  references: 

1.  A  life  of  John  Colet ,  D.  D.,  Dean  of  S.  Paul's  and  Founder  of  8.  Paul's  School.  With  an 

Appendix  of  some  of  his  English  Writings ,  By  J.  H.  Lupton ,  M.  A.,  Surmaster  of  S.  Paul's 

School.  London.  George  Bell  and  Sons ,  1887. 

In  an  Appendix  to  this  book  are  The  Statutes  of  S.  Paul's  School ,  as  drawn  up 
in  John  Colet’s  words;  and  Colet’s  Catechism  and  Articles  of  Admission  to  S.  Paul's 
School. 

2.  The  Life  of  Dr.  J.  Colet ,  by  S.  Knight.  1724. 

3.  The  Oxford  Reformers:  John  Colet ,  Erasmus ,  and  Thomas  More.  By  F.  Seebohm.  3rd  ed.  1887. 

4.  Erasmus’s  Lives  of  Vitrier  and  Colet.  Written  in  Latin.  Translated,  with  notes,  by  J.  H. 

Lupton.  George  Bell  and  Sons.  1883. 

1529.  Erasmus  (Desiderius).  1466-1536. 

(Born  at  Rotterdam,  1466.  Educated  at  Deventer  (under  Hegius,  who  had 
learned  Greek  from  Rodolph  Agricola) .  Entered  upon  the  novitiate  at  Stein,  near 
Gonda,  and  afterwards  ordained  priest.  Became  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of  Cam- 
brai.  He  soon  left  to  become  a  student  in  the  University  of  Paris.  He  came  to 
England  in  1497,  and  for  the  next  three  years  lived  in  Oxford.  He  then  is  found 
moving  continually  between  France  and  Holland,  and  with  constant  difficulty 
warding  off  poverty.  In  1506  he  is  again  in  England,  in  London  and  at  Cambridge. 
Later  in  the  year  he  visits  Italy,  where  he  stays  till  1509.  He  then  returns  to  Eng¬ 
land  as  the  guest  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  later  removes  to  Cambridge,  where  he 
becomes  Lady  Margaret’s  professor  of  divinity  and  afterwards  Regius  Reader  of 
Greek.  In  1513  he  left  England  and  went  to  Strasburg  and  to  Basel.  In  1520 
Erasmus  settled  at  Basel  as  general  editor  and  literary  adviser  to  Froben’s  press. 
He  helped  to  make  this  press  the  most  important  in  Europe  for  a  time.  In  1527 
Froben  died,  and  in  1529  Erasmus  moved  to  Freiburg.  He  returned  to  Basel  in 
1535  and  died  1536.) 

For  the  life  of  Erasmus,  in  detail,  the  following  books  may  be  consulted: 

Jortin.  Life  of  Erasmus.  London..  1748.  4to. 

Knigbt,  Samuel.  Life  of  Erasmus.  Cambridge.  1726.  8vo. 

Burigny,  Jean  Levesque  de.  Yie  d’Erasme.  Paris.  2  vols.  1757.  12mo.  Dans  laquelle  on 
trouvera  l’histoire  de  plusieurs  hommes  celebres  avec  lesquels  il  a  ete  en  liaison,  l’analyse 
critique  de  ses  ouvrages,  et  l’examen  impartial  de  ses  sentimens  en  matiere  de  religion. 

Seebohm,  F.  Oxford  Reformers.  London.  1887. 

Drummond,  R.  B.  Erasmus:  his  Life  and  Character.  London.  1873.  2  vols.  8vo. 

There  are  two  collected  editions  of  his  works,  viz. 

1540.  Basel.  In  9  volumes,  fol. 

1703-6.  Lugd.  Bat.  In  10  volumes  fol.  (Ed.  Le  Clerc.) 

In  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  the  epitomised  Index  has  reference  to  266  dif¬ 
ferent  works  of  Erasmus,  and  the  Catalogue  entries  of  editions  of  separate  works 
run  to  58  printed  columns. 

Besides  the  books  described  hereafter,  the  following  books  or  booklets  of  Erasmus 
are  in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  and  have  some  bearing,  more  or  less,  on 
education  (they  were  not  translated  into  English):  Adhortatio  ad  Christianse 
philosophise  studium  (or  Paraclesis) ,  Catechismus,  Christiani  principis  institutio, 


ED  1901 - 55 


866 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Ciceronianus  dialogus,  Life  of  Colet,  Concio  de  puero  Jesu,  Libellus  de  construc¬ 
tions,  Copia  verborum,  De  conscribendis  epistolis,  De  duplici  copia  verborum  et 
rerum,  De  ratione  studii,  De  civilitate  moriuji  puerilium,  De  pueris  ad  virtutem 
instituendis,  De  recta  Latini  sermonis  pronnntiatione,  Epicureus,  Ratio  colligendi 
exempla,  Institutum  Christiani  hominis,  Lingua,  Militis  Christiani  enchiridion, 
Octo  orationis  partium  constructio.  Parabola?  sive  similium  liber,  Syntaxis,  Anno¬ 
tation  es  in  Testamentum  Novum,  Life  of  Yitrier. 

The  letters  of  Erasmus,  of  course,  are  of  very  high  importance  in  the  educa¬ 
tional  as  well  as  the  general  literary  history  of  the  time.  As  an  illustration  of  the 
side  light  they  afford  on  the  history  of  education  at  that  period,  I  would  quote  the 
words  with  which  the  Cambridge  M.  A.  answered  Erasmus  when  the  latter  was 
endeavoring  to  get  an  assistant  master  for  Colet’s  school,  “Who  would  endure  to 
be  a  schoolmaster  who  could  possibly  manage  to  get  a  living  any  other  way?  ” 

Whereupon  Erasmus  modestly  urged  that  he  thought  the  education  of  youth  was 
the  most  honourable  of  all  callings,  and  that  there  could  be  no  labour  more  pleasing 
to  God  than  the  Christian  training  of  boys.  At  which  the  Cambridge  doctor  turned 
up  his  nose  in  contempt  and  scornfully  replied,  “If  anyone  wants  to  give  himself  up 
entirely  to  the  service  of  Christ  let  him  enter  a  monastery.”  Erasmus  ventured  to 
question  whether  St.  Paul  did  not  place  true  religion  rather  in  works  of  charity — 
in  doing  as  much  good  as  possible  to  our  neighbours?  The  other  rejected  altogether 
so  crude  a  notion.  “  Behold,”  said  he,  “  we  must  leave  all;  in  that  is  perfection.” 
“He  scarcely  can  be  said  to  leave  all,”  promptly  returned  Erasmus,  “who,  when 
he  has  a  chance  of  doing  good  to  others,  refuses  the  task,  because  it  is  too  humble 
in  the  eyes  of  the  world.”  “And  then,”  wrote  Erasmus,  “lest  I  should  get  into 
a  quarrel  I  bade  the  man  good-bye.” — Seebohm:  Oxford  Reformers,  p.  221. 

Here  is  an  example  in  much  more  detail.  Erasmus,  in  one  of  his  letters  to  Dean 
Colet  (in  whose  new  school  of  S.  Paul’s  he  was  deeply  interested),  described  his 
idea  of  the  schoolmaster’s  academic  equipment: 

In  order  that  the  teacher  might  be  thoroughly  up  to  his  work,  he  should  not 
merely  be  a  master  of  one  particular  branch  of  study.  He  should  himself  have 
travelled  through  the  whole  circle  of  knowledge.  In  philosophy  he  should 
have  studied  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Theophrastus  and  Plotinus;  in  theology  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  and  after  them  Origen,  Chrysostom,  and  Basil  among  the 
Greek  fathers,  and  Ambrose  and  Jerome  among  the  Latin  fathers;  among  the 
poets  Homer  and  Ovid;  in  geography,  which  is  very  important  in  the  study  of  his¬ 
tory,  Pomponius  Mela,  Ptolemy,  Pliny,  Strabo.  He  should  know  what  ancient 
names  of  rivers,  mountains,  countries,  cities,  answer  to  the  modern  ones;  and  the 
same  of  trees,  animals,  instruments,  clothes,  and  gems,  with  regard  to  which  it 
is  incredible  how  ignorant  even  educated  men  are.  He  should  take  note  of  little 
facts  about  agriculture,  architecture,  military  and  culinary  arts,  mentioned  by 
different  authors.  He  should  be  able  to  trace  the  origin  of  words,  their  gradual 
corruption  in  the  languages  of  Constantinople,  Italy,  Spain  and  France.  Nothing 
should  be  beneath  his  observation  which  can  illustrate  history  or  the  meaning  of 
the  poets.  But  you  will  say  what  a  load  you  are  putting  on  the  back  of  the  poor 
teacher!  It  is  so;  but  I  burden  the  one  to  relieve  the  many.  I  want  the  teacher 
to  have  traversed  the  whole  range  of  knowledge,  that  it  may  spare  each  of  his 
scholars  doing  it.  A  diligent  and  thoroughly  competent  master  might  give  boys  a 
fair  proficiency  in  both  Latin  and  Greek  in  a  shorter  time  and  with  less  labour 
than  the  common  run  of  pedagogues  take  to  teach  their  babble.— Seebohm:  Oxford 
Reformers,  p.  217-8. 

Erasmus  (Desiderius). 

An  exhortation  to  the  diligent  study e  of  scripture  made  by  Erasmus.  And  trans¬ 
lated  into  inglissh  (by  W.  Roy).  B.  L.  Hans  Luft;  Malborow  in  the  lande  of 
Hesse ,  1529.  8vo.  Another  edition:  R.  Wyer.  (London,  1540?) 

This  exhortation  was  prefixed  to  Erasmus's  Paraphrase  of  S.  Matthew's  Gospel. 
It  is  a  plea  for  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  by  all,  learned  and  unlearned.  To  the 
learned  he  says: 

Plato’s  adherents,  Pythagoras’  scholars,  the  Academics,  the  Stoics,  Epicures,  the 
fautores  [flatterers]  of  Aristotle  and  disciples  of  Diogenes  know  groundly  [thor¬ 
oughly]  ,  yea  and  by  heart,  the  traditions  of  their  own  sect.  And  fight  most  fiercely 
for  them,  ready  rather  to  die  than  to  forsake  their  patron  and  author.  And  why 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


867 


do  we  not  much  more  give  our  minds  and  studies,  unto  our  maister  and  prince 
Christ,  who  wolde  not  count  it  a  foul  thing  yea  a  great  rebuke  to  him  that  pro- 
fesseth  Aristotle’s  philosophy  if  he  be  ignorant  what  his  maister  judgeth  concern¬ 
ing  the  causes  of  the  thunder,  of  the  rainbow,  of  the  earthquakes,  and  of  such 
other  natural  causes.  *  *  *  Howbeit  for  what  intent  use  wTe  this  comparison, 
since  it  is  extreme  madness  to  compare  Christ  with  Zeno  and  Aristotle  and  his 
heavenly  doctrine  with  their  trifling  traditions. 

To  those  who  are  not  learned  he  says: 

I  would  to  God  the  ploughman  would  sing  a  text  of  the  Scripture  at  his  plough- 
beam.  And  that  the  weaver  at  his  loom  with  this  would  drive  away  the  tedious¬ 
ness  of  time.  I  would  the  wayfaring  man  with  this  pastime  would  expell  the 
weariness  of  his  journey.  And  to  be  short,  I  would  that  all  the  communication 
of  the  Christian  should  be  of  the  Scripture,  for  in  a  manner  such  are  we  our¬ 
selves  as  our  daily  tales  are. 

The  warm,  enthusiastic  catholic  spirit  of  such  words  as  these  are  in  marked 
contrast  to  that  of  the  man  who  would  not  lend  Erasmus  his  copy  of  Suidas.1  It 
is  the  readiness  to  communicate  the  best  that  is  in  him  to  all,  even  the  plough¬ 
man,  the  weaver,  the  wayfaring  man,  that  marks  the  in-coming  of  the  modern 
spirit  of  education.  Erasmus  felt  it,  and  such  words  as  the  above  are  a  state¬ 
ment  of  it.  He  pleads  for  education  not  only  to  be  given  to  the  humblest,  but  to 
begin  with  infancy.2  He  offers  thus  an  interesting  parallel  to  Comenius,  in  both 
ideas. 

The  Colloquia  of  Erasmus.  1519,  editio  princeps. 

By  far  his  most  popular,  his  best  known,  and  after  the  Moria  his  most  charac¬ 
teristic  work,  a  book  once  literally  known  to  every  school-boy,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
universally  used  as  a  Latin  lesson-book,  and  which  will  always  continue  to  be  read 
by  all  lovers  of  excellent  humour,  as  well  as  by  every  one  who  would  understand 
the  spirit  and  recall  the  manners  of  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. — R.  B. 
Drummond,  Erasmus:  His  Life  and  Character,  Yol.  ii,  p.  151-2. 

Method  of  composition. — Some  were  youthful  exercises  for  the  improvement  of 
style;  others  were  dictatedas  I  walkedupand  down,  thinking  of  nothing  lessthan 
of  publication.  Some  were  written  for  the  benefit  of  backward  pupils.  Of  this 
kind  were  the>  Colloquies,  which  one  Helenius  obtained — I  know  not  how,  for  I 
never  had  a  copy  by  me— and  sold  at  a  high  price  to  John  Froben,  pretending  t hers 
were  other  printers  who  wanted  to  buy  them. — Letters  of  Erasmus,  1536. 

The  Colloquies  was  first  printed  in  1519,  and  was  a  mere  pamphlet.  By  suc¬ 
cessive  additions,  in  1530  it  became  of  a  considerable  size.  It  was  written  at  first 
for  the  benefit  of  Froben’s  son,  Erasmius. 

As  it  now  lies  before  us,  it  consists  of  a  large  number  of  conversations  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects,  whose  easy  flow  and  natural,  graceful  manner  are  not  the  least 
of  their  charms,  full  of  delicate  humour,  keen  irony,  biting  satire,  elegant  criti¬ 
cism,  and  lively  description,  wherein  now  a  text  of  Scripture,  now  a  passage  from 
the  classics,  is  made  the  subject  of  discussion,  now  some  folly  turned  into  ridicule, 
now  some  superstition  exposed,  while  occasional  autobiographical  touches  or  allu¬ 
sions  to  contemporaneous  persons  or  events  lend  a  great  additional  interest. — 
Drummond:  Yol.  I,  p.  153-4. 

It  is  by  reference  to  such  a  book  as  this  that  one  sees  the  religico-classical  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  Renascence  unconsciously  displayed.  For  instance,  Erasmus  says  he 
had  never  read  Cicero  on  Old  Age,  or  Friendship,  or  the  Offices,  or  the  Tusculan 
Questions,  “  without  pausing  now  and  then  to  kiss  the  page  and  pay  homage  to  that 
holy  soul  whom  God’s  spirit  has  so  manifestly  possessed.”  And  again,  after  quot¬ 
ing  a  passage  from  Socrates,  one  of  the  speakers  in  a  dialogue  says:  “  When  I  read 
such  passages  as  these,  I  can  scarcely  keep  myself  from  saying,  Sancte  Socrates, 
ora  pro  nobis.”  (Quoted  by  Drummond.) 

English  Editions  of  the  Colloquia: 

1.  Colloquiorum  *  *  *  Familiarum  opus  aureum.  (Edited  by  J.  Clarke.) 

London,  1676.  8vo.  Also  12mo,  1697. 


1  See  p.  870. 


2  See  pp.  873-4. 


868 


EDUCATION  EE  POET ,  1900-1901. 


English  Editions  of  the  Colloquia— Continued. 

2.  Colloqniorum  *  *  *  familiarum  opus  aureum.  (Edited  by  S.  Patrick.) 

London,  1773.  8vo. 

3.  The  Colloquies;  or,  familiar  discourses  of  D.  Erasmus  *  *  *  rendered 

into  English  *  *  *  By  H.  M.,  Gent.  London,  1671.  8vo. 

4.  All  the  familiar  colloquies  of  D.  Erasmo  *  *  *  translated  into  English. 

By  N.  Bailey.  London,  1725.  8vo.  Also  1733. 

Reprints  of  Bailey’s  translation: 

1.  Glasgow,  1877.  8vo. 

2.  Ed.  by  E.  Johnson,  2  vols.  London  and  Boston,  England,  1878.  8vo.  This 

is  decidedly  the  best  edition  in  English. 

Selections: 

1.  Stuaium  Pietasque  Puerilis  ex  D.  Erasmus.  1530.  8vo. 

2.  D.  Erasmi  Colloquia  familiaria  selecta  *  *  *  In  usum  scholarum,  pp.  142. 

Perthensi,  1791.  12mo. 

3.  Desiderii  Erasmi  Colloquia  duo.  (Edited  by  C.  H.  O.  Daniel.)  Oxonii. 

(1880.)  16mo. 

4.  Epitome  Colloquiorum  Erasmi.  London,  1557.  8vo. 

5.  Epitome  Colloquiorum  Erasmi  continens  in  se  communiores  quotidiani  ser- 

monis  formulas,  nunc  denuo  in  puerorum  usum  editas.  Excudebat  J.  Har- 
ison,  impensis  Roberti  Dexter.  Londini,  1602.  8vo.  Also  editio  novissima, 
R.  Daniel,  Cantabrigiae,  1634. 

6.  Erasmi  Colloquia  selecta,  or  the  select  colloquies  of  Erasmus  with  an  English 

translation,  by  J.  Clarke.  Lat.  &  Eng.  Nottingham,  1720.  12mo.  Also 
1725?  1727,  1736,  1742,  1752,  1785  (R.  Raikes,  Gloucester),  Philadelphia,  1804. 

7.  Erasmi  Colloquia  selecta:  arranged  for  translation  and  retranslation;  adapted 

for  the  use  of  boys,  who  have  begun  the  Latin  Syntax.  By  E.  C.  Lowe, 
pp.  XII,  192.  Oxford  and  London,  1866.  8vo. 

8.  Two  dyaloges  wrytten  in  laten  by  the  famous  clerke  D.  Erasmus  of  Rotero- 

daine,  one  called  Polyphemus  *  *  *  the  other  dysposying  of  thynges  and 
names,  translated  in  to  Englyshe  by  E.  Becke.  B.  L.  Canterbury  (1550). 
8vo. 

9.  Seven  dialogues  both  pithie  and  profitable  *  *  *  Compiled  first  in  Latine 

by  *  *  *  Erasmus,  and  now  *  *  *  translated  into  English  by  W. 
B[urton].  B.  L.  London,  1606.  4to. 

10.  Pleasant  dialogues  and  dramma’s,  selected  out  of  *  *  *  Erasmus,  &c. 
1637.  12mo. 

11.  Twenty  select  Colloquies  out  of  Erasmus  *  *  *  pleasantly  representing 

several  superstitious  levities  that  were  crept  into  the  Church  of  Rome  in  his 
days.  Made  english  by  R.  L’Estrange.  London,  1680.  12mo. 

12.  Twenty-two  select  Colloquies  out  of  Erasmus,  2nd  edit.,  corrected  and 
amended,  of  above.  1689.  Also  1699,  1711,  1725. 

13.  Seven  new  Colloquies  translated  out  of  Erasmus.  By  Mr.  Brown.  London, 
1699.  12mo. 

X4.  Selections  from  the  Colloquies.  Edited  by  V.  S.  Clark,  with  notes  and 
vocabularies.  Ginn  &Co.,  Boston,  U.S.A.  pp.  xiii,  197.  8vo. 

It  is  interesting  to  add  that  the  German  educationist,  J.  B.  Basedow,  edited  an 
edition,  entitled: 

Encyclopaedia  pliilanthropica  Colloquiorum  Erasmi.  Demtis  illis  partibus  quce 
erant  adolescentium  nocivce.  8vo.  pp.  x,  324.  Lipsice,  1775. 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


869 


SUBJECTS  OF  THE  COLLOQUIES. 

Colloquies  of  Erasmus.  London,  1878.  Vol.  I.  (Bailey’s  translation.) 

Subjects:  Courtesy  in  Saluting,  Family  Discourse,  Of  Rash  Vows,  Of  Benefice- Hunters,  Of  a 
Soldier’s  Life,  The  Commands  of  a  Master,  The  Schoolmaster’s  Admonitions,  Of  Various  Plays, 
The  Child’s  Piety,  The  Art  of  Hunting,  Scholastic  Studies,  The  Profane  Feast,  The  Religious 
Treat,  The  Apotheosis  of  Capnio,  A  Lover  and  Maiden,  The  Virgin  averse  to  Matrimony,  The 
Penitent  Virgin,  The  Uneasy  Wife,  The  Soldier  and  Carthusian,  Philetymus  and  Pseudocheus, 
The  Shipwreck,  Diversoria,  The  Young  Man  &  Harlot,  The  Poetical  Feast,  An  Enquiry  concern¬ 
ing  Faith,  The  Old  Men’s  Dialogue,  The  Franciscans,  UtioxottXovo-iol,  or  Rich  Beggars,  The  Abbot 
&  Learned  Woman,  The  Epithalamium  of  Petrus  JEgidius,  The  Exorcism  or  Apparition,  The 
Alchymist,  The  Horse-Cheat,  The  Beggars’  Dialogue,  The  Fabulous  Feast,  The  Lying-in  Woman 

In  the  dialogue  on  The  Schoolmaster’s  Admonitions,  the  hoy  is  instructed  as  to 
the  modesty,  civility,  and  manners  becoming  his  age,  in  what  posture  he  ought  to 
stand  while  he  talks  to  his  superiors;  and  what  concerns  habit,  discourse,  and 
behaviour  at  table  and  in  school.  In  the  dialogue  Of  Various  Plays,  the  boys  send 
Codes,  their  messenger,  to  the  master  to  get  leave  to  go  to  play.  He  shews  that  mod¬ 
erate  recreations  are  necessary  for  mind  and  body.  The  master  admonishes  boys  to 
keep  together  at  play.  Then  are  discussed  stool-ball,  bowls,  ball  and  ring,  dancing, 
leap-frog,  running,  swimming.  A  further  dialogue  takes  up  Hunting.  The  Child's 
Piety  gives  views  on  religious  education,  here  inspired  by  the  Scholastic  Studies, 
treats  of  the  whipping  master,  saying  a  lesson,  fear  hurts  the  memory,  of  writing, 
and  of  making  a  (quill)  pen.  In  The  Abbot  &  the  Learned  Woman,  the  latter  is 
praised  for  reading  Latin  and  Greek  rather  than  confining  herself  to  French. 

Colloquies  of  Erasmus.  London,  1878.  Vol.  II.  (Bailey’s  translation.) 

Subjects:  Tbe  Religious  Pilgrimage,  ’I xOvo<f>a.yla,  The  Funeral,  The  Echo,  The  Unequal  Feast, 
Of  Things  and  Words,  Charon,  The  Assembly  of  Grammarians,  The  Unequald  Marriage,  The 
Imposture,  Cyclops  or  the  Gospel  Carrier,  The  Impertinents  or  Cross-Purposes,  The  False- 
Knight,  The  Play  of  Cockall,  The  Assembly  or  Parliament  of  Women,  Diluculum  or  the  Early 
Rising,  The  Sober  Feast,  The  Notable  Art,  The  Sermon  or  Merdardus,  The  Lover  of  Glory, 
Opulentia  Sordida  or  the  Wealthy  Miser,-  The  Seraphick  Funeral,  Amicitia  or  Friendship, 
Problema,  the  Problems,  The  Epicurean,  The  Conflict  between  Thalia  and  Barbarism,  Concern 
ing  the  Profitableness  of  Colloquies,  Of  the  Method  of  Study. 

In  Of  Things  &  Words  Erasmus,  a  hundred  years  before  Comenius,  exposes 
“  the  preposterous  judgments  of  some  people  who  are  more  ambitious  of  names 
than  they  are  of  the  things  themselves,  to  be  esteemed  than  to  deserve  esteem,” 
but  he  deals  rather  with  the  abstract  than  the  concrete,  e.  g.,  name  of  a  liar  and 
thief.  The  Assembly  of  Grammarians  ridicules  the  pretensions  of  hair-splitters 
about  words.  The  Notable  Art  derides  the  vain  boastingness  of  a  bold  pretence  of  a 
certain  book  promising  the  knowledge  of  languages  and  science  in  fourteen  days’ 
time.  In  The  Conflict  between  Thalia  and  Barbarism  Erasmus  inveighs  against  the 
barbarous  Latin  in  those  days,  commonly  allowed  and  approved,  particularly  in  a 
great  school  or  college  at  Zwoll,  a  town  twelve  miles  from  Da  venter,  where,  instead 
of  pure  Latin  authors,  the  scholars  were  put  to  learn  books  stuffed  with  inelegancies 
and  barbarisms.  The  Method  of  Study  gives  such  advice  as  the  following: 

By  no  means  have  your  study  furnished  with  learned  books,  and  be  unlearned 
yourself  *  *  *.  If  you  are  in  doubt  of  anything,  don't  be  ashamed  to  ask;  or 
if  you  have  committed  an  error,  to  be  corrected.  Avoid  late  and  unseasonable 
studies,  for  they  murder  wit,  and  are  very  prejudicial  to  health.  The  Muses  love 
the  morning  and  that  is  a  fit  time  for  study.  After  you  have  dined,  either  divert 
yourself  at  some  exercise  or  take  a  walk  and  discourse  merrily,  and  study  between 
whiles  *  *  *.  Always  keep  this  sentence  of  Pliny’s  in  your  mind,  “All  that 
time  is  lost  that  you  don’t  bestow  on  study.” 

Erasmus  (Desiderius). 

De  Civilitate  Morum  puerilium  per  Des.  Erasmum.  Roterodamum  libellus  nunc 
primum  et  conditus  et  editus.  Roberto  Whitintoni  interprete.  A  lytel  booke 
of  good  maners  for  chyldren  newe  lately  compyled  and  put  forth  by  Erasmus 
Roterodam  in  Latin  tongue ,  with  interpretation  by  Robert  Whityngton 
laureate  poet.  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  1532. 

One  of  the  many  books  of  manners  of  the  period,  as  to  which  consult  Dr.  F.  J. 


870 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Furnivall’s  book  (Forewords  and  Text)  on  Manners  and  Meals  in  Olden  Time- 
one  of  the  publications  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society.  Triibner,  1867. 

Erasmus  (Desiderius). 

Proverbs  or  adagies  with  neive  addicions  gathered  out  of  the  Chiliades  of  Erasmus 
by  R.  Taverner.  Hereunto  be  also  added  Mimi  Publiani.  B.  L.  Imprinted 
in  Flet-strete  at  the  sygne  of  the  whyte  Harte,  London,  1539.  8vo.  Also  1552. 

Later  editions  in  English: 

Adagia,  in  Latine  and  English,  contayning  fyve  hundreth  proverbs.  (Selected 
from  the  Chiliades  of  Erasmus.)  E.  Raban,  Aberdeen,  1622.  8vo. 

Proverbs,  chiefly  taken  from  the  Adagia  of  Erasmus  with  explanations;  and 
further  illustrated  by  corresponding  examples  from  the  Spanish,  Italian, 
French  and  English  Languages.  By  R.  Bland.  2  vols.  London,  1814.  8vo. 

These  are  small  selections  from  the  large  folio  Adagia  of  Erasmus  published  by 
Aldus  at  Venice  in  1508.  The  Aldine  edition  is  not  the  first,  for  the  Adagia  had 
been  published  at  Paris  in  1500,  but  in  a  much  shorter  form.  In  the  earliest  form 
it  consisted  of  some  800  proverbs,  but  in  the  later  of  4151.  Mr.  R.  B.  Drummond 
(Vol.  I,  Cap.  X)  gives  a  long  and  very  interesting  account  of  the  book  and  its 
compilation.  In  ifc  he  says: 

What  a  boon  it  must  have  been  to  the  student  in  an  age  when  books  were  rare 
and  expensive,  supplying  him  as  it  did,  with  apt  and  elegant  phraseology  on  all 
sorts  of  subjects,  serving  as  an  introduction  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  and 
furnishing  besides  eloquent  declamations  against  kings  and  monks,  war  and  priest¬ 
craft!  To  those,  too,  who  desired  an  easy  method  of  learning  Greek,  it  must  have 
been  a  valuable  aid,  all  the  Greek  quotations,  of  which  there  were  several  thou¬ 
sands,  being  carefully  rendered  into  Latin.  Thus,  besides  to  a  great  extent  serv¬ 
ing  the  purpose  of  a  dictionary  and  a  grammar,  it  is  a  common-place  book,  a 
journal  and  a  book  of  travels,  ail  in  one. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  second  “Chilias”  of  Proverbs,  under  the  heading  Fes- 
tina  lente ,  Erasmus  himself  describes  his  relations  with  the  Aldi.  He  had  the  free 
run  of  the  library  of  the  Aldi  at  Venice.  He  was  helped  by  Lascar,  Marcus 
Musurus  the  poet,  and  Aleander.  He  complains  of  a  Northern  friend  of  his,  con¬ 
trasting  his  conduct  with  that  of  the  Italians  (Drummond,  Vol.  I,  p.  279).  “  He 

had  applied  for  the  loan  of  a  Suidas  which  he  knew  his  friend  to  possess,  and 
which  had  the  Proverbs  noted  on  the  margin.  He  wished  to  have  it  merely  for  a 
few  hours,  until  his  amanuensis  should  copy  some  sentences  into  his  notebook. 
The  owner  of  the  Suidas  refused,  in  spite  of  repeated  applications.  Erasmus, 
having  tried  in  vain  to  overcome  his  obstinacy*  suggested  that,  perhaps  he  intended 
publishing  a  collection  of  proverbs  himself.  No:  he  vowed  he  had  no  such  notion 
in  his  head.  At  last  the  admission  was  forced  from  him  that  he  was  afraid  that 
learned  men  would  be  held  in  le3S  esteem  if  what  had  hitherto  been  their  monopoly 
should  be  made  public  property.’' 

Erasmus  (Desiderius). 

Apoplithegmes ,  that  is  to  saie,  prompte ,  quiche,  wittie  and  sentencious  saiynges, 
of  certain  Emperours,  Kynges ,  Capitaines ,  Philosophiers  and  Oratours,  as 
well  Grebes,  as  Romaines.  First  gathered  and  compiled  in  Latine  by  the  ryght 
famous  clerke  Maister  Erasmus  of  Roterodame.  And  note  translated  into 
Englyshe  by  N.  Udall.  B.  L.  Richard  Grafton.  London,  1542.  8vo,  Also 
1564. 

Of  this  book  there  is  a  handsome  reprint  published  at  Boston,  England,  by 
Robert  Roberts  and  edited  by  himself,  1877,  with  notes  by  the  Rev.  E.  Johnson. 
The  second  edition  (1564)  is  followed.  The  variations  in  spelling  from  the  edition 
of  1542  are  considerable. 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


871 


A  very  short  form  of  Erasmus's  book  translated  into  English  is  as  follows: 
Flores  aliquot  Sententiarum  ex  yariis  collecti  scriptoribus ,  The  Flowers  of 
Sencies  gathered  out  of  silndry  wryters  by  Erasmus  in  Latine  and  Englished.- 
by B,.  Taverner.  Lat.andEng.  W.Middilton.  London,  1547.  8vo.  Also  1550. 
Taverner  clearly  intends  his  book  to  be  used  by  boys.  In  his  preface  he  writes: 
“En  edohic  vobis,  fiorentissima  pubes  Britannica,  flores  sententiarum  nonnullos 


Vives  (J.L.). 

An  introduction  to  wysedome,  etc.  (With  “ sentences  of  wise  men ,  gathered 
together  by  Erasmus,  and  translated  into  English.”)  (1540  ?)  8vo. 

Ten  pages  of  Vives’s  book  are  occupied  in  accordance  with  the  following 
announcement : 


For  the  filling  of  void  pages  here  following,  we  have  inserted  certain  flowers  of 
most  notable  sentences  of  wise  men,  gathered  together  by  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam, 
and  translated  into  English. 

I  have  noted  that  Taverner  intends  his  very  small  book  for  boys — and  those 
probably  in  a  low  form.  Erasmus  early  in  his  preface  points  out  that  only  one 
man  in  many  thousands  has  time  to  read  regularly  his  Plato  and  Aristotle  and 
the  other  ancient  writers,  and  therefore  he  has  chosen  some  of  the  more  notable 
sayings  of  great  men.  Later  on,  however,  he  adds  (Udall’s  transi.): 

I  am  of  this  opinion,  that  young  children  might  much  more  to  their  profit  and 
benefit  be  exercised  in  the  Grammar  Schools  with  themes,  or  arguments  to 
write  on,  of  this  sort,  than  with  matters  to  make  upon,  such  as  are  commonly 
used  (which  themes  for  the  most  part,  as  they  contain  nothing  but  little  trifling 
senses,  devoid  of  all  pith  or  point,  so  do  they  nothing  open  the  mysteries  of  the 
Latin  tongue)  so  that  the  schoolmaister  do  open  and  declare  the  rules  and  ways, 
how  that  which  is  briefly  spoken,  may  be  dilated  and  set  out  more  at  large,  and 
how  that  that  is  so  fondly  spoken,  that  the  hearers  or  readers  cannot  but  laugh 
at  it,  may  be  turned  or  applied,  to  a  serious  use  and  purpose. 

The  writers  from  whom  Erasmus  mainly  quotes  are:  Socrates,  Aristippus, 
Diogenes  the  Cynic.  “  Next  after  these  three  philosophers,  but  the  same  in  this 
kind,  most  excelling,  we  shall  add  like  number  of  Kings  and  no  mo,  which  for 
their  saiynges  with  civility  and  good  fashion  replenished  have  a  name  of  honour 
above  all  other  Kings — Philip,  Alexander,  and  Antigonus  the  first,  King  of  the 
Macedonians.”  ‘‘To  the  intent  that  we  may  after  a  sort  make  some  likely  match 
of  Romans  with  the  Greeks,  we  shall  to  Alexander  set  Julius  Caesar,  to  Philip  we 
shall  set  Augustus,  and  to  Antigonus  we  shall  turn  Pompeius  of  Rome.”  Then 
follow  the  sayings  of  two  or  three  of  the  “very  best”  of  the  orators:  Phocian, 
Cicero,  Demosthenes. 

The  number  of  sayings  given  is  as  follows:  Socrates,  102;  Aristippus,  62;  Diog- 
eiles,  281;  Philip,  85;  Alexander,  65;  Antigonus,  80;  Augustus  Caesar,  66;  Julius 
Caesar,  86;  Pompey  the  Great,  21;  Phocian,  23;  Cicero,  70;  Demosthenes,  23. 

At  the  end  of  Udall’s  translation  is  the  curious  notice: 


That  thou  mayest  the  soner  and  easlyer  fynde  (moste  gentle  reader)  either  the 
name  of  any  persone  or  any  other  good  mattier  conteined  in  this  booke,  I  have  here 
added  a  large  and  plaine  Table  after  the  ordre  of  the  ABC  set  out  with  the  noumbre 
of  the  leafe,  where  thou  shalt  fynde  any  suche  thyng  as  thou  desyrest  to  have  therin. 


Each  saying  is  followed  by  an  exposition  of  Erasmus.  The  following,  from 
Udall’s  translation  of  Erasmus’s  Apophthegmes,  will  serve  as  an  example: 


Aristippus  firste  of  all 
the  scholars  of  Socrates, 
sette  up  teaching  of  phi- 
losophie  for  money. 

The  familiar  ghost  or 
aungell  of  Socrates, 
called  in  Greke  Scu><ov, 
in  Latin,  Genius. 


82.  When  Aristippus,  the  disciple  of  Socrates  had  of  his 
gaines,  of  setting  up  the  teaching  Philosophie  for  money 
(which  thing  he  first  of  all  the  scholars  of  Socrates,  did  set 
up  and  begin  to  doe)  had  sent  20  xioundes  unto  his  maister: 
Socrates  sente  the  money  backe  again  unto  hym  forthwith, 
alleging  that  his  familiar  good  Aungell,  would  in  no  wise 
suffer  him  to  take  it. 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

For  Socrates  saied,  that  he  had  a  familiar  ghost  or  Aun- 
gell  peculiar  and  proper  to  himself,  of  whom  he  was  by  a 
privie  token  forbidden,  if  he  attempted,  or  went  about  to 
dooe  any  unhonest  thyng.  Yerely,  that  familiar  good 
Aungell,  I  suppose,  was  reason.  And  in  the  meanetyme, 
unto  Aristippus,  he  did  after  a  gentle  sort,  signifie  hym- 
self  not  to  alowe,  ne  to  thinke  well  doen,  that  he  kept  a 
schoole  of  morall  Philosophie  for  money,  and  therefore  the 
same  gifte  of  his  as  a  thyng  gotten  by  plaine  sacrilege,  he 
utterly  refused,  and  would  none  of  it. 

In  connexion  with  the  Book  of' Apophthegmes  of  Erasmus  it  is  convenient  here 
to  say  something  of  the  translator: 

Nicholas  Udall.  (1505,  died  c.  1556.)  Born  in  Hampshire  1505.  Scholar  of 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  1520.  Master  of  Eton,  1534.  His  severity  has 
been  noted  by  Tusser  in  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Husbandry: 

From  Paul’s  I  went,  To  Eton  sent, 

To  learn  straight  ways  The  Latin  phrase, 

Where  fifty-three  stripes  given  to  me, 

At  once  I  had: 

For  fault  hut  small,  or  none  at  all; 

It  came  to  pass  that  heat  I  was, 

See,  Udall,  see  the  mercy  of  thee 
To  me,  poor  lad. 

(He  appears  to  have  been  headmaster  of  Westminster  School,  for  the  two  years 
preceding  his  death.)  He  held  the  livings  of  Briantree  in  Essex  and  (in  1553)  Cal- 
borne  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  At  one  time  he  was  Canon  of  Windsor.  Besides  the 
Apophthegmes  of  Erasmus,  he  translated  the  following  books: 

1.  Flowers  for  Latin  speaking,  selected  and  gathered  out  of  Terence,  and  the  same  translated 

into  English.  1533,  1538,  1560,  1568,  1575. 

2.  Erasmus’s  Paraphrase  on  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

The  Encomium  Moriae,  or  Praise  of  Folly,  was  printed  at  Strasburg  in  1511.  In 
English,  the  first  edition  is: 

The  praise  of  Folie,  Mo  rice  Encomium,  a  booke  made  in  Latine  by  that  great 
clerke  Erasmus  Boterodame.  Englished  by  Sir  Thomas  Chaloner,  Knight. 
B.  L.  Anno  1559.  (T.  Berthelet.) 

Recent  edition:  Translated  by  James  Copner,  M.  A.,  Yicar  of  Elstow.  London.  Williams 
and  Norgate.  1878. 

Mr.  Drummond  says  of  it  (Vol.  I,  p.  185):  “  It  really  contains,  in  a  short  com¬ 
pass,  his  whole  philosophy  of  man — all  that  he  ever  wrote  on  the  abuses  of  his 
time,  on  the  superstition  of  monks,  and  the  pride  of  kings.  Abounding  in  wit 
and  eloquence,  and  displaying  great  knowledge  of  the  world  and  keen  observation 
of  men  and  things,  it  has  also  its  deep  and  serious  meanings  underneath  the  light 
satire  that  plays  upon  the  surface.”  The  book  is  of  great  importance,  therefore, 
as  giving  an  insight  into  the  condition  of  the  age,  but  has  only,  for  the  most 
part,  an  indirect  bearing  on  education.  The  following  passage,  however,  is  of 
direct  interest: 

[Amongst  those  in  eager  pursuit  of  “wisdom’s  golden  branch”]  a  foremost 
place  is  occupied  by  the  schoolmasters,  a  class  of  men  who  would  indeed  be  in  the 
most  calamitous,  the  most  afflicted,  the  most  God-forsaken  condition  conceivable 
were  it  not  that  I  (Folly)  of  my  benevolence  ameliorate  the  wretchedness  of  their 
most  wretched  profession  by  making  bitter  lives  perceptibly  sweet  to  them,  ren¬ 
dering  them,  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  insanely  happy  in  the  midst  of  their 
most  insane  and  most  laborious  drudgery.  Verily  their  lot  is  a  woeful  one 
indeed,  cursed— not,  as  the  Greek  epigram  has  it,  with  five— but  with  five  hundred 


872 

Socrates  alowed  not 
that  any  man  should 
take  money  for  teach- 
yng  vertue,  and  es- 
temed  money  so  gotten, 
to  be  sacrilege. 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


873 


drawbacks.  It  is  a  lot  of  semi- starvation  and  of  debasing  slavery.  In  their 
schools — well;  schools  I  call  them,  though  “schools  ”  is  indeed  far  too  good  a  name 
for  those  hotbeds  of  care  and  misery,  those  grinding  mills,  those  dens  of  torture, 
in  which,  superintending  flocks  of  small  boys,  these  unfortunate  pedagogues  are 
destined  to  eke  out  the  measure  of  their  days.  In  these  schools,  then,  these  bride¬ 
wells  of  uproar  and  confusion,  do  they  grow  prematurely  old,  exhausted  by  their 
labours,  deafened  by  continual  hubbub,  and  with  their  constitutions  shattered 
and  broken  down,  owing  to  the  close  foulness  of  the  atmosphere  that  day  by  day 
they  are  necessitated  to  breathe.  Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this,  thanks  to  my 
good  services,  they  are  by  no  means  such  miserable  creatures  as.  you  might  at  first 
sight  be  inclined  to  imagine.  In  their  own  estimation  they  are  important  person¬ 
ages  enough,  and  think  themselves  mightily  fine  fellows;  but  whilst  they  strut 
about  with  stern  looks  and  scolding  voices,  striking  terror  and  alarm  into  the 
breasts  of  a  set  of  trembling  urchins,  half  scarifying  the  little  wretches  occasion¬ 
ally  with  canes,  and  birches  and  straps,  and  exercising  their  arbitrary  tyranny 
over  them  in  all  sorts  of  other  ways,  they  after  all,  do  but  ludicrously  perform  the 
part  of  the  ass  in  the  well-known  fable.  [They  take  no  steps  to  remove  the  dust 
and  dirt  from  their  schoolroom.]  In  fact  evidently  to  them  filth  is  as  cleanliness, 
and  bad  smells  as  perfumes.  [They  have  a  wonderfully  good  opinion  of  them¬ 
selves  and  are  able  to  impress  parents  with  a  belief  in  their  ability.  The  more 
out-of-the-way  their  knowledge  is,  the  better  pleased  they  are.]  Dear  me!  if  any 
one  of  them  happens  to  discover  who  was  Anchises  s  grandmother;  or  if,  in  some 
worm-eaten  chart,  he  chances  to  light  upon  a  word  or  two  of  barbarous,  unused 
Latin,  such  as  bubsequa,  for  instance,  or  bovinator  or  manticulator ;  or  if — never 
mind  where — he  is  lucky  enough  to  dig  up  the  fragment  of  an  old  stone  containing 
a  few  mutilated  characters  of  an  ancient  inscription  upon  it,  verily,  by  Jove!  he 
is  thrown  into  such  a  transport  of  triumphant  exultation  that  you  might  imagine 
he  had  conquered  Africa,  or  captured  the  city  of  Babylon!  [They  also  think  they 
are  gifted  with  a  marvellous  genius  for  poetry.  They  flood  upon  one  another 
mutual  congratulations,  laudations,  and  flatteries,  if  they  happen  all  of  them  to 
agree  in  opinion.  They  wrangle  over  pronunciation  and  grammatical  distinc¬ 
tions.]  In  consequence  of  all  this  discord  among  grammarians  we  have  naturally 
an  endless  number  of  conflicting  grammars — as  many  grammars  as  there  are  men 
to  write  them — nay,  more;  for  I  know  one  grammarian — a  friend  of  mine  of  the 
name  of  Aldus— who  alone  has  produced  fi  ve  different  grammars!  No  new  gram¬ 
mar  that  comes  out,  however  barbarously  and  unintelligibly  written,  does  he  allow 
to  escape  his  notice.  He  pores  over  it  with  avidity,  and  criticises  with  a  jealous  eye 
every  sentence  it  contains;  for  he  can  brook  no  one  who  attempts  any  thing,  how¬ 
ever  indifferent  in  this  department  of  literature,  being  always  in  a  wretched, 
morbid  state  of  nervous  trepidation  lest,  amongst  the  numerous  makers  of  gram¬ 
mars  who  are  perpetually  springing  up,  some  fresh  aspirant  should  arise  who,  by 
forestalling  him  in  the  promulgation  of  new  grammatical  ideas,  should  deprive 
him  of  his  reputation  as  a  grammarian,  and  of  the  fruits  of  his  years  and  years  of 
labour, — Copner's  translation,  Chapter  vii. 

In  this  connexion,  the  fact  may  be  recalled  that  Melanchthon  wrote  a  tractate,. 
De  Miseriis  Paedagogorum. 

A  treatise  of  Schemes  and  Tropes  very  profytable  for  the  better  understand¬ 
ing  of  good  authors,  gathered  out  of  the  best  Grammarians  and  Oratours  by 
Rychard  Sherry ,  Londoner.  W  hereunto  is  added  a  declamacion,  That  chyldren 
euen  strayt  fro  tlieir  infaneie  should  be  ivell  and  gently  broughte  vp  in  learnynge . 
Written  fyrst  in  Latin  by  the  most  excellent  and  famous  Clerke,  Erasmus  of 
Poterodame.  (1550.  J.  Day.) 

The  second  portion  is  an  important  contribution  of  Erasmus  to  the  educational 
literature  of  the  age.  The  following  is  his  own  summary  of  its  argument: 

Consider  how  dear  a  possession  your  son  is,  how  diverse  a  thing  it  is  and  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  much  work  to  come  by  learning,  and  how  noble  also  the  same  is,  what  a 
readiness  is  in  all  children’s  wits  to  learn,  what  agility  is  in  the  mind  of  man,  how 
easily  those  things  be  learned  which  be  best  and  agreeable  to  nature,  inespecially 
if  they  be  taught  of  learned  and  gentle  maisters  by  the  way  of  play:  further  how 
fast  those  things  abide  with  us,  wherewith  we  season  first  of  all  the  empty  and 
rude  minds  which  self  things  an  elder  eye  perceiveth  both  more  hardly  and  sooner 
forgetteth;  Beside  this  how  dear  and  the  loss  never  recovered,  time  is,  how  much 
it  availeth  to  begin  in  season,  and  to  learn  everything  when  it  should  be,  how 
much  continuance  is  able  to  do,  and  how  greatly  the  heap  that  Hesiodus  speaketh 


874 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  doth  increase  by  putting  to  little  and  little,  how  swiftly  the  time  fiieth  away, 
how  youth  will  always  be  occupied,  how  unapt  old  age  is  to  be  taught:  If  thou 
consider  these  things  thou  wilt  never  suffer  that  thy  little  child  should  pass  away 
(I  will  not  say)  seven  year,  but  not  so  much  as  three  days,  in  the  which  he  may  be 
either  prepared  or  instructed  to  learning,  though  the  profit  be  never  so  little. 

The  following  are  dissertations  on  the  educational  aspects  of  Erasmus: 

Das  Ideal  der  Bildung  und  Erziehung  bei  Erasmus  von  Rotterdam.  By  Dr. 
G.  Glockner.  Dresden:  Bteyl  &  Kaemmerer,  1889. 

Die  pddagogischen  Anschauungen  des  Erasmus  in  ihrer  psychologischen  Begrun- 
dung.  By  Hermann  Tog  el.  Dresden:  Bleyl  &  Kaemmerer,  1896. 

1531.  Sir  Thomas  Elyot.  (?  1490— 1546.) 

(The  facts  of  the  life  of  Elyot  have  been  investigated  with  thorough-going  care 
by  Mr.  H.  H.  S.  Croft  in  his  very  valuable  reprint  of  The  Boke  Named  the  Gov- 
ernour,  from  the  first  edition  of  1531.  The  following  points  may  be  useful  for 
reference.  Elyot  was,  probably,  a  native  of  Wiltshire,  and  was  born  about  1490. 
He  had  a  home  education  in  Greek  and  Latin,  but  it  is  not  certain  if  he  was  at 
either  of  the  Universities.  In  1511  Elyot,  as  clerk  of  assize,  accompanies  his  father, 
who  was  the  judge  on  the  western  circuit.  In  1522-3  Elyot  came,  by  his  father's 
death,  into  the  possession  of  the  Combe  estate  near  Woodstock.  Elyot  attracted 
the  notice  of  Wolsey,  then  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  and  was  appointed  to  various 
offices.  In  1530,  however,  he  was  discharged  from  the  clerkship  of  council.  From 
this  time  forward  he  became  converted  to  literature.  He  was  induced  to  become 
ambassador  to  Germany,  but  bitterly  complains  that  for  his  diplomatic  and  other 
official  duties  he  has  received  no  payment.  He  was  married,  about  1522,  to  Mar¬ 
garet  Abarrow  of  North  Charford,  Hampshire.  They  had  no  children.  He  died 
in  1546,  and  was  buried  at  Carleton.) 

Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  boke  named  the  Governour ,  devised  by  Thomas  Elyot ,  Knight.  B.  L. 
MS.  notes.  In  sedibus  Tho.  Bertheleti,  Londini,  1531.  8vo.  Also  1546,  1553, 
1557, 1564,  1565,  1580,  and  other  editions. 

Reprints: 

I.  Based  on  the  text  of  1564 — edited  by  Mr.  A.  T.  Eliot,  Scholar  of  Catherine 

Hall,  Cambridge,  published  at  Newcastle,  1834.  Not  satisfactory,  on 
account  of  the  attempt  to  “ simplify”  the  composition  of  Sir  Thomas  Elyot, 
and  also  on  account  of  the  omissions. 

II.  The  scholarly  reprint  of  1880  (London:  Kegan  Paul),  edited  by  Mr.  H.  H.  S. 
Croft.  This  has  a  complete  apparatus  of  Preface,  Life,  Notes,  Index,  Glos¬ 
sary,  with  Appendices  of  Obsolete  Words  formed  from  the  Latin,  Obsolete 
Words  formed  from  the  French. 

In  the  shorter  histories  of  education,  e.  g.,  Compayre’s,  and  Joseph  Payne's  Lec¬ 
tures,  there  is  no  account  of  Elyot.  Mr.  Quick  mentions  Mr.  Croft’s  Reprint,  and 
quotes  the  following  sentence  from  Elyot:  “  Good  Lord  !  how  many  good  and 
dear  wits  of  children  be  now-a-days  perished  by  ignorant  schoolmasters.” 

James  Parmentier,  in  his  Histoire  de  V education  en  Angleterre ,  devotes  Chapter 
II  to  Elyot. 

There  is  a  dissertation  entitled,  1st  Thomas  Elyot  ein  Vorganger  John  Locke's 
in  der  Erziehung slehre 9  Leipzig:  Oswald  Schmidt,  1896. 

The  Boke  Named  the  Governour  is  modeled  on  the  De  regno  et  regis  institutions 
of  Francesco  Patrizi  (Paris,  1518).  Elyot  is  also  clearly  indebted  to  the  Institutio 
principis  Christiani  of  Desiderius  Erasmus  (Basilea,  1516),  and  to  the  De  principe 
of  Joannes  Juvianus  Pontanus,  1513. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Boke  Named  the  Governour  probably  gave  rise  to,  or  at 
least  influenced: 

Sturm,  J.— De  institutione  Principis.  Walsingham’s  Manual  for  Statesmen 
Raleigh,  Sir  W.— The  Prince— Maxims  of  State  drawn  up  for  Prince  Henry, 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION.  875 

Mr.  Croft  names  also:  1555,  The  Institution  of  a  Gentleman,  and,  1606,  Lud- 
ovick  Bryskett’s  Discourse  of  Civil  Life. 

Sir  Thomas  Elyot  divides  the  Boke  of  the  Governour  into  two  books,  the  first  of 
which  gives  his  ideas  on  education.  He  thus  explains  his  general  aim: 

I  have  expressed  my  conceipte  and  opinion  touching  nat  only  the  studies,  but 
also  the  exercises  concernynge  the  necessary  education  of  noble  men  and  other, 
called  to  the  governance  of  a  publike  weale,  in  such  fourme  as,  by  the  noble  exam¬ 
ple  of  their  lines  and  the  frute  thereof  coming,  the  publike  weale  that  shal  happen 
to  be  under  their  governance,  shall  nat  faile  to  be  accounted  happy  and  the 
autoritie  on  them  to  be  emploied  well  and  fortunately. 

The  following  subjects  are  treated  by  Sir  Thomas  Elyot  in  his  Chapters  on  Edu¬ 
cation  : 

The  form  of  education  of  a  gentleman’s  son  with,  a  view  to  service  to  the  Commonwealth. 
Education  up  to  seven  years  of  age,  with  order  of  subjects.  Appointment  of  tutor.  Music. 
Painting  and  carving.  Choice  of  masters.  Order  of  learning  and  the  sequence  of  authors.  The 
poets.  The  most  necessary  subjects  after  the  poets.  Comparison  of  ancient  and  modern  learn¬ 
ing.  The  teaching  of  law.  The  causes  why  in  England  there  be  few  perfect  school-maisters. 
Gentlemen’s  exercises,  for  recreation  and  profit.  Hunting.  Dancing.  Providence,  industry, 
circumspection,  election,  experience,  modesty.  Other  exercises.  That  shooting  in  a  long-bow 
is  principal  of  all  other  exercises. 

Sir  Thomas  Elyot  is  the  first  English  writer  on  education  who  has  felt  the  full 
force  of  the  Renascence.  His  views  are  vividly  coloured,  not  to  say  formed,  by 
the  humanistic  revival.  He  is  proud  of  his  knowledge  of  Greek.  He  was  a  friend 
of  Sir  Thomas  More  and  familiar  with  the  writings  of  Erasmus.  He  insisted  on 
the  necessity  of  a  liberal  and  disinterested  education  for  specialists,  and  although 
this  term  usually  in  his  age,  and  indeed  up  to  the  present  time,  has  been  taken 
to  mean  those  having  a  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek  literature  and  language, 
yet  Elyot  no  less  delighted  in  his  facility  in  writing  English. 

Some  of  the  contents  of  Sir  Thomas  Elyot’s  “  Governor”  deserve  more  detailed 
mention.  In  his  own  words  can  be  given  the  reason  why  he  deals  with  edu¬ 
cation  of  noblemen’s  sons  rather  than  with  that  of  the  vulgar: 

I  will  use  the  policy  of  a  wise  and  cunning  gardener:  who  purposing  to  have 
in  his  garden  a  fine  and  precious  herb  that  should  be  to  him  and  all  other  repair¬ 
ing  thereto,  excellently  commodious  or  pleasant,  he  will  first  search  throughout 
his  garden  where  he  can  find  the  most  mellow  and  fertile  earth;  and  therein  will 
he  put  the  seed  of  the  herb  to  grow  and  be  nourished:  and  in  most  diligent  wise 
attend  that  no  weed  be  suffered  to  grow  or  approach  nigh  unto  it:  and  to  the 
intent  it  may  thrive  the  faster,  as  soon  as  the  form  of  a  herb  once  appeareth,  he 
will  set  a  vessel  of  water  by  it,  in  such  wise  that  it  may  continually  distil  on  the 
root  sweet  drops;  and  as  it  springeth  in  stalk,  underset  it  with  something  that  it 
break  not,  and  alway  keep  it  clean  from  weeds.  Semblable  order  will  I  ensue  in 
the  forming  the  gentle  wits  of  noble  men’s  children. 

This  garden-like  nurture  of  children  is  described  in  detail,  especial  stress  being 
laid  upon  the  necessity  of  employing  a  nurse  of  “  approved  virtue,  discretion  and 
gravity”,  and  exercising  a  stern  censorship  over  playfellows  permitted.  Were  it 
not  that  Elyot  wrote  A  Defence  of  Good  Women  (London:  1545),  it  might  be 
gathered  that  he  had  some  mistrust  of  women’s  influence  on  children.  He  con¬ 
siders  it  highly  desirable  that  a  nobleman  should  instruct  his  own  children,  if  he 
be  able,  for  even  a  king,  Dionysius  the  tyrant,  taught  grammar  in  a  common 
school,  in  the  days  of  his  exile.  Why  should  not,  then,  the  children  be  exercised 
at  home  in  speaking  Latin?  “As  touching  grammar”,  Elyot  adds,  “there  is  at 
this  day  better  introductions,  and  more  facile,  than  ever  before  were  made,  con¬ 
cerning  as  well  Greek  as  Latin,  if  they  be  wisely  chosen.” 

At  seven  years  of  age,  the  child  should  be  taken  from  “the  company  of  women,” 
and  put  under  a  tutor  who  is  to  make  it  his  business  to  know  the  character  and 
power  of  hie  pupil.  Music,  in  a  temperate  degree,  is  to  be  cultivated,  because  it 
is  necessary  to  the  knowledge  of  a  public  weal.  The  commonwealth,  like  music, 
is  made  up  of  an  order  of  estates  and  degrees,  and  therefore  contains  within  it  a 


876 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


“  perfect  harmony”.  Elyot's  book  is  a  direct  reflection  of  the  revival  of  Plato’s 
Republic  in  his  insistence  on  music  and  gymnastics. 

Though  a  predecessor  of  Comenius  by  a  century,  Sir  Thomas  Elyot  has  a  clear 
idea  of  the  teaching  of  things  as  well  as  names.  He  would  have  the  teacher 
inform  the  child  of  the  names  in  Latin  of  “all  things  that  cometh  in  sight,  and 
to  name  all  the  parts  cf  their  bodies”  (the  subject  of  one  of  the  chapters  of 
Comeniuss  Janua  linguarum  reserata).  Further,  in  giving  children  what  they 
covet  or  desire,  Elyot  would  wish  the  teacher,  “in  most  gentyl  manner  ”,  to  get  the 
child  to  “ask  it  again  in  Latin!”  Or,  again,  is  there  not  a  forecast  of  Comenius 
in  such  a  conviction  of  the  importance  of  realistic  teaching  as  the  following:  In 
geometry,  astronomy,  and  cosmography  (called  in  English  the  description  of  the 
world) — in  these  studies,  “I  dare  affirm  a  man  shall  more  profit,  in  one  week,  by 
figures  and  charts,  well  and  perfectly  made,  than  he  shall  by  the  only  reading  or 
hearing  the  rules  of  that  science  by  the  space  of  half  a  year  at  the  least;  where¬ 
fore  the  late  writers  deserve  no  small  commendation  which  added  to  the  authors 
of  [in]  those  sciences  apt  and  proper  figures.” 

A  fortiori ,  goes  on  the  argument,  if  the  pupil  learns  to  draw  for  himself  there 
will  be  a  great  gain  to  education.  Not  that  the  author  wishes  to  make  a  noble¬ 
man’s  son  a  common  painter  or  carver,  “which  shall  present  himself  openly 
stained  or  embrued  with  sundry  colours  or  powdered  with  the  dust  of  stones  that  he 
cutteth  or  perfumed  with  tedious  savours  of  the  metals  by  him  yoten”  (melted) — 
but  he  thinks  drawing,  carving,  etc.,  excellences  in  themselves  in  their  training  of 
the  eye  (like  music,  of  the  ear),  and  also  because  of  their  “  adminiculation  ”  (serv¬ 
ice)  to  the  other  serious  studies. 

Throughout  Elyot’s  treatise  is  discernible  the  desire  that  education  should  be 
liberal.  He  is  particularly  persistent  in  requiring  the  teacher  to  be  “excellently 
learned  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,”  and  to  be  a  clear  and  pure  example  of  gentle 
thought  and  life.  From  seven  years  of  age,  for  three  years  the  child  is  to  “learn 
Greek  authors,  and  to  use  the  Latin  tongue  as  a  familiar  language  ”.  If  Latin 
were  only  spoken  it  might  be  learned  as  is  French.  Elyot  points  out  that  French 
grammar  in  his  time  had  come  to  have  nearly  as  many  rules  and  figures  as  Latin 
or  Greek.  Greek  Grammars  were  innumerable  {even  by  1531),  and  Elyot  would 
only  add,  “  Detain  not  the  child  too  long  in  the  tedious  Grammars.  Let  not  the 
child’s  fervent  desire  of  learning  become  extinct  by  the  time  he  cometh  to  the 
most  sweet  and  pleasant  reading  of  old  authors  ”.  When  Elyot  reaches  the  dis¬ 
cussion  of  his  beloved  authors,  his  views  are  very  different  from  those  of 
Comenius. 

These  are  the  books  for  the  child  to  read — a  long  list,  over  which  Sir  Thomas 
Elyot  revels:  iEsop’s  Fables,  Select  Dialogues  of  Lucian,  Comedies  of  Aristoph¬ 
anes,  Homer,  Yirgil,  Silius,  Lucanus,  Hesiodus.  These  will  suffice  up  to  twelve 
years  of  age!  It  is  explained,  however,  that  from  each  should  only  be  chosen  so 
much  instruction  as  is  fitted  to  the  child,  and  at  least  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the 
spirit  of  poetry  shall  enter  his  soul  to  inflame  his  courage  and  to  condemn  folly. 
To  these  poetic  and  human  studies  succeeds  the  more  ‘  *  serious  ”  learning  of  logic, 
rhetoric,  cosmography  (in  which  Elyot  has  “incredible  delight”).  “I  cannot 
tell,”  he  says  of  pictures  and  maps,  “  what  more  pleasure  should  happen  to  a  gen¬ 
tle  wit  than  to  behold  in  his  own  house  everything  that  within  all  the  world  is 
contained.”  After  cosmography,  history  should  be  taught.  Livy,  Xenophon, 
Quintus  Curtius,  Julius  Caesar,  Sallust,  and  Tacitus  are  to  be  read.  At  seven¬ 
teen,  moral  philosophy  is  to  begin,  with  the  reading  of  Aristotle’s  Ethics  and  of 
Tully’s  Offices.  Above  all,  Plato.  Elyot  breaks  forth: 

Lord  God,  what  incomparable  sweetness  of  words  and  matter  shall  [the  pupil] 
find  in  the  said  works  of  Plato  and  Cicero;  wherein  is  joined  gravity  with  delecta¬ 
tion,  excellent  wisdom  with  divine  eloquence,  absolute  virtue  with  pleasure 
incredible,  and  every  place  is  so  inf  arced  [stuffed  full]  with  profitable  counsel, 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


joined  with  honesty,  that  those  three  books  be  almost  sufficient  to  make  a  perfect 
and  excellent  governor.  The  proverbs  of  Solomon  with  the  books  of  Ecclesiastes 
and  Ecclesiasticus  be  very  good  lessons.  All  the  historical  parts  of  the  Bible  be 
right  necessary  for  to  be  read  of  a  noble  man,  after  that  he  is  mature  in  years. 
And  the  residue  (with  the  new  testament)  is  to  be  reverently  touched,  as  a  celestial 
jewel  or  relick,  having  the  chief  interpreter  of  those  books,  true  and  constant  faith 
and  dreadfully  to  set  hands  thereon. 

I  have  quoted  the  above  passage  at  length  to  show  the  complete  sway  which  the 
Renascence  spirit  had  over  Elyot.  Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Plato  are  named  before 
the  books  of  the  Bible  in  the  subject  of  moral  philosophy.  To  these  is  added  Eras¬ 
mus’s  Institution  of  a  Christian  Prince.  In  accordance  with  the  Renascence  ideal, 
Elyot  was  laudaior  temporis  acti.  Learning  had  declined,  he  says,  on  account  of  the 
pride  of  parents,  which  rose  above  “  clerkship;  ”  the  avarice  of  parents  causes  them 
chiefly  to  inquire  with  how  small  a  salary  a  teacher  will  be  contented,  and  never 
how  much  good  learning  he  hath;  the  negligence  of  parents  allows  children, 
as  long  as  they  are  educated  up  to  a  certain  point,  to  remain  comparatively  idle 
and  self-indulgent. 

Having  dealt  with  his  Neo-Platonic  music-teaching,  Elyot  enters  upon  gym¬ 
nastic  training.  He  treats  the  subject  very  learnedly  on  the  historical  side.  The 
topics  spoken  of  are:  wrestling,  running,  swimming  (interestingly  illustrated,  of 
course,  by  the  examples  of  Horatius  Codes  and  Julius  Caesar),  defence  with 
battle-axe,  riding  and  vaulting,  hunting  of  all  kinds,  dancing,  shooting  with  the 
long-bow.  The  most  honourable  of  all  exercises  is  riding  a  “  great  horse  and  a 
rough”,  the  “principal  ”  of  all  exercises  is  shooting. 

A  most  interesting  study  would  be  a  comparison  between  gymnastic  training 
as  treated  by  Elyot,  and  that  of  Richard  Mulcaster  in  his  “ Positions”  (1581).  It 
would  be  found  that  Mulcaster  excels  on  the  expository  side,  and  Elyot  in  his 
historical  illustrations. 

Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

Of  the  knowledge,  ivhiche  maketh  a  wise  wan.  B.  L.  In  cedibus  T.  Bertheleti. 
Londini,  1533.  Also  1534. 

Five  dialogues  between  Plato  and  Aristippus— written  after  reading  the  life  of 
Plato  “in  the  book  of  Laertius”,  and  containing  an  account  of  the  Platonic  doc¬ 
trine  of  wisdom. 

In  the  Proheme,  Sir  Thomas  Elyot  states:  “Wherefore  after  that  I  had  applied 
the  more  part  of  my  life  in  perusing  diligently  every  auncient  work  that  I  might 
come  by,  either  Greek  or  Latin,  containing  any  part  of  philosophy  necessary  to 
the  institution  of  man’s  life  in  virtue,  I  have  endeavoured  myself  to  set  forth  such 
part  of  my  study  as  I  thought  might  be  profitable.”  He  refers  to  King  Henry 
YIII’s  kind  reception  of  The  Boke  named  the  Governour,  and  says  how  he  there 
intended  “to  augment  our  English  tongue,  whereby  men  should  as  well  express 
more  abundantly  the  thing  that  they  conceived  in  their  hearts  *  *  *  as  also 
interpret  out  of  Greek,  Latin  and  other  tongue  into  English.”  A  justification  is 
offered  of  his  “Pasquill  the  Playne  ”  (1533),  which  seems  to  have  given  offence. 
Finally,  he  undertakes  during  the  residue  of  his  life  to  now  and  then  set  forth 
such  fruits  of  his  studies  as  may  be  profitable  to  his  country. 

Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

A  sweete  and  devoute  sermon  of  Holy  saynt  Ciprian  of  mortalitie  of  man.  The 
rules  of  a  Christian  lyfe  made  by  Pious  erle  of  Mirandula,  bothe  translated  into 
englyshe  by  syr  Thomas  Elyot  knyghte.  Londini  in  cedibus  Tho.  Bertheleti. 
1534-.  12mo. 

The  sermon  is  described  by  Elyot  (Preface  to  Image  of  Governance,  1540)  as 
*‘No  little  comfort  in  plagues  and  calamities.” 

The  translation  from  Pico  della  Mirandola  is  interesting,  not  for  the  contents  of 
the  Rules,  so  much  as  showing  Elyot’s  direct  contact  with  the  writings  of  the 
Italian  revivers  of  learning. 


878 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  Doctrinal  of  Princes  made  by  the  noble  oratour  Isocrates ,  translated  out  of 
Greke  in  to  Englishe  by  syr  Thomas  Eliot ,  knight.  153 A.  12mo.  (Thomas 
Berthelet. ) 

This  oration  of  Isocrates  to  King  Nicocles  may  be  described  as  an  essay  in  Greek 
translation— an  attempt  to  see  “if  our  English  tongue  might  receive  the  quick 
and  proper  sentences  pronounced  by  the  Greeks  At  the  end  of  the  book  there 
is  a  curious  “Addicion  to  fill  up  vacant  pages’5  on  the  subject  of  clemency  as  a 
quality  in  kings.  As  to  the  “Doctrinal,”  Elyot  says:  “This  little  book  is  to  be 
compared  in  counsel  and  short  sentence  with  any  book,  holy  scripture  excepted.  ” 
Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  Bankette  of  Sapience,  compyled  by  syr  Thomas  Eliot,  knygliie ,  cfc  newely 
augmented  with  dyverse  tytles  and  sentences.  B.  L.  In  cedibus  T.  Bertheleti. 
Londini,  1539.  8vo.  Also  1542,  1545, 1557. 

Suggested  by  the  symposia  of  Plato,  Xenophon,  and  Plutarch.  The  “  Banquet” 
consists  of  sundry  wise  counsels  gathered  out  of  the  works  of  most  excellent  per¬ 
sons,  “as  well  faithful  as  gentiles ”. 

Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  Dictionary  of  Syr  T.  E.,  Knyght  {Latin,  English;  with  MS.  letter  of  the 
author  to  Thomas  Lord  Cromwell  in  Brit.  Mus.  Copy. )  Thomas  Berthelet , 
Londini,  1538.  fol.  Also  1545,  and,  under  the  editorship  of  Thomas  Cooper, 
1550,  1552,  1559. 

In  1565,  1573,  1578,  1584,  there  followed  a  further  dictionary  by  Cooper  on  the 
basis  of  Elyot’s  Dictionary,  called  Thesaurus  linguae  Romance  et  Britannicce.  See 
further  account,  p.  880. 

Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  Education  or  bringinge  up  of  children  translated  oute  of  Plutarche  by  syr 
Thomas  Eliot,  Knyght .  (Berthelet,  1535.) 

Sir  Thomas  Elyot  begs  the  reader  not  to  exact  of  him  the  “exquisite  diligence 
of  an  interpretour”,  as  he  is  simply  employing  his  leisure  in  translating  this  book 
of  Plutarch.  He  would  not  like  his  book  to  be  compared  with  the  ‘  ‘  delectable 
styles  of  Grekes  or  Latines.”  “It  shall  suffice  me”,  he  says,  “if  by  this  littel 
labour  I  may  cause  you,  my  myn  entierly  beloued  syster,  to  folowe  the  intent  of 
Plutarche  in  brynginge  and  inducynge  my  litell  neuewes  into  the  trayne  and  rule 
of  vertue”.  His  sister  is  Margery  Puttenham,  to  whom  he  dedicates  the  transla¬ 
tion.  and  for  whose  benefit  he  enlarges  the  histories  touched  upon  by  Plutarch. 
Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  Defence  of  Good  Women,  devised  and  made  by  Sir  Thomas  Elyot,  Knyght . 
1534,  1545.  16mo. 

The  argument:  “A  contenciou  betwene  two  gentill  men,  the  one  named  Caninius,  the  other  Can- 
didus.  Caninius,  like  a  curre,  at  womens  condicions  is  alway  barkyng:  but  Candidus,  whiche 
maie  be  interpreted,  benigne  or  gentill,  Judgeth  ever  well,  and  reproveth  but  seldom. 
Betwene  them  two,  the  estimation  of  womankinde  cometh  in  question.  After  long  disputa- 
cion,  wherein  Candidus  (as  reason  is)  hath  the  preh eminence,  at  the  last,  for  a  perfect  con¬ 
clusion,  Queen  Zenobia  (which  lived  aboute  the  yere  after  the  incarnacion  of  Christe  274,  the 
noble  Aureiiane  being  emperoure  of  Rome)  by  the  example  of  hir  life,  confirmeth  his  argu- 
mentes,  and  also  vanquissheth  the  obstinate  mynd  of  froward  Caninius,  and  so  endeth  the 
matier.” 

Zenobia  is  called  upon  to  account  for  the  fact  that  she  did  not  marry  before  the 
age  of  “twenty  and  above  ”.  The  reason  was  that  the  years  between  sixteen  and 
twenty  were  given  to  study,  especially  in  moral  philosophy.  She  shows  the  use 
which  this  study  afforded  to  her  when  she  married,  and  the  great  advantage  it  was 
to  her,  as  a  widow,  in  the  choosing  of  tutors  for,  and  in  bringing  up  of  her 
children.  She  therefore  considers  it  well  that  a  maiden  should  “  well  tarry  ”  before 
she  marries,  so  as  to  give  herself  up  to  earnest  and  continued  study.  Her  conclu- 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


879 


sion  on  the  subject  of  what  we  call  the  higher  education  of  women  is:  “  I  see  well 
enoughe,  that  women,  beyng  well  and  virtuously  brought  up,  do  not  only  with 
men  participate  in  reason  but  some  also  in  fidelity  and  constancy  be  equall  unto 
them.'’ 

Elyot  (Sir  Thomas). 

The  Image  of  Governance  compiled  of  the  Actes  and  Sentences  notable,  of  the 
moste  noble  Emperour  Alexander  Seuerus ,  late  translated  out  of  Greek  into 
Englyshe  by  Syr  Thomas  Eliot,  knyght  in  the  favour  of  Nobylitie.  T.  Berthe- 
let,  154-1.  4to. 

‘  ‘And  this  present  book  which  I  have  named  the  Image  of  Governance  shall  be  to 
all  them  which  will  read  it  sincerely  a  very  true  pattern,  whereby  they  may  shape 
all  their  proceedings.” 

This  Image  of  Governance  has  an -interesting  preface,  which  contains  some  ac¬ 
count  of  his  previously  written  books,  by  himself.  The  book  was  written  when 
“  almost  fatigate  with  the  long  study  about  the  correcting  and  ampliating  of  my 
Dictionary,  Latin  and  English.” 

The  names  of  the  following  books,  written  by  Sir  Thomas  Elyot,  though  not 
definitely  bearing  on  education,  are  added  to  make  the  list  of  his  works  complete. 

Pasquyll  the  Playne.  1533  and  1540.  T.  Berthelet.  16mo. 

A  dialogue  between  Pasquillus,  Gnato,  and  Harpocrates  on  the  advantages  of 
speech  and  silence.  The  title  Pasquyll,  “although  he  may  be  merry  and  plain, 
teaching  as  well  servants  how  to  be  faithful  unto  their  maisters,  as  well  as  mais- 
ters  how  to  be  circumspect  in  espying  of  flatterers.” 

The  Castell  of  Helth.  T.  Berthelet.  12mo.  1534,  1539,  1541,  156*1,  1572,  etc. 

After  writing  this  book,  Elyot  was  plainly  told  by  doctors  that  he  had  much 
better  write  on  matters  with  which  he  was  better  acquainted.  They  admitted 
that  he  was  “prettily  seen  in  histories”,  but  denied  that  he  was  “learned  in 
Physick”.  Elyot  replies: 

For  before  that  I  was  twenty  years  old  a  worshipful  physician  [supposed  to  be 
LinacreJ  ana  one  of  the  most  renowned  at  that  time  in  England,  perceiving  me  by 
nature  inclined  to  knowledge  read  unto  me  the  works  of  Galen  *  *  *  and 
some  of  the  aphorisms  of  Hippocrates.  And  afterward  by  mine  own  study  I  read 
over  in  order  the  more  part  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates,  Galen.  Oribasius,  Paulus 
Celius,  Alexander  Traliianus,  Celsus,  Plinius  the  one  and  the  other,  with  Dios- 
corides.  Nor  did  I  omit  to  read  the  long  canons  of  Avicenna,  the  commentaries 
of  Averroys,  the  practices  of  Isake,  Haliabbas,  Basis,  Mesue  *  *  *. 

This  may  be  taken  as  a  representative  list  of  authors  in  a  good  medical  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  time.  Elyot  once  more  delights  in  having  written  a  book  in  English, 
and  says,  with  his  spirit  aroused: 

If  physicians  be  angry  that  I  have  written  physickein  English,  let  them  remem¬ 
ber  that  the  Greeks  wrote  in  Greek,  and  Romans  in  Latin,  Avicenna  and  the 
other  in  Arabic,  which  were  their  own  proper  and  maternal  tongues.  And  if 
they  had  been  as  much  attacked  with  envy  and  covetise,  as  some  now  seem  to  be, 
they  would  have  devised  some  particular  language,  with  a  strange  cipher  or  form 
of  letters,  wherein  they  would  have  written  their  science,  which  language  or  let¬ 
ters  no  man  should  have  known,  that  had  not  professed  and  practiced  Physick. 
But  those,  although  they  were  Paynims  and  Jews,  yet  in  this  part  of  charity,  they 
far  surmounted  us  Christians,  that  they  would  not  have  so  necessary  a  knowledge 
as  Physic  is,  to  be  hid  from  them,  which  would  be  studious  about  it. 

How  one  maye  take  profite  of  his  enemy  es.  Translated  from  Plutarche.  T.  Ber¬ 
thelet.  n.  d.  bvo. 

A  Preservative  agaynste  deth.  Berthelet,  1545. 

This  consists  of  passages  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  from  the 
fathers  of  the  Church.  Elyot,  in  his  preface,  shows  his  fear  lest,  as  in  his  “  Cas¬ 
tell  of  Helth”  he  had  stirred  the  doctors,  now  in  his  “ Preservative ”  he  should 
offend  by  encroaching  on  the  domain  of  the  priests.  Yet,  he  concludes,  “no 
Christian  man  is  excluded  to  give  good  counsel.” 


880 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  Dictionary  of  Sir  Thomas  Eliot  knyght.  Londini  in  cedibus  Thomce  Bertheleti 
typis  impress.  Cum  privilegio  ad  imprimendum  solum,  fol.  1538. 

This  book  marks  an  interesting  point  in  the  history  of  copyright.  For  in  it  is 
a  copy  of  Henry  VIII’s  “  gracious  privilege  ”  to  Thomas  Bertkelet  to  print  Eliot’s 
Dictionary,  and  an  injunction  that  no  one  during  the  life  of  Berthelet  should 
print  any  manner  of  books  which  he  had  first  printed,  or  should  “  print  again  on 
other  men’s  corrections  the  same  within  the  space  of  six  years  next  ensuing  the 
printing  of  every  such  book.” 

Elyot's  Preface  is  addressed  to  Henry  VIII  and  is  full  of  subservient  loyalty. 
Elyot  declares  how  he  first  began  his  Dictionary,  in  spare  time  from  his  busy  life, 
and  found  that  he  could  not  thus  make  a  perfect  dictionary,  but  had  been  encour¬ 
aged  by  the  king  to  proceed.  Dissatisfied  with  what  he  had  already  done  he  says, 
“I  caused  the  printer  to  cesse,  and  beginning  at  the  letter  M  where  I  lefte,  I 
passed  forth  to  the  last  letter  with  a  more  diligent  study.  And  that  done  I  efte- 
sones  returned  to  the  fyrst  letter,  and  with  a  semblable  diligence  performed  the 
remenant.” 

The  following  passage  gives  an  insight  into  Elyot's  manner  of  making  his  Dic¬ 
tionary  and  into  the  materials  at  hand: 

I  well  perceyued,  that  all  though  dictionaries  had  been  gathered  one  of  another, 
yet  nethelesse  in  eche  of  them  ar  omitted  some  latin  wordes,  interpreted  in  the 
bokes,  whiche  in  order  preceded.  For  Festus  hath  manye,  which  are  not  in  Varros 
Analogi:  Nonius  hath  some,  which  Festus  lacketh:  Nestor  toke  nat  all  that  he 
founde  in  them  bothe.  Tortellius  is  net  so  abundant  as  he  is  diligent:  Laurentius 
Valla  wrate  only  of  wordes,  which  are  called  elegancies,  wherein  he  is  undoubtedly 
excellent:  Perottus  in  Cornucopie,  dyd  omitte  almost  none  that  before  him  were 
written  but  in  wordis  compounde  he  is  to  compendiouse:  Fryere  Calepine  (but 
where  he  is  augmented  by  otljer)  nothyng  amended,  but  rather  appaired  that 
which  Perottus  had  studiously  gathered:  Nebressensis  was  both  well  lerned  and 
diligent,  as  it  appereth  in  some  wordes,  which  he  declareth  in  latin:  but  because 
in  his  dictionarie  wordes  are  expounde  in  the  Spainish  tunge,  which  I  do  not  under¬ 
stand,  I  can  nat  of  hym  shewe  myn  opinion:  Budens  in  the  exact  triall  of  the  native 
sence  of  wordes,  as  well  greke  as  latine  is  assuredly  right  comendable,  but  he  is 
moste  occupied  in  the  conference  of  phrasis  of  bothe  the  tunges,  whiche  in  com¬ 
parison  are  but  in  a  fewe  wordes:  Dyvers  other  men  have  written  sondry  annota¬ 
tions  and  commentaries  on  olde  latine  authors,  among  whom  also  is  discord  in  their 
expositions. 

Elyot  feels  that  amongst  men  of  so  great  reputation  as  these  it  is  rash  for  him 
to  enter  the  lists,  but  the  “  comfort  ”  which  he  had  lately  received  from  the  king 
had  caused  his  spirit  to  be  revived  and  set  up  the  “  sail  of  good  courage.”  And 
he  dares  affirm  that,  having  finished  the  Dictionary  after  two  years’  labour,  “  there 
may  be  found  a  thousand  mo  latin  wordes  than  were  in  any  one  Dictionarie  pub- 
lyshed  in  this  royalme.” 

The  “Dictionarie”  was  improved  and  issued  (fol.)  in  1552  under  the  title: 

Bibliotheca  Eliotce.  Eliotes  Dictionarie  the  second  tyme  enriched  and  more  per¬ 
fectly  corrected ,  by  Thomas  Cooper.  In  cedibus  T.  Bertheleti:  Londini. 

This  was  eventually  exjianded  by  Cooper  into  the  Thesaurus  Linguae  Romans 
et  Britannicse  in  1565,  and  republished  1573,  1578, 1584. 

The  following  book  contains  a  reference  to  Elyot’s  “  Dictionarie,”  and  shows 
how  Elyot’s  work  was  continued  and  developed. 

An  Alvearie  or  Triple  Dictionarie  in  Englishe ,  Latin ,  and  French:  Very  profitable  for  all  such 
as  be  desirous  of  any  of  those  three  languages.  Also  by  the  tivo  Tables  in  the  ende  of  this 
booke ,  they  may  contrariwise ,  find  the  most  necessary  Latin  or  French  wordes ,  placed  after  the 
order  of  an  Alphabet ,  whatsoever  are  to  be  founde  in  any  other  Dictionarie:  And  so  to  turn 
them  backwardes  againe  into  Englishe  when  they  read  any  Latin  or  French  aucthors ,  and 
doubt  of  any  hard  worde  therein.  1573.  Second  edition  1580. 

The  Alvearie  is  by  John  Baret,  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

The  Address  to  the  Reader  gives  so  picturesque  and  vivid  a  view  of  teaching  at 
the  time  that  it  is  too  interesting  to  omit. 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


881 


BARET  AND  HIS  PUPILS. 

About  eyghteene  yeares  agone,  having  pupils  at  Cambridge  studious  of  the  Latin 
tongue,  I  used  them  often  to  write  epistles  and  themes  together,  and  daily  to  trans¬ 
late  some  peece  of  English  into  Latin,  for  the  more  speedy  and  easie  attaining  of 
the  same.  And  after  we  had  a  little  begunne,  perceyving  what  great  trouble  it 
was  to  come  running  to  mee  for  every  word  they  missed,  knowing  then  of  no  other 
Dictionarie,  to  helpe  us,  but  Sir  Thomas  Eliot's  Librarie,  which  was  come  out  a 
little  before,  I  appoynted  them  certaine  leaves  of  the  same  booke  every  day  to 
write  the  English  before  the  Latin,  and  likewise  to  gather  a  number  of  fine  phrases 
out  of  Cicero,  Terence,  Caesar,  Livie  etc.  and  to  set  them  under  severall  Tytles,  for 
the  more  ready  finding  them  againe  at  their  neede.  Thus  within  a  yeare  or  two 
they  had  gathered  togither  a  great  volume,  which  (for  the  apt  similitude  betweene 
the  good  scholars  and  diligent  Bees  in  gathering  their  wax  and  hony  into  their 
Hive)  I  called  them  their  Alvearie  both  for  a  memoriall  by  whom  it  was  made, 
and  also  by  this  name  to  incourage  other  to  the  like  diligence,  for  that  they  should 
not  see  their  worthy  prayse  for  the  same,  unworthily  drowned  in  oblivion. 

HOW  THE  DICTIONARIE  CAME  TO  BE  PUBLISHED. 

Not  long  after,  divers  of  our  friendes  borrowing  this  our  worke  which  we  had 
thus  contrived  and  wrought  onely  for  our  owne  private  use,  often  and  many  wayes 
mooved  me  to  put  it  in  print  for  the  common  profit  of  others  and  the  publike 
propagation  of  the  Latin  tongue:  or  else  to  suffer  them  to  get  it  printed  at  their 
proper  costs  and  charges.  But  I  both  unwilling,  and  halfe  ashamed  to  have  our 
rude  notes  come  abrode  under  the  viewe  of  so  many  learned  eyes,  and  especially 
finding  no  leasure  from  my  prefixed  studies  for  the  polishing  of  the  same,  utterly 
denied  their  request,  until!  at  length  comming  to  London,  the  right  worshipful! 
Maister  Powle  and  Maister  Garth,  with  other  and  singular  favourers  of  all  good 
learning  and  my  very  especiall  friendes,  with  their  importunate  and  earnest  exhor¬ 
tations  had  cleane  overcome  my  contrary  minde.  Then  immediately  laying  aside 
all  other  studies,  I  was  faine  to  seeke  for  writers  and  workemen  about  the  same,  to 
make  it  readie  for  the  presse. 

BARET  GOES  TO  HIS  OLD  PUPILS  FOR  HELP. 

Therefore  I  went  to  divers  of  mine  olde  pupils  then  being  at  the  Innes  of  Court, 
deliuering  each  of  them  some  part  of  their  olde  discontinued  worke  to  see  it  writ¬ 
ten  faire  againe  (and  for  other  peeces  which  I  thought  unperfect,  I  gat  certavne  of 
ye  best  scholars  of  two  or  three  schooles  in  London  to  write  after  my  prescription) : 
but  in  the  French  and  Tables,  although  I  had  before  traueyled  in  divers  countries 
beyonde  the  seas,  both  for  language  and  learning:  yet  not  trusting  to  mine  owne 
skill,  I  used  the  help  of  M.  Chalmer  and  M.  Claudius. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  for  Baret’s  Alvearie,  Richard  Mulcaster  wrote  a  com¬ 
mendatory  Latin  quatrain  for  the  1st  edition,  which  he  exchanged  in  the  2nd  edi¬ 
tion  for  a  Latin  poem  of  80  lines. 

The  progress  of  dictionary-making  is  an  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of 
Education.  But  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  book  to  include  even  a  general 
sketch.  The  course  of  the  development  of  dictionaries  may  be  studied  by  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  works  quoted  in  the  following  authorities: 

1.  In  the  Appendix  to  Mr  Way’s  edition  of  the  Promptorium:  Notices  of  Glossaries,  Vocabu¬ 

laries  and  other  works,  illustrative  of  the  English  Language  and  of  Mediaeval  Latinity 
and  used  for  the  most  part  in  this  edition  of  the  Promptorium.  The  full  title  of  the  book 
is:  Promptorium  Parvulorum,  sive  Ciericorum,  Dictionarius  Anglo-Latinus  Princeps, 
Auctore  Fratre  Galfrido  Grammatico  aicto,  ex  ordine  Fratrum  Predicatorum,  Northfol- 
ciensi,  Circa  1440.  Edited  by  Albert  Way,  M.  A.  for  the  Camden  Society,  London,  1865. 

2.  J.  E.  B.  Mayor’s  Latin-English  and  English-Latin  Lexicography,  in  the  Journal  of  Classical 

and  Sacred  Philology,  December  1855,  and  March  1857. 

3.  Chronological  Notices  of  the  Dictionaries  of  the  English  Language,  by  Henry  B.  Wheatley, 

Esq.,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Philological  Society,  London,  1865. 

4.  Article  Dictionary  in  the  Encyclopeedia  Britannica.  Ninth  edition,  1877. 

5.  The  Romanes  Lecture  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  1900,  by  Dr  J.  A.  H.  Murray,  Editor  of 

the  Oxford  Historical  Dictionary,  on  The  Evolution  of  English  Lexicography. 

Br  Murray  traces  the  development  of  the  dictionary  through  the  stages  of  glosses 
and  glossaries,  through  vocabularies,  and  he  might  have  added  nomenclators.  He 

ED  1901 - 56 


882 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

mentions  the  Medulla  Grammatices,  the  Ortus  (i.  e.,  Hortus)  Yocabulorum  of 
1500;  the  Promptorium  Parvulorum,1  i.  e.,  Children’s  Store-room,  about  1440; 
1483,  the  Catholicon  Anglicum;  in  1538,  Sir  Thomas  Elyot’s  Dictionary;2  in  1554, 
J.  Withals’  Short  Dictionary  for  Young  Beginners.  He  then  names  William 
Horman’s  Vulgaria,  1519;  Huloet’s  Abecedarium,  1552;  and  Baret’s  Alyearie,  1573; 
in  1570,  Peter  Levins’  Manipulus  Vocabulorum  (an  English  rhyming  dictionary). 
English  dictionaries  are  then  tracked  through  Robert  Cawdrey,  1604,  The  Table 
Alphabetical  of  Hard  Words;  1616,  Bullokar's  English  Expositor;  1623,  Henry 
Cockeram’s  English  Dictionary;  the  Glossographia  of  Thomas  Blount  in  1656;  and 
The  New  World  of  Words,  of  Edward  Phillips,  of  1658.  The  whole  lecture  of  Dr. 
Murray  is  very  interesting  and  should  be  read  as  a  whole  on  the  subject. 

Dr  Murray  also  mentions  the  following: 

FRENCH. 


1521.  Alexander  Barclay. 3 

Introductory  to  write  and  pronounce  Frenche. 

152T.  Giles  du  Guez  (or  du  Wes). 

Introductorie  for  to  lerne  to  rede,  to  pronounce  &  to  speak  French  trewly. 

1530.  John  Palsgrave. 

Esclaircissement  de  la  Langue  Frangoyse. 

1611.  Randall  Cotgrave. 

French  English  Dictionary. 

POLYGLOTT  DICTIONARY. 

Minshen,  John 

Hyejawi'  ei?  ra?  TAcoo-aa?,  id  est,  Ductor  in  Linguas.  The  Guide  into  Tongues.  Cum  illarum 
harmonia,  et  etymologiis,  Originationibus,  Rationibus,  et  Derivationibus,  in  omnibus  his 
undecim  linguis,  viz.  1.  Anglica.  2.  Cambro-Britanica.  3.  Belgica.  4.  Germanica.  5. 
Gallica.  6.  Italica.  7.  Hispanica.  8.  Lusitanica  seu  Portugallica.  9.  Latina.  10.  Graeca. 
11.  Hebraea.  Lond.  1617.  fol. 

2nd  ed.  of  1626  contains  also  an  exposition  of  the  terms  of  the  “  Lawes  of  this 
Land,”  with  the  etymologies  of  proper  names  of  the  Bible. 

WELSH. 


Salesbury  (Wm.). 

A  Dictionary  in  Englyshe  and  Welshe,  moche  necessary  to  all  suche  Welshemen  as  will 
spedly  learne  the  Englyshe  togue  *  *  *  whereunto  is  pflxed  a  little  treatyse  of  the 

englishe  pronuciation  of  the  letters.  B.  L.  Few  MS.  notes  in  Brit.  Mus.  copy.  J.  Waley, 
London,  1547.  4to. 

SPANISH. 


1599.  Richard  Percevall,  Gent, 

Dictionary  in  Spanish  and  English. 


ITALIAN. 


1599.  JohnFlorio.  (Italian-English.) 

World  of  Words.  Republished  in  1611  as  Queen  Anna’s  New  World  of  Words. 

I  add  here  names  of  further  dictionaries.  Dr.  Murray  is  concerned  to  show  the 
development  of  dictionary-making,  but  such  a  list  as  the  following  (though  not 
complete)  may  serve  to  show  some  of  the  variations  from  the  types.  It  should  be 
added  that  books  like  the  Officina  of  Ravisius  Textor  (1522)  and  the  numerous 
phrase-books  in  many  cases  served  as  dictionaries  for  school  use. 

Marbecke  (John). 

A  Concordace,  that  is  to  saie,  a  worke  wherein  by  the  ordre  of  the  letters  of  the  A.  B.  C.  ye 
maie  redely  finde  any  worde  conteigned  in  the  whole  Bible  etc.  (by  J.  M.)  1550.  fol. 


1  Edited  by  Mr  Albert  Way  for  the  Camden  Society.  1865. 

2  Thomas  Cooper,  Dr  Murray  points  out,  not  only  edited  three  editions  of  Elyot’s  Dictionary 
but  in  1535  compiled  his  Thesaurus  based  on  Robert  Stephen’s  work. 

3  Barclay  also  wrote  a  Grammatica  Latina.  1516.  4to. 


EARLY  ENGLISH  WRITERS  ON  EDUCATION. 


883 


Harrison  (Luke).  Printer. 

A  Dictionary  French  and  English.  Lond.  15T0. 

Crespin  (Jean).  Edited  by  Grant,  E. 

Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum  *  *  *  repurgatum  *  *  *  multisque  vocabulorum  Chiliadibus 
locupletatum,  opera  et  studio  E.  G[rant].  H.  Bynneman,  1581.  4to.  (Originally  appeared 
at  Geneva,  1562.  4to.) 

Waddington  (Rudolphus). 

A  Dictionarie  in  Latin  and  English,  heretofore  set  forth  by  Master  John  Yeron,  and  now 
newly  corrected  and  enlarged;  for  the  utilitie  and  profit  of  all  Young  Students  in  the 
Latine  Toong,  as  by  further  search  therein  they  shall  find.  Lond.  1584.  4to.  (Originally 
published,  according  to  Watt,  Lond.,  1575.) 

Patten  (William). 

Calendar  of  Scripture;  wherein  the  Hebrew,  Chaldean,  Arabian,  Phoenician,  Syrian,  Persian, 
Greek  and  Latin  names  of  Nations,  Cuntreys,  Men,  Weemen,  Idols,  Cities,  Hils,  Rivers,  and 
of  other  places  in  the  Bible  mentioned,  by  order  of  Letters,  are  set  and  turned  into  our 
English  Toonge.  B.  L.  Lond.  1575.  4to. 

An  exposition  of  certaine  difficult  and  obscure  wordes,  and  termes  of  the  lawes  of  this 
Realme  *  *  *  in  French  and  English,  for  the  helpe  of  such  yonge  Students  as  are  desir¬ 
ous  to  attaine  the  knowledge  of  the  same.  R.  Tottel,  1579.  8vo.  Also  1602, 1629,  1636. 

Hutton  (Richard). 

Lexicon  Latino- Graeco- Anglicum  ad  Gul.  Morelii  Archetypum,  accuratisse  excusum.  Lond. 
1583. 

Martinius  (Petrus). 

The  Key  of  the  Holy  Tongue;  wherein  is  conteineid,  first  the  Hebrue  Grammar  (in  a  man¬ 
ner)  woord  for  woord  *  *  *  out  of  P.  Martinius.  Secondly,  a  practize  upon  the  1st, 
25th,  and  68tn  Psalmes,  *  *  *  Thirdly  a  short  Dictionary  conteining  the  Hebrue  woords 
that  are  found  in  the  Bible  with  their  proper  significations.  All  Englished  by  I.  Udall.  3 
pts.  Francis  Raphelengius,  Leyden,  1593.  8vo. 

Minshen  (John). 

A  Dictionary  in  Spanish  and  English  *  *  *  Enlarged  *  *  *  by  J.  Minshen.  1599.  fol. 
(See  Richard  Percivall.) 

Withals  (John). 

A  dictionarie  in  English  and  Latine  *  *  *  with  Phrases  *  *  *  Recognised  by  Dr 
Evans;  after  by  A.  Fleming:  and  then  by  W.  Clerk.  And  now  at  this  last  impression 
enlarged  with  an  increase  of  words,  sentences,  etc.  T.  Purfoot,  London,  1616.  8vo. 

Minshen  (John). 

Yocabularium  Hispanico-Latinum  et  Anglicum  copiosissimum,  etc.  A  most  copious  Spanish 
Dictionarie,  with  Latine  and  English  (and  sometimes  other  Languages)  and  enlarged  with 
divers  thousands  of  Words,  etc.  Lond.  1617.  fol. 

Rider  (John)  and  Holyoke  (F.). 

Rider’s  dictionarie  corrected,  and  with  the  addition  of  above  five  hundred  words  enriched. 
Heereunto  is  annexed  a  Dictionarie  etymologicall,  deriving  everie  word  from  his  native 
fountaine  *  *  *  by  F.  Holyoke.  Eng.  Latin.  2  pts.  A.  Islip  for  T.  Man,  London,  1617. 
8vo.  1621,  1626, 1633,  1641. 

Featley  (Daniel). 

A  complete  Concordance  to  the  Bible  of  the  last  translation,  etc.  (With  a  preface  by  D.  F. 
etc.)  1631.  Fol. 

Cotton  (Clement). 

Complete  Concordance  to  the  Bible  of  the  last  translation,  1631.  fol. 

Davies  (John). 

Dictionarium  Latino-Britannicum.  Begun  and  greatly  improved  by  Thomas  Williams, 
Physician,  before  1600.  To  which  is  added,  Adagia  Britannica,  Authorum  Britannicorum 
Nomina  et  quando  floruerunt.  1632. 

Sherwood  (Robert).  Cotgrave. 

A  Dictionarie  of  the  French  and  English  tongue  *  *  *  Whereunto  is  also  annexed  a 
*  *  *  Dictionarie,  of  the  English  set  before  the  French  by  R[obert]  S[herwood]  L  [on- 
doner]  1632.  fol. 

Thorndike  (Herbert). 

Epitome  Lexici  Hebraici,  Syriaci,  Rabbinici  et  Arabici,  una  cum  Observationibus  ciroa  Lin- 
guam  Hehrseam  et  Grsecam.  Lond.  1635.  fol. 

Alabaster  (William). 

Lexicon  Pentaglotton,  Hebraicum,  Chaldaicum,  Syriacum,  Talmudico-Rabbinicum,  &  Ara- 
bicum,  etc.  Guilielmus  Jones,  Londini,  1637.  fol. 


884 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Barlement  (Noel). 

Colloquia  et  Dictionariolum  octo  Linguarum;  Latinae,  Gallicae,  Belgicae,  Teutonicae,  Hispa- 
nicae,  Italicae,  Anglicae,  &  Portugallicae,  etc.  By  N.  Barlement.  Excudebat  E.  G-.  impensis 
Micbaelis  Sparke,  Londini,  1639.  obi.  8vo. 

Bagwell  (John). 

In.  T.  Wilson’s  A  Christian  Dictionary  *  *  *  Whereunto  is  *  *  *  added  a  large  edi¬ 
tion,  both  of  words  and  phrases,  by  J.  B.  (1640?)  8vo. 

Pas  or  (George). 

Lexicon  Graeco-Latinum  in  Novum  Testamentum.  Lond.  1644,  1650.  8  vo. 

Rowley  (Alexander). 

The  Scholar’s  Companion;  or  all  the  Words  in  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  Bible  interpreted,  by 
A.  R.  Lond.  1648.  8vo. 

Hexham  (Henry). 

English  and  Nether-Dutch  Dictionary.  Rotterd.  1648.  4to.  Enlarged  and  enriched  by 
Dan.  Manley,  Rotterd.  1675,  1678.  4to. 

Robertson  (William). 

A  Gate  or  Door  to  the  Holy  Tongue,  containing  i.  The  chief  and  necessary  Grounds  of  the 
Hebrew  Grammar;  ii.  A  Table  for  the  Hebrew  Roots,  etc.  Part  First.  Lond.  1653. 
8vo.  Part  Second,  being  a  compendious  Hebrew  Lexicon,  or  Dictionary,  etc.  Lond. 
1654.  8vo. 

Walker  (William). 

The  Taste  of  English  and  Latin  Phraseology,  or  a  Dictionary  of  English  and  Latin  Idioms. 
Lond.  1655.  8vo.  Enlarged.  Lond.  1670. 

Edmondson  (Henry). 

Lingua  Linguarum;  or  a  Vocabulary  in  Latin  and  English.  Lond.  1655.  8vo. 

Symson  (Andrew). 

Lexicon;  or  English,  Greek  and  Latin  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament.  Lond.  1658. 
fol. 

Somner  (William). 

Dictionarium  Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum  cum  Grammatica  et  Glossario  iElfrici.  Oxon. 
1659.  fol. 

Dugard  (William). 

Lexicon  Graeci  Testamenti  alphabeticum.  Una  cum  explicatione  grammatica  vocum  singu- 
larum  *  *  *  apposita,  etc.  London  1660.  8vo. 

Dugard’s  Lexicon. 

“Mr.  Dugard  hath  lately  completed  his  Lexicon  Graeci  Testamenti  Alphabeticum  [etc.]; 
which,  were  it  once  committed  to  the  press,  as  it  now  lieth  ready  in  his  hand,  would  be  a 
most  excellent  help  to  young  scholars  to  proceed  in  the  Greek  Testament  of  themselves,  in 
an  understanding  and  grammatical  way.  And  I  hope  it  will  not  be  long  ere  he  publish  it 
for  common  use.”— Chas.  Hoole. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


THIRD  ANNUAL  CONFERENCE  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION  OF 
CATHOLIC  COLLEGES.1 

HELD  IN  CHICAGO,  APRIL  10,  11,  AND  12,  1901. 

Contents.— Officers  of  the  association— Delegates  present — President  Conaty’s  address:  “The 
Catholic  college  of  the  twentieth  century  Paper  by  Rev.  Janies  A.  Burns:  “  Catholic  sec¬ 
ondary  schools”— Letter  from  the  apostolic  delegate— Pager  by  Rev.  Henry  J.  DeLaak: 
“  The  teaching  of  science  ”— Paper  by  Rev.  Laurence  A.  Delurey:  “  The  teaching  of  history 
in  college  ” — Paper  by  Prof.  Edmund  J.  Ryan:  “  The  teaching  of  English  in  college” — Discus¬ 
sion:  “Educational  legislation  in  the  United  States” — Report  of  committee  on  entrance 
conditions,  Rev.  James  P.  Pagan,  chairman — Paper  by  Rev.  Candidus  Eichenlaub:  “  Greek  in 
our  Catholic  colleges.” 


OFFICERS  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION,  1901-1902. 

President:  Et.  Rev.  Mgr.  Thomas  J.  Conaty,  D.  D.,  rector  Catholic  University, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Standing  committee:  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Conaty,  ex  officio  chairman;  Rev.  John  A. 
Conway,  S.  J.,  Gonzaga  College,  Washington,  D.  C.,  secretary- treasurer;  V.  Rev. 
P.  Vincent  Huber,  O.  S.  B.,  president  St.  Bede  College,  Peru,  Ill.;  V.  Rev.  Wil¬ 
liam  L.  O'Hara,  A.  M.,  president  Mount  St.  Mary’s  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md. ; 
Rev.  James  French,  C.  S.  C.,  vice-president  Notre  Dame  University,  Notre  Dame, 
Ind. ;  Rev.  L.  A.  Delurey,  O.  S.  A.,  President  Villanova  College,  Pa. 

DELEGATES  PRESENT. 

Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Conaty,  D.  D.,  Catholic  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Rev.  Benedict  Boebner,  C.  PP.  S.,  president  St.  Joseph’s  College,  Collegeville, 
Ind. 

Rev.  Aloysius  %adley,  O.  S.  B.,  St.  Benedict’s  College,  Atchison,  Kan.;  St.  Ber¬ 
nard's  College,  Cullman  County,  Ala. 

Rev.  John  C.  Burke,  S.  J.,  vice-president  St.  Louis  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Rev.  J.  A.  Burns,  C.  S.  C.,  president  Holy  Cross  College,  Washington,  D.C. 
Rev.  A.  J.  Burrowes,  S.  J.,  president  Marquette  College,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Rev.  P.  V.  Byrne,  C.  M.,  president  St.  Vincent’s  College,  Chicago,  Ill. 

Rev.  John  P.  Carroll,  D.  D.,  president  St.  Joseph's  College,  Dubuque,  Iowa. 
Rev.  Francis  B.  Cassilly,  S.  J.,  vice-president  St.  Ignatius,  Chicago,  Ill. 

Rev.  Wm.  F.  Clark,  S.  J.,  vice-president  St.  Francis  Xavier’s,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Rev.  John  A.  Conway,  S.  J.,  vice-president  Gonzaga  College,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Rev.  Henry  J.  DeLaak.  S.  J.,  St.  Louis  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Rev.  Laurence  A.  Delurey,  O.  S.  A.,  Villanova  College,  Villanova,  Pa. 

Rev.  Albert  A.  Dierckes,  S.  J.,  president  St.  Francis  Xavier's,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Rev.  Bruno  Doerfier,  O.  S.  B.,  vice-president  St.  John's  University,  College¬ 
ville,  Minn. 


1  The  papers,  addresses,  discussions,  etc.,  contained  in  this  chapter  are  reprinted  from  the 
report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  conference. 


885 


886 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Rev.  John  F.  Dolphin,  M.  A.,  president  College  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Rev.  C.  J.  J.  Donegan,  S.  J.,  Gonzaga  College,  Spokane,  Wash. 

Rev.  M.  P.  Dowling,  S.  J.,  president  Creighton  University,  Omaha,  Nebr. 

Rev.  Candidus  Eichenlaub,  O.  S.  B.,  St.  Bede's  College,  Peru,  Ill. 

Rev\  James  P.  Fagan,  S.  J.,  vice-president  Georgetown  College,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Brother  Fidelis,  rector  St.  Francis’s  College,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  James  D.  Foley,  S.  J.,  president  Detroit  College,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Rev.  P.  J.  Franciscus,  C.  S.  C.,  representing  St.  Edward’s  College,  Austin,  Tex. 
Rev.  Jas.  J.  French,  C.  S.  C.,  Notre  Dame  University,  Notre  Dame  P.  O.,  Ind. 
Rev.  Martin  A.  Hehir,  C.  S.  Sp.,  Holy  Ghost  College,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Rev.  John  U.  Heinzle,  S.  J.,  Canisius  College,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  St.  Ignatius  Col¬ 
lege,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  St.  John's  College,  Toledo,  Ohio;  Sacred  Heart  College, 
Prairie  du  Chien,  Wis. 

Rev.  E.  A.  Higgins,  S'.  J.,  Santa  Clara  College,  Santa  Clara,  Cal.;  St.  Ignatius’s 
College,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Rev.  W.  C.  Hoctor,  C.  M.,  St.  John  Baptist  College,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  Vincent  Huber,  O.  S.  B.,  rector  St.  Bede’s  College,  Peru,  Ill. 

Rev.  J.  Kosinski,  C.  R.,  vice-president  St.  Stanislaus’  College,  Chicago,  Ill.;  St. 
Mary’s  College,  St.  Marys,  Ky. 

Rev.  Michael  Leary,  S.  J.,  St.  Mary's  College,  St.  Marys,  Kans. 

Rev.  P.  Nicholas  Leonard,  V.  F.  M.,  St.  Francis  Solanus’  College,  Quincy,  Ill. 
Rev.  A.  A.  Malloy,  C.  M.,  St.  Vincent’s  College,  Chicago,  Ill. 

Rev.  Andrew  J.  Morrissey,  C.  S.  C.,  president  Notre  Dame  University,  Notre 
Dame,  Ind. 

Rev.  Wm.  L.  O’Hara,  C.  M.,  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md. 

Rev.  John  N.  Poland,  S.  J.,  St.  Xavier  College,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Rev.  J.  F.  Quirk,  S.  J.,  vice-president  Boston  College,  Boston,  Mass. 

Rev.  E.  L.  Rivard,  C.  S.  V.,  St.  Viateur’s  College,  Bourbonnais,  Ill. 

Prof.  Edmund  J.  Ryan,  M.  A..  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md. 

Rev.  Chas.  B.  Schrantz,  S.  S.,  M.  A.,  St.  Charles’  College,  Ellicott  City,  Md. 
Rev.  J.  A.  Tracy,  C.  M.,  Niagara  University,  Niagara  County,  N.  Y. 

Rev.  Antoine  Wilmer,  O.  M.  Cap.,  rector  St.  Lawrence  College,  Mount  Calvary, 
Wis.;  St.  Fidelis  College,  Herman,  Pa. 


The  conference  was  formally  opened  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Conaty,  rector  of  the 
Catholic  University,  with  an  address  on 

THE  CATHOLIC  COLLEGE  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY. 

I  have  no  intention  to  speak  as  a  prophet,  nor  have  I  any  special  knowledge  by 
which  I  may  discern  clearly  and  describe  accurately  the  college  of  the  future.  My 
purpose  in  this  paper  is  rather  to  place  before  you  certain  facts  which  may  serve 
as  a  basis  for  the  solution  of  the  problems  of  the  future.  In  the  perfecting  of  our 
collegiate  system  we  should  know  the  difficulties  that  surround  us,  find  means  for 
solving  them,  and  thus  aid  this  conference  in  reaching  some  practical  results. 
My  point  of  view  is  not  so  much  the  detail  of  college  life  as  it  is  a  larger  and 
broader  view  of  the  college  as  an  element  in  our  educational  system. 

It  would  be  most  interesting  to  study  the  work  of  Catholic  collegiate  education 
in  the  United  States  in  the  century  which  has  just  closed,  and  which  has  culmi¬ 
nated  in  the  establishment  of  this  conference  of  Catholic  colleges.  To  describe 
our  first  attempts  at  collegiate  instruction,  to  watch  the  gradual  development  of 
the  college  from  one  diocese  to  another,  to  note  the  increase  and  improvement  in 
our  colleges,  until  to-day  nearly  200  institutions  designated  as  colleges  are  com- 


THE  CATHOLIC  COLLEGE  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY.  887 


peting  in  one  form  or  another  in  the  field  of  higher  education,  would  indeed  fur¬ 
nish  opportunities  for  serious  study.  Originally  intended  as  feeding  schools  for 
the  theological  seminary,  they  have  also  developed  preparation  for  the  professions 
and  business.  The  religious  orders,  with  their  centuries  of  traditions  as  teachers 
and  educators,  have  built  their  college  systems  upon  methods  which  have  to  their 
credit  the  successes  of  the  past  in  the  education  of  mankind.  Prepared  by  years 
of  careful  study  and  sanctified  by  sacrifices,  they  have  been  honored  by  the  results. 
The  Benedictine,  the  Franciscan,  the  Augustinian,  the  Dominican,  the  Jesuit — 
these  names  represent  a  body  of  teachers  who  have  preserved  civilization  and  edu¬ 
cated  the  world.  The  system  of  church  schools  developing  into  the  university 
has  been  the  foundation  stone  upon  which  the  success  of  the  Church  as  a  teacher 
among  the  nations  has  been  built.  During  the  hundred  years  of  our  educational 
life  these  and  other  religious  orders  have  been  the  fostering  parents  of  the  schools 
in  which  the  college  training  of  our  American  Catholic  youth  for  the  greater  part 
has  been  received.  Institutions  established  and  maintained  by  the  diocesan  clergy 
and  laymen  have  acted  no  small  part  in  our  educational  development  and  are 
to-day  prominent  factors. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  on  the  difficulties  experienced  during  a  century  of 
development,  from  the  day  when  Georgetown  College  in  1789  opened  its  doors  to 
instruction  in  classics  until  the  eventful  day  in  1889,  one  hundred  years  later,  when 
the  Catholic  University  welcomed  to  its  graduate  school  in  theology  the  representa¬ 
tives  from  the  different  dioceses  of  the  country  and  began  the  work  which  has 
since  developed  into  a  great  university.  The  French  Revolution,  which  was  so 
destructive  of  the  external  development  of  Catholic  educational  work  in  France, 
the  trials  and  difficulties  under  which  the  English-speaking  Catholic  world  labored 
in  the  maintenance  of  all  forms  of  religious  effort,  the  newness  of  this  great  coun¬ 
try,  which  had  opened  its  doors  to  the  refugees  from  tyranny  in  all  sections  of  the 
world — all  these  presented  a  serious  handicap  to  the  development  which  the  church 
so  ardently  desired.  Missions  had  to  be  established,  chapels  and  churches  built, 
and  missionaries  found  to  care  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  a  rapidly  increasing  popu¬ 
lation.  For  the  first  fifty  years  this  demanded  the  largest  share  of  church  interest. 
The  school,  the  college,  the  university,  representing  the  intellectual  growth  of  the 
people,  were  to  follow  what  might  be  called  the  brick  and  mortar  period  in  church 
building.  Then,  again,  large  means  were  lacking  among  the  people,  who  were 
mostly  poor  and  generally  exiles  flying  from  tyranny  and  oppression  abroad. 
Wealth  was  not  found  to  any  extent  among  the  Catholic  people;  yet  the  spirit 
of  sacrifice  which  dominated  them  is  nowhere  more  evident  than  in  their 
unwillingness  to  accept  the  education  which  the  State  schools,  supported  in  part 
by  their  taxes,  stood  ready  to  give  them.  They  submitted  to  a  double  taxation  in 
order  that  they  might  establish  and  maintain  parish  schools  in  which  their  chil¬ 
dren  might  receive  the  blessings  of  a  religious  education.  Competition  with  richly 
endowed  State  schools  has  not  resulted  in  diminishing  the  luster  of  the  record 
which  the  Catholic  educational  system  has  made.  We  need  but  refer  here  to  the 
exhibit  at  the  World's  Fair  in  1898  and  listen  to  the  encomiums  passed  on  the  edu¬ 
cational  results  obtained  in  the  Catholic  schools.  A  college  development,  built 
upon  a  somewhat  different  basis  from  that  of  the  parochial  school,  yet  experiencing 
much  of  its  difficulty,  is  glorified  by  much  of  its  sacrifice,  and  shares  in  the  same 
results.  We  owe  almost  wholly  to  the  religious  orders  the  foundation  of  the  col¬ 
legiate  institutes  which,  without  their  unselfish  devotion,  would  have  been  unable 
to  live.  We  now  have  an  almost  complete  system  in  educational  work,  which 
may  well  be  called  the  educational  system  of  the  church,  and  which,  despite  all 
difficulties,  may  claim  its  right  as  a  factor  in  the  educational  life  of  this  country. 
The  last  century  witnessed  the  foundation  and  growth  of  this  system;  the  present 
century  has  for  a  duty  its  perfect  development. 

Though  we  have  much  to  be  proud  of,  and  though  we  may  point  with  pride  to 


888 


EDUCATION  KEPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  results  of  the  last  one  hundred  years,  it  is  unwise  for  us  not  to  realize  that 
entering  upon  the  new  century  we  are  practically  at  a  very  critical  period.  Against 
our  system,  as  against  the  systems  of  all  private  schools,  and  especially  religious 
ones,  is  the  well-equipped  and  thoroughly  unified  organization  of  State  instruc¬ 
tion  sustained  by  public  funds.  Starting  wich  the  primary  grades,  reaching  as  a 
desired  result  to  the  completion  of  intermediate  work,  the  State  system  at  public 
expense  has  developed  into  the  high  schools,  and  in  many  States  maintains  the  uni¬ 
versity,  in  which,  at  public  expense,  even  professional  schools  are  found.  The 
trend  is  toward  national  unification  and  national  education  which,  we  may  remem¬ 
ber,  in  1871  were  laid  down  as  the  planks  in  the  platform  of  a  great  national  politi¬ 
cal  party.1  All  powers  of  government  were  to  be  centralized  in  the  General  Gov¬ 
ernment,  and  social  and  religious  unification  was  to  be  established  by  means  of 
universal  and  compulsory  education.  It  has  also  been  said  recently,  by  a  prom¬ 
inent  educator,  that  the  past  century  has  witnessed  the  organization  of  system  in 
education,  and  that  the  State  and  State  alone  has  been  the  controlling  influence  in 
education;  adding  that  before  this  century  the  church  controlled  it.  The  mighty 
machine  of  secularised  education  is  threatening  to  destroy  all  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  individual  or  the  church  in  the  fields  of  educational  endeavor.  To  unify  and 
solidify,  as  well  as  to  improve  our  system  in  all  its  parts,  from  kindergarten  to 
university,. is  most  urgent,  and  insomuch  as  the  college  is  an  important  element 
in  the  system  the  main  purpose  of  this  conference  is  to  consider  its  idace  and  duty. 
Whether  we  shall  succeed  in  blocking  the  way  of  absolute  State  control  in  educa¬ 
tion,  and  thus  secure  the  success  of  Catholic  education  in  the  twentieth  century, 
may  largely  depend  on  the  action  of  this  association.  To  my  mind  there  never  has 
been  a  more  critical  moment  in  the  battle  of  religious  education  against  the  secu¬ 
larized  ideal  than  at  the  present  time.  I  believe  that  danger  is  imminent  to  all 
forms  of  private  schools  and  colleges,  and  it  behooves  us,  devoted  as  we  are  to  the 
idea  of  religion  in  education,  to  so  build  our  system  that  it  may  be  proof  against 
all  attacks  of  the  nonreligious  system.  Christianity  is  dependent  upon  the  life  of 
the  Christian  school  idea. 

The  paternal  idea  in  education  is  being  carried  very  far.  The  Washington 
Post,  which  has  combated  paternalism,  said,  editorially,  in  its  issue  of  April  8: 
“All  shades  of  political  belief  and  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men  seem  to  have 
accepted  this  tremendous  expansion  of  the  free-school  idea  as  a  proper  exercise  of 
the  taxing  power.  ”  It  is  important  for  us  to  take  counsel  together,  strengthen 
our  position,  and  solidify  our  system  while  we  have  yet  full  liberty  to  act.  The 
danger  from  State  legislation  interfering  in  every  possible  way  with  private  enter¬ 
prise  in  education,  the  disposition  of  every  experimentalist,  in  the  name  of  educa¬ 
tion,  to  still  further  enlarge  the  sphere  of  State  paternalism,  the  ever-increasing 
encroachment  of  State  universities  upon  all  forms  of  public  instruction,  even  in 
private  schools,  the  disposition  to  centralize  education  to  the  extent  of  national 
control,  and  last  but  not  least,  the  political  machine  which  threatens  to  lay  hands 
upon  educational  forces  for  its  own  ends— all  these  are  reasons  which  urge  us  in 
self-protection  to  safeguard  the  principles  upon  which  our  education  depends  and 
bind  together  all  parts  of  our  system  for  the  purposes  of  successful  defense.  The 
time  for  isolated  action  is  past.  As  educators  we  must  not  allow  ourselves  to  be 
occupied  exclusively  with  minor  present  advantages.  The  mere  success  of  the 
particular  system  to  which  we  may  belong,  or  the  immediate  results  from  the 
particular  well-equipped  institution  of  which  we  are  a  part,  should  not  blind  us 
to  the  fact  that  the  system  as  a  whole  is  in  danger  and  demands  our  earnest, 
unselfish  consideration  and  devotion.  In  the  struggle  in  which  we  are  engaged 
other  motives  than  those  of  education  should  not  absorb  our  attention.  The  only 
way  to  secure  even  a  particular  interest  is  by  concerted  action  for  the  general 


1  Henry  Wilson,  Atlantic  Monthly,  January,  1871. 


THE  CATHOLIC  COLLEGE  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY.  889 


good.  All  for  each  and  each  for  all,  that  there  may  be  no  weak  strand  in  the 
chain  which  binds  us  together,  for  the  test  of  the  system  is  in  the  weakest  and  not 
in  the  strongest  part. 

Until  the  present  the  general  church  interest  has  cared  for  us  and  aided  us  to 
success.  Conditions  are  changing,  and  the  mere  name  Catholic  is  not  enough. 
We  are  to  be  judged  by  results  and  must  submit  to  comparisons  with  otter  sys¬ 
tems.  No  allowance  will  be  made  for  our  poverty  or  our  weakness.  We  must 
compete  with  the  best  and  in  the  ways  in  which  the  best-equipped  colleges  work 
or  we  lose  the  field.  Hence  more  system  is  demanded.  There  must  be  a  differen¬ 
tiation  of  the  elements  that  unite  to  form  the  system.  Business  is  dividing  labor 
so  as  to  reach  better  results.  The  master  of  all  trades  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  The 
man  needed  is  the  man  who  can  do  at  least  one  thing  well  rather  than  many  things 
poorly.  We  suffer  from  lack  of  definition  of  terms.  W e  need  to  know  just  what 
we  are  expected  to  do,  that  there  may  be  no  overlapping  nor  confusion  in  our  work. 
While  we  hold  in  general  to  the  principle  of  a  four-years’  course  for  an  A.  B.  in 
classics  one  college  ideal  is  clearly  defined.  The  entrance  conditions  and  the 
qualifications  for  an  A.  B.  degree  show  us  the  limits  within  which  our  collegiate 
work  lies.  This  conference  will  discuss  the  first,  and  I  trust  that  we  shall  soon 
consider  the  second.  The  moment  seems  ripe  for  our  colleges  to  cease  to  be  pre¬ 
paratory  schools  as  well  as  colleges.  Separate  the  two  very  distinctly,  and  leave 
to  the  preparatory  school  or  high  school  what  is  but  the  fitting  for  college.  Over¬ 
lapping  brings  confusion,  divides  our  attention,  prevents  concentration  upon  our 
real  work,  and  leads  to  weakness  and  injury.  There  need  be  no  friction  and  no 
jealousy  once  we  have  carefully  defined  and  set  apart  the  different  elements  of  the 
system  and  insisted  that  each  part  shall  do  the  work  for  which  it  has  been  fitted. 
What  we  need  is  not  more  colleges,  but  that  our  colleges  do  good  college  work. 

It  is  well  for  us  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  facts  of  the  situation,  in 
order  that  we  may  intelligently  discuss  this  question.  To  open  a  school  or  college, 
and  to  make  it  a  part  of  the  educational  system,  may  seem  to  be  a  very  simple 
matter  of  supply  and  demand.  The  school  is  opened,  the  people  urged  in  the  name 
of  religion  to  patronize  it,  the  instruction  we  deem  best  given,  degrees  after  a  time 
conferred,  and  then  there  is  a  certain  pointing  of  pride  to  the  alumni  occupying 
the  positions  of  honor  and  trust  in  the  community.  All  this  may  be  true,  and  yet 
only  be  on  the  surface;  the  real  situation  is  much  more  complicated  than  such 
statements  would  warrant.  Let  us  examine  the  facts  which  lie  around  and  about 
these,  and  which  our  educational  system  has  really  to  face.  The  first  fact  we  meet 
is  the  general  extent  of  the  State  school  system,  with  its  rapidly  increasing  high 
school,  college,  and  even  university  development.  The  free  school  was  originally 
aimed  to  fit  the  people  for  the  ordinary  needs  of  citizenship,  and  was  established 
particularly  against  illiteracy.  Developed  as  it  is  at  the  present  time,  it  aims  to 
fit  students  for  the  practical  business  of  life,  as  also  to  give  them  admission  directly 
to  the  university.  Its  purpose  seems  to  be  to  make  the  step  easy  from  the  State 
school  to  the  State  university.  The  addition  to  the  high-school  course  makes  it 
possible  for  the  university  to  stoop  down  and  assume  the  higher  grades  of  collegi¬ 
ate  work,  and  thus,  by  copying  the  German  model,  to  do  away  altogether  with  the 
college.  This  is  a  condition  growing  more  and  more  threatening,  which  stands 
face  to  face  with  our  collegiate  system.  A  second  fact  is  to  be  noted  in  the  insti¬ 
tutions  of  all  sorts  that  are  being  endowed  by  the  private  munificence  of  non- 
Catholics.  Business  colleges,  schools  of  engineering,  art  schools,  conservatories  of 
music,  trade  schools  are  springing  up  in  all  largecenters,  attracting  even  Catholic 
students,  and  doing  so  the  more  easily  because  they  do  not  appear  as  State  schools, 
but  rather  as  the  effort  of  generous  individuals  in  the  broader  education  of  the 
public.  But  the  fact  remains  they  are  not  Catholic,  and  the  tendency  in  teacher 
and  instruction  is  not  toward  a  respect  for  the  Catholic  ideals.  This  must  surely 
be  reckoned  with,  as  our  educational  system  faces  the  problem.  We  may  find  a 


890 


EDUCATION  KEPOKT,  1900-1901. 


third  fact  in  the  effort  very  clearly  defined  during  the  past  few  years  by  which 
universities  with  rich  endowments  are  striving  for  the  control  of  State  schools, 
the  dictation  of  the  schedule  of  work,  the  papers  for  the  examination  of  teachers, 
the  definition  of  the  scope  and  purpose  of  all  public  instruction,  the  desire  to  have 
all  teachers  receive  the  university  degree  or  certificate  of  university  approval. 
The  trend  of  educational  legislation  is  the  result  in  many  quarters  of  the  universi¬ 
ties’  desire  for  control  of  all  schools — private  as  well  as  public.  The  history  of 
school  boards  in  many  of  our  large  cities  would  show  us  that  all  those  who  desire 
to  become  teachers,  no  matter  where  they  have  been  instructed  nor  what  may  be 
their  qualifications,  are  forced  in  some  way  to  be  approved  either  by  the  universi¬ 
ties  or  by  the  normal  schools  or  by  the  regulations  suggested  by  either  or  both. 
Examples  are  not  wanting  to  substantiate  this  fact.  W e  have  only  to  remember 
the  discussions  in  the  Chicago  schools  and  elsewhere  and  the  attempts  in  some  of 
our  State  legislatures  for  enactments  along  these  lines. 

There  is  another  fact  which  we  would  do  well  to  carefully  consider,  and  it  is 
that  which  refers  to  strictly  scientific  publications.  We  have  only  to  consult  the 
library  table  of  every  scientific  department  to  find  that  such  publications  come 
largely  from  non-Catholic  sources  and  chiefly  from  universities  equipped  in  every 
way  for  research.  Even  the  more  popular  publications  which  flood  the  market 
regularly  and  are  read  on  all  sides,  even  by  Catholics,  spring  .from  practically  the 
same  source.  They  are  all  helps  in  the  education  of  the  people,  and  they  impress 
upon  them  the  idea  that  for  anything  first-class  in  science  or  literature  they  must 
go  to  a  non-Catholic  source.  By  constant  experience  with  these  statements  our 
Catholic  people  are  led  to  look  upon  the  scientific  and  literary  work  of  Catholics  as 
something  quite  inferior.  It  seems  to  me  that  these  are  some  of  the  hard  facts 
which  stand  over  against  us  in  our  educational  work. 

To  offset  this  there  is  the  very  patent  and  splendid  fact  that  the  Catholic 
Church,  out  of  her  poverty,  and  in  spite  of  all  other  serious  demands  upon  her  for 
church  and  charitable  development,  has  spent  on  education  during  the  past  year 
the  magnificent  sum  of  $25,000,000  and  has  had  under  her  educational  training 
over  1,000,000  pupils,  13,000  of  whom  were  under  Catholic  collegiate  instruction 
In  this  estimate  there  is  no  account  of  the  money  spent  for  buildings.  This  means 
on  the  part  of  thousands  of  teachers  most  conscientious  self-sacrifice,  on  the  part 
of  parents  generous  devotion  to  conscience  and  an  ideal,  and  on  the  part  of  stu¬ 
dents  the  willing  sacrifice  of  the  best  years  of  their  lives. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  century  a  very  small  proportion  of  Catholic  children 
found  it  possible  to  go  beyond  the  grammar  grade  of  school;  in  fact,  the  same  was 
proportionately  true  of  all  children.  The  increase  in  collegiate  attendance  during 
the  past  fifty  years,  in  view  of  the  circumstances,  has  been  remarkable,  while  the 
number  seeking  advanced  courses  has  necessarily  been  small.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  in  this  century,  as  in  the  past,  the  parochial  school  and  the  college  will  con¬ 
tinue  to  supply  the  demand  of  those  who,  for  one  reason  or  another,  will  not  be 
able  to  pursue  advanced  courses;  but  it  is  also  true  that,  with  the  material  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  Catholic  element  in  our  population,  the  number  of  students  able 
and  willing  to  obtain  the  university  advanced  degrees  will  be  much  larger.  The 
danger  from  the  high-school  movement  to  the  collegiate  and  university  parts  of 
our  system,  to  my  mind,  is  greater  than  even  that  which  threatens  the  parochial 
school.  Hence  I  assert  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  problems  for  the 
college.  Take  the  nigh  school  from  our  system,  or  neglect  to  develop  it  according 
to  the  demands  of  the  people,  and  you  are  practically  forcing  the  graduates  of 
your  parochial  schools  into  the  State  high  schools,  which,  even  more  in  the  future 
than  in  the  past,  are  to  be  the  feeders  upon  which  the  universities  depend.  The 
problem  is  before  us  and  is  becoming  more  and  more  urgent,  Shall  Catholic 
undergraduate  schools  serve  as  feeders  to  non-Catholic  universities?  It  is  not 
merely  the  question,  which  of  itself  is  a  serious  one,  Shall  Catholic  colleges  aim 


THE  CATHOLIC  COLLEGE  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY.  891 


to  fit  students  for  non-Catholic  universities?  The  question  is  deeper  and  farther 
reaching.  Shall  Catholic  parochial  schools  aim  to  fit  them  for  preparatory  schools 
which  lead  to  non-Catholic  colleges  as  well  as  non-Catholic  universities?  Can  we 
consistently  urge  Catholics  to  send  their  children  to  lower  Catholic  schools,  and 
then,  when  these  children  are  a  few  years  older  and  are  just  beginning  to  think 
seriously,  shall  we  encourage  them  to  enter  the  non-Catholic  colleges  and  uni¬ 
versities?  The  danger  from  the  non-Catholic  college  and  university  is  that 
instruction  is  given  in  them  at  a  time  when  young  men  and  women  are  beginning 
to  think  for  themselves;  and  we  know  that  if  there  be  no  religion  at  all,  or  if 
religion  play  a  minor  part,  the  instruction  must  be  not  only  defective,  but  dan¬ 
gerous  to  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  life.  It  is  not  likely  that  men  who  gradu¬ 
ate  from  non-Catholic  colleges  and  universities  will  become  ardent  supporters  of 
the  parochial  schools  and  the  Catholic  college.  The.y  may  feel  that  individuaTy 
they  have  suffered  no  loss  of  faith,  no  diminution  of  luster  in  their  religious 
beliefs;  but  they  fail  to  see  the  thousand  and  one  others  who  have  either  lost  faith 
altogether  or  have  drifted  into  absolute  indifference  in  religion.  Where  men 
receive  their  highest  diploma  will  be  the  center  around  which  their  affections  will 
turn.  If,  then,  the  parochial  school  act  as  a  feeder  to  the  non-Catholic  school,  it 
is  highly  probable  that  a  large  element  of  Catholics  graduating  from  the  high 
schools  will  find  its  way  into  non-Catholic  colleges  and  universities,  and  thus  our 
parochial  school  without  its  high  school  is  apt  to  become  a  feeder  to  the  non- 
Catholic  college  and  university.  It  is  idle  to  say  that  our  Catholic  colleges  have 
their  preparatory  schools  which  continue  the  work  of  the  parochial  schools.  These 
colleges  are  not  to  be  found  in  every  community,  and  convenience  as  well  as 
expense  has  much  to  do  in  determining  the  place  to  which  students  may  go. 

You  may  ask,  What  is  the  solution  of  this  difficulty?  One  solution  is  in  the 
unification  and  coordination  of  the  Catholic  system  of  education,  which  links 
parochial  school  with  high  school  and  college  and  leads  to  the  university,  which 
holds  the  headship  of  the  system.  No  one  will  question  the  wisdom  of  unification. 
It  has  always  been  a  characteristic  of  the  church.  It  is  the  watchword  of  the  hour. 
It  is  seen  in  her  government,  her  discipline,  her  doctrines,  and  her  methods.  Her 
unity  has  made  her  irresistible.  The  rods  tied  in  the  bundle  can  not  be  broken. 
Education  unified,  systematized,  coordinated,  makes  the  union  which  will  have 
strength  wherewith  to  battle  successfully  against  false  education.  One  strand 
needed  to  our  cable  is  the  high  school.  How  the  high-school  system  will  be  worked 
out  is  a  question  of  serious  consideration.  We  know  that  it  is  largely  a  question 
of  finance,  while  there  is  also  the  question  of  principle  as  to  the  right  to  tax  the 
people  for  education  beyond  the  grammar  grade.  Face  to  face  with  conditions  as 
they  exist,  the  working  out  of  the  high-school  problem  is  one  that  demands  the 
careful  attention  of  all  who  are  interested  in  Catholic  higher  education.  As  to  the 
college,  between  the  upper  millstone  of  the  university  and  the  lower  millstone  of 
the  high  school,  it  is  important  not  to  lose  sight  of  the  trend  in  public  opinion  as 
made  by  the  state  and  non-Catholic  universities  upon  the  high-school  movement. 
We  can  not  brush  the  difficulties  aside;  we  must  face  them  like  men  and  carefully 
consider  them. 

It  will  not  be  amiss  to  discuss  briefly  at  this  point  the  question  of  graduate  work 
in  college.  Although  the  universities  have  given  to  it  the  proper  place  in  the  uni¬ 
versity  proper,  yet  we  know  that  there  is  a  disposition  to  introduce  it  into  college 
or  have  it  done  by  college  instructors.  As  an  element  in  collegiate  discussion  it 
may  be  touched  upon  at  this  moment. 

As  to  the  graduate  instruction,  for  which  there  is  an  ever  increasing  demand,  as 
it  seems  to  me,  two  answers  offer  themselves.  One  is  in  the  willingness  of  Catholic 
colleges  to  undertake  this  instruction;  the  second,  in  their  readiness  to  allow  this 
work  to  be  done  by  the  university  which  is  intended  and  equipped  for  the  work. 
Looking  at  the  first  answer,  it  is  wise  to  see  how  far  this  can  be  done  and  what  it 


892 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900*1901. 


costs  to  do  it.  It  is  not  merely  sufficient  that  there  be  willingness  on  the  part  of 
instructors  to  undertake  this  work.  The  adding  of  the  name  to  the  college  cata¬ 
logue  does  not  make  the  graduate  school.  There  must  be  preparation  on  the  part 
of  the  instructors  and  equipment  on  the  part  of  the  school.  Here  again  we  face 
facts.  Graduate  work  to-day  is  the  accepted  function  of  the  university  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  term.  It  demands  scientifically  trained  men,  who,  by  their 
scholarly  attainments,  are  prepared  to  enter  into  the  field  of  specialism  and  fit 
students  to  be  specialists.  It  goes  beyond  mere  specialism  and  enters  the  broad 
field  of  scholarship  and  produces  scholars  capable  of  adding  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  world.  It  requires  laboratories  and  libraries  thoroughly  equipped  with  the 
best  and  latest  scientific  apparatus.  Competition  is  so  keen  that  if  we  would 
enter  into  it  we  must  be  prepared  to  do  the  work  as  it  is  done  by  the  universities 
liberally  endowed.  It  costs  millions  to  properly  endow  a  modern  university.  I 
have  carefully  compiled  a  statement  by  which  you  may  see  what  is  spent  in  Har¬ 
vard,  Columbia,  Johns  Hopkins,  Chicago,  Cornell,  and  other  leading  universities, 
especially  in  the  work  of  graduate  studies.  Just  as  the  Catholic  college  has  to 
compete  with  the  non-Catholic  college,  so  the  Catholic  graduate  school  must  com¬ 
pete  with  the  non-Catholic  university  or  else  withdraw  altogether  from  the  higher 
education.  It  is  not  a  question  here  particularly  of  professional  schools.  It  is  a 
question  of  what  is  known  as  graduate  work,  and  this  affects  in  large  part  the 
future  training  of  teachers  for  our  collegiate  work.  It  is  unreasonable  to  expect 
graduate  work  from  our  college  teachers.  They  are  already  overtaxed  with  their 
present  work.  No  body  of  men  in  educational  circles  are  more  deserving  of  con¬ 
sideration  and  gratitude  than  the  army  of  teachers  who  are  engaged  in  maintaining 
our  collegiate  instruction,  but  anyone  who  studies  carefully  the  relation  between 
collegiate  and  graduate  work,  especially  in  the  light  of  modern  university  require¬ 
ments,  will  readily  understand  the  necessity  of  special  training  as  well  as  special 
fitness  for  graduate  instruction.  In  specialization  alone  not  a  year,  nor  even  three, 
added  to  college  work  can  be  expected  to  do  the  work.  It  is  the  effort  toward 
original  research;  it  is  the  real  reaching  out  of  the  student  in  his  own  personal 
development  in  scholarship;  it  is  the  accuracy  from  concentration  of  thought, 
from  contact  with  library  and  laboratory  by  which  he  adds  something  to  the 
science  to  which  his  life  is  devoted.  The  teacher,  the  library,  the  laboratory  are 
the  elements  that  train  the  specialist,  the  scholar. 

You  can  not  transform  the  college  into  a  university  by  the  mere  change  of  name; 
you  can  not  do  graduate  work  by  the  mere  declaration  of  a  catalogue.  The  State 
charter  makes  neither  the  college  nor  the  university;  it  simply  bestows  upon 
teachers  a  corporate  existence  and  the  power  to  confer  degrees.  The  character  of 
the  college  and  university  is  in  teaching  and  equipment,  in  the  ability  to  do  what 
education  demands  of  them.  Its  real  character  is  to  be  tested  by  the  scholars  it 
produces.  If  we  merely  change  our  name  and  add  graduate  work  to  our  college 
without  at  the  same  time  being  prepared  to  do  the  graduate  work  which  graduate 
degrees  call  for,  we  will  find  ourselves  at  the  end  of  this  century  as  we  find  our¬ 
selves  somewhat  at  present — imperfectly  developed  institutions  sometimes  not 
deserving  to  be  colleges,  yet  by  charter  called  universities.  Catholics  possessing 
the  truth  of  life  and  commissioned  to  develop  it  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the 
people,  we  should  be  the  most  honest  of  men  in  doing  the  best  of  work  in  what¬ 
ever  department  we  invite  people  to  enter. 

Vfliat  seems  to  me  the  practical  solution,  as  also  a  practical  conclusion,  is  that 
we  recognize  the  fact  that  we  can  not  with  our  present  means  maintain  several 
schools  equipped  to  do  graduate  work  capable  of  competing  with  non-Catholic 
institutions.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  colleges,  out  of  loyalty  to  the  system  and  with 
desire  for  the  best  results,  to  do  their  best  to  build  up  the  university,  which  our 
Holy  Father,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  our  hierarchy,  has  constituted  as 
the  head  of  our  educational  structure  and  to  which  he  wishes  all  schools  and  col¬ 
leges  affiliated.  Listen  to  what  Leo  XIII  said  to  the  bishops  of  the  United  States 
March  7,  1889:  “We  exhort  you  all  that  you  should  take  care  to  affiliate  with  your 


THE  CATHOLIC  COLLEGE  OF  THE  TWENTIETH  CENTURY.  893 


university,  your  seminaries,  colleges,  and  other  Catholic  institutions  according  to 
the  plan  suggested  in  the  constitution  in  such  manner  as  not  to  destroy  their 
autonomy.”  That  was  Pope  Leo’s  idea  of  unification.  It  behooves  us  to  more 
thoroughly  equip  our  colleges  and  perfect  our  instruction.  The  teacher  makes 
the  school.  Let  us  feel  that  the  first  duty  of  the  college  is  to  be  a  thorough  col¬ 
lege,  doing  the  best  collegiate  work,  ready  to  stand  side  by  side  with  its  non- 
Catholic  competitor,  and  showing  in  its  graduates  the  result  of  a  Catholic  college 
system.  Its  duty  is  not  to  reach  beyond  that  which  it  is  competent  to  do  well, 
and,  consequently,  it  should  be  found  encouraging  that  class  of  students  who  seek 
advanced  education  along  graduate  lines  to  go  to  the  university  for  it.  It  has  the 
right  to  expect  that  the  university  should  be  prepared  to  enter  into  competition 
in  graduate  work  with  the  best  universities  in  the  land.  Catholic  generosity  has 
built  the  university  primarily  for  university  work  in  every  department  of  scholar¬ 
ship,  and  it  can  not  succeed  unless  every  part  of  the  educational  system  be  loyal 
to  it.  * 

What  would  be  the  result  of  this  united  effort?  First,  there  would  be  a  strength¬ 
ening  of  the  entire  system,  a  perfection  of  our  educational  scheme,  a  culmination 
of  the  efforts  of  a  century,  which  would  make  us  absolutely  independent  in  edu¬ 
cation.  Second,  there  -would  come  from  the  university  to  the  colleges  a  body  of 
well-prepared  teachers,  religious  and  lay,  who,  equipped  in  all  that  the  best  uni¬ 
versities  can  give,  will  be  the  better  prepared  to  reach  excellent  work  in  our  colle¬ 
giate  instruction.  They  will  also  be  loyal  to  all  the  elements  that  enter  into  the 
educational  life  of  the  church.  Third,  the  scholarship  thus  developed  will  stand 
ready  to  defend  the  truth  against  any  and  all  of  its  enemies  and  to  meet  error 
based  on  false  science  by  truth  supported  by  true  science.  Fourth,  there  will  be 
the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  university,  that  thus  we  may  provide  for  the 
future  and  build  up  a  body  of  Catholic  scholars  prepared  to  stand  side  by  side  with 
the  leaders  of  intellectual  thought  throughout  the  country.  Fifth,  there  will 
come  a  splendid  toning  up  in  Catholic  educational  ideals,  which  will  be  a  safe¬ 
guard  of  the  faith  and  traditions  of  Christianity.  The  layman,  the  clergyman, 
and  the  religious  teacher  will  thus  make  it  possible  for  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States  to  send  out  into  the  world  scholars  competent  to  take  first  place  in 
the  fields  of  literature,  in  science,  in  professional,  and  in  business  life.  It  will 
develop  the  scholarship  which  in  God’s  own  time  will  find  itself  in  scientific  and 
literary  magazines  protecting  science  and  literature  from  error  and  showing  to 
the  people  that  the  perfect  intellectual  development  is  in  entire  harmony  with  the 
doctrines  and  practices  of  the  church. 

You  gentlemen,  representatives  of  the  collegiate  system,  hold  the  traditions  of 
the  hundred  years’  struggle  in  the  educational  life  of  the  church  in  this  country. 
It  has  been  a  tremendous  struggle;  it  has  attained  marvelous  successes.  Upon  you 
falls  a  far-reaching  responsibility  as  you  stand  to-day  looking  back  on  the  century 
that  has  closed  and  forward  to  the  century  that  is  opening.  Shall  our  Catholic 
educational  system  succeed  or  fall;  shall  it  obtain  but  the  minimum  of  results; 
shall  we  be  able  to  resist  the  oncoming  tide  of  secularized  instruction?  The  answer 
largely  depends  upon  the  work  of  this  association.  Every  one  of  our  colleges 
should  feel  that  that  responsibility  falls  upon  it,  for  the  work  which  education 
demands  of  it  is  as  important  as  that  demanded  from  any  other  part  of  the  sys¬ 
tem.  Loyalty  not  merely  to  our  own  ideals,  to  our  personal  success,  but  loyalty 
to  the  wider  and  more  general  principle  of  the  educational  life  of  the  church 
demands  that  it  mortise  itself  into  the  system;  that  it  stand  by  every  part  of  the 
system,  so  that  the  entire  system  may  stand  by  it,  and  thus  the  unification  which 
results  will  give  us  the  strongest  resistance  to  the  dangers  which  threaten  us. 
Every  college  should  feel  that  it  exists  not  merely  for  the  students,  few  or  many, 
that  pass  through  its  halls,  but  for  the  schools  below  it,  as  also  for  the  university 
above  it,  the  university  existing  for  it  as  well  as  for  the  whole  system.  *  *  * 


894 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


CATHOLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.1 2 

By  Rev.  James  A.  Burns,  C.  S.  C. , 

President  of  Holy  Cross  College,  Washington ,  D.  C. 

Among  the  striking  phenomena  in  the  educational  world  at  the  present  time  is 
the  movement  observable  in  the  domain  of  secondary  education.'1  The  mere 
numerical  growth  of  the  secondary  schools  is  remarkable  enough.  Within  the 
past  decade  the  public  high  schools  in  the  United  States  increased  in  number  from 
2,526  to  5,495,  and  the  pupils  from  202,963  to  476,227.  This  is  an  increase  of  117 
per  cent  in  the  number  of  schools  and  135  per  cent  in  attendance.  The  rate  of 
increase  in  the  number  of  pupils  is  nearly  five  times  that  of  the  population  of  the 
country  during  the  same  period,  and  is  rightly  regarded  by  Commissioner  Harris 
as  ‘:one  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  in  the  educational  history  of  the  decade.”  3 

But  this  numerical  increase  is  only  one  of  a  series  of  phenomena  wThich  evidence 
the  action  of  a  cause  or  of  causes  profoundly  affecting  the  whole  status  of  sec¬ 
ondary  education.  Side  by  side  with  the  growth  in  numbers  there  has  been  a 
movement  making  for  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  public  high  schools.  The 
standard  of  scholarship  in  the  teachers  has  steadily  risen.  The  curriculum 
has  been  enriched  and  extended.  In  most  places  its  length  is  now  four  years, 
but  here  and  there  it  is  being  prolonged  to  six,  and  the  strong  current  set¬ 
ting  in  this  direction  is  made  plain  by  the  adoption  of  a  resolution  recently  by  the 
National  Educational  Association  favoring  ‘'a  unified  six-year  high-school  course 
of  study,  beginning  with  the  seventh  grade.  ” 4  At  the  same  time  the  ideals  and 
spirit  of  the  school  have  broadened,  the  principle  of  election  of  studies  along 
broad  lines  has  been  introduced,  and  the  requirements  for  entrance  and  gradua¬ 
tion  have  been  so  raised  that  the  claim  is  made  that  the  public  high  school  of  to-day 
is  almost  the  equal  in  these  respects  of  the  college  of  a  generation  or  two  ago. 

The  relation  of  the  high  school  to  the  college  has  also  undergone  an  important 
change.  The  original  purpose  of  the  public  highschcJbl  seems  to  have  been  simply 
to  place  within  reach  of  the  masses  the  opportunity  for  an  education  superior 
to  that  of  the  elementary  school.  The  college  interests  were  not  considered.  In 
fact,  at  the  time  the  high-school  movement  began,  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  there  already  existed  a  system  of  secondary  schools  known  as 
academies,  one  of  whose  principal  objects  was  to  prepare  boys  for  college.  To-day 
the  public  high-school  system,  comprising  82  per  cent  of  the  secondary  students 
of  the  country,  is  securely  linked  to  the  State  college  system,  and  the  natural  evo¬ 
lution  of  the  present  conditions  can  only  result  in  binding  the  two  together  more 
firmly. 

Among  the  causes  which  have  operated  to  bring  about  this  affiliation,  legislation 
must  be  mentioned.  The  board  of  regents  in  New  York  and  the  boards  of  educa¬ 
tion  in  the  various  States  afford  familiar  instances  of  the  influence  of  legislation 
in  this  direction.  The  accrediting  system,  by  which  the  graduates  of  certain 
specified  schools  are  admitted  to  a  college  without  examination,  has  also  con¬ 
tributed  powerfully  to  the  same  result,  and  it  is  being  practiced  to-day  by  some 
institutions  on  a  scale  that  may  help  to  account  for  their  rapid  increase  in  attend¬ 
ance.  In  1896  there  were  42  State  universities  and  colleges  and  about  150  other 

1  This  paper  is  given  as  reprinted,  in  amplified  form,  in  the  American  Catholic  Quarterly- 
Review,  July,  1901. 

2  The  term  “secondary  ”  throughout  this  paper  is  used  in  the  sense  which  generally  attaches 
to  it  in  this  country,  and  in  which  it  is  used  by  the  national  Bureau  of  Education.  It  embraces 
the  work  between  the  grammar  grades  and  the  college. 

3  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1898-99,  p.  1844. 

4  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1899,  p.  659. 


CATHOLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


895 


institutions  in  which  this  system  has  been  adopted.1  The  University  of  Mich¬ 
igan  has  now  200  on  its  list  of  formally  accredited  schools,  and  more  than  one- 
half  the  freshmen  who  entered  Cornell  last  year  were  admitted  without  exami¬ 
nation  on  the  certificates  of  their  respective  high  schools.2  Another .  strong  influ¬ 
ence  which  has  made  for  closer  union  between  high  school  and  college  has  been 
their  cooperation  in  joint  associations.  There  is  the  National  Educational  Asso¬ 
ciation,  the  associations  for  the  several  groups  of  States,  besides  those  for  the 
individual  States,  and  in  all  of  these  bodies  the  schools  and  colleges  meet  upon 
common  ground,  discuss  matters  of  mutual  interest,  and  cooperate  for  the  solu¬ 
tion  of  problems  common  to  both  school  and  college,  but  which  from  their  very 
nature  neither  can  successfully  solve  alone.  Such  a  problem  is  that  of  uniform 
entrance  requirements  for  colleges.  A  plan  has  been  formed  to  establish  a  joint 
entrance  examination  board,  composed  of  school  and  college  representatives,  which 
is  to  give  uniform  examinations  that  will  suffice  for  both  high-school  graduation 
and  admission  to  college,  and  it  is  now  being  put  to  a  practical  test  by  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland. 
This  is  an  attempt  to  complete,  at  a  single  stroke,  the  work  of  unification,  and  if 
successful  it  is  likely  to  have  important  consequences.  Catholic  educators  may 
watch  the  experiment  with  profit. 

“Public  education,”  a  distinguished  Catholic  educator  has  said,  “is  a  people's 
deliberate  effort  to  form  a  nobler  race  of  men.”  The  position  of  the  secondary 
school,  between  the  primary  and  the  higher  education,  makes  it  naturally  the 
chief  point  of  stress  for  the  application  of  this  progressive  educative  effort.  The 
secondary  school  is  the  hinge  upon  which  the  modern  educational  system  turns. 
In  Germany  the  new  ideals  in  education,  springing  from  the  new  industrial  and 
political  conditions  and  the  new  ideals  of  national  life,  have  found  expression 
chiefly  in  the  present  movement  for  the  reform  of  the  gymnasium;  and  in  France, 
outside  of  the  religious  question  altogether,  as  well  as  in  other  nations  of  Europe, 
the  burning  questions  of  the  day  in  education  concern  the  secondary  schools.  In 
America  the  secondary  school  is  more  important  than  anywhere  else.  From  its 
academic  independence  it  is  able  to  influence  powerfully  the  higher  education; 
while,  through  its  organic  relation  to  the  primary  school,  it  is  able  to  reach  the 
masses  and  mold  their  intellectual  ideals.  In  America,  as  nowhere  else,  the  public 
secondary  school  opens  up  to  the  whole  people,  irrespective  of  social  conditions, 
the  possibility  of  fullest  mental  development.  It  brings  the  rudiments  of  the 
higher  culture  to  the  threshold  of  every  home,  and  offers  to  every  child  a  free  and 
easy  passage  to  the  open  gates  of  the  college.  It  is  preeminently  “'the  people's 
college.”  It  can  not  be  doubted,  therefore,  that  the  public  high-school  movement, 
whose  surface  manifestations  I  have  touched  upon,  is  the  expression  of  a  popular 
demand  for  more  and  better  education,  and  that  it  is  destined  to  exercise  a  pro¬ 
found  and  far-reaching  influence  in  shaping  the  education  of  the  future. 

In  view  of  these  conditions  it  seems  opportune  to  inquire  into  the  status  of 
Catholic  secondary  education. 

Catholic  secondary  schools  for  boys  belong  to  three  widely  different  classes. 
There  is,  first  of  all,  the  secondary  school  proper,  represented  by  academies  and 
high  schools,  whose  curriculum  as  a  rule  extends  no  farther  than  the  freshman 
year,  although  in  the  other  direction  it  generally  includes  the  studies  of  the  gram¬ 
mar  school.  Many  of  the  institutions  of  this  class  are  of  long  standing,  but  a  large 
number  are  of  a  comparatively  recent  date,  probably  one- third  having  been  estab¬ 
lished  within  the  past  decade.  Most  of  them  are  conducted  by  religious  orders, 
and  are  entirely  independent  of  parish  control,  deriving  their  means  of  support 
from  the  tuition  fees  of  their  pupils.  Then,  there  are  the  high  schools  attached  to 


1  Education  in  the  United  States,  Yol.  I,  p.  125. 

2  President  Schur man’s  Report,  1899-1900. 


896 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


parochial  schools.  These  high  schools  consist  of  one  or  more  grades  of  secondary 
work,  serving  as  a  sort  of  appendix  to  the  ordinary  work  of  the  school,  although 
they  often  carry  the  pupil  as  far  as  the  freshman  year.  The  number  of  these 
schools  has  increased  very  rapidly  of  late,  and  although  their  total  attendance  is 
comparatively  inconsiderable  and  their  methods  often  open  to  criticism,  yet,  as 
instancing  an  increasing  popular  demand  for  secondary  education,  and  as  point¬ 
ing  the  way  to  a  possible  solution  of  problems  of  Catholic  secondary  education, 
they  are  worthy  of  serious  study.  Finally,  there  are  the  preparatory  departments 
of  our  colleges,  which  still  contain  the  majority  of  Catholic  secondary  students. 

With  the  view  of  ascertaining  some  facts  not  otherwise  attainable,  I  sent  a  let¬ 
ter  of  inquiry  to  each  of  the  90  secondary  schools  of  the  first  class  and  received 
replies  from  49.  In  these  49  schools  the  number  of  students  of  high-school  grade 
was  given  as  2,947,  and  of  elementary  grade  4,917.  There  were  992  boys  studying 
Latin,  and  244  in  Greek.  The  average  age  of  pupils  in  47  schools  when  entering 
the  high-school  curriculum  is  14.7  years.  The  average  annual  tuition  fee,  if  we 
exclude  those  schools  that  aim  at  educating  only  the  wealthier  classes,  was  found 
to  be  $36.85  in  40  schools.  The  number  of  schools  not  answering  my  letter  of 
inquiry  was  41.  The  total  number  of  students  in  these  last  year,  as  given  in  the 
Catholic  Directory  for  1901,  was  6,706.  Assuming  that  the  ratio  of  secondary  to 
elementary  pupils  obtained  in  the  case  of  the  schools  heard  from  holds  good  for 
these  also — although  I  think  it  is  somewhat  too  high  for  the  latter — we  get  for 
these  41  schools  2,513  pupils  of  secondary  grade  and  4,193  of  elementary.  This 
would  give  a  total  of  5,460  students  of  secondary  grade  in  the  90  Catholic  second¬ 
ary  schools. 

In  reflecting  on  these  results,  one  is  struck  by  the  comparatively  large  number 
of  pupils  pursuing  the  classics.  Those  studying  Greek  constitute  8.3  per  cent  of 
the  whole  number  of  secondary  pupils  in  the  schools  reporting.  The  percentage 
of  pupils  in  the  public  high  schools  studying  Greek  is  only  3.I.1  Those  studying 
Latin  are  37.5  per  cent  of  the  whole,  a  number  which  compares  favorably  with 
the  50.4  per  cent  in  Latin  in  the  public  high  schools,  when  we  remember  that  some 
of  the  religious  orders  most  prominent  in  secondary  school  work  do  not  teach  the 
classics  at  all,  and  the  further  fact  that  in  the  25  schools  reporting  pupils  in  Latin 
their  percentage  was  as  high  as  66.5. 

The  average  age  of  entrance  upon  secondary  studies  is  much  higher  than  I  had 
expected.  It  is  quite  as  high  as  in  the  case  of  the  public  schools,  and  invites  seri¬ 
ous  attention  to  the  need  of  shortening  and  enriching  the  curriculum  of  the  ele¬ 
mentary  school — a  problem  that  far-seeing  educators  like  President  Eliot  long  ago 
pointed  out  as  of  fundamental  importance  to  college  as  well  as  school. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  cost  of  secondary  education  in  Catholic  and  in 
public  secondary  schools.  The  Commissioner  of  Education  has  kindly  furnished 
me  with  some  statistics  relative  to  the  cost  of  public  high-school  education,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  average  annual  cost  per  pupil  for  salaries  and  inciden¬ 
tals  in  10  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  country  is  $52.44.  The  average  annual 
tuition  fee  in  40  Catholic  secondary  schools  is,  as  stated,  about  $37.  As  the  only 
source  of  revenue  to  these  schools  is  the  tuition  fees,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  second¬ 
ary  education  in  the  Catholic  school  costs  considerably  less  than  in  the  public 
high  school. 

So  far  as  the  efficiency  of  Catholic  secondary  schools  of  this  class  is  concerned, 
such  examination  as  I  have  been  able  to  make  has  convinced  me  that  they  will 
fairly  bear  comparison  with  the  preparatory  schools  in  our  colleges.  There  are 
exceptions,  it  is  true.  There  are  secondary  schools  graduation  from  which  would 
not  fit  for  the  freshman  year  in  any  reputable  college,  just  as  there  are  colleges 
whose  preparatory  curriculum  is  inferior  to  that  of  any  reputable  high  school. 

1  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1898-99,  p.  1846. 


CATHOLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


897 


But  in  general,  making  due  allowance  for  the  fact  that  many  of  our  secondary 
schools  are  commercial  in  character,  I  believe  that  our  college  preparatory  depart¬ 
ments  have  little  to  offer  the  Catholic  boy  in  the  way  of  educational  facilities 
beyond  what  he  can  get,  often  nearer  home  and  at  lesser  cost,  in  the  Catholic  sec¬ 
ondary  school. 

Catholic  high  schools  attached  to  elementary  schools  are  represented  in  the  cur¬ 
rent  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  by  53  schools,  with  an  attendance 
of  646  boys  and  1,342  girls.  This  is  an  average  of  12  boys  to  a  school.  These 
schools  are  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  various  orders  of  teaching  nuns,  and  are 
nearly  all  coeducational.  Most  of  them  offer  four  grades  or  years  of  high  school 
work,  although  the  average  number  of  teachers  to  a  school  is  only  three.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  the  pupils  preparing  for  college  in  these  high  schools  formed 
9.6  per  cent  of  the  whole.  In  the  public  high  schools  those  preparing  for  college 
form  11.6  per  cent  of  the  whole.1  The  comparatively  large  number  preparing  for 
college  in  Catholic  secondary  schools  of  this  class  is  a  fact  of  highest  interest  for 
college  men,  and  suggests  what  might  be  expected  in  the  way  of  increased  college 
attendance,  if  we  had  a  comprehensive,  efficient,  and  well-articulated  system  of 
parochial  high  schools. 

The  list  of  Catholic  secondary  schools  of  this  class,  given  in  the  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  is,  however,  far  from  being  exhaustive.  Scattered 
over  the  country  are  hundreds  of  other  parochial  schools  in  which  one  or  more 
grades  of  high  school  studies  are  taught,  the  general  disposition  being  to  keep  the 
pupils,  especially  the  brighter  ones,  as  long  as  possible.  The  total  of  attendance, 
however,  is  not  large.  Thus  in  the  archdiocese  of  Boston  there  are  a  number  of 
schools  of  this  class  not  enumerated  above,  but  the  total  of  secondary  pupils 
amounts,  in  the  case  of  boys,  to  but  108.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  a  school 
of  several  hundred  pupils  with  half  a  dozen  or  so  of  secondary  grade,  who  stand  in 
about  the  same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  school  as  do  the  “  post-grads”  in  a  small 
college,  and  who  pursue  their  studies  in  much  the  same  loose  and  leisurely  way. 
Sometimes  a  number  of  these  inchoate  high  schools  are  found  in  the  same  city, 
and  we  have  the  condition  of  a  series  of  ill-supported  rival  establishments  where 
not  more  than  a  single  one  is  needed  or  can  be  successful.  In  such  cases,  so  far 
from  the  high  schools  being  a  source  of  strength  to  the  parochial  schools,  as  they 
could  not  fail  to  be  if  combined  in  one  central,  well- graded  institution,  they  become 
only  an  element  of  weakness  and  a  drag,  because  the  teaching  they  get,  scant  and 
feeble  as  it  may  be,  has  to  be  subtracted  from  that  which  is  due  the  elementary 
grades.  There  is  an  enormous  waste  of  energy  going  on  in  this  way  in  our  schools. 
Nevertheless,  the  attempt  to  project  the  parochial  school  beyond  what  has  been 
hitherto  regarded  as  its  proper  limits  seems  to  be  in  answer  to  a  popular  demand, 
and  is  doubtless  destined  to  continue.  The  movement  is  bright  with  possibilities, 
for  the  secondary  schools  of  this  class,  however  unsatisfactory  and  open  to  criti¬ 
cism  they  may  be  in  some  respects  at  present,  constitute  a  firm  forward  step  in 
the  work  of  bridging  over  the  gap  that  now  separates  Catholic  higher  education 
from  the  parochial  schools. 

In  estimating  the  number  of  collegiate  and  secondary  students  in  Catholic  col¬ 
leges  I  have  classed  as  colleges  all  institutions  recognized  as  such  by  the  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Education,  and  have  added  such  others  as  I  could  ascertain  to  have 
an  actual  collegiate  attendance.  This  gave  a  list  of  68  Catholic  colleges.  The  total 
number  of  students  in  these,  as  given  in  the  current  Catholic  directory,  is  12,031. 
If  we  take  the  estimate  of  Dr.  O’Malley,2  made  in  1898,  and  based  on  direct  investi¬ 
gation,  that  the  proportion  of  preparatory  to  collegiate  students  in  our  colleges  is 
as  two  to  one,  then  the  number  of  collegiate  students  in  the  68  Catholic  colleges 


1  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1898-99,  p.  1846. 
a  Catholic  W orld,  50,  399. 

ED  1901 - 57 


900 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ter  of  the  classics,  for  instance.  Only  a  little  over  3  per  cent  of  the  public  second¬ 
ary  pupils  study  Greek.  It  is  one  of  the  most  unpopular  branches  in  the  high 
school.  Yet  many  of  our  colleges  will  not  admit  to  the  freshman  class  without 
Greek.  The  practical  consequence  is  that  whereas  the  high-school  graduate  who 
has  not  taken  Greek  is  welcomed  to  the  State  university,  he  may  not  be  able  to 
enter  the  freshman  class  in  the  Catholic  college  without  extra  preparation  or  irk¬ 
some  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  path  from  the  public  school  to  the  State 
university  is  short,  straight,  and  enticingly  easy.  The  high-school  diploma  often 
admits  without  examination.  The  last  year  of  the  high  school  is  made  to  dove¬ 
tail  into  the  freshman  curriculum.  There  is  no  gap,  no  break,  no  jar  of  any  kind. 
It  is  an  interlocking,  double-action  combination.  The  lack  of  endowment  in  our 
colleges  is,  of  course,  an  element  of  importance  here.  The  foundation  of  scholar¬ 
ships  would  unquestionably  operate  in  favor  of  increased  attendance;  but  it  may 
reasonably  be  questioned,  I  think,  whether,  even  if  our  colleges  were  not  behind¬ 
hand  in  this  respect,  the  fact  would  be  sufficient  to  offset  the  strong  current  now 
flowing  in  the  other  direction,  since  Catholic  boys  would  have  equally  good 
chances  for  financial  assistance  in  the  non-Catholic  institutions. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  accept  the  hypothesis  that  the  falling  off  of  the  attend¬ 
ance  in  Catholic  institutions  is  due,  in  whole  or  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  Catholic 
youth,  owing  to  the  general  poverty  of  our  people,  do  not  get  as  much  education 
as  the  children  of  their  fellow-citizens,  the  argument  for  the  Catholic  high  school 
rests  on  reasons  none  the  less  cogent.  The  poverty  of  the  majority  of  Catholics  is 
a  fact  not  to  be  gainsaid.  It  undoubtedly  diminishes  their  opportunities  for  edu¬ 
cation,  and  is  certainly  responsible,  to  some  extent,  for  the  comparatively  low 
attendance  at  Catholic  institutions.  But  since  the  church  discountenances  the 
acceptance  by  her  children  of  the  lavish  opportunities  for  education  offered  them 
by  the  State,  are  we  not  bound  to  provide  for  them  opportunities  not  inferior  to 
those  provided  in  the  public  schools?  In  a  democracy  like  ours  and  in  times  of 
universal  education  such  as  these,  education  is,  ordinarily  speaking,  the  measure 
of  influence  and  success.  To  be  without  it  is  to  be  to  that  extent  crippled  for  the 
race  of  life.  To  be  deprived  of  opportunity  for  it  is  to  be  robbed  of  that  which  is, 
after  religion,  best  and  most  ennobling  in  life.  Surely  we  can  not  look  without 
concern  upon  conditions  by  which  any  class  of  the  church’s  children  are  deprived 
of  educational  opportunities  to  which  they  are  entitled.  Yet  such  conditions 
obtain.  Taught  to  distrust  the  public  schools,  Catholic  parents,  in  the  absence  of 
Catholic  high  schools,  too  often  come  to  look  upon  the  completion  of  the  parochial 
school  curriculum  as  the  natural  term  of  the  mental  development  of  the  child. 

The  preparatory  departments  of  our  colleges  are  not  a  satisfactory  substitute  for 
a  system  of  Catholic  high  schools.  Purely  from  the  point  of  view  of  college  inter¬ 
ests,  much  might  be  said  against  the  continued  union  of  preparatory  school  and 
college,  for  it  may  be  questioned,  I  think,  whether  collegiate  attendance  depends 
so  much  as  is  commonly  supposed  upon  the  presence  of  preparatory  departments 
in  the  colleges.  A  record  of  observation,  telling  how  many  third-year  preparatory 
boys  in  any  given  college  kept  on  through  the  college  course  to  graduation,  would 
be  highly  interesting  and  instructive.  However,  I  am  concerned  now,  not  with 
the  relations  of  preparatory  school  and  college,  but  simply  to  state  the  reasons  for 
my  contention  that  our  preparatory  departments  are  not  acceptable  substitutes 
for  Catholic  high  schools  in  the  case  of  pupils  who  do  not  intend  to  go  to  college — 
and  it  is  pupils  of  this  class  that  constitute  nine-tenths  of  all  secondary  students. 
Besides  the  fact  that  the  day  colleges  are  neither  numerous  nor  well  distributed 
enough,  the  distance  between  the  parochial  school  and  the  college  is  too  great. 
The  absolutely  private  character  of  our  colleges,  so  far  as  management  is  con¬ 
cerned,  seems  to  make  anything  like  close  affiliation  with  the  parochial  school 
system  a  difficult  if  not  an  impossible  matter.  Moreover,  the  curriculum  of  the 


CATHOLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


901 


preparatory  school  looks  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  to  the  interests  of  hoys  who  are  fit¬ 
ting  themselves  for  college.  In  many  colleges  no  attempt  whatever  is  made  to 
reach  out  after  the  great  mass  of  hoys  of  secondary  grade,  by  providing  courses  of 
study  that  shall  offer  opportunities  to  fit  more  directly  for  active  life.  But  the 
chief  reason  that  militates  against  the  preparatory  departments  is  the  fact  of 
expense.  Education  can  not  be  given  as  cheaply,  grade  for  grade,  in  the  college 
as  it  can  in  the  secondary  school.  The  average  annual  tuition  fee  of  $37  in  40  of 
our  secondary  schools,  including  many  of  the  strongest  schools  of  this  class,  is  far 
less  than  the  average  annual  tuition  fee  for  day  scholars  in  the  preparatory 
departments  of  our  colleges;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  tendency  in  many  col¬ 
leges  is  steadily  toward  the  increase  of  tuition  and  other  fees.  I  am  aware  that 
some  colleges  in  the  larger  cities  have  reduced  their  rates  to  a  comparatively  low 
figure  and  are  making  heroic  sacrifices  in  order  to  give  the  children  of  the  poor  a 
chance;  but,  speaking  generally,  the  cost  of  tuition  and  its  inseparable  accompa¬ 
niments  in  college  preparatory  departments  puts  it  entirely  beyond  the  reach  of 
many  parents  who  could  and  would  send  their  children  to  a  free  or  cheap  Catholic 
high  school.  How  many  there  are  who  are  prevented  in  this  way  from  giving 
their  children  an  education  superior  to  that  of  the  parochial  school  may  be  a  mat¬ 
ter  for  dispute;  but  it  is  worth  remembering  that  an  investigation  made  some 
years  ago  in  the  case  of  the  public  high  school  pupils  in  a  number  of  the  principal 
cities  of  Massachusetts  revealed  the  fact  that  fully  25  per  cent  were  children  of 
parents  who  were  too  poor  to  possess  taxable  property.1 

Parochial  schools,  even  more  than  the  colleges,  will  benefit  by  the  establishment 
of  a  system  of  Catholic  high  schools.  “  Progress,”  says  Bishop  Spalding,  “  spreads 
from  the  summits.”  The  greatest  need  of  the  parochial  school  at  the  present  time 
is  the  stimulus  that  would  come  from  affiliation  with  a  superior  school.  The 
impetus  given  to  parochial  school  education  by  the  third  plenary  council  of  Balti¬ 
more  has  largely  subsided,  and  there  is  evident  in  many  quarters  a  growing  spirit 
of  indifference.  The  number  of  pupils,  which  increased  very  rapidly  in  the  decade 
immediately  following  the  promulgation  of  the  decrees  of  the  council,  is  still  less 
than  one-half  of  the  normal,  and  in  the  last  half  dozen  years,  as  the  tables  of  the 
Catholic  Directory  prove,  the  increase  in  parochial-school  attendance  has  not  kept 
pace  with  the  increase  of  the  Catholic  population. 

Nor  have  the  expected  results  followed  from  the  general  adoption  of  the  elabo¬ 
rate  scheme  of  examination  and  supervision  devised  by  the  council.  The  practical 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  efficient  enforcement  of  the  plan  are  immense,  and 
although  a  great  deal  of  progress  has  been  made  in  some  dioceses,  in  many  others 
things  run  on  much  the  same  as  before  the  examining  boards  and  committees 
wTere  appointed.  In  many  places  the  parochial  schools  are  still  deplorably  in  need 
of  definite  and  regular  grading.  There  is  much  confusion  in  the  matter  of  text¬ 
books,  preventing  any  approach  to  a  common  standard  of  grades.  Many  of  the 
religious  orders  have  their  own  series  of  text-books,  and  in  the  larger  cities,  where 
the  religious  orders  often  work  side  by  side,  the  variety  of  text-books  is  a  frequent 
source  of  trouble  and  expense.  The  influence  of  a  Catholic  high  school,  with 
which  all  the  parochial  schools  of  a  city  would  be  affiliated,  would  tend  to  elimi¬ 
nate  these  and  similar  defects.  It  would  set  the  standard  of  a  definite  quantity 
and  quality  of  work,  and  school  grading  and  substantial  uniformity  in  grades  and 
text-books  would  follow  as  a  matter  of  course.  Above  all,  the  Catholic  high 
school  would  benefit  the  parochial  school  by  strengthening  and  elevating  its  tone, 
by  awakening  a  sense  of  healthful  ambition  and  rivalry  in  both  pupil  and  teacher. 
Experienced  parochial  school-teachers  with  whom  I  have  discussed  the  matter 
assure  me  that  it  is  this  lack  of  tone,  due  to  the  absence  of  conditions  that  inspire 
intellectual  ambition,  that  constitutes  the  most  deadening  and  difficult  evil  they 
have  to  contend  against.  A  boy  who  is  ambitious  to  go  to  the  high  school  will  do 


1  Educational  Review,  2, 48. 


902 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


better  work,  as  a  rule,  than  one  who  is  not,  and  parochial  school-teachers  would 
find  in  the  establishment  of  Catholic  high  schools  a  most  effective  remedy  for  the 
pupil’s  disinclination  to  home  study.  The  annual  entrance  examination  for  the 
high  school  would  become  a  test  of  the  strength  and  competitive  standing  of  the 
various  schools,  and  would  spur  the  teachers  on  to  the  best  possible  work  in  their 
respective  spheres.  These  convictions,  I  may  add,  are  not  based  upon  fancy  or 
speculation,  but  are  the  result  of  a  careful  study  of  the  influence  of  Catholic  high 
schools  actually  existing,  and  of  the  views  of  those  most  competent  to  discuss 
parochial  school  conditions  and  problems  the  country  over. 

I  have  said  nothing  thus  far  about  practical  plans  for  overcoming  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  the  establishment  of  Catholic  high  schools.  The  difficulties  are  cer¬ 
tainly  not  slight,  but  the  chief  difficulty  does  not  consist  in  any  lack  of  practical 
plans.  There  are  several  admirable  plans  in  successful  operation  that  may  be 
studied  in  the  concrete  by  anyone.  There  is  the  plan  of  the  free,  endowed  high 
school,  such  as  the  magnificent  Catholic  High  School  in  Philadelphia;  there  is  the 
free  high  school  supported  by  the  funds  of  the  parish  or  parishes,  as  in  New  Eng¬ 
land;  there  is  the  high  school  supported  by  the  tuition  fees  of  the  pupils,  and  in 
charge  of  a  religious  order.  There  are  plenty  of  religious  men  and  women  for  the 
work  of  Catholic  secondary  schools,  and  with  the  inevitable  evacuation  of  the 
field  of  the  X->arochial  school  by  religious  men  these  ought  to  be  available  in 
increasing  numbers  for  their  greater,  more  pressing,  and  more  proper  work  in  the 
secondary  school. 

The  main  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  Catholic  high-school  movement  lies  deeper 
than  the  question  of  means.  It  is  due  rather  to  widespread  lack  of  faith  in  the 
utility  and  desirability  of  Catholic  high  schools,  and  it  is  not  confined  to  the  laity. 
Pastors  who  are  zealous  enough  in  the  cause  of  the  parochial  school  disavow  belief 
in  the  necessity  or  possibility  of  Catholic  high  schools,  and  permit  without  scruple 
the  attendance  of  Catholic  children  at  the  public  high  school.  Men  in  the  walks 
of  higher  education  look  with  coldness  or  disfavor  upon  the-project  of  a  system  of 
Catholic  high  schools,  out  of  the  fear  that  they  might  injure  existing  institutions. 
The  result  is  apathy  and  indifference  well-nigh  universal. 

And  yet  what  sound  reason  can  be  given,  outside  of  the  reason  of  necessity,  why 
the  Catholic  parent  should  be  freely  allowed  to  send  his  child  to  the  public  school 
in  the  one  case  and  strictly  forbidden  in  the  other?  Is  there  less  need  of  the  reli¬ 
gious  instruction  and  moral  tone  of  the  Catholic  school  for  the  boy  of  16  than  for 
the  lad  of  12?  Are  the  dangers  of  companionship  less  great  in  the  public  high 
school  than  they  are  in  the  grammar  school?  Does  the  subject-matter  of  the  lessons 
or  lectures  bear  less  upon  matters  of  morals  and  religion?  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
is  in  the  high  school  that  the  boy  gets  his  first  world  view  of  things.  Literature 
and  history  are  the  two  eyes  through  which  the  soul  scans  the  universe  of  human 
life.  Is  it  tolerable  that  the  view  may  be  distorted  or  colored  for  the  Catholic  boy 
by  non-Catholic  bias?  If  history  and  literature  may  be  studied  in  the  public  school 
without  danger  to  faith,  why  may  not,  with  greater  reason,  grammar  and  arith¬ 
metic?  If  the  boy  of  18,  with  his  ripening  passions  and  impressionable  moral  nature, 
may  live  in  a  <!  godless”  atmosphere  without  harm,  why  may  not  the  boy  of  12, 
with  his  less-developed  impulses  to  evil?  And  the  same  argument  would  apply 
with  no  less  truth  and  cogency  to  the  question  of  higher  education.  There  is 
really  no  more  reason  to  prevent  a  Catholic  boy  from  going  to  a  non-Catholic  col¬ 
lege  than  there  is  to  prevent  his  going  to  a  public  high  school.  The  logical  applica¬ 
bility  to  parochial  school  and  college  of  any  general  principle  that  may  be  admitted 
for  the  secondary  schools  is  too  plain  to  be  missed  by  even  the  most  ignorant,  and 
the  present  widespread  attitude  of  indifference  in  respect  to  Catholic  high  schools 
must,  if  continued,  extend  eventually  to  the  parochial  schools  and  the  colleges, 
and  profoundly  affect  the  entire  system  of  Catholic  education. 

It  is  because  of  the  realization  of  this  that  our  ecclesiastical  councils,  in  con- 


CATHOLIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


903 


formity  with  the  instructions  of  the  Holy  See,  have  insisted  so  strongly  and  stead¬ 
fastly  upon  the  necessity  for  a  complete  system  of  Catholic  schools,  along  the  lines 
of  the  national  education,  and  that  our  ablest  and  most  far-seeing  leaders  are 
devoting  so  much  of  their  practical  efforts  in  education  to  the  building  up  of  Cath¬ 
olic  secondary  schools  in  their  respective  dioceses.  The  vast  expansion  of  public 
secondary  schools  in  recent  years,  the  rapid  educational  evolution  going  on  visibly 
about  us,  with  the  possibility  of  the  complete  unification  of  all  public  education, 
makes  the  question  of  Catholic  high  schools,  with  which  that  of  the  systematization 
of  Catholic  education  is  intimately  bound  up,  a  vital  and  a  pressing  problem  for 
Catholics.  It  commends  itself  especially  to  the  attention  and  earnest  study  of 
Catholic  educators.  The  present  conditions  are  abnormal  and  illogical,  and  in  the 
nature  of  things  must  operate  to  the  detriment  of  the  religious  as  well  as  the  edu¬ 
cational  interests  of  our  people.  In  the  words  of  one  whose  abilities  and  experience 
entitle  him  to  rank  as  an  authority:  “There  is  far  less  danger  in  allowing  young 
children  to  attend  the  ward  schools  and  young  men  to  attend  the  non- Catholic 
technical  schools  and  universities  than  in  permitting  the  frequentation  of  the  non- 
Catholic  high  schools  and  academies.  We  believe  it  would  be  better  to  frankly 
accept  the  public-school  system  as  a  whole  and  make  special  provisions  for  sup¬ 
plying  its  deficiencies  in  religious  teaching  than  to  expose  our  children  to  the 
influence  of  a  dual  system.”1 

DISCUSSION. 

In  discussing  this  paper  Dr.  Carroll,  of  Dubuque,  said  that  in  the  diocese  of 
Dubuque  widespread  interest  was  being  taken  in  the  high-school  movement,  the 
pastors  of  the  city  zealously  cooperating  with  Archbishop  Keane  in  his  efforts  to 
build  and  maintain  a  Catholic  high  school. 

Mon3ignor  Conaty  remarked  that  in  Providence  a  meeting  of  laymen  and  clergy 
was  lately  held  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  Catholic  high  school  in  that  city. 

Rev.  M.  P.  Dowling,  S.  J.,  of  Omaha,  said  that  he  doubted  whether  we  had  any 
power  to  establish  Catholic  high  schools.  All  we  can  do,  he  said,  is  to  encourage 
pastors  and  prelates  to  establish  these  schools.  He  was  convinced  that  apathy 
existed  not  only  in  regard  to  Catholic  high  schools,  but  also  to  an  extent  in  regard 
to  all  Catholic  education.  Moreover,  as  a  practical  question,  in  small  cities 
where  a  college  already  existed  a  Catholic  high  school  would  not  only  be  unnec¬ 
essary,  but  decidedly  detrimental  to  the  academic  department  of  the  college.  He 
would  also  put  in  a  disclaimer  against  the  addition  of  one  or  two  inefficient  high- 
school  grades  to  the  ordinary  parochial  schools,  as  experience  showed  that  these 
classes  were  generally  only  makeshifts. 

Rev.  James  P.  Fagan,  S,  J.,  of  Washington,  replied  that  the  same  difficulties 
now  urged  against  Catholic  high  schools  had  formerly  been  urged  against  all 
high  schools.  In  his  opinion  Catholic  high  schools  should  be  maintained  where 
local  conditions  demanded  them,  and  not  in  other  places. 

Father  Fagan  also  objected  to  several  current  maxims  as  calculated  to  give 
false  impressions.  The  expression  sometimes  used  of  ‘  ‘  uplifting  Catholic  educa¬ 
tion  ”  was  calculated  to  convey  the  idea  that  Catholic  education  was  not  as  good 
as  other  kinds  of  education,  which  in  his  opinion  was  decidedly  not  the  case.  “To 
shorten  and  enrich  elementary  courses  ”  was  to  his  mind  another  catch  phrase 
which  was  self-contradictory,  to  enrich  a  course  meaning  to  multiply  the  studies, 
which  was  certainly  incompatible  with  abbreviating  the  time  for  seeing  these 
studies.  “  Fitting  pupils  directly  for  life  ”  was  a  modern  coinage  which  seemed 
to  imply  that  the  older  and  approved  systems  of  education  had  failed  to  fit  students 
for  life. 

The  following  letter  was  read  from  Cardinal-elect  Martin elli,  apostolic  delegate: 

Apostolic  Delegation,  United  States  of  America, 

Washington,  D.  C. ,  April  23,  1901 . 

Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Conaty,  D.  D., 

Rector  Catholic  University  of  America, 

Chairman  of  the  Association  of  Catholic  Colleges: 

Rt.  Rev.  Dear  Sir:  *  *  *  The  educational  work  done  by  Catholics  up  to 
the  present  time  is  deserving  of  great  praise.  Wonders  have  been  wrought  in  the 


1  Rev.  John  T.  Murphy,  C.  Sp.  S.,  in  American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review,  22,  461. 


904 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


face  of  difficulties  which  have  been  by  no  means  light.  That  so  much  has  been 
done  is  the  chief  reason  why  more  ought  to  be  attempted.  To  achieve  still  greater 
results  what  would  seem  to  be  needed  is  precisely  what  your  association  aims  to 
do.  Unification  and  coordination  of  educational  work,  so  that  a  complete  and 
perfect  system  shall  exist,  based  on  the  strong  and  broad  foundation  of  good  paro¬ 
chial  schools,  the  superstructure  consisting  of  well  graded  and  highly  perfected 
academies,  colleges,  seminaries,  and  undergraduate  universities,  all  culminating 
in  the  institution,  the  foundation  of  which  our  holy  father  counts  as  one  of  the 
glories  of  his  pontificate,  are,  it  would  seem  to  me,  the  things  most  to  be  desired 
at  present  to  enable  the  Catholic  efforts  to  cope  successfully  with  those  being 
made  by  secular  or  sectarian  forces.  It  is  only  by  such  coordination  that  the 
desired  elevation  in  standard  can  be  brought  about.  The  time  should  be  hastened 
when  an  academic  degree  conferred  by  a  Catholic  institution  in  this  country  shall 
be  equal  in  all  respects  to  one  conferred  by  any  other,  and  when  this  equality  shall 
be  recognized  by  all.  W e  live  in  times  when  natural  values  are  appreciated  first. 
Catholic  education,  it  is  true,  offers  first  and  as  most  important,  supernatural 
value.  This  it  must  and  shall  always  continue  to  do.  But  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  offer  at  the  same  time  a  natural  value  equal  to  and  surpassing  that 
which  non-Catholic  education  can  possibly  hope  to  offer.  Let  Catholic  educators, 
then,  unite  their  strength,  and  it  will  not  be  long  before  we  shall  have  a  system  in 
this  country  which  will  give  to  our  young  men  results  which  they  can  find 
nowhere  else — diplomas  and  degrees  which  are  equal  and  superior  in  value  to 
those  obtained  in  the  same  grades  of  other  institutions,  up  to  university  degrees 
which  no  other  institution  could  dream  of  presenting.  *  *  * 

With  sentiments  of  highest  esteem  and  fraternal  charity,  I  remain, 

Yours  fraternally  in  Christ, 

Sebastian,  Abp.  of  Ephesus, 

Apostolic  Delegate. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE. 

By  Rev.  Henry  J.  De  Laak,  S.  J., 

Professor  of  Physics  in  the  St.  Louis  University ,  St.  Louis ,  Mo. 

To  a  school  man  of  a  hundred  years  ago  a  modern  college  would  in  all  proba¬ 
bility  be  an  unfamiliar  institution.  It  might  surprise  him  that  his  own  favorite 
studies  were  all  but  crowded  out  of  the  curriculum  as  discredited  and  a  multi¬ 
plicity  of  subjects  never  heard  of  by  him  introduced  in  their  stead.  Though  he 
might  soon  discover  that  the  new  structure  was  largely  built  upon  utilitarian 
foundation,  and  that  education  was  largely  estimated  as  a  commercial  asset,  he 
would  also  concede  the  existence  of  a  remarkable  intellectual  activity,  stimulated 
by  the  new  world-power,  Science. 

Were  he  now  to  find  himself  in  the  position  of  a  twentieth  century  college  presi¬ 
dent  his  own  education  would  prompt  him  to  reckon  with  the  new  factor,  i'or  he 
would  perceive  that  a  youth’s  education  must  adapt  him  to  the  age  in  which  he 
lives.  Centuries  differ,  and  markedly  so.  Consequently  no  course  of  studies  is 
final.  The  purpose  of  education  is  always  the  same.  The  means  may  vary.  There 
is  rise  and  fall  in  educational  matters  as  there  is  elevation  and  subsidence  in  the 
earth’s  strata.  The  story  of  the  human  mind  is  a  history  of  oscillations.  W e 
must  take  the  pendulum  in  the  phase  in  which  we  find  it.  It  is  the  scientific 
phase  now. 

The  purpose  of  an  education  is  attained  when  by  its  means  a  young  man’s  facul¬ 
ties  are  awakened  and  made  available  to  him  to  their  full  extent.  Theoretically 
it  may  not  matter  how  this  is  done.  But  the  method  and  means  taken  should  not 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE. 


905 


launch  him  into  an  unfamiliar  world.  In  past  ages  the  schools  kept  in  view  the 
civil  life  of  the  age,  while  at  the  same  time  they  considered  themselves  recruiting 
offices  for  the  university.  The  curriculum  was  shaped  as  much  as  possible  to  give 
an  available  education.  The  same  reasons  for  shaping  a  course  hold  now,  and  per¬ 
haps  more  strongly.  It  is  obvious  that  availability  is  more  operative  to-day  than 
ever,  and  if  science  is  therefore  found  qualified  as  a  sound  educating  factor  it  can 
not  to-day  be  excluded  from  the  college.  This  is  not  the  strongest  reason.  Science 
dominates  more  than  the  industries— a  point  which  shall  be  referred  to  later. 

It  is  hardly  the  question  whether  science  is  to  be  excluded  from  a  college  course 
or  not,  but  rather  its  limits  in  the  course,  what  specific  subjects  should  be  taught, 
when,  how  much  time  should  be  given,  what  should  be  the  manner  of  teaching. 

These  questions  were  not  assumed  in  a  day  at  any  time  in  the  history  of  educa¬ 
tion  concerning  any  branch  of  study,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  anything 
but  experience  can  give  the  answer  in  this  matter. 

If  there  were  no  difficulty  or  obscurity,  opinions  would  not  be  so  divided  as  they 
are  on  all  the  issues  mentioned.  Outside  of  extreme  views,  however,  sufficient 
convergence  exists.  It  is  conceded  that  the  old  classics  are  true  educators,  and 
also  that  the  claim  of  science  to  such  distinction  can  not  be  overlooked.  Inspection 
of  the  many  catalogues  of  secondary  schools  and  colleges  shows,  however,  the 
greatest  divergence  concerning  the  practical  questions  alluded  to.  Such  an  unset¬ 
tled  condition  proves  the  existence  of  an  uncertainty  as  to  the  best  evaluation  of 
science  education,  and  is  therefore  unsatisfactory.  It  is  a  more  or  less  necessary 
condition,  however,  and  one  which,  it  seems,  tends  actually  to  the  solution  of  the 
problem.  Educational  institutions,  we  may  believe,  keep  a  conscious,  or  at  least 
subconscious,  watch  upon  one  another  and  note  the  success  or  failure  of  a  given 
curriculum  in  order  to  profit  thereby.  In  one  sense,  therefore,  the  more  diver¬ 
gence  there  is  the  sooner  will  the  fittest  survive.  The  eliminating  and  constructive 
process  seems  thus  far  to  show  that  the  classics  will  not  be  much  curtailed.  Their 
educational  importance  is  to-day  recognized  even  more  than  it  was  ten  years  ago. 
The  Gordian  knot  of  the  course  is,  then,  how  to  accommodate  science  in  addition. 

The  student’s  capacity  is  to-day  about  the  same  as  it  always  was.  The  student 
whom  our  pedagogue  of  yore  had  in  hand  was  as  heavily  taxed  as  his  modern  suc¬ 
cessor — who  is  not  known  to  be  more  studious.  Nevertheless,  it  would  seem  as  if 
the  latter  had  a  right  to  protest  against  being  “run  under  overload.”  This  will 
assuredly  be  the  student’s  lot  unless  the  course  be  arranged  with  prudence  and 
forethought.  The  college  is  here  battling  with  a  difficulty;  if  it  is  to  educate,  then 
science  must  be  taken  seriously  and  a  reasonable  time  be  given  to  it,  or  it  had 
bett  er  be  let  alone.  It  is  impracticable  to  greatly  extend  the  course.  The  age  is 
too  impatient — boys  would  not  be  graduated;  perhaps  not  enter  at  all.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  for  the  sake  of  old-time  thoroughness  in  the  humanities,  an  institu¬ 
tion  should  exclude  science,  its  roll  call  would'  certainly  be  answered  by  an  ever- 
decreasing  number  of  students.  But  a  “struggle  for  existence”  motive  is  a  poor 
one  to  determine  the  opening  of  the  doors  to  science.  A  college  will  not  really 
accomplish  anything  in  that  department  if  within  the  inner  circle  of  the  faculty 
science  is  looked  upon  as  a  sop  to  Cerberus.  But  it  is  no  better  to  convert  a  col¬ 
lege  into  a  technical  or  science  school  in  order  to  appear  up  to  date  in  modern 
educational  movements.  There  must  be  a  golden  mean  somewhere,  and  our  col¬ 
leges  must  be  given  time  to  find  it.  “  Die  Zeit  ist  kurz — die  Kunst  is  lang!  ”  and 
a  much  older  adage  advises  circumspection  when  the  occasion  would  urge  hurry. 

But  for  the  strain  put  upon  the  old  course  with  the  advent  of  science,  it  is 
unlikely  that  elective  or  alternative  courses  of  study  would  be  seriously  dis¬ 
cussed.  An  elective  arrangement  suggests  early  specializing,  the  direction  of 
which  is  to  be  determined  by  certain  capacities  and  tastes  of  the  pupil.  It 
has  not  been  shown  who  is  to  discover  the  latter's  specialty.  To  say  it  is  the 
young  scholar  himself  would  attach  singularly  great  importance  to  uneducated 


906 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


and  inexperienced  judgment.  At  the  same  time,  the  teacher  can  not  be  supposed 
to  possess  intuition,  and  has  not  the  data  for  deduction.  That  the  boy  betrays 
strong  inclination  and  readiness  in  some  direction  does  not  constitute  an  infallible 
diagnosis  of  his  case,  though  the  symptom  is  well  worth  noting  and  keeping  in 
mind.  Such  manifestations,  however,  are  not  nearly  as  common  occurrences  as 
theorists  would  be  glad  to  believe.  Nearly  all  boys,  moreover,  betray  varying 
tastes  within  a  six  or  eight  years’  course;  that  is,  if  they  betray  any  at  ail,  and  do 
not  reserve  their  whole  enthusiasm  for  athletics,  for  example.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  scientific  tastes;  literary  tastes  seem  to  be  less  fugitive.  Many  science 
teachers  can,  I  dare  say,  be  found  who  remember  scientific  prodigies  of  16;  one 
designing  a  creditable  dynamo  machine,  another  contriving  chemical  experiments, 
and  a  third  quite  expert  in  classifying  natural  history  objects.  Spontaneous  evap¬ 
oration  within  a  few  years’  time  finished  the  history  of  the  youthful  talent. 

Furthermore,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  true  that  a  boy  as  heavily  charged  with 
science  as  an  electric  system  can  comx3ass,  has,  for  that  reason,  better  prospects 
for  an  opening  when  he  leaves  college  except  it  be  a  chance  opportunity.  The 
ranks  of  science  are  as  crowded  as  those  of  any  other  profession.  Should  an  insti¬ 
tution  advertise  for  a  science  teacher,  or  an  establishment  for  any  talent  of  that 
kind,  it  would  be  answered  quickly;  possibly  by  a  number  of  applicants,  and  by 
men  of  first-class  attainments.  Even  if  there  were  not  thi3  difficulty,  scientific 
specializing  as  made  possible  by  elective  courses  did  not  benefit  a  boy  greatly.  It 
is  certain  that  he  will  not  meet  college  laboratory  conditions  in  actual  life,  and  can 
not  possibly  have  enough  technical  knowledge  to  command  the  consideration  that 
could  legitimately  be  expected  by  the  university  specialist.  He  has,  therefore,  to 
serve  his  time  in  an  enterprise  wherein  his  science  is  applied,  as  well  as  his  rival 
from  the  regular  course,  or  drop  its  pursuit.  Generally  the  latter  happens.  In 
either  case,  given  equal  ability  and  opportunity,  his  rival  has  good  chances  to 
pass  him  on  the  road,  and,  in  fact,  will  probably  do  so.  If  statements  now  and 
then  appearing  in  professional  and  technical  journals  are  adverted  to,  it  will  be 
found  that  managers  of  large  corporations  applied  to  for  an  engagement  are 
likely  to  inquire  concerning  a  diploma  or  certificate  to  show  appreciation  of  the 
regular  “ classical  course”  document.  Experience  has  shown  them  the  alertness 
of  such  applicants,  and  the  absence  of  conceit  based  upon  their  “science,”  though 
they  are  not  unfamiliar  with  its  elements. 

As  an  instance,  I  may  cite  an  inaugural  address  delivered  by  Sir  Andrew  Noble 
(October  3,  1899)  before  the  faculty,  students,  and  patrons  of  a  purely  technical 
college.  “The  best  education  for  engineers,”  was  his  subject.  “You  can  form 
but  little  idea,”  said  he,  “of  the  number  of  persons  of  both  sexes  who  have 
assured  me  that  their  sons  had  no  taste  for  books,  but  had  shown  a  marvelous 
talent  for  engineering.  I  need  not  tell  you  that  the  marvelous  talent  generally 
turns  out  to  be  an  incapacity— probably  from  defective  education— for  seriously 
applying  the  mind.”  He  adds:  “  One  of  the  great  abuses  I  take  to  be  that  techni¬ 
cal  education  is  often  begun  too  early  in  life;  that  is,  that  it  is  substituted  for  a 
general  education,  and  a  boy  attempts  to  put  his  knowledge  to  practical  use 
before  he  has  learned  how  to  learn.” 

Sir  Andrew  Noble  is  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  not  less  than  30,000  men,  repre¬ 
senting  the  late  Lord  Armstrong’s  industry  centering  about  Elswick,  England. 
As  a  preparation  for  Elswick  he  recommended:  “  Send  the  lad  to  the  best  school 
you  can,  keep  him  there  as  long  as  you  can;  do  not  curtail  his  time,  and  do  not 
stunt  his  growth  by  narrowing  him  down  to  any  special  study.  My  own 
impression  is  that,  as  a  sharpener  of  young  intellect,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
improve  the  curriculum  which,  in  the  main,  has  been  in  force  for  so  many  centuries.  ” 
He  declares  his  disapproval  of  science  in  primary  schools,  and  goes  on  to  say 
that,  as  far  as  efficient  education  was  concerned,  such  things  as  “engineering 
shops” or  “laboratories”  in  secondary  schools,  and  their  equivalents,  for  older 


THE  TEACHING-  OF  SCIENCE. 


907 


boys,  were  a  failure  and  a  loss  of  time  in  hours  better  devoted  to  more  valuable 
study;  though  he  was  ready  to  credit  them  with  “  offering  reasonable  diversion  for 
recreation.”  “  Nor  am  I,”  he  continues,  “in  accord  with  those  who  think  that 
modern  languages  should  supersede  the  classics  as  a  means  of  education,  and  I 
should  regret  more  than  I  do  the  attempts  made  in  this  direction  did  I  think 
these  attempts  would  be  likely  to  be  successful.”  Candidates  from  the  time- 
honored  curriculum  he  considers  easily  picked  out  in  a  crowd  of  applicants,  and 
he  refers  to  them  in  the  words:  “  Speaking  as  an  employer  of  labor,  I  should  say 
that  we  find  in  them  a  pleasant  speech  and  manner,  tact  in  dealing  with  others, 
and  some  power  of  organization.”  He  finds  a  freshness  in  such  young  men  absent 
in  the  school  specializing  scientist  who  has  become  “half  stale  with  too  much 
technical  school  work.”  It  is  to  be  noted  that  Sir  Andrew  Noble  spoke,  not  as  a 
professional  educator,  but  as  a  business  man,  who  has  had  an  almost  unparalleled 
opportunity  for  noting  the  influence  of  various  educational  schemes  upon 
thousands  of  young  men. 

Contrary  opinions  to  this  come  usually  with  most  outspoken  definiteness  from 
teachers;  of  course,  science  teachers.  Not  a  few  claim  practically  the  whole  field 
for  science,  or,  at  least,  for  “scientific  methods.”  It  is  particularly  their  science 
that  is  of  commanding  importance.  The  smallest  boy  must  make  physical  meas¬ 
urements.  Time  for  it  must  be  lopped  off  from  subjects  not  science;  necessarily, 
of  course,  for  these  scientific  methods  require  time.  Laboratory  work  is  slow. 
Hence  more  hours  must  be  given  to  science,  and  small  classes  are  essential.  Con¬ 
sequently  a  large  staff  of  teachers  is  required  and  comprehensive  equipment. 
Hence  criticism  of  the  too  “literary”  headmaster,  president,  or  prefect  of  studies, 
who  does  not  understand  science  and  therefore  neither  the  “requirements  of 
modern  education.” 

So  it  comes  to  pass  that  the  boy  is  a  bone  of  contention  to  those  who  would 
educate  him.  The  boy  survives  it  very  well;  he  does  not  borrow  trouble  from 
that  source.  Theories  and  text-books  are  in  high  flood  for  his  benefit — most  of 
them  “scientific.”  Their  purpose  is  to  peptonize  science  for  him,  and,  for  that 
matter,  peptonize  it  for  his  teacher  also.  That  the  campaign  is  urged  with  vigor 
and  varying  success  is  evident  from  the  great  difference  in  requirements  made 
nowadays  by  colleges.  While  in  few  science  has  almost  no  foothold,  others  are 
adding  laboratories  and  workshops  on  all  scales  and  multiplying  the  subjects 
offered  in  alternative  or  elective  courses.  This  is  evidently  experimental. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  an  imperative  need  to  dislocate  or  dismember,  much 
less  to  cast  aside,  the  old  curriculum  to  make  room  for  science.  No  serious  inroads 
upon  the  course  have  been  made  in  colleges  conducted  under  old  traditions.  Some 
have  added  a  year;  others  have  contracted  the  classics  somewhat.  There  seems 
to  be  an  uneasiness,  however,  about  the  years  and  hours  per  year  allotted  to  sci¬ 
ence;  the  occasional  shifting  about  of  science  instruction  shows  this.  But,  on  the 
whole,  our  colleges  can  hardly  be  reproached  with  being  niggardly.  One-quarter 
of  the  class  hours  for  a  minimum  of  two  years  can  not  be  called  a  small  percent¬ 
age.  A  further  two  hours  a  week  in  a  third — the  graduating  year  is  usual — and 
if  it  be  remembered  that  the  mathematics  can  be  made  directly  to  support  at  least 
physics  and  astronomy,  10  per  cent  of  the  whole  school  course  can  easily  be  shown 
to  be  the  share  allotted  to  science.  Some  colleges  are  trying  the  experiment  of 
increasing  this  by  the  introduction  of  natural  history  into  the  lower  classes.  This, 
however,  will  probably  not  be  indulged  in  largely;  for,  though  it  is  true  that  the 
child  may  thus  be  put  temporarily  into  the  possession  of  many  facts,  it  is  a  ques¬ 
tion  whether  the  time  had  not  better  be  given  to  pursuing  fewer  subjects— the  old 
ones — with  more  vigor.  A  child’s  knowledge  can  be  so  dissipated  into  heteroge¬ 
neous  fragments  that  it  no  longer  represents  an  education.  Education  seeks  to 
produce  ability— “  Konnen  ”  more  than  “  Wissen.” 

If  it  becomes  necessary  for  a  college  graduate  to  look  into  one  of  the  subjects 


908 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900*1901. 


covered  by  the  general  term  “science,”  he  should  certainly  find  no  great  difficulty 
in  becoming  familiar  with  it,  with  the  ability  which  we  have  a  right  to  suppose 
he  has  acquired.  His  ability  will  probably  be  the  better  for  it,  if  in  his  early 
years  he  has  not  formally  studied  botany,  zoology,  physiology,  biology,  as  class 
matter.  Moreover,  it  is  plainly  improbable,  that  he  will  find  any  more  direct  use 
for  these  than  for  his  classical  knowledge,  and  just  as  probable,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  he  will  promptly  forget  all  he  knew  and  therewith  lose  what  these  hours  were 
worth. 

This  does  not  mean  that  no  benefit  can  be  derived  from  science  in  all  the  years 
of  the  course.  The  teacher  ignorant  of  all  science,  in  any  properly  so-called  col¬ 
lege  class,  is  an  anachronism.  Besides  knowing  what  is  formally  his  subject,  he 
should  not  be  devoid  of  erudition.  The  teacher  of  to-day  must  know  something 
of  the  natural  sciences — the  more  the  better — and  that,  if  for  no  other  reason,  in 
order  to  teach  his  own  subject  effectively.  He  can  find  illustrations  and  analogies 
in  endless  variety  in  the  fields  of  science.  He  will  not  only  interest  his  scholars, 
but  expand  their  horizon.  Their  estimate  of  him  will  rise  when  he  shows  grasp 
of  many  subjects. 

This  point  need  not  be  pursued  further.  It  is  too  well  known  that  Catholic 
educators  and  educating  bodies  have  always  sought  erudition  in  teachers.  But  it 
may  not  have  been  encouraged  as  much  as  it  deserves  in  the  scientific  direction. 
Scientific  knowledge  is  a  real  educational  lever  in  any  teacher's  hands,  if  he  knows 
how  to  make  use  of  it.  Young  boys  instinctively  appreciate  science.  Teachers  to 
whom  natural  history  is  not  unfamiliar  should  find  in  grammar  and  preparatory 
classes,  even,  fair  fields  to  cultivate  with  the  help  of  science.  Geography  alone, 
for  example,  suggests  meteorology,  zoology,  botany,  ethnology.  Digressions  into 
these  can  be  made  to  excellent  purpose  without  making  it  necessary  to  burden  the 
pupil's  recitations  and  examinations.  The  formal,  printed  “  course  of  studies,” 
whilst  it  does  not  take  cognizance  of  this  kind  of  science  teaching,  and  in  conse¬ 
quence  looks  scant  and  jejune,  does  not  therefore  prohibit  it.  On  the  contrary, 
it  may  be  said  to  suppose  the  same  by  taking  a  good  teacher  for  granted. 

When  the  time  arrives  to  exercise  the  young  mind  in  science  the  teaching  must 
be  more  formal.  It  is  clearly  not  best  to  look  for  this  training  in  subjects  that 
are  largely  classification  of  phenomena— full  of  nebular  hypotheses,  uncertainties, 
speculations,  subject  to  cataclysms,  and  wholly  depending  upon  other  sciences. 
The  proper  sciences  are  those  that  coordinate  facts,  possess  a  logically  constructed 
edifice,  and  are  fundamental.  They  are  not  restricted  to  educating  the  power  of 
observing  by  means  of  the  senses.  Aboriginal  tribes  possess  this  power,  but  they 
are  not  therefore  said  to  be  educated.  “  Cognito  per  causes  ultimas  ” — the  defini¬ 
tion  of  a  true  science — means  an  achievement  of  the  human  mind.  It  is  not  prob¬ 
able  that  a  student  could  follow  this  achievement  of  mind  through  difficult  paths 
without  his  own  intellectual  ability  being  powerfully  reenforced.  This  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  science  has  educating  power.  It  has  a  strongly  intellectual  char¬ 
acter;  therefore  a  tendency  to  the  abstract,  and  to  comprehensive  generalizing. 
It  is  therefore  best,  since  it  requires  a  corresponding  mental  power,  to  leave  it  to 
the  later  years  of  the  course.  If  begun  too  early  it  will  cause  lack  of  interest, 
because  of  lack  of  novelty,  when  the  true  difficulty  of  the  subject  is  opened,  and 
the  boy  is  disappointed  in  not  finding  it  all  showy  experiment. 

Physics  and  chemistry  have  with  justice  been  looked  upon  as  well  adapted  to 
education.  In  proportion  as  a  subject  of  investigation  becomes  scientific,  so  it 
ordinarily  appeals  to  these  fundamental  sciences.  In  the  sense  taken  physics 
covers  astronomy.  Chemistry  itself  is  rapidly  being  organized  as  molecular 
physics,  and  physics  in  their  turn  in  their  wide  sense  is  the  development  of 
mechanics.  This  reduction  will  show  at  once  tiiat  science  is  nothing  really  new 
in  a  college.  In  the  form  of  astronomy  it  was  a  familiar  subject  ages  ago,  and  as 
mechanics  also.  This  is  a  significent  proof  that  no  new  educational  factor  has 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE. 


909 


been  discovered  in  modern  times,  bnt  an  old  one  developed  and  pushed  into  prom¬ 
inence.  Physics  and  . chemistry  may  be  reckoned  as  the  descendants  of  the  “  philo- 
sophia  naturalis  ”  of  the  schools,  as  modern  astronomy  is  that  of  the  “  cosmologia.” 
Modern  chemistry  is  willing  to  trace  its  genealogy  to  the  alchemia  of  old— which 
the  schoolmen,  however,  were  prudent  enough  not  to  commit  themselves  to,  for 
they  had  the  instinct  to  recognize  it  as  not  a  science. 

In  the  old  days  the  horizon  of  the  natural  sciences  was  limited;  education  was 
therefore  literary  and  philosophical.  But  nothing  taught  in  the  class  could  be 
“  transmitted”  in  an  examination.  Science  as  far  as  it  went  had  standing  in  the 
curriculum.  Having  grown  to  be  of  much  more  consequence,  more  important  in 
every  sense,  and  of  acknowledged  value  in  education,  it  would  appear  curious  if 
to-day  a  quarter  of  the  time  should  be  given  for  several  years  to  science,  and  that 
it  at  no  time  should  become  the  subject  of  inquiry  concerning  the  students’  prog¬ 
ress  therein.  It  does  not  look  consistent,  in  view  of  the  time  sacrificed,  not  to 
make  this  subject  one  that  must  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  the  student  in 
examinations  intended  to  test  his  qualifications  for  advancement.  If  the  anomaly 
is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  science  is  too  difficult,  it  may  be  found  that 
it  is  begun  too  early;  if  other,  even  more  important  elements  are  not  to  be  ques¬ 
tioned.  Vv7hatever  may  be  the  reason,  the  fact  will  bring  about  unpleasant  con¬ 
sequences,  No  real  attention  will  be  paid  to  class  lectures.  We  must  take  the 
boy  as  he  is — he  is  a  fact,  like  any  other  fact.  He  is  also  able  occasionally  to  dis¬ 
cover  a  fact;  and  when  he  discovers  the  particular  one  that  a  certain  branch 
“does  not  count,”  he  will  not  trouble  himself  about  seriously  studying  it.  Fore¬ 
sight  and  conscientiousness  about  his  purpose  at  school  are  not  his  strong  points. 
He  will  be  alert  when  an  experiment  by  the  professor  entertains  him.  Apart 
from  that  he  will  be  inattentive  or  worse.  This  is  electivism  of  the  worse  type; 
to  leave  it  to  the  student  whether  he  will  study  or  not.  It  is  not  nearly  so  objec¬ 
tionable  to  let  him  choose  what  he  would  study.  There  is  no  more  reason  to  sup¬ 
pose  science  to  possess  a  self-supporting  interest  than  any  other  branch.  Its 
entertaining  features,  its  practical  features,  its  possible  direct  future  usefulness, 
are  no  guaranty  whatever  that  it  can  do  without  the  moral  force  of  an  impend¬ 
ing  examination  or  the  equivalent,  and  one  that  “counts,”  i.  e.,  qualifies  for 
standing.  No  boy  can  be  educated  if  he  can  not  or  will  not  work,  and  an  exami¬ 
nation  is  the  only  reason  the  average  boy  can  see  why  he  should  work.  There  is 
another  objectionable  feature  in  not  giving  science  the  full  importance  of  the 
other  studies.  A  science  teacher’s  work  is  peculiarly  laborious,  far  more  than 
any  other,  and  the  more  and  better  facilities  and  equipment  he  has  at  his  dis¬ 
posal  the  more  will  this  peculiar  laboriousness  weigh  upon  him.  He  will  never  be 
“through.”  The  classroom  is  but  a  fraction  of  his  work,  and  a  small  one  at  that. 
It  is  not  encouraging  to  teach  what  will  not  be  studied.  Under  such  conditions 
science  is  not  furthering  education,  but  rather  demoralizing  it.  Any  branch  of 
study  in  which  the  student  need  not  qualify  and  independently  of  which  he  may 
go  on  to  a  higher  class  loses  caste,  and  its  teacher  influence.  Not  only  with  the 
student;  it  may  come  to  be  a  vague  impression  among  the  faculty  that  science  is 
tolerated,  perhaps,  because  it  is  an  advertisement.  It  will  therefore  be  considered 
a  “chair”  anyone  can  fill,  as  there  will  be  no  call  for  results.  College  boys,  in 
their  own  way,  are  liable  to  be  logical  in  such  a  juncture,  and  they  will  carry  the 
spirit  of  the  science  class  into  the  other  rooms  also.  This  may  not  be  a  case  of 
“poetic  justice,”  but  it  may  be  expected  to  happen,  because  there  is  sympathy  and 
reaction  between  the  constituent  parts  of  a  moral  unit — the  college  course. 

Supposing,  therefore,  that  its  importance  is  recognized,  how  should  science  be 
taught?  The  time-honored  method  in  which  the  teacher  is  the  chief  factor  does 
not  lose  its  value  here.  By  the  time  they  enter  upon  the  field  of  science  the 
scholars  are  accustomed  to  the  method.  It  should  be  followed  for  the  sake  of  uni¬ 
formity,  and,  above  all,  because  of  its  intrinsic  merit.  It  is,  moreover,  particu- 


910 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


larly  valuable  in  science.  A  determined  young  man  could  learn  Latin  and  Greek 
from  a  text-book;  he  could  not  get  an  equal  grasp  on  science  in  this  way  in  the 
same  time.  It  can  not  be  taught,  either,  even  by  a  teacher  simply  expatiating  on 
a  few  paragraphs  of  a  text-book  and  making  the  experiments  according  to  the 
directions  in  the  text  (many  of  these  books  are  constantly  patronizing  the  teacher). 

There  is  something  singularly  elusive  about  scientific  knowledge  in  itself.  A 
teacher  may  for  a  number  of  seasons  work,  read,  study,  and  teach,  all  along  believ¬ 
ing  he  is  certain  of  his  doctrine,  and  then  somehow  a  new  light  breaks  in  and  he 
discovers  gaps  and  vacancies  in  his  scientific  knowledge.  The  legitimate  title  to 
a  “potest  docere”  is  no  more  easily  acquired  in  science  than  in  any  other  subject, 
even  if  experimental  resourcefulness  and  manipulative  skill  were  spontaneous  and 
not  dependent  also  on  ability  developed  by  application.  ‘  ‘  Elements  of  mechanics  ” 
does  not  sound  forbidding,  but  it  is  not  synonymous  with  4 4  Easy  lessons  in  science.  ” 
This  statement  might  be  illustrated  by  referring  to  a  prolonged  controversy  in 
which  some  years  ago  the  leading  physicists  of  England  figured  concerning  “mass  ” 
and  “weight.”  Yet  almost  anybody,  except  a  physicist  who  has  taught  and 
thought,  will  expound  these  notions  fearlessly! 

The  teacher  must  be  sure  enough  of  his  subject  not  to  make  a  statement  in 
optics  which  he  retracts  in  electricity,  whether  he  is  aware  of  his  inconsistency  or 
not.  The  teacher  to  whom  science  is  a  dreary  task  is  fated  to  do  this  as  a  regular 
thing,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  there  is  a  science  teacher  who  has  escaped  such 
a  mishap  altogether. 

For  many  reasons  a  good  text-book  is  indispensable  to  teacher  and  student  alike; 
particularly  in  science  classes.  It  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  secondary  teacher,  and 
as  such  all  its  paragraphs  are  of  importance  to  the  scholar.  But  it  should  be  the 
teacher's  servant  and  not  constrain  him,  except  topically.  One  of  its  advantages 
is  that  it  saves  extensive  “  taking  notes” — a  labor  which  the  leisurely  work  of  the 
laboratory  more  especially  demands. 

Far  more  text-books  are  published  in  science  than  in  any  other  subject.  While 
this -may  be  owing,  to  a  degree,  to  the  notion  that  science  has  come  to  control,  if 
not  to  save,  education,  it  is  more  likely  owing,  to  a  greater  extent,  to  the  diversified 
status  of  science  in  the  various  institutions  of  learning.  Few  of  these  books  seem 
satisfactory.  Publishers  foster  the  notion  that  the  text- book  is  everything,  and 
they  are  ready  to  furnish  one  that  will  teach  the  teacher  as  well  as  the .  pupil. 
Text-book  worship  is  not  conducive  to  good  results.  The  student  feels  secure  with 
his  fetich  against  the  day  of  account.  44  It  is  all  in  the  book,”  and  he  has  been 
given  to  understand  that  the  book  contains  it  all.  Thereupon  he  comes  to  resent 
any  departure  from  the  inviolable  text.  Exactly  as,  e.  g. ,  in  geometry  when  its  text¬ 
books  do  the  teaching.  Invert  the  figures  or  change  the  letters  and  the  student’s 
demonstration  collapses.  The  text-book  should  not  use  the  teacher,  but  the  teacher 
the  text- book.  Of  course,  where  the  text-book  is  the  teacher's  life-preserver,  this 
44  hysteron  proteron  ”  arrangement  is  the  only  possible  one.  The  text-book,  whether 
it  be  permitted  to  figure  as  the  court  of  appeal  or  not,  had  better  be  severe  and  a 
little  44  too  hard  ”  than  too  easy.  “  Science  primers  ”  have  no  business  in  a  college. 
Students  instinctively  measure  the  importance  or  difficulty  of  the  whole  subject  by 
using  the  text-book  as  the  yardstick. 

With  occasional  exceptions,  the  youthful  mind  seems  to  oppose  a  high  resistivity 
to  mathematics.  It  is  hopeless  to  teach  science  unless,  beginning  in  the  lower 
grades,  the  teaching  of  mathematics  has  been  kept  at  a  sufficiently  high  potential 
to  penetrate  the  insulation.  While  elaborate  demonstrations  in  college  science 
classes  are  probably  out  of  place,  the  discussion  of  simple  formula  should  be 
within  the  reach  of  the  pupils.  Graphical  presentation  of  such  expressions  by 
coordinate  diagrams  is  welcomed,  as  a  rule.  To  a  certain  extent,  such  diagrams 
show  “  how  the  thing  works,”  and  the  youth  of  our  inventive  race  may  be  expected 
to  appreciate  this  and  grasp  the  meaning. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE. 


911 


Science  teaching  is  a  specialty  as  nmch  as  any  other  difficult  subject,  and  there¬ 
fore  it  is  a  man’s  work,  for  a  man’s  time,  as  teacher,  and  can  not,  without  its  col¬ 
lapse  as  a  branch  of  a  study,  be  committed  to  anyone  at  any  time  with  incessant 
change.  If  a  college  possesses  a  material  equipment  of  any  value,  there  will  be  a 
marked  44  depreciation  of  plant  ”  in  consequence  of  such  changes. 

A  class  will  more  quickly  find  it  out  in  science  than  in  other  subjects  whether 
the  taacher  is  “  at  home  ”  or  “  at  sea.”  Owing  to  the  vast  extent  to  which  scientific 
applications  dominate  not  only  industry  but  domestic  life,  some  inquisitive  fresh¬ 
man  (boys  can  be  trusted  to  do  a  great  deal  of  observing,  though  their  intentions 
may  not  be  scientific)  will  always  be  found  of  whose  questions  the  teacher  will  be 
afraid.  Science  is  precisely  the  subject  in  which  boys  do  not  like  an  evasion,  and 
are  most  disinclined  to  condone  ignorance  and  sharpest  to  discover  it.  A  teacher 
beginning  his  career  in  the  classics  has  a  better  chance  to  escape  having  his 
soundings  taken  than  a  science  master,  not  precisely  a  beginner,  either. 

The  college  intrusts  to  the  scientific  teacher  implicitly  a  share  of  the  responsi¬ 
bility  of  the  professor  of  mental  philosophy.  Metaphysics,  general  and  special,  is 
without  doubt  the  culmination  of  the  college  course.  Through  this  study  the 
course  reaches  its  purpose,  imparting  to  the  student  an  ability  to  weigh  and  con¬ 
sider,  on  broad  lines,  at  least,  in  a  rational  manner  and  with  judgment,  the  most 
important  field  by  far  of  all,  that  of  human  thought;.  This  means  intellectual 
self-possession. 

The  science  teacher  can  and  ought  to  lend  his  aid.  The  professor  of  meta¬ 
physics  can  hardly  be  expected  to  more  than  touch  science  theories,  and  can  not 
be  reasonably  expected  to  do  so,  since  he  must  till  fields  illimitable  beyond  that. 
While  working  with  these  theories  technically,  the  science  teacher  has  opportu¬ 
nity  over  and  over  again  to  weigh  them  philosophically.  The  text-book  and  the 
teacher  who  has  only  a  text- book  horizon  will  leave  the  student  under  the 
impression  that  there  is  no  appeal  from  atoms  and  molecules.  Scientific 
propositions — almost  all  of  them — are  “  working  hypotheses,”  some  of  which  may 
be  objectively  true,  while  many  of  them  are  certainly  not  true.  But  they  are 
treated,  and  quite  properly  so,  for  science  purposes  as  if  they  were  true.  The 
world  overlooks  this,  and  does  not  question  the  objective  validity  of  the  “  placita” 
of  science.  This  is  philosophically  the  most  powerful  reason  why  science  must 
be  taught  in  a  college,  taught  properly,  and  not  taught  exclusively.  For  of  itself 
science  has  no  tendency  whatever  to  develop  a  “  broad,”  well-balanced  habit  of 
mental  estimate,  any  more  than  the  discredited  “  metaphysics  of  the  schools  ”  with 
its  quibbles.  A  warped  mind — one  fed  on  a  single  pabulum — is  always  cock-sure, 
and  that  is  the  very  reason  why  our  army  of  sciolists  (largely  the  54  writers  ”  and 
science  camp-followers,  but  seldom  the  workers)  is  agreed  that  science  is  every¬ 
thing,  and  all  else  “antiquated.”  This  “schlagwort”  is  particularly  directed 
against  metaphysics,  and  then  does  service  for  stronger  terms  which  would 
declare  it  ridiculous  if  not  grotesque. 

Though  a  man  may,  with  increasing  administration  as  the  years  of  his  work  in 
science  increase,  note  the  marvelous  compactness,  solidity,  simplicity,  and  beauty 
of  the  theories  of  physics  and  chemistry,  as  they  have  been  worked  out,  altered, 
and  bettered  gradually  by  real  master  minds,  it  is  not  true  that  they  gain  in  the 
same  proportion  in  the  objective  probability  of  their  being  final.  Serious  reflec¬ 
tion,  or  better,  years  of  experience,  in  conjunction  with  reflection,  will  convince 
a  man  that  on  the  one  hand  a  true  master  in  the  physical  sciences  is  the  least 
inclined  to  be  a  dogmatizer,  and  that  on  the  other  a  discovery,  such  as  that  of 
the  existence  of  undreamed-of  “radiations,”  does  not  at  all  signify  the  “  collapse 
of  another  scientific  tneory.”  In  fewer  'words,  all  this  means  that  the  science 
teacher  can  work  in  a  wide  educational  field,  and  ought  not  to  forget  to  state  the 
standing  of  science  in  intellectual  court.  The  text- book  will  not— nor  the  seif- 


912 


EDUCATION  KEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


styled  “great  educator  of  the  people” — the  press.  For  much  of  what  passes  as 
science  the  proof  is  iteration  of  statement — 

“  I’ve  said  it  thrice; 

What  I  say  three  times  is  true.” 

It  is  therefore  greatly  to  be  desired  that  the  science  teacher  should  stand  for 
more  than  the  explanation  of  the  parallelogram  of  velocities,  or  as  the  mouth¬ 
piece  of  the  text-book.  He  should  be  the  mentor  of  his  class,  for  he  is  supposed  to 
educate. 

Catholic  colleges  so  thoroughly  recognize  the  importance  of  a  well- trained  and 
able  teacher  that  if  nothing  further  were  involved  there  would  be  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  occupy  prominent  positions  in  the  field  of  science.  A  circum¬ 
stance  working  against  it  seriously  is  the  general  meagerness  of  equipment.  Even 
if  it  were  lavish,  the  science  teacher  is  never  going  to  escape  the  issue  of  becoming 
at  least  half  artisan,  besides  being  a  whole  teacher.  He  must  possess  resourceful¬ 
ness  and  try  conclusions  in  almost  every  handicraft.  I  need  not  say  that  this 
forms  the  laboriousness  of  science,  and  that  it  is  unavoidable,  and  can  not  be 
wholly  left  to  “  help” — financial  or  otherwise. 

Experimental  demonstration  must  accompany  science  teaching.  A  successful 
experiment  well  arranged  and  clearly  managed,  indorses  what  the  teacher  says, 
and  impresses  it.  It  is  worth  a  hundred  repetitions  of  the  statement  which  it 
demonstrates.  Even  with  it,  science  does  not  become  easy,  and  is  intangible  to 
young  minds  without  it.  The  youth  had  better  go  to  school  to  a  first-class  experi¬ 
menter,  provided  the  latter  is  a  teacher,  than  to  a  powerful  reasoner  on  abstract 
formulas.  This  does  not  mean  that  a  good,  roomy  “  blackboard  ”  does  not  rank 
high  as  ‘  ‘  apparatus.”  It  is  part  of  the  class  room,  and  a  suitable  lecture  and  labo¬ 
ratory  room  outrank  everything  in  importance  in  the  matter  of  equipment.  It 
will  not  do  to  assign  to  science  anything  left  over  after  all  the  other  branches  have 
been  solicitously  housed.  With  such  a  handicap  a  “  cabinet  ”  may  figure  in  the 
catalogue  and  not  in  the  course.  I  am  certain  that  any  science  teacher  with  expe¬ 
rience  will  care  much  more  for  a  good  class  room  than  for  an  array  of  apparatus, 
and  would  rather  work  in  a  shed  reasonably  well  built  to  keep  out  the  weather — 
if  such  quarters  were  designed  for  the  purpose— rather  than  in  a  palatial  college 
building,  which  an  architect  had  “planned”  largely  with  a  view  to  demonstrating 
to  the  town’s  folk  what  he  could  do  with  the  outside  of  a  house.  The  grand  build¬ 
ing  may  cause  the  science  teacher  to  rank  more  than  half  his  working  day  not 
even  up  to  the  level  of  an  artisan.  He  will  be  carrying  on  a  quixotic  fight  against 
the  windmills  of  adverse  circumstances  for  the  sake  of  a  few  handicapped  experi¬ 
ments.  Science  teaching  ought  to  be  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  displaying 
heroism. 

If  an  institution  is  proud  of  its  library,  it  has  precisely  the  same  reason  to 
appoint  its  cabinet.  This  is  also  a  reference  library;  apparatus  instead  of  books. 
A  library  may  be  injudiciously  selected,  and  so  also  may  capital  be  invested  in  a 
cabinet  without  proper  returns.  A  man  should  not  buy  a  carriage  when  he  does 
not  expect  to  own  a  horse — unless  it  be  an  automobile — and  for  the  same  reason 
ought  not  to  provide  a  costly  instrument  by  its  very  nature  intended  for  abstruse 
“private  research,”  when  no  such  purpose  is  compassed  by  the  course,  and  when 
essential  class  room  apparatus  is  wanting.  Of  course,  I  would  not  object  to  dona¬ 
tions.  For  college  purposes  the  cabinet  would  permanently  be  intended  to  serve 
the  teacher’s  lectures.  It  is  an  art  to  select  wisely;  just  as  a  wise  head  is  required 
to  see  to  the  increase  of  the  library.  Instruments  should  be  on  a  sort  of  uniform 
scale,  and  meet  the  condition  of  working  together  as  much  as  possible.  The 
import  of  this  remark  may  be  too  technical  to  enlarge  upon  here,  but  a  science 
teacher  will  understand.  To  administrators  of  colleges,  however,  it  should  sug¬ 
gest  the  fact  that  a  dozen  pieces  of  apparatus  may,  if  well  chosen,  cover  the  field 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE. 


913 


of  a  half  hundred  not  mutually  adaptable.  A  very  useful  book  could  be  written 
on  the  subject,  “How  to  select  apparatus.”  It  would  probably  be  written  by  a 
man  who  had  made  a  lot  of  mistakes. 

If  the  above  be  kept  in  view,  it  appears  that  the  expensiveness  of  science  may 
be  overrated,  while  a  great  university  might  feel  starved  with  the  interest  on  a 
million  devoted  to  science  purposes,  a  college  with  no  specializing  ambitions — an 
ambition  out  of  place — might  thrive  scientifically  on  the  interest  of  one-tenth  of 
that  amount.  Undoubtedly  many  a  college  professor  of  ours  ekes  out  a  scientific 
existence  on  the  cube  root  of  that  sum  and  annually  rejoices. 

The  college  that  sees  its  way  to  it  and  undertakes  to  establish  the  laboratory 
as  a  complement  to  and  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  class  room,  enters  upon  a 
commendable  enterprise.  The  laboratory  entails  no  little  labor,  and  therefore 
the  drudgery  and  detail  of  it  should  not  fall  upon  one  and  the  same  teacher,  if  pos¬ 
sible.  He  will  do  poor  class-room  work,  and  an  inferior  laboratory  results.  The 
laboratory  need  not  invade  class  hours,  and  it  is  perhaps  safer  not  to  make  it  com¬ 
pulsory.  Too  many  students  would,  after  the  first  rush  of  enthusiasm  is  over,  be 
found  to  lose  interest  and  drag  the  rest.  This  proceeding  has  its  analogies  in 
other  studies.  Not  uncommonly  the  interests  of  even  a  single  student  are  con¬ 
sulted  in  language,  mathematics,  the  humanities,  etc.,  out  of  class  hours.  Teach¬ 
ers  are  always  willing  to  do  this  and  colleges  encourage  both  teacher  and  scholars 
to  do  it.  While  the  latter  are  therefore  free  to  avail  themselves  of  such  advan¬ 
tage,  it  is  obvious  that  the  study  of  a  given  subject  is  not  therefore  made  elective. 
The  elective  laboratory  is  simply  a  standing  offer  to  the  student  to  assist  his 
progress.  It  is  well,  nevertheless,  to  encourage  his  accepting  it. 

Large  claims  are  made  nowadays  as  to  the  necessity  of  laboratory  work  for  col¬ 
lege  boys.  To  what  extent  they  are  well  founded  experience  seems  not  to  have 
made  entirely  clear.  There  may  be  the  confusing  of  issues  again  between  stock¬ 
ing  a  student  with  facts  and  educating  him.  Making  a  boy  expert  in  performing 
a  certain  set  of  experiments  is  not  necessarily  identical  with  an  increase  of  scien¬ 
tific  knowledge.  Possibly  it  is  owing  to  the  confusion  of  these  two  things  that  so 
much  clamor  is  made  about  the  laboratory  and  the  indescribable  importance  of  a 
child  in  knickerbockers  measuring  the  laboratory  table  with  a  meter  stick,  or, 
more  ambitiously,  rediscovering  the  principles  of  electro-magnetism  with  an 
assurance  that  leaves  the  child  with  little  reverence  for  the  prince  of  experiment¬ 
ers,  Michael  Faraday.  In  primary  classes  it  certainly  seems  useless  to  do  this 
sort  of  work  unless  for  recreation.  But  for  the  maturer  students  it  is  undeniably 
true  that  personal  observation  is  an  incentive  and  check  together,  an  excellent 
combination  not  easily  cultivated  in  the  class  room  alone.  Exact  method  of 
observation  and  measurement  is  the  aim  of  the  laboratory  directly.  It  is  a  dis¬ 
tinctly  human  way  of  learning,  and  for  that  reason  engages  interest.  It  improves 
the  student  for  the  next  class  lecture  and  recitation. 

But  “  ne  quid  nimis.”  One  reason,  possibly,  why  the  laboratory  is  supposed  to 
be  a  distinctly  modern  method  which  has  driven  out  or  forced  into  obscurity  the 
class  room,  is  because  too  much  science  and  too  much  laboratory  are  responsible 
for  the  host  of  poor  teachers.  I  do  not  mean  ignorant  men. 

Physics  alone  will  not  make  a  teacher.  A  young  man  primed  with  physics  and 
laboratory  work  and  entirely  up  to  date  in  scientific  methods  has  not,  therefore, 
his  success  assured  in  the  class  room.  Therefore,  he  will  take  refuge  in  the  labo¬ 
ratory.  He  may  have  been  taught  by  just  such  a  professor.  His  education  gave 
him  no  idea  how  to  present  a  subject— no  command  of  language,  no  delivery,  and, 
wTith  all  his  sharpness  of  observing  power  and  manipulative  skill,  no  address.  It 
seems  not  uncommon  in  modern  institutions  to  engage  a  teacher  whose  recom¬ 
mendations  have  an  air  of  nobility.  He  has  done  such  and  such  “  original  work” 
under  professor  so  and  so,  in  that  commanding  university,  and  has  published 


ED  1901 - -58 


914 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


papers.  Of  course  the  effect  is  cumulative,  and  hence  the  ratio  of  efficiency  of  the 
laboratory  against  the  class  room  rises  in  favor  of  the  former  with  successive  gen¬ 
erations.  The  first-class  teacher  of  the  old  times,  who  was  educated  with  all  his 
faculties  in  equilibrium,  is  vanishing  and  the  professor,  demonstrator,  and  tutor, 
who  knows  much  and  can  write  abstruse  books  and  publish  “papers,”  but  who  is 
as  communicative  as  a  sphinx  before  an  audience  (unless  he  has  his  lecture  writ¬ 
ten),  is  taking  his  place. 

Teaching  is  largely  inspiration.  Where,  owing  to  training,  this  can  not  be 
looked  for,  the  proof  is  at  hand  that  the  laboratory  is  the  acme  and  “ne  plus 
ultra”  of  teaching. 

Every  college  graduate  ought  to  be  something  of  a  teacher  of  men,  and  ought  to 
have  something  of  a  teacher’s  command  of  his  surroundings.  This  is  not  a  labo¬ 
ratory  product  directly.  It  is  more  that  of  the  old-time  liberal  education.  Never¬ 
theless,  the  training  of  the  laboratory  will  teach  that  same  man  how  to  weigh  his 
data  and  observe  relations  critically  and  dispassionately.  If  it  accomplishes  this — 
and  there  is  good  reason  to  think  that  it  does — then  college  laboratory  work,  added 
to  the  old  curriculum,  will  materially  improve  college  education.  A  live  teacher 
may  fairly  well  cover  the  requirements  of  college  science  in  the  class  room  if  cir¬ 
cumstances  make  the  laboratory  impossible.  But  the  old  course  did  not  take  it 
for  granted  that  a  single  man  could  teach  any  number  of  students  simultaneously. 
If  25  is  a  large  enough  number  on  the  roll  call  of  the  rhetoric  professor,  then,  for 
the  same  reason,  that  number  is  enough  for  the  science  class.  An  unsatisfactory 
state  of  affairs  obtains  not  unfrequently.  The  same  teacher  teaches  not  only  all 
the  sciences,  but  mathematics  as  well,  and  has  a  composite  audience  of  50  or  60 
in  most  of  his  teaching  hours.  There  is  little  to  show  that  it  is  advantageous  to 
add  a  laboratory  to  his  hours.  He  is  already  overloaded.  There  is  only  one  rem¬ 
edy:  Increase  the  teaching  personnel;  decrease  the  number  in  the  classes.  If  in 
the  order  of  studies  of  a  college  you  find  a  laboratory  figuring,  and  classes  involv¬ 
ing  the  teaching  of  a  number  of  difficult  experimental  sciences  to  a  minimum  of 
a  half  hundred  students  in  each  class,  and  then  discover  that  in  the  list  of  officers 
and  faculty  all  the  responsibility  for  it  can  be  traced  to  one  man,  you  may  be  sure 
that  the  science  situation  is  not  comprehended.  You  will  find,  very  probably,  that 
the  laboratories,  e.  g. ,  are  not  used — about  the  best  use  that  could  be  made  of  them 
under  the  circumstances. 

Many  “modern”  institutions  are  evidently  working  science  for  more  than  it  is 
worth.  They  aim  at  being  universities  as  primary  schools  aim  at  being  high 
schools,  and  these  in  turn  build  into  the  college  campus.  Among  our  own,  how¬ 
ever,  the  tendency  seems  to  be  the  other  way,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  above- 
named  conditions — w^ant  of  facilities  in  class  or  laboratory  rooms,  equipment, 
teaching  personnel,  and  over-crowded  classes.  When  a  laboratory  is  essayed  (some¬ 
how  it  looks  like  a  psychological  phenomenon!)  it  is  always  chemical.  Work  in 
it  never  gets  beyond  the  stage  of  qualitative  analysis  and  rarely  even  passes  what 
the  text-books  call  “experiment.”  That  is,  in  the  latter  case  nothing  is  really 
added  to  what  has  been  witnessed  in  the  class  room,  except  the  risk  of  doing  it 
yourself.  Of  course  it  is  not  useless!  The  privilege  of  trying  an  experiment  your¬ 
self  will  assuredly  engage  attention  to  the  class  lecture.  But  the  real  laboratory 
begins  only  when  the  student's  ability  to  show  quantitative  results  is  challenged. 
Making  hydrogen  gas  in  a  flask  or  burning  the  handle  of  a  “static”  machine  are 
experiments  that  can  be  matched  by  a  hundred  others  without,  properly  speaking, 
representing  the  laboratory.  It  may  be  interesting,  but  has  not  particular  edu¬ 
cating  value.  The  laboratory  will  prove  an  educator  when  it  is  carried  to  such  a 
point  that  the  light  begins  to  dawn  upon  the  student,  by  which  he  sees  how  science 
comes  to  its  conclusions.  This  light  will  illuminate  a  new  horizon  for  him.  He 
will  begin  to  realize  limitations,  begin  to  weigh  evidence,  and  find  his  self  conceit 
checked,  while  at  the  same  time  he  learns  rapidly  and  improves  his  ability  to  learn. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENCE. 


915 


Where  laboratory  work  is  of  the  right  kind  it  may  now  and  then  take  the  place 
of  the  regular  class  lecture.  But  the  teacher  must  be  at  hand.  He,  too,  should 
select  the  work  judiciously;  excluding  what  is  too  obvious  or  only  of  special 
import.  Specializing  is  university  work,  or,  under  circumstances,  that  of  the 
technical  school.  Measurements  pretty  sure  to  result  in  discomfiture,  owing  to 
unsuitable  apparatus,  or  to  their  being  open  to  too  many  abtrusive  sources  of  error, 
should  be  avoided.  It  is  not  good  policy,  generally,  to  discourage  a  laboratory 
fledgeling  with  his  first  flight.  It  is  easy  to  check  too  great  assurance  at  any 
time,  when  it  is  necessary  to  impress  upon  a  scholar  what  scientific  accuracy 
means. 

The  statements  made  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  While  science  is  not  a  new 
element  in  college  courses,  it  has,  within  the  century,  assumed  proportions  that 
appear  to  put  the  education  question  in  a  new  phase. 

Physical  science  demands  admission  to  the  course  upon  very  good  credentials. 
But  the  interests  of  education  are  not  best  served  by  a  revolution  in  the  curric¬ 
ulum,  nor  by  a  reconstruction  which  involves  a  radical  change.  Science  may 
crowd,  e.  g.,  the  humanities  somewhat,  but  not  necessarily  to  an  extent  which 
would  sacrifice  them. 

It  should  not  be  permitted  to  do  so.  The  reason  is  that  though  it  might  be 
proved  that  science  educates,  trains  and  cultivates  as  well  as  other  subjects,  it 
also,  like  other  subjects,  can  not  alone  stand  for  a  complete  education. 

Just  as  the  college  course  does  not  contemplate  philology,  for  instance,  in  the 
pursuit  of  classic  study,  so,  too,  and  for  the  same  reason,  science  does  not  special¬ 
ize,  but  remains  general.  Science  is  not  technical  or  professional  information. 

While  best  placed  in  the  later  years  on  account  of  its  difficulty,  there  is  a  plain 
advantage  in  having  scientifically  informed  teachers  in  all  the  classes. 

The  teacher  rates  higher  than  text-book  or  laboratory.  It  is  always  to  be 
remembered  that  the  college  trains  the  still  young  mind.  This  needs  the  teacher. 
The  intellectual  independence  of  the  university  “  auditor”  can  not  be  assured  in 
the  college  alumnus.  It  is  not,  therefore,  ‘ 4  quia  traditum  est  ”  nor  *  *  quia  a  majori- 
bus  institutum,”  that  stress  is  laid  on  the  teacher,  though  it  is  true  that  credit 
must  be  given  to  our  “Majores”  for  their  appreciation  of  Providence’s  truly 
scientific  method,  which  is  plainly  that  of  direct  personal  teaching. 

It  is  precisely  because  the  science  teacher  takes  his  pupil  directly  into  the 
Lord’s  infinitely  rich,  though  only  material  creation,  that  he  ought  to  be  a  cice¬ 
rone  worthy  of  the  name.  The  best  informed  and  most  experienced  science 
teacher  will  best  realize  that  for  one  stone  he  has  looked  under,  a  million  remain 
unturned. 

“Exercises”  such  as  are  called  for  by  the  teacher  of  classics  and  compositions 
(from  simple  narrations  and  descriptions  to  ambitious  orations)  can,  in  science, 
be  properly  paralleled  only  by  the  laboratory.  This  justifies  its  introduction,  and 
its  claim  to  being  properly  managed,  and  having  its  purpose  clearly  understood. 
A  camera  club  does  not  represent  this  element.  On  the  contrary ,  it  may  represent 
a  nuisance. 

The  apprehension  of  its  expensiveness  may  lead  instinctively  to  an  unformu¬ 
lated,  but  nevertheless  existent  bias  to  repress  science.  Not  a  little  depends  on 
how  science  is  conducted.  Chemistry  at  college  need  not  involve  heavy  financing. 
Physics  investments  are  usually  permanent.  Some  equipment  is  necessary,  and 
it  is  perilous  not  to  face  this  issue,  for  the  demands  of  science  are  not  going  to 
diminish  in  the  near  future.  It  is  therefore  prudent  to  improve  science  conditions 
steadily — a  little  at  a  time. 

Finally,  students’  libraries,  for  the  same  and,  perhaps,  even  greater  reason, 
should  be  looked  to.  Science  should  have  its  shelf.  It  is  much  better  than  that 
our  “illustrated  magazines”  should  command  shelves  and  the  reading  tables 
besides.  Also,  science  is  better  than  fiction.  The  classroom,  laboratory,  and 


916 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


library  go  together.  Where  one  is  meager  you  will  find  the  others  scant.  The 
rank  of  the  library  needs  no  plaidoyer.  If  I  could  not  get  both  I  would  rather 
have  books  than  apparatus,  and  would  choose  a  good  teacher  in  preference  to  both, 
if  I  were  limited  to  one  out  of  three  elements.  Where  they  can  be  brought 
together,  the  best  results  can  be  expected,  and  education  will  prosper  under  the 
influence  of  the  physical  science. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY  IN  COLLEGE. 

By  Rev.  Laurence  A.  Delurey,  O.  S.  A., 

President  of  Villanova  College,  Villanova ,  Pa. 

To  prove  the  value  and  indispensability  of  the  study  of  history  would  almost 
seem  a  task  as  superfluous  as  the  exertion  to  prove  the  value  of  the  sun  upon 
animal  life.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  rich  enjoyments  and  the  vast 
treasure  which  the  temple  of  history  contains,  will  not  deign  to  consider  the  argu¬ 
ments  even  in  its  favor.  Those  who  have  feasted  upon  the  solid  nourishment 
which  Clio  spreads  before  the  guests  who  gather  around  her  banquet  table  need 
no  argumentative  inducement  to  acquiesce  in  a  proposition  which  finds  their 
approval  in  advance.  If,  however,  our  approval  of  a  certain  subject  for  study 
should  prove  the  superfluity  of  argument  in  its  favor,  it  would  equally  apply  to 
every  topic  upon  the  programme  of  this  conference.  Moreover,  it  can  not  be 
denied  that  the  teaching  of  history  in  college  is  not  emphasized  as  it  deserves  to 
be.  Nor  does  the  method  of  teaching  history  receive  the  attention  which  the 
importance  of  it  demands. 

By  training  and  view  point  we  do  not  belong  to  the  category  of  those  who  make 
the  study  of  the  classics  a  debatable  question.  But  the  difficulty  of  acquiring  the 
knowledge  of  the  classics  and  of  mastering  them  makes  it  more  than  an  open 
question  with  students  and  often  requires  much  persuasion  to  acquiesce  in  the 
quantity  and  quality  prescribed  by  the  college  curriculum.  Not  so  in  the  study 
of  history.  There  is  a  natural  feeling  which  attracts  all  men  to  the  study  of  his¬ 
tory  which  argues  strongly  in  favor  of  teaching  it.  The  imagination  dwells  with 
pleasure  upon  the  past  and  the  mind  becomes  enriched  in  meditating  upon  the 
pictures  which  history  draws  upon  its  canvas.  This  feeling  is  deeply  noted  in  the 
emotional  as  well  as  in  the  moral  nature  of  mankind,  and  whenever  that  nature  is 
not  tainted  by  corruption  and  is  in  a  healthy  and  normal  state  of  development  it 
will  manifest  its  sympathy  with  the  struggles  and  victories  of  the  human  family 
as  it  is  sketched  by  the  faithful  hand  of  history.  To  know  this  great  human 
famil}7  to  which  we  belong;  to  understand  its  intellectual  and  spiritual  life;  to 
follow  the  great  stream  upon  which  its  skiff  was  pushing  on  toward  the  golden 
shores  of  Ideality,  and  upon  which  we  oft  drift  along  in  uncertainty,  must  be  and 
is  regarded  as  of  the  highest  human  interest. 

The  true  life  of  humanity  is  unfolded  and  recognized  in  history  as  in  no  other 
branch  of  knowledge.  Here  the  energies,  the  aspirations,  the  struggles,  the  hopes, 
and  the  ambitions  of  mankind  are  laid  bare  for  the  reflection  of  the  student. 
Without  history  each  generation  would  go  its  own  way,  and  would  be  doomed  to 
tread  the  same  path  forever.  In  history  all  generations  are  linked  together,  and 
she  thus  becomes  the  consciousness  of  humanity.  In  the  study  of  history  the  stu¬ 
dent  learns  to  realize  the  traditions  and  experiences  of  centuries.  The  ideas,  the 
knowledge,  and  discoveries  of  all  nations  and  all  ages.  What  wise  men  thought, 
what  great  heroes  suffered,  what  the  heart  of  man  craved  for,  is  transmitted  to 
him  as  a  precious  heritage,  together  with  the  last  testament  of  the  dead  past,  that 
he  may  develop  it  into  perfection. 

A  part  of  the  object  of  education  is  to  furnish  the  student  with  such  instru- 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY  IN  COLLEGE. 


917 


merits  of  knowledge  as  will  make  him  comprehend  the  better  and  the  easier  all 
that  may  occur  in  private  and  public  life,  and  thus  enable  him  to  press  these  occur¬ 
rences  into  service  for  the  highest  good;  but  without  the  study  of  history  every 
book  will  be  to  him  valueless  because  unintelligible,  the  most  important  events 
only  so  many  accidents,  the  present  a  riddle,  and  the  future  a  sealed  book.  Phi¬ 
losophy,  at  once  the  most  daring  and  the  noblest  aspiration  of  human  thought,  is 
soaring  aimlessly  without  the  compass  which  history  furnishes,  and  is  inevitably 
lost  in  the  unintelligible  without  her  guide.  The  precious  twins  of  cultured  life, 
art  and  poetry,  become  a  mere  pastime,  a  wild  phantasy  of  a  fevered  imagination, 
unless  they  are  nursed  upon  the  breast  of  history  which  throws  light  upon  the 
times  which  produced  them  and  the  inspirations  that  gave  them  life.  In  history 
the  student  is  able  to  overlook  from  an  elevated  position  the  ever-changing  actions 
of  individuals  and  nations,  to  learn  that  nothing  that  happens  is  new  and  startling. 
By  the  guidance  of  history  he  is  made  to  discern  easily  the  hidden  motives  of 
human  action  and  to  divine  the  consequences,  and  thus  the  past  becomes  the  key 
to  the  present,  and  the  present  the  mirror  of  the  future.  It  helps  to  remove  the 
prejudice  of  early  training  or  of  environments;  it  broadens  the  sympathies  of 
the  student  and  teaches  him  to  trace  the  footprints  of  God  in  his  dealings  with 
the  human  family  in  history. 

All  sciences  stand  in  some  relation  to  each  other,  and  one  aids  and  explains  the 
other.  In  this  wide  sense  we  might  say  that  all  the  philosophical,  mathematical, 
physical,  and  philological  sciences  stand  in  some  relation  to  history;  but  even  in 
a  stricter  sense  many  sciences,  like  chronology,  geography,  genealogy,  diplomacy, 
sphragistics,  heraldry,  numismatics,  and  statistics  are  the  essential  auxiliary  sci¬ 
ences  of  history,  and  they  receive  much  light  from  her.  History  is  the  school  of 
the  statesman,  the  text-book  of  the  laws  and  the  cults  of  nations  for  the  jurist,  and 
inspiring  gallery  of  a  struggling  brotherhood,  and  of  moral  heroes  for  the  priest, 
the  holy  and  ever-burning  fire  for  the  imagination  of  the  poet  and  artist,  a  source 
of  inexhaustible  themes  for  the  orator,  and  the  mother  of  half  of  the  sciences. 

Nor  should  it  be  overlooked  that  history  furnishes  the  student  with  powerful 
weapons  in  the  defense  of  truth  and  religion.  Not  in  vain  did  the  church, 
especially  in  the  last  century,  by  the  mouth  of  her  pontiff,  argue  for  a  deeper 
study  of  history.  True  history,  and  only  such,  should  be  taught.  True  history 
bears  testimony  to  our  most  holy  faith,  and  under  her  torchlight  the  beauty  of  our 
faith  is  heightened,  and  heresy,  incapable  of  the  blush  of  shame,  appears  more 
shameful  and  repulsive.  Righteousness  and  virtue  have  their  power  in  their 
charm  and  greatness.  Righteousness  is  not  always  victorious,  and  virtue  does 
not  always  bring  happiness;  and  this  highness,  their  moral  dignity  and  their  lus¬ 
ter,  consist  in  self-sacrifice  and  self-abnegation.  This  is  the  teaching  of  morality, 
but  the  abstract  idea  of  duty  wins  more  cheerful  followers  by  the  aid  of  symbol¬ 
ized  examples  of  actual  life.  In  the  examples  which  history  furnishes,  which 
inspire  love  and  compel  admiration,  the  abstract  moral  system  is  transformed  into 
a  living  picture  of  acting  individuals  and  nations.  He  who  enters  into  the  gallery 
of  great  and  noble  men  is  permeated  with  the  dignity  of  human  nature,  and  his 
energies  are  spurred  on  to  exercise  in  true  imitation.  True,  these  examples  may 
be  few,  but  they  are  not  less  elevating,  nor  they  are  rather  more  so,  in  contrast 
with  vices  of  the  majority. 

These  are  some  of  the  charms  and  immense  advantages  which  urge  strongly  in 
favor  of  emphasizing  the  teaching  of  history,  and  here  are  some  of  the  dangers  in 
the  path  of  him  who  wishes  to  suck  the  honey  of  history,  a  beautiful  flower  full 
of  thorns  in  the  garden  of  the  sciences. 

History  can  accomplish  all  I  have  claimed  as  long  as  she  is  permitted  to  remain 
in  the  service  of  truth  and  to  be  the  handmaid  of  religion;  but  history  has  been  per¬ 
verted  and  made  to  serve  partisan  ends  and  to  plead  the  cause  of  unrighteousness. 
In  the  letter  to  the  Cardinals  de  Luca,  Pitra,  and  Hergenroether,  dated  August 


918 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

15,  1883,  and  dealing  with  the  advancement  of  the  science  of  the  study  of  history, 
onr  holy  father  Leo  XIII  characterizes  most  eloquently:  “Those  who  in  order  to 
cast  suspicion  upon  the  church  and  the  papacy  attack  most  powerfully  and  with 
cunningness  the  part  of  history  which  belongs  in  a  specific  manner  to  the  Christian 
period.  These  weapons  of  attack,”  proceeds  the  pope,  “were  made  use  of  three 
hundred  years  ago  by  the  centuriators  of  Magdeburg.  Seeing  that  the  originators 
and  followers  of  the  new  sect  could  not  destroy  the  fortifications  which  surround 
the  Catholic  Church,  they  attempted  by  strategy  to  force  the  church  into  histor¬ 
ical  discussions.  This  method  of  treating  history  was  followed  by  all  the  schools 
that  alienated  themselves  from  the  church.  The  same  strategy  is  still  employed 
at  the  present  time,  and  to-day  more  than  ever  may  it  be  said  that  the  art  employed 
in  historiography  is  nothing  less  than  a  conspiracy  against  the  truth.  The  worst 
of  it  is  that  this  method  of  treating  history  found  entrance  into  the  schoolroom, 
and  very  often  the  children  received  their  historical  instruction  from  books  which 
are  filled  with  misrepresentations.  If  the  teacher  is  frivolously  and  wickedly 
inclined,  the  young  reader  is  made  acquainted  with  a  history  wThich  inclines  him 
to  treat  with  contempt  a  venerated  antiquity  and  to  proudly  despise  holy  things 
and  persons.  The  danger  increases  in  the  higher  studies  of  history  where,  from 
a  mere  statement  of  facts,  the  study  leads  on  to  the  investigation  and  critical 
examination  of  the  facts  themselves,  and  there  the  student  is  made  to  start  from 
false  stories  which  are  in  sharp  contrast  with  revelation  and  have  for  their  aim 
the  denial  of  the  blessings  of  Christian  institutions  in  the  life  of  the  nations. 

“Once  history  becomes  the  abettor  of  partisan  tendencies  and  human  passion, 
the  extent  of  the  danger  and  the  disastrous  consequences  are  hardly  conceivable. 
For  then  she  is  no  longer  the  teacher  of  life  and  the  light  of  truth,  as  she  was  of 
old,  but  a  participant  in  crimes  and  a  courtesan  in  corruption,  and  especially  for 
the  young  student,  whose  mind  is  filled  with  romances  and  whose  sense  is  disin¬ 
clined  toward  reverence  and  modesty.  The  youthful  mind,  easily  impressed,  is 
taken  possession  of,  and  the  false  presentation  of  the  events  and  men  which  pass 
before  him  in  a  vivid  manner,  are  engraved  upon  his  mind  for  the  whole  of  his 
life.  The  poison  thus  instilled  in  tender  age  into  the  mind  can  hardly  be  eradi¬ 
cated  in  later  life,  for  but  few  are  prepared  in  matured  age  to  devote  much  time 
to  a  closer  investigation  of  history,  and  the  fatal  training  of  earlier  days  is  only 
confirmed  by  erroneous  views  of  maturer  life.  It  is  therefore  of  supreme  import¬ 
ance  to  obviate  such  dangers  and  to  prevent  such  a  noble  science  as  history  from 
becoming  a  storehouse  of  material  for  the  destruction  of  the  individual  or  the 
world  at  large.” 

The  danger  so  vigorously  pictured  by  the  pontiff,  and  which  is  familiar  to  every 
student  of  history,  is  the  result  of  unreliable  text- books,  such  as  are  colorless, 
written  by  men  who  in  modern  times  boast  of  being  historiographers  without  an 
opinion,  and  which  leaves  the  young  student  ample  opportunity  to  form  his  own 
opinion,  which,  by  the  very  nature  of  things,  inexperience  in  forming  judgment, 
lack  of  information,  disinclination  for  the  truth  as  a  result  of  early  training, 
must,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  prove  fatal  in  the  end.  As  I  intend  to  speak  of 
this  later  on,  a  hint  is  sufficient  here.  The  modern  destructive  method  qf  inter- 
I>reting  history,  which  inclines  the  mind  not  to  search  in  order  to  find  the  truth, 
but  which  with  the  skeptic’s  eye  is  eagerly  seeking  to  find  evidences  against  it,  has 
contributed  no  little  toward  the  dangers  against  which  the  words  of  Leo  XIII, 
above  cited,  warn  and  exhort  us. 

To  remove,  or  at  least  minimize  these  dangers,  we  must  adopt  a  proper  method 
of  treating  history,  a  few  suggestions  of  which  are  submitted  for  your  kind  con¬ 
sideration. 

A  mere  mechanical  memorizing  of  dates,  facts,  persons,  and  names  is  to  be  stu¬ 
diously  avoided.  All  these  skeletons  must  be  clothed  with  a  body,  and  a  living 
soul  must  be  infused  into  them,  so  that  the  student  can  see  and  comprehend  the 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY  IN  COLLEGE. 


919 


action  of  persons  and  the  significance  of  dates,  facts,  and  events.  No  other  science 
abhors  so  much  scattered,  isolated,  and  fragmentary  treatment  as  does  the  science 
of  history,  and  in  no  other  field  of  investigation  as  in  that  of  history  can  the  teacher 
expect  less  results  under  such  treatment.  In  teaching  history  more  than  in  the 
instruction  of  any  other  branch  of  knowledge,  is  disconnection  more  marked,  and 
the  absence  of  a  unifying  principle  more  painfully  felt.  The  time,  the  place,  and 
the  persons  must  be  treated  in  a  coherent  process  by  the  teacher,  and  in  a  manner 
that  will  throw  light  upon  the  events,  and  make  them  comprehensible  to  the  stu¬ 
dent,  and  thus  impress  them  upon  his  mind.  This  requires  a  somewhat  philo¬ 
sophical  treatment  of  the  causes  of  the  events,  and  especially  of  institutions,  and 
more  particularly  so  of  religious  institutions,  or  of  the  moral  causes  calling  such 
institutions  into  being,  or  contributing  toward  their  development.  The  various 
causes  leading  up  to  the  various  events,  mediate  or  immediate;  internal  or  exter¬ 
nal;  physical  or  moral,  must  be  carefully  treated  and  critically  examined.  The 
most  important  events  in  history  are  sometimes  the  result  of  apparently  most 
insignificant  circumstances,  so  that  one  is  justly  astonished  to  notice  the  appar¬ 
ently  weak  link  to  which  is  fastened  the  most  heavy  chain  of  events.  These  small 
events  must  not  escape  the  critical  eyes  of  the  teacher.  In  the  physical  world  the 
little  pebble  thrown  into  the  river  causes  the  extended  ripple,  the  dewdrops  an 
avalanche,  a  spark  the  destructive  flame,  and  a  grain  of  sand  will  destroy  the  bal¬ 
ance  of  a  loaded  wagon.  So  in  history,  that  which  decides  the  fate  of  nations  for 
centuries  is  often  produced  by  the  most  insignificant  circumstances  or  persons.  In 
these  remarkable  and  often  insignificant  incidents,  the  student  should  be  made  to 
see,  not  the  blind  accidents,  but  to  adore  the  mysterious  operations  of  an  infinite 
spirit,  whose  ever-seeing  eye  penetrates  the  future,  who  brings  the  calculations  of 
human  wisdom  to  naught,  and  uses  the  power  of  human  ambition  to  carry  out 
His  plan.  These  workings  of  an  infinite  spirit  in  history  must  ever  be  pointed 
by  the  teacher  as  the  golden  linings  over  the  darkest  clouds  in  human  events, 
and  as  the  silvery  thread  that  holds  them  all  together.  A  teacher  may  gather 
his  pupils  in  the  forest,  around  a  nightingale’s  nest,  to  discuss,  critically,  the 
nature  and  characteristics  of  the  bird,  while  the  bird  itself,  scared  by  their  noisy 
disputations,  leaves  the  nest,  and  from  beneath  the  shadow  of  a  far* off  thicket  are 
heard  the  melodies  of  its  music.  Likewise,  the  method  of  teaching  history  may 
be  ever  so  critical,  but  it  must  not  so  deafen  the  moral  teaching  of  the  students  as 
to  make  them  miss  the  sweet  music  of  Him  who  guides  the  actions  of  individuals 
and  nations,  and  holds  them  all  in  the  hollow  of  His  hands. 

The  development  of  each  one  in  the  manifestation  of  His  vast  powers  and  ener¬ 
gies,  and  the  development  of  the  individual  in  communal  life  of  the  family,  the 
tribe  or  the  nation  where  the  ideas,  powers,  and  energies  of  the  individual  are 
supplemented  by  the  ideas  of  the  other  members  of  society;  and  where  the  labors 
and  achievements  of  one  generation  are  bequeathed  for  another  generation  forms 
the  history  of  a  particular  nation.  The  particular  characteristics,  habits  of 
thought,  customs  and  culture  of  the  various  nations,  in  a  word,  the  history  of  the 
world,  of  mankind  upon  earth,  the  changes  of  the  earth  through  man,  and  the 
changes  in  lives  of  man  and  nations,  by  virture  of  living  upon  earth,  or  in  a  par¬ 
ticular  spot  on  this  earth  at  a  particular  time,  tracing  these  various  changes  to 
their  final  causes  and  to  sum  up  the  final  process  of  development  of  humanity  as 
a  whole,  is  the  specific  office  of  the  teacher  of  history. 

To  apply  this  treatment  to  the  whole  of  history  in  detail  "would  indeed  be  a  task 
which  no  professor  could  undertake  or  solve  with  any  degree  of  success  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  a  college  curriculum.  Such  a  method  of  teaching  history 
might  justly  be  condemned  as  impossible,  and  hence  impracticable  for  the  pur¬ 
poses  which  are  the  aim  of  this  assembly.  However,  this  task  will  draw  its  own 
sphere  and  determine  its  own  limitations. 

An  individual  is  oft  manifested  in  a  single  act  or  word.  The  spirit  which  ani- 


920 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901 


mates  a  whole  nation  or  epoch  in  history,  the  principal  motives  which  guide  a 
nation,  and  the  underlying  principles  which  form  the  soul  of  a  whole  epoch,  all  of 
which  may  appear  like  a  net  to  the  student,  will  be  braced  and  gathered  by  the 
skillful  teacher  from  a  few  features.  The  teacher  will  not  direct  his  attention  in 
the  class  room  to  the  manifold  manifestation  of  each  individual  or  nation  or  epoch, 
but  his  aim  will  be  to  deal  with  some  particular  characteristic  act  or  acts  of  such 
person  or  persons,  whose  marked  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  the  particular 
period  is  predominant,  and  only  such  multifariousness  which  form  themselves 
into  unifying  historic  characters  will  he  attempt  to  deal  with  and  to  bring  them 
conspicuously  clear  before  the  mind  of  the  student,  and  only  such  nations  or  group 
of  nations  will  he  admit  for  consideration  into  his  philosophic  discussion  whose 
contribution  toward  the  development  of  history,  and  especially  on  a  certain  period 
of  history,  is  preeminent. 

There  is  no  reason  why  the  treatment  of  history  which  I  have  spoken  of  could 
not  be  applied  successfully  to  the  various  parts  or  sections  or  epochs  of  history.  In 
Catholic  colleges  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  would  seem  a  most  interesting, 
and  certainly  most  fruitful,  epoch  to  deal  with.  The  specific  features  and  charac¬ 
teristics  of  that  age,  the  various  institutions,  the  church,  the  state,  the  relation  of 
one  to  another,  education,  art,  science,  all  of  which  is  so  little  understood  in  even 
educated  Catholic  circles,  and  so  much  misrepresented  by  non-Catholic  writers, 
ought  to  receive  our  particular  attention.  The  chapter  of  the  Renaissance,  where 
much  of  the  historic  cobweb  which  modern  historians  hung  around  its  door  as 
the  drapery  of  their  fervid  and  partial  imagination,  covers  also  the  face  and  under¬ 
standing  of  the  student,  which  the  teacher  should  clear  away,  and  thus  prepare 
the  way  for  a  profitable  study  of  the  history  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  history  of  the  so-called  Reformation,  the  personages  and  their  character¬ 
istics,  their  principles,  religious  and  civil,  their  motives  and  their  temperament, 
the  changes  of  a  temporal  or  religious  nature  of  permanent  value,  all  demand  a 
careful  treatment  at  our  hands,  and  all  are  not  too  extensive.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  French  Revolution,  of  the  period  of  constitutionalism,  of  the  Cultur-Kampf, 
and  many  other  periods  in  history. 

Nor  should  the  teacher  be  unmindful  of  the  fact  that  the  college  is  only  the  bar¬ 
rack  where  men  are  to  be  drilled  for  future  action  in  battles  which  life  provides. 
Hence,  he  must  acquaint  the  student  with  the  instruments  which  he  is  to  use, 
their  nature  and  character,  and  how  to  use  them.  He  must  acquaint  the  student 
with  the  key  or  keys  to  the  study  of  history;  how  and  with  what  temper  he 
should  approach  the  study  of  history  and  each  particular  epoch.  In  this  modern 
age,  where  every  newspaper  and  periodical  pretends  to  have  mastered  every 
department  of  science,  where  everybody  reads  everything  indiscriminately,  the 
student  comes  to  the  study  of  history  with  a  confusion  of  ideas  which  we  who 
deal  with  the  problems  of  education  are  too  painfully  aware  of,  and  which  the 
proper  method  of  teaching  history,  which  the  initiation  of  the  proper  study  of 
history  forms  a  part,  should  eradicate. 

The  history  of  the  United  States  demands  our  particular  attention.  The  diffi¬ 
culties  in  this  particular  study  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  But  a  few  works  of 
any  permanent  value  are  on  hand.  The  changes  in  this  country  have  been  great 
and  rapid.  Most  writers  on  American  history  were  either  led  astray  by  external 
glitter  and  a  startling  manifestation  of  material  power,  and  some  were  guided  by 
partisan  prejudices,  which  is  natural  under  the  prevailing  circumstances,  and  not 
a  few  could  not  dominate  the  complexity  of  the  national  character  and  the  intri¬ 
cacies  of  our  peculiar  form  of  government.  For  the  Catholic  student  a  thorough 
comprehension  of  the  history  of  this  country  is  indispensable.  However,  a 
thorough  grasp  of  the  history  of  the  Reformation  period  will  considerably  aid 
both  the  teacher  and  the  student  in  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY  IN  COLLEGE. 


921 


That  the  task  which  is  herein  outlined  for  the  teacher  of  history  is  not  an  easy 
one  is  readily  admitted,  but  it  is  one  fully  worthy  of  him  who  is  to  train  the  young 
and  inspiring  to  contemplate. 

Bodin  says:  “Quis  dubitat,  quin  historicus  vir  gravis,  integer,  severus,  intelli- 
gens,  disertus  et  quasi  communis  ac  privatse  vitae,  omniumque  rerum  magnarum 
scientia  instructus  esse  debeat.”  Much  the  same  is  true  of  the  teacher  of  history. 
Hence  in  my  scheme  I  speak  of  the  stress  that  should  be  laid  on  the  knowledge, 
skill ,  and  religious  view  of  the  teachers  of  history  in  colleges. 

The  teacher  of  history  must  be  possessed  of  historic  knowledge,  or,  rather,  filled 
with  the  historic  spirit.  He  must  possess  a  lofty  historic  intellect,  that  goes 
around  the  globe,  and  not  one  that  is  limited  by  his  own  horizon.  His  posture 
and  bearing  toward  all  truth  must  be  enterprising,  ever  ready  to  plunge  into  new 
fields  of  investigation;  vigilant,  precise,  and  even  tempered  in  his  investigation; 
but  withal  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  reverence  toward  all  that  passes  before  his 
critical  mind — a  childlike  spirit,  ever  open  for  the  truth— for,  as  Bacon  well 
remarks,  the  kingdom  of  science,  like  the  kingdom  of  Heaven,  is  open  only  to  the 
child,  the  docile,  the  recipient  and  reverent  mind. 

The  teacher  of  history  must  have  the  historic  spirit  in  the  sense  that  history  to 
him  is  not  a  mere  volume  of  biographies  of  avaricious  individuals,  a  mere  catalogue 
of  events.  One  whose  theory  of  history  is  atomic,  a  theory  that  does  not  recognize 
the  common  humanity  to  be  manifested  in  the  millions  of  individuals  and  the 
multitudes  of  ages  and  epochs,  a  theory  of  history  which  has  no  principle,  no 
organization — such  a  one  is  unfit  to  occupy  the  high  and  honored  position  of  a 
teacher  of  history.  To  the  true  historic  mind  there  is  nothing  in  history  irrelative; 
every  account  of  a  particular  period  is  to  it  but  a  small  section  of  the  great  his¬ 
toric  protest  born  of  the  same  historic  spirit  which  preceded,  and  which  will  again 
be  a  factor  in  the  future;  the  several  ages  of  which  it  takes  cognizance  have  some 
inward  connection  with  each  other,  a  common  tendency,  and  consequently  the 
whole,  entire  task  stands  in  some  relation  to  the  present.  That  modern  spirit  of 
unguarded  enthusiasm  for  everything  new  and  modern,  which  abhors  the  past 
and  idolizes  the  present,  that  modern  spirit  which  has  revived  the  pagan  spirit  of 
nationalism  whereby  the  Englishman  regards  the  German  from  his  standpoint 
only,  and  vice  versa,  is  one  that  deprives  men  of  historic  spirit  and  makes  the 
possessor  of  it  unfit  to  teach  history  and  his  presence  in  the  class  room  a  danger. 

The  teacher  of  history  must  have  skill — skill  in  presenting  historical  events, 
skill  in  narration — so  that  all  the  events  and  persons  must  pass  before  us  like  a 
drama,  captivating  our  interest  to  a  degree  that  we  feel  impelled  to  live  the  same 
life  and  to  participate  in  the  same  plans;  skill  to  attract  and  hold  the  intense 
attention  of  the  student  and  to  carry  him  higher  through  the  many  ages  and 
various  events.  It  may  be  objected  that  the  qualities  in  the  teacher  above  insisted 
upon  would  result  in  the  presentation  of  history  from  a  subjective,  and  not  from 
an  objective,  view  point.  Objectivity  in  the  presentation  of  history,  I  readily 
admit,  is  not  only  desirable  but  indispensable  in  the  teacher  no  less  than  in  the 
historiographer.  But  objectivity  must  not  be  confounded  with  a  void,  empty, 
and  blank  mind  in  the  professor  of  history.  Professor,  I  said  for  the  first  time, 
and  not  without  intention.  There  is  quite  a  distinction  between  the  preceptor  and 
professor. 

Profitemur.  We  who  teach  in  a  college  must  have  something  to  profess  of  our 
own  views,  of  the  result  of  our  studies  and  investigation,  and  not  be  ashamed  of 
our  scientific  convictions,  or  we  cease  to  be  professors  and  become  mere  school 
masters.  Objectivity  in  weighing  evidence,  in  a  critical  examination  of  docu¬ 
ments,  in  comparing  various  facts  with  each  other,  is  more  assuredly  to  be  in¬ 
sisted  upon,  but  the  teacher  must  nevertheless  approach  the  study  of  each  nation 
and  epoch  with  some  view  point  after  careful  investigation,  and  these  conclusions 
he  must  profess  before  his  students.  Profitemur. 


922 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


That  the  view  point  of  the  professor  of  history  is  a  matter  of  most  vital  con¬ 
cern  goes  without  saying.  Upon  the  view  point  of  the  iDrofessor  will  depend 
whether  persons  in  history — as,  for  instance,  those  prominently  figuring  at  the 
■introduction  of  Christianity — will  be  regarded  as  fanatics,  hypocrites,  and  knaves, 
or  as  Heaven’s  messengers  dying  in  the  interest  of  immortal  truth.  We  must 
assuredly  insist  that  the  historic  view  point  of  the  professor  should  be  a  religious 
one.  He  must  occupy  theistic  Christian  ground.  He  must  see  in  history  but  one 
lesson,  one  truth.  Down  through  the  ages  and  generations  he  must  be  able  to 
trace  but  one  line,  and  along  this  line  must  be  the  truth,  and  out  of  it  error. 
The  teacher  of  history  is  this  earth  and  world  of  ours;  but  to  the  professor 
Christ  must  be  the  central  figure  around  which  all  clusters.  The  aim  of  histor¬ 
ical  life  must  be  the  erection  of  the  kingdom  of  G-od  on  earth  and  the  salvation  of 
men.  The  history  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  by  Gibbon, 
with  its  many  excellencies,  with  its  vast  erudition,  with  its  attractive  and  impos¬ 
ing  rhetoric,  lacks  the  truly  historic  spirit,  tainted  as  it  is  by  Gibbons  religious 
skepticism,  which  paralyzes  the  whole.  The  reader  feels  that  in  spite  of  the  pomp 
and  panorama  he  must  look  elsewhere  for  information  of  the  true  cause  of  that 
decline  and  fall.  The  lesson,  “Righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,” is  here  missing, 
and  the  scenic  representation  of  the  period  is  not  a  substitute  for  it.  With  a  pro¬ 
fessor  with  such  a  religious  view  point  the  question  of  a  text-book  with  a  bias 
tendency  will  easily  settle  itself. 

But  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  college  authorities  to  exclude  from  the  class  room 
any  text-book  of  history  which  might  endanger  the  mind  of  the  student  or  im¬ 
pede  his  progress  in  the  right  direction.  *  *  * 


.  THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  COLLEGE. 

By  Prof.  Edmund  J.  Ryan,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  English  at  Mount  St.  Marys  College ,  Emmitsburg ,  Md. 

College  education  is  in  its  scope  not  specific,  but  general.  It  trains  not  for  a  par¬ 
ticular  vocation,  but  for  all  vocations,  and  aims  to  make  man  wiser,  nobler,  and 
better,  and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  abroad  culture  which  will  advantage  man  in 
whatsoever  sphere  his  duties  may  lie.  With  these  ends  no  branch  of  learning  is 
in  so  full  harmony  as  the  language  studies.  Properly  taught,  not  only  do  they 
serve  as  discipline  for  the  mind;  but,  involving  as  they  do  an  acquaintance  with 
the  thoughts  and  deeds  of  men,  they  make  for  the  widest  knowledge.  Language 
is  as  intimately  connected  with  reason  as  breathing  is  with  living,  and  is  the  out¬ 
ward  manifestation  of  the  inner  life  of  the  soul.  Hence,  in  all  true  courses  of 
general  instruction  to  it  is  given  the  most  prominent  place. 

Of  the  relative  value  of  foreign  languages,  whether  dead  or  living,  there  may 
be  some  question;  but  of  the  vital  importance  of  the  mother  tongue  there  can  be  no 
doubt.  “  If  a  gentleman  is  to  study  any  language,”  says  Locke,  “it  ought  to  be 
that  of  his  own  country;  ”  and  surely  English,  regarded  merely  as  a  medium  of 
communication,  is  not  unworthy  of  deepest  consideration. 

From  its  composite  character  it  has  a  unique  interest.  The  simplest  means  to 
an  end  is  the  best,  and  that  grammatical  simplicity  toward  which  all  languages 
tend,  English  achieved,  almost  at  once,  by  a  political  change,  which,  at  the  same 
time,  was  a  prime  factor  in  our  wealth  of  words.  Simple  in  its  structure,  and  com¬ 
bining  some  of  the  warmth  and  grace  of  the  South  with  the  rugged  strength  of 
the  North — rich,  as  its  literature  clearly  shows,  in  expressiveness  of  the  nicest 
shades  of  thought  and  feeling— English  is  a  fit  instrument  of  speech  for  those 


THE  TEACHING-  OF  ENGLISH  IN  COLLEGE.  923 

peoples  who,  by  their  “energy  and  determination/'  are  gradually  making  it  a 
4  4  world  language.  ” 

It  is  not,  however,  by  its  excellence  as  a  tool  that  English  appeals  to  most  of  us. 
Its  chief  claim  to  preeminence  in  our  college  course  lies  in  this,  that  it  is  the  tool 
that  we  must  use — our  native  speech.  By  it  impression  is  made  upon  our  minds 
and  expression  given  to  them.  In  it  we  feel  and  think;  by  it  we  act.  Upon  a 
knowledge  of  English  the  rest  of  education  largely  depends,  because  through  it 
must  come  the  greater  part  of  our  information  and  instruction.  Without  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  it  almost  all  other  learning  is  vain;  for  knowledge, 
like  money,  is  useful  only  when  circulated,  and  it  is  by  means  of  English  that  we 
must  pay  our  tribute  to  the  store  of  the  world’s  wisdom.  It  is  the  one  study  that 
is  applied  in  all  walks  of  life,  the  one  that  is  most  needed  for  the  highest  success, 
and  the  one,  therefore,  that  demands  from  educators  the  greatest  attention. 

While  the  supreme  importance  of  the  mother  tongue  is  generally  recognized,  it 
can  hardly  be  said  that  the  actual  teaching  has  been  in  accord  with  such  recog¬ 
nition.  Familiarity  with  the  subject  has  bred  carelessness  in  both  teacher  and 
pupil;  and  from  this,  as  well  as  from  a  too  great  dependence  on  the  benefits  accru¬ 
ing  from  the  study  of  the  classics,  the  teaching  of  English  has  suffered.  It  is  not 
so  long  since  a  candidate  for  admission  to  the  larger  colleges  in  the  country  dis¬ 
played,  by  his  ability  to  translate  foreign  tongues,  enough  knowledge  of  his  own 
language  for  entrance,  and  preparatory  courses  in  English  consisted  of  only  some 
desultory  composition  work.  That  the  study  of  other  languages,  and  in  a  lesser 
degree  all  the  branches  taught,  are  aids  in  developing  and  strengthening  the 
power  of  expression  is  undeniable;  but  that  this  preparation  was  insufficient  for 
the  best  results  is  evidenced  by  the  more  recent  requirements,  which  have  done 
much  to  quicken  interest  in  English  in  secondary  schools. 

There  yet  remains  much  to  be  done,  and  especially  among  us.  In  any  course  in 
which  the  time  given  to  it  is  less  by  almost  one-half  than  the  time  given  to 
another  language,  English  can  not  be  considered  the  principal  subject. 

There  is,  moreover,  in  the  teaching  of  English  another  fault  which  hinders  true 
progress.  Too  often  the  real  intent  of  the  instruction  is  lost  sight  of,  each  par¬ 
ticular  branch  is  taught  for  itself,  and  that  which  is  a  means  becomes  an  end. 
The  primary  object  is  not  to  know,  but  to  do;  it  is  not  science,  it  is  art.  Viewed 
in  this  light,  the  study  takes  on  an  attractiveness  that  adds  zest  to  its  pursuit. 
Science  is  truth,  but  cold,  hard,  matter-of-fact  truth;  art  is  not  less  truth,  but  it 
is  truth  warm  and  rich,  appealing  by  its  beauty.  The  best  interests  of  the  student 
are  served  only  when  it  is  never  forgotten  that  the  aim  is  practice,  but  not  alone 
that  practice  whose  success  is  measured  by  mere  material  gain.  If  the  end  of  edu¬ 
cation  were  to  insure  our  daily  bread,  all  instruction  should  be  specific.  But, 
“Not  by  bread  alone  doth  man  live,  but  by  every  word  that  proceedeth  from  the 
mouth  of  God.”  God  speaks  through  man,  and  for  us,  in  English.  The  chief 
purpose  of  the  study,  then — to  be  remembered,  no  matter  what  particular  branch 
is  pursued— is  that  man  may  perfect  himself  as  a  mouthpiece  for  God.  and  so,  with 
most  effect,  give  to  his  fellow- men  his  individual  gospel,  howsoever  lowly,  of 
truth  and  beauty  and  goodness. 

The  other  object  of  the  study  of  English — the  mastering  of  its  literature— is 
implied  in  the  first.  The  true  motive  in  this  is  not  the  empty  one  of  art  for  art’s 
sake,  but,  rather,  art  for  the  sake  of  developing  soul  power.  By  understanding 
and  appreciating  what  is  noble,  man  becomes  noble;  and  the  literature  of  a  lan¬ 
guage,  the  treasury  of  the  exalted  thought  of  the  past,  the  richest  inheritance  of 
the  present — is  man’s  noblest  inspiration.  Through  it,  more  than  through  aught 
else  save  religion,  are  nourished  those  high  ideals  without  which  the  soul  lan¬ 
guishes  and  dies;  and,  rethinking,  its  lofty  thought  not  only  communicates  some¬ 
thing  of  the  wisdom  that  it  contains,  but  stimulates  into  activity  whatever  there 


924 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


may  be  of  original  greatness.  Besides  it  is  through  the  literature  that  the  lan¬ 
guage  must  be  learned  and  self-expression  taught. 

.  Training  in  English,  then,  includes  the  study  of  the  language  in  itself;  the 
study  of  the  principles  that  underlie  effective  expression,  with  continual  applica¬ 
tion  of  these  in  practice,  and  the  study  of  the  literature.  All  these,  it  is  true,  may 
be  cultivated  without  a  teacher.  There  are  those  who  have  an  innate  taste  for 
words  and  literary  effects;  and  genius  may  supply  not  only  the  grand  conception, 
but  the  laws  for  artistic  execution.  But  such  natures  are  rare;  the  many  must 
follow  a  leader  into  light.  Even  genius  must  serve  his  apprenticeship,  and  better 
results  are  obtained  when  this  is  done  under  judicious  direction.  The  instruc¬ 
tion  in  our  colleges  should  supply  the  necessary  guidance,  and  this  instruction 
should  be  systematically  progressive  and  free  from  the  dogmatism  that  dwarfs 
originality. 

In  arranging  a  course  of  study  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  college  education 
has  its  limitations.  It  does  not  make  finished  scholars.  What  has  been  learned 
is  but  a  preparation  for  knowledge.  Sometimes  courses,  possibly  only  of  imper¬ 
fect  realization,  are  evolved;  and  in  the  endeavor  to  do  too  much  nothing  is  done 
well.  This  is  true  in  particular  branches,  as  well  as  in  the  whole  course.  Far 
better  is  it  to  teach  fundamentals  well  than  to  attempt  a  wide  range,  which  can 
lead  but  to  shallowness  and  mental  dissipation;  and  English  teaching  will  gain 
more  from  thorough  instruction  in  the  principles  of  composition  and  earnest 
study  of  a  few  masterpieces  than  from  an  effort  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the 
whole  field  of  its  letters  and  of  comparative  literature.  If  the  foundation  is  good 
something  may  safely  be  left  to  later  life,  or  to  still  higher  instruction. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  before  entering  college  a  student  should  have 
been  taught  to  express  himself  correctly,  and  with  a  degree  of  efficiency,  and,  to 
this  end,  should  have  made  some  study  of  literature.  The  discipline  necessary  for 
this  is  afforded  by  our  preparatory  departments,  which,  for  us,  take  the  place  of 
the  secondary  or  higher  school.  This  early  training  should  lean  as  much  as  pos¬ 
sible  to  the  constructive  side,  and  be  occupied  with  the  building  up  of  pure,  effect¬ 
ive  sentences,  and  the  uniting  of  these  into  paragraphs.  It  is,  indeed,  inadvisable 
to  neglect  entirely  the  critical  view;  but  the  acumen  of  the  student  preparing  for 
college  is  still  undeveloped,  and  a  forced  growth  of  it  too  often  induces  unintelli¬ 
gent  repetition  of  secondhand  judgments  and  kills  all  individual  power.  No 
further  criticism  should  be  expected  than  that  which  may  proceed  from  the  pupil’s 
own  insight  and  the  application  of  what  he  has  already  learned.  A  practical 
three-year  preparatory  course  shaped  upon  such  ideas  might  be  made  to  consist  of, 
first,  sentence  structure  from  the  standpoint  of  grammar;  second,  sentence  struc¬ 
ture  from  the  standpoint  of  rhetoric,  and  third,  paragraph  structure. 

With  the  instruction  in  these  years  appropriate  works  of  literature  should  be 
studied  and  constant  compositions  exacted. 

English  grammar,  with  which  the  first  year's  work  is  concerned,  has  been  ren¬ 
dered  almost  ineffectual  by  the  character  of  its  teaching.  Few  are  they  who  can 
look  back  with  satisfaction  to  the  instruction  received  in  this  branch,  and  the 
reason  for  this  is  not  hard  to  find.  The  true  grammarian  is  not  he  who  makes 
rules,  but  he  who,  from  the  usage  of  a  people,  discovers  the  laws  of  the  common 
speech  with  a  view  of  imparting  a  knowledge  of  correct  expression.  All  distinc¬ 
tions  of  words,  all  rules  of  syntax,  that  do  not  tend  to  this  end  are  worse  than 
useless,  inasmuch  as  they  serve  only  to  confuse  the  mind  and  waste  intellectual 
power.  Yet  English,  simple  enough  in  its  structure  to  almost  justify  Richard 
Grant  White’s  “grammarless  tongue,”  has,  through  its  grammarians,  been  so 
imposed  upon  by  Latin  syntax  that  a  study  which  can  and  should  be  made  both 
pleasant  and  profitable  has  become  a  subject  for  abuse  from  even  cultured  men. 
Much  time  is  spent  in  loading  the  memory  with  technical  definitions  and  princi- 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  COLLEGE. 


925 


pies  which  have  little  or  no  bearing  on  the  vernacular;  while  little  practice  in  the 
actual  use  of  the  language  is  given.  If  the  teaching  were  confined  to  the  struc¬ 
tural  peculiarities  of  English,  instead  of  being  employed  upon  what  is  almost  a 
science  of  grammar,  incomprehensible  to  those  forced  to  learn  it,  less  difficulty 
and  more  benefit  would  ensue. 

The  province  of  grammar  is  the  sentence;  with  words  by  themselves  it  does  not 
deal.  The  true  method  of  teaching  it,  then,  in  a  language  like  English,  which  is 
nearly  free  from  inflectional  perplexities,  is  analytical.  But  by  analysis  must  not 
be  understood  the  simple  naming  of  the  kind  of  sentence,  with  the  subject  and 
predicate.  The  word  groups  should  be  thoroughly  taken  apart  and,  from  the 
functions  that  they  perform  in  the  sentence,  classified  into  parts  of  speech,  their 
accidents  noted,  and  the  laws  of  their  relation  derived.  Single  words  need  little 
attention,  except  those  of  transition  and  connection,  upon  which,  because  of  the 
lack  of  terminations,  pure  English  construction  so  much  depends.  In  this  way 
grammar  may  be  taught  easily  and  logically,  and  it  will  be  found  of  the  greatest 
help  in  securing  clearness,  the  foremost  quality  of  literary  style.  Moreover,  for 
the  value  of  this  method  as  an  aid  to  the  pursuit  of  other  tongues,  there  is  the 
authority  of  the  late  Professor  Whitney,  who  says:  “Give  me  a  man  who  can, 
with  full  intelligence,  take  to  pieces  an  English  sentence,  brief  and  not  too  com¬ 
plicated  even,  and  I  will  welcome  him  as  better  prepared  for  further  study  in 
other  languages  than  if  he  had  read  both  Caesar  and  Virgil,  and  could  parse  them 
in  the  routine  style  in  which  they  are  often  parsed.” 

Presuming  on  the  knowledge  that  a  student  should  have  obtained  before  he 
begins  his  immediate  preparations  for  college,  one  year  is  ample  for  mastering 
grammar,  and  the  second  year  may  be  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  clear,  energetic 
and  graceful  sentences.  This  will  involve  the  study  of  words  and  their  arrange¬ 
ment,  with  a  view  to  the  effect  to  be  produced,  and  will  include  an  investiga¬ 
tion  of  figurative  language.  To  cover  in  so  limited  a  time  the  whole  ground 
comprised  herein  is  manifestly  impossible;  all  the  years  of  education  are  to  some 
degree  busied  with  this.  Few,  however  will  deny  the  advisability  of  forming 
early  habits  of  exact  expression,- for  these  beget  habits  of  exact  thought.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  instilling  of  an  appreciation  for 
words,  and  a  precise  understanding  of  them,  not  indeed  for  their  own  sake,  but 
for  the  sake  of  their  effective  combination.  Not  too  soon  can  the  pupil  be  taught 
to  meditate  on  the  words  that  he  meets,  and  to  realize  that  they  are  live  forces 
for  good  or  evil;  not  too  soon  can  his  mind  be  opened  to  the  depth  and  richness 
of  their  wisdom  and  poetry,  and  to  their  potency  in  awakening  intellect  and 
emotion. 

What  words  are  to  the  sentence,  the  sentence  is  to  the  paragraph.  Separate 
words  may  call  up  a  wealth  of  association,  but  until  combined  they  have  no 
cogency  in  the  world  of  thought.  So  detached  sentences,  no  matter  how  beautiful, 
are  of  small  moment  until  united  in  continued  discourse.  To  give  unity  and 
-  symmetry  to  discourse,  to  have  all  the  parts  coherent  and  orderly,  is  for  all  good 
writing  the  first  requisite,  applying  with  equal  force  to  sentence,  paragraph,  and 
whole  composition.  But  the  sentence  exhibits  these  qualities  in  so  simple  a  form 
as  to  offer  little  material  for  successful  study,  while  to  study  them  from  whole 
compositions  is  too  complicated  a  process  for  immature  minds.  For  early  teach¬ 
ing,  therefore,  the  paragraph  becomes  the  easiest  and  most  natural  unit  of  dis¬ 
course;  and  for  this  reason  it  is  made  the  subject  of  the  third  year’s  instruction. 
In  the  perfection  of  the  paragraph  and  its  sequence  lies  the  merit  of  the  entire 
work,  and  he  who  has  overcome  the  difficulties  of  the  one  will  be  well  prepared 
to  cope  with  those  of  the  other. 

The  literature  which  should  have  a  place  in  the  curriculum  of  these  years  ought 
to  be  chosen  in  the  light  of  the  pupil’s  capacity  and  needs.  Ordinarily  by  neither 


926 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


experience  nor  education  is  he  fitted  to  grasp  firmly  the  meaning  of  the  great 
masters  •who  have  sounded  the  depths  of  the  human  soul,  and  authors  like  Shakes¬ 
peare  or  Milton,  whose  appeal  lies  outside  his  intellectual  plane,  become  to  him 
bugbears  of  class  routine.  Compulsory  study  of  masterpieces  the  beauty  of  which 
he  but  dimly  apprehends  puts  him  in  the  double  danger  of  imbibing  for  these  a 
distaste  which  is  hardly  overcome  by  later  cultivation  and  of  relying  so  much  on 
the  opinions  of  others  as  to  form  no  habit  of  independent  criticism.  Further¬ 
more,  since  the  early  teaching  is  mainly  constructive,  the  literary  studies  should 
illustrate  as  much  as  possible  present  usage,  and  should  be  drawn  from  periods 
as  near  to  the  student  as  is  consistent  with  the  best  results.  There  is  no  dearth  of 
good  literature,  which  is  recent  enough  for  this  purpose  and  well  adapted  for  higher 
standards,  and  from  which  may  be  taken  the  material  for  class  work.  But  not  so 
much  upon  what  is  recited  in  class  as  upon  a  wide  acquaintance  with  the  best 
thought  does  knowledge  of  English  depend,  and  to  inculcate  a  habit  of  reading 
with  taste  and  judgment  should  be  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  the  teacher. 
For  this  reason  additional  authors,  who  for  lack  of  time  can  not  be  subjected  to 
closer  scrutiny,  should  be  selected  for  careful  reading  as  a  basis  for  composition 
work. 

To  attempt  to  teach  an  art  without  continual  practice  in  it  is  an  obvious 
absurdity,  and  above  all  else  for  the  successful  study  of  English  is  the  necessity 
of  frequent  composing.  But  for  true  progress  writing  must  undergo  careful  and 
competent  revision,  for  otherwise  what  is  the  best  means  of  fostering  and  making 
permanent  the  power  of  good  expression  becomes  an  equally  strong  way  of  fixing 
error.  This  revision  is  the  teacher’s  task — a  task  often  burdensome,  and  always  to 
the  conscientious  teacher  full  of  fear.  The  danger  of  imposing  too  many  restric¬ 
tions,  of  curbing  instead  of  guiding  individuality,  is  a  grave  one,  and  a  realization 
that  English,  being  a  living  language,  can  not  be  corrected  upon  the  same  set  of 
principles  as  Latin  or  Greek,  must  be  ever  present.  To  have  full  effect,  too,  the 
corrections  should  not  be  made  outright,  but  should  be  indicated  by  signs  which 
the  writer  understands  and  from  which  he  himself  may  revise  and  transcribe  his 
work.  From  this  and  from  classroom  criticism,  which  avails  much  if  it  be  not  so 
harsh  as  to  discourage  effort,  faults  and  merits  are  impressed  upon  the  mind  and 
the  habit  of  correctness  engendered.  For  the  preparatory  years  the  qualities  to 
be  sought  are  originality  and  simplicity,  and  the  themes,  which  ought  to  be 
assigned  not  less  than  once  a  week,  should  be  determinate  in  character  and  within 
the  range  of  the  pupil's  experience. 

Such  a  preparatory  course  as  the  one  outlined  is  not  difficult  of  attainment,  and 
he  who  can  give  evidence  of  having  followed  it  successfully  will  be  not  less  well 
grounded  than  he  would  be  had  he  prepared  especially  to  meet  the  modern  require¬ 
ments  for  entrance  to  college.  He  will  have  learned  at  least  the  primary  essentials 
of  good  writing,  and  will  have  developed  sufficient  critical  power  to  enable  him  to 
begin  hopefully  his  higher  education.  This,  in  English,  can  not  transcend  rheto¬ 
ric  and  literature,  for  these  two  include  all  that  is  to  be  learned.  They  go  hand 
in  hand,  the  one  demanding  the  other,  but  for  advantage  in  teaching  the  years  of 
college  instruction  may  be  divided  between  them,  making  rhetoric  the  particular 
study  of  the  first  and  the  last  year  and  literature  that  of  the  intermediate  ones. 

The  teaching  of  the  first  year  should  be  a  far-reaching  but  not  too  deep  exposi¬ 
tion  of  the  laws  of  artistic  writing.  Its  aim  is  to  equip  the  student  for  a  critical 
study  of  the  great  authors,  that  he  may  himself,  “  under  the  influence,  but  not  in 
imitation,  of  these  models,”  give  utterance  to  his  own  thought.  From  the  very 
beginning  he  should  be  treated  as  an  intelligent  reasoner.  Brought  to  understand 
that  rhetorical  rules  do  not  take  their  authority  from  those  who  have  conformed 
to  them,  but  from  a  source  above  and  beyond  this  and  inherent  in  human  nature — 
that  they  are  not  mere  arbitrary  inventions,  but  derivations  from  immutable  prin¬ 
ciples,  true  at  all  times  and  for  all  peoples — he  will  find  a  fascination  in  his  task 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  COLLEGE. 


927 


and  take  delight  in  discovering  their  application  for  himself.  It  is  the  knowing 
of  the  wherefore  that  makes  the  rule  impressive — that  informs  with  vital  interest 
what  would  otherwise  be  but  a  dull  and  soon-forgotten  adjunct  to  the  class  room. 

When  a  student  enters  college  he  should  be  far  enough  advanced  to  follow  in 
rhetorie  the  natural  order  of  study.  His  first  instruction  then  will  be  in  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  invention.  This  should  consist  in  a  drilling  in  the  analysis  of  subjects  and 
in  the  logical  arrangement  in  a  framework  of  the  thoughts  arising  under  them, 
as  well  as  in  the  amplification  of  these  thoughts  in  description,  narration,  exposi¬ 
tion,  and  argumentation.  Next  comes  the  discussion  of  the  qualities  of  style,  and 
this  can  be  only  an  extension  and  a  full  explanation  of  what  he  has  already  been 
taught.  To  be  complete  this  course  must  include  some  consideration,  necessarily 
brief,  of  the  functions  and  technique  of  the  principal  prose  forms  and  of  the  nature 
and  elements  of  poetry.  The  necessity  and  importance  of  this  training  should 
need  no  urging.  The  first  year  of  college  ought  to  lay  the  foundation  for  both  the 
critical  and  constructive  work  of  the  subsequent  years,  and  this  foundation  can  be 
had  in  no  other  way  than  through  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  rhetoric,  which 
furnishes  the  student  with  the  theory  of  his  practice. 

Literature,  the  study  of  which  for  both  illustration  and  inspiration  must  accom¬ 
pany  the  English  instruction  of  every  year,  is  of  too  great  consequence  to  be 
always  relegated  to  a  secondary  place.  From  it  alone  a  practical  knowledge  of 
the  language  could  be  obtained,  and  the  whole  value  of  the  theoretical  discipline 
is  derived  from  the  accuracy  with  which  the  maxims  are  induced  from  an  inves¬ 
tigation  of  the  greatest  literary  efforts  and  from  the  compactness  with  which  they 
are  presented.  But  the  source  is  open  to  all;  and  while  a  lifetime  is  not  long 
enough  to  know  it  in  its  entirety,  surely  college  education  ought  to  afford  to  its 
clients  such  an  introduction  to  literature  and  such  an  acquaintance  with  it  as  will 
later  lead  to  an  intimate  friendship  with  good  books,  one  of  life’s  greatest  joys 
and  blessings.  For  this  reason  two  years  may  wisely  be  devoted  especially  to  this 
study,  but  not  to  the  history  of  the  art  and  the  biography  of  the  writers. 

The  teaching  of  general  histories  of  English  literature  is  a  valuable  example  of 
the  failure  of  an  attempt  to  do  too  much.  These  books  are  encyclopedic  in  their 
nature,  and  encyclopedias  are  poor  text-books.  The  advantages  which  they  may 
possess  of  presenting  a  bird’s-eye  view  of  the  whole  vast  field. of  letters  and  of 
being  guidebooks  for  courses  of  reading  are,  if  the  teaching  is  confined  to  them, 
more  than  offset  by  the  superficiality  of  the  information  imparted  and  by  the  habit 
of  dependence  which  their  criticism  creates.  Except  in  a  few  rare  instances,  even 
their  influence  as  guides  is  lost,  for  the  memory,  laden  with  a  mass  of  names  and 
dates  and  facts  which  have  little  appeal  to  the  intellect  or  to  the  heart,  soon  relieves 
itself  in  forgetfulness.  These  books  are  not  literature,  and  apart  from  the  doubt¬ 
ful  value  of  their  biographies  and  their  disinterestedness  their  worth  by  them¬ 
selves  in  teaching  literature  is  hardly  greater  than  would  be  a  publisher’s  catalogue, 
containing  the  usual  press  notice  advertisements  of  his  wares.  It  is  to  be  remem¬ 
bered,  moreover,  that  it  is  not  a  habit  of  reading  which  is  to  be  cultivated,  but  a 
habit  of  reading  with  taste  and  judgment.  There  is  no  need  of  implanting  the 
former.  We  are  a  nation  of  readers,  but  much  of  the  present-day  literature, 
which  has  a  vogue  even  among  college  students  and  graduates,  is  a  species  of 
mental  food  proper  only  for  the  weak-minded.  The  antidote  for  this  is  to  be 
found  in  a  critical  examination  of  masterpieces  that  will  awaken  in  the  student’s 
soul  a  love  not  satisfied  with  less  than  the  highest  beauty. 

The  best  way  to  study  literature,  then,  seems  to  be  in  the  works  themselves. 
Where  there  is  so  much  room  for  choice  there  is  need  of  the  nicest  care  in  choos¬ 
ing.  Not  all  the  works  of  one  great  author  should  be  taken,  for  this  would  give 
too  limited  a  view,  but  as  many  single  works  of  representative  writers  should  be 
selected  as  can  be  assimilated  within  the  allotted  time.  These  should  be  exam¬ 
ined  in  the  light  of  the  time  and  life  of  the  author,  about  whom  may  be  grouped 


928 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


the  other  leaders  of  his  period,  and,  for  this  grouping,  a  history  of  English  litera¬ 
ture  might  make  a  convenient  reference  book.  There  is,  too,  an  advantage  in 
tracing  the  progress  of  modern  English  letters  from  their  beginning,  in  the  four¬ 
teenth  century,  to  the  present  time,  and  there  is  no  valid  reason  why  this  could 
not  be  accomplished  within  two  years.  Even  in  one  year,  by  making  a  selection 
of  one  prose  and  one  poetic  work  from  each  of  the  different  periods,  the  study 
could  be  brought  down  to  the  nineteenth  century,  and  thus  leave  the  whole  of 
the  second  year  for  the  study  of  the  literature  which  is  nearest  to  the  student  in 
point  of  time.  Such  a  course  is  not  proposed  as  the  best  possible  one  in  literature, 
but  it  has  in  its  favor  that  it  will  give,  from  actual  study  of  masterpieces,  an  idea 
of  the  history  of  English  letters;  that  it  will  furnish  the  student  with  a  wide  field 
from  which  to  suit  his  own  taste;  and  that  it  will  offer  inducements  to  further  study 
in  the  different  periods.  The  method  of  teaching  should  not  be  mere  lectures  by 
the  professor.  These  may  be  entertaining,  but  they  are  not  education.  The  stu¬ 
dent  should  be  taught  to  analyze  the  works  and  to  apply,  in  criticism,  what  he 
has  learned  of  the  principles  of  artistic  composition.  There  is,  of  course,  a  dan¬ 
ger  that  this  laboratory  method  may  be  carried  too  far  and  the  life  of  literature 
lost  in  its  dissection,  but  there  is  no  system  of  teaching  not  liable  to  abuse.  Some¬ 
thing  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher. 

To  the  last  year  of  college  is  again  assigned  the  study  of  rhetoric,  but  such  a 
deeper  investigation  as  may  be  termed  philosophic.  This  will  mean  the  deduc¬ 
tion  of  the  laws  from  the  primal  principle  of  beauty  from  which  they  flow,  and 
will  involve  an  extended  discussion  of  taste,  imagination,  and  beauty  itself, 
together  with  style  and  the  literary  forms.  A  proper  conception  of  these  demands 
all  the  knowledge  to  be  obtained  from  the  student’s  previous  instruction.  More¬ 
over,  his  reasoning  power,  hitherto  insufficient  for  a  complete  understanding  of 
what  rhetoric  implies,  will,  by  this  time,  have  been  so  developed  and  strength¬ 
ened  by  his  formal  study  of  logic  and  his  general  training  as  to  enable  him  to  com¬ 
prehend  something  of  the  force  of  the  aesthetic  truths  that  underlie  the  art.  The 
teaching  may  be  best  accomplished  by  the  lecture  system,  and  this  will  prepare 
the  way  for  university  methods,  but,  that  it  may  not  degenerate  into  mere  enter¬ 
tainment,  there  should  be  at  least  weekly  recitations  from  the  questions,  submit¬ 
ted  beforehand,  upon  the  matter  of  the  lectures  and  of  the  parallel  reading  which 
must  attend  them.  Instructions  of  this  kind  will  not  take  away  from  the  philo¬ 
sophical  character  of  the  final  year’s  work;  it  can  be  made  a  summary  of  the  con¬ 
clusions  to  be  induced  from  the  whole  range  of  English  teaching  and  will  lead  to 
the  broadest  culture. 

In  the  course  of  English  instruction  thus  far  suggested  no  provision  has  been 
made  for  philological  study  beyond  what  is  implied  in  the  teaching  of  words  and 
literature.  The  student’s  time  in  our  system  of  education  is  so  occupied  that, 
without  a  curtailment  of  some  of  the  branches,  no  very  deep  knowledge  of  philol¬ 
ogy  can  be  given,  and  this  is  not  so  necessary  as  to  justify  a  change.  But  while 
this  deeper  knowledge  is  not  essential,  and  may  be  better  left  to  the  post-graduate 
work,  an  acquaintance  with  the  sources  and  developments  of  English  is  of  too 
great  benefit  to  be  neglected.  The  value  of  Latin,  whence  is  the  origin  of  so  many 
of  our  words,  is  acknowledged  by  all;  few  of  us,  however,  seem  to  set  any  store 
upon  a  knowledge  of  Anglo-Saxon.  Yet  it  is  upon  the  Saxon  foundation  that  the 
Latin  superstructure  is  built,  and  no  extensive  training  in  English  can  be  com¬ 
plete  without  its  cultivation.  It  accounts  for  most  of  our  idioms,  and  gives  a 
deeper  insight  into  the  meaning  of  those  words  that  are  the  bone  and  sinew  of  our 
speech.  It  has,  too,  all  the  disciplinary  advantage  of  an  inflected  language,  and 
possesses  a  literature  which,  if  not  so  highly  finished  as  the  classics,  is  none  the 
less  a  true  record  of  the  people's  thought  and  feelings.  There  should  be,  then, 
some  place  for  it  in  our  curriculum;  and  if,  as  has  been  deemed  wise,  the  prepar¬ 
atory  course  is  to  be  lengthened,  old  English  might  as  well  be  made  the  subject  of 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IN  COLLEGE. 


929 


the  fourth  year's  instruction.  It  can  not  be  considered  too  difficult  for  those  who 
have  already  made  some  progress  in  Latin  and  Greek,  and  if  studied  early,  the 
information  obtained  from  it  may  be  apxdied  and  strengthened  in  the  later  teach¬ 
ing.  Middle  English,  too,  ought  to  demand  some  attention,  and  might  have  a 
part  in  the  years  devoted  to  literature.  In  this  way  the  student  could  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  origin  and  history  of  his  language,  and  this  would  prove  not  only 
interesting  in  itself  and  broadening  in  its  influence,  but  useful  in  his  practice. 

But  no  matter  what  the  course  or  what  the  method  of  teaching  in  English,  the 
best  results  are  due  to  the  teacher  himself.  He  is  the  living  voice;  he  is  more  than 
the  text.  From  the  very  nature  and  importance  of  his  subject  he  has  a  higher 
privilege  and  greater  responsibilities  than  most  teachers.  He  can  make  the  study  a 
dry,  lifeless  task,  or  he  can  inform  it  with  a  vitality  that  will  effect  even  more 
than  is  demanded.  Upon  the  atmosphere  that  he  creates,  more  than  upon  all  the 
rest  of  the  college  teaching,  depend  individuality  and  good  taste,  which  is  not  only 
an  aesthetic  but  a  moral  faculty.  One  of  the  great  objects  of  his  work  is  to 
arouse  such  an  interest  in  the  language  and  its  literature  as  will  lead  to  further 
study,  and  to  impart  this  interest  lie  must  have  it  himself.  College  education  is 
not  the  end  of  English  training,  nor  does  it  produce  eloquent  writers.  ‘  ‘  To  acquire 
a  few  tongues  is  the  labor  of  a  few  years,  to  be  eloquent  in  one  is  the  labor  of  a 
life;”  and  this  eloquence  flows  more  from  a  God-given  source  than  from  man’s 
instruction.  But  while  great  masters  of  style  are  not  made  by  teaching  alone,  a 
student,  unless  he  is  so  invincibly  ignorant  as  to  preclude  all  possibility  of  his 
ever  graduating,  can  and  should  be  taught  to  express  himself  in  idiomatic,  grace¬ 
ful  English,  adequate  to  his  thought,  and  to  appreciate  and  to  love  the  ideal  beauty 
of  which  noble  literature  is  the  exponent. 

DISCUSSION. 

Taking  up  the  discussion  of  this  paper,  Father  Tracy,  of  Niagara,  said:  “  There 
was  allusion  made  to  the  necessity  of  critical  study  and  examination  of  the  mas¬ 
terpieces  of  the  language.  That  is  as  it  ought  to  be,  and  no  course  in  English  is 
complete  without  it.  The  point  I  wish  to  make  is  this:  We  are  giving  an  educa¬ 
tion  not  only  in  English,  but  we  are  giving  an  education  in  English  to  Catholic 
children.  For  a  matter  of  fact,  we  seem  to  be  casting  the  minds  of  our  children, 
from  a  literary  point  of  view,  in  a  Protestant  mold.  This  is  obviated  only  by 
extra  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  entering  into  detailed  explanations  which 
will  minimize  the  harm  that  we  know  non- Catholic  works  would  do.  The  literary 
texts  are  taken  from  the  great  masters,  such  as  Wordsworth,  Browning,  Macaulay, 
Longfellow,  Hawthorne,  and  Whittier.  The  nobility  of  mind  in  the  great  geniuses 
reduces  any  harm  that  might  otherwise  be  attached  to  their  works  to  a  minimum. 
Not  so  the  authors  of  less  note.  They  have  done  a  benefit  to  humanity  at  large, 
but  there  must  be  discrimination  if  we  do  not  wish  to  neutralize  our  efforts  at 
Catholic  teaching.  Now  we  have  Newman,  we  have  Manning,  we  have  Vaughn, 
we  have  Ward,  we  have  Brownson,  we  have  Spalding.  We  have  a  host  of  writers 
who  are  without  the  slightest  doubt  equal,  perfectly  equal,  from  a  literary  point 
of  view,  and  superior  in  the  domain  of  thought  to  many  whose  texts  are  placed 
before  our  pupils.  Why  can  we  not  give  to  our  own  the  attention  and  the  respect 
that  we  are  according  through  the  publishing  houses  to  the  non-Catholic  writers? 
If  the  publishers  know  that  we  want  a  particular  class  of  work,  they  will  very  wil¬ 
lingly  secure  it  for  us. 

Rev.  Father  Cassilly,  of  Chicago,  voiced  the  gratitude  of  the  delegates  to  Pro¬ 
fessor  Ryan  for  giving  them  such  an  able  paper,  and  thought  the  remarks  of 
Father  Tracy  very  appropriate  also.  One  point  which  he  did  not  like  to  have 
pass  without  notice,  however,  was  the  secondary  place  given  to  grammar,  which 
he  held  to  be  one  of  the  essentials  to  develop  accuracy  of  thought,  in  which  men 
of  the  present  day  are  so  deficient.  Grammar  should  be  taught  thoroughly  and 
scientifically,  especially  in  the  academic  grades. 

Professor  Ryan  replied  that  English  grammar  suffers  from  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  taught,  and  from  its  text-books — in  the  technical  definitions  and  principles 
which  are  imposed  upon  it  by  foreign  languages,  and  gave  several  illustrations  of 
his  meaning.  He  took  the  position  that  a  boy  can  easily  be  taught  all  the  Eng¬ 
lish  grammar  he  needs  in  one  year— not,  however,  the  science  of  grammar. 

ED  1901 - 59 


930 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Rev.  Father  Bradley,  of  Atchison,  disagreed  with  Professor  Ryan  in  regard  to 
divorcing  the  English  grammar  from  the  grammar  of  the  other  languages,  and 
believed  there  should  be  a  comparative  study  of  languages;  that  it  is  impossible 
for  the  young  student  to  understand  English  grammar  without  understanding 
Latin  grammar  or  some  other  foreign  tongue;  that  the  modern  way  of  eliminat¬ 
ing  everything  from  the  English  grammar  and  reducing  it  down  to  the  ordinary 
language  lessons  as  we  have  it  to-day  is  wrong  and  detrimental  to  the  best  inter¬ 
ests  and  a  thorough  understanding  of  English  grammar.  In  reference  to  litera¬ 
ture,  the  same  objection  to  the  study  of  the  text-book  in  literature  presents  itself 
as  in  the  study  of  history,  and  the  same  method,  adverted  to  by  Father  Vincent, 
of  studying  history,  viz,  by  groups,  might  be  employed  for  studying  literature; 
let  the  principal  author  of  a  period  represent  the  period,  and  around  this  author 
group  all  the  lesser  portraits.  Another  point  which  Father  Bradley  considered 
very  essential  in  the  thorough  study  of  literature  was  the  study  of  the  history  of 
the  times  in  which  the  authors  lived,  since  it  is  impossible  to  appreciate  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  literature  of  certain  periods  without  understanding  the  history  of 
those  periods.  W hile  English  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  principal  studies  of  the 
classical  course,  and  should  receive  the  principal  attention,  he  did  not  consider  it 
necessary  to  give  it  the  same  number  of  hours  as  we  do  to  Latin,  for  the  reason 
that  private  study  can  accomplish  a  great  deal  more  in  English  thatt  it  would  in 
the  case  of  young  boys  studying  Latin. 

In  this  connection  Monsignor  Conaty  said  that  one  of  the  most  important  ques¬ 
tions  in  the  college  curriculum  is  this  very  study  of  English,  and  dwelt  at  some 
length  on  the  marked  deficiency  in  English  of  students  entering  the  university 
department.  “ They  have  a  knowledge  of  authors  oftentimes,” he  said,  ‘‘without 
a  knowledge  of  the  author's  works,  and  in  this  there  seems  to  be  a  defective  foun¬ 
dation.  This  is  the  fault  of  the  college,  and  may  also  be  traced  beyond  the  col¬ 
lege  to  be  the  fault  of  the  preparatory  school;  but  it  is  really  the  fault  of  the  teach¬ 
ing  of  English,  to  which  sufficient  attention  is  not  given;  oftentimes  the  attention 
is  more  in  the  catalogue  than  it  is  in  the  working  power  of  the  college.  And  it 
seems  to  me,  as  a  college  conference  we  have  reason  to  study  fundamentally  the 
question  of  the  teaching  of  English  in  our  college  curriculum,  for  as  gentlemen — 
finished  scholars  from  college — we  are  oftentimes  judged  by  our  knowledge  of  our 
own  language,  and  it  is  hard  for  us  to  know  other  languages  and  to  acquire  a 
reputation  in  other  languages  when  we  are  defective  in  our  own,  especially  in  the 
history  of  our  own  literature  or  in  the  knowledge  of  the  great  authors  that  have 
made  literature.  This  is  the  feeling  of  the  universities,  and  it  certainly  is  the 
feeling  that  expresses  itself  in  our  own  university.” 


EDUCATIONAL  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

A  paper  on  this  subject  was  read  by  Rev.  James  P.  Fagan,  S.  J.,  vice-president 
of  Georgetown  University,  District  of  Columbia.  On  account  of  its  length  this 
paper  was  not  printed  in  the  report  of  the  conference,  but  the  following  discussion, 
to  which  it  gave  rise,  is  given: 

Father  Burns  said  he  was  sure  the  conference  was  profoundly  grateful  to  Father 
Fagan  for  the  keen-sighted,  exhaustive,  scholarly  exposition  he  had  given  of  the 
educational  legislation  going  on  about  us,  and,  summarizing  the  facts  presented 
by  Father  Fagan  concerning  the  growth  of  the  educational  system  of  secular 
schools  and  colleges,  thought  we  might  profit  by  the  experience  of  those  who  have 
had  charge  of  public  education.  That  is  precisely  the  great  question  to-day — the 
systematization  of  all  Catholic  education— and  he  suggested  the  consideration  as  to 
whether  the  foundation  or  the  conversion  of  this  conference  into  a  joint  association 
of  secondary  Catholic  schools  and  colleges  would  not  be  a  most  practical  and  most 
easy  step  in  this  direction.  Such  an  association  might  consist,  as  in  the  National 
Educational  Association,  of  sections— a  section  of  higher  education,  a  section  of 
secondary-school  education — which  might  hold  sessions  simultaneously. 

Father  Dowling  said:  “‘It  seems  to  me  the  golden  thread  running  through  the 
discourse  of  the  paper  of  Father  Fagan  amounts  practically  to  this:  We  are  con¬ 
vinced  that  we  take  the  right  and  the  proper  view  of  education;  that  it  is  the  only 
reasonable  view  to  take — the  one  which  requires  religion  to  go  hand  in  hand  with 
the  acquisition  of  secular  knowledge.  We  have  not  as  yet  been  able  to  impress 
that  upon  the  American  public,  and  the  question  arises  how  are  we  to  reach  that 
desired  end?  Certainly  we  count  for  comparatively  little  in  the  educational  field, 


EDUCATIONAL  LEGISLATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  931 


and  it  may  be  it  is  not  owing  to  any  prejudice  against  us  or  our  cause,  but  to  want  of 
the  proper  presentation  of  ourselves  and  our  principles  and  our  ideas.  I  have  a  great 
respectfor  the  innate  love  of  justiceand  fair  play  of  the  American  people,  and  that  we 
do  not  get  fair  play  I  can  not  believe  is  owing  to  anything  else  except  our  indiffer¬ 
ence.  Now,  it  seems  to  me  that  we  have  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  worked  along 
the  line  of  our  American  institutions  successfully;  we  have  not  made  use  of  the  sali¬ 
ent  points  of  our  system  of  government,  and  we  ought  to  make  use  of  every  possible 
means  and  every  possible  occasion  to  put  before  the  American  people  what  we 
want.  We  do  not  come  before  them  claiming  any  special  privileges  as  Catholics. 
What  we  require  is  the  rights  we  are  entitled  to  as  American  citizens,  and  they 
are  infringed  upon,  and  we  do  not  receive  justice,  not  because  we  are  Catholics, 
but  because  we  are  American  citizens  that  have  certain  convictions  that  are  inter¬ 
fered  with  by  certain  laws  and  legislation  adopted.  While  we,  as  clergymen,  can 
not  enter  into  the  field  of  politics,  can  not  go  and  lobby  in  the  legislatures,  why  do 
we  not  enlist  the  energies,  the  intelligence,  and  all  the  other  good  qualities  the  Cath¬ 
olic  laity  possesses?  The  layman  represents  the  citizen:  he  represents  the  tax¬ 
payer;  he  represents  the  parent.  To  the  American  public  the  clergyman  repre¬ 
sents  the  church,  and  what  has  the  church  to  do  with  our  internal  system  of  gov¬ 
ernment?  We  can  not  make  use  of  money  in  bringing  about  these  results,  but  I 
think  it  is  in  our  powrer  to  make  use  of  fear.  Now,  we  have  back  of  us  a  population 
of  about  12,000,000  of  Catholics  in  America,  but  we  have  not  yet  found  out  the  means 
we  are  to  make  use  of  for  reaching  the  great  American  public,  and  having  our  ideas 
and  principles  set  before  them.  Foremost  among  these  I  would  mention  the  press. 
And  why  would  it  not  be  possible  for  us  to  hold  our  meetings  at  the  same  time  as  the 
great  National  Educational  Association— get  ourselves  in  touch  with  the  thoughts 
and  prejudices  of  our  people — in  order  to  influence  them  for  good  and  prevent 
them  from  entertaining  or  considering  the  passage  of  laws  that  would  be  inimical 
to  religion  in  any  form? 

Rev.  Father  Dolphin,  of  St.  Paul,  stated  in  this  connection  that  Catholics  in  ail 
parts  of  the  country  have  too  long  been  apologizing  for  their  existence;  that  we 
ought  to  convince  the  great  American  Republic  that  we  are  a  part  of  it;  that  the 
fair-mindedness  of  the  people  of  this  country  would  certainly  make  more  conces¬ 
sions  to  us  if  we  would  come  out  a  little  more,  as  Father  Dowling  suggests,  meet 
other  institutions  in  their  conventions,  and  show  that  we  are  really  taking  an  active 
part  in  the  affairs  of  the  United  States. 

Rev.  Father  Higgins  called  attention  to  the  first  part  of  Father  Fagan's  paper, 
in  which  he  speaks  of  the  committees  appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Asso¬ 
ciation,  the  reports  of  these  committees,  etc.,  and  said  that  the  latter  constituted 
a  literature  that  is  very  important  to  all  of  us;  though  they  are  not  legislation,  they 
have  always  pointed  the  way  to  legislation,  they  have  foreshadowed  the  tendencies 
of  the  educational  mind,  they  have  shown,  as  it  were,  the  direction  of  the  stream. 
But  a  very  striking  feature  of  these  reports  is,  they  show  that  the  state  of  mind  in 
the  educational  world  is  a  very  restless,  very  unsettled,  very  unsatisfactory  state, 
and  the  instability  of  that  educational  mind  is  known  to  the  members  of  these  com¬ 
mittees,  as  evidenced  by  their  varying  opinions  regarding  the  length  of  course  to 
be  given. 

The  right  reverend  chairman  said  that  before  leaving  this  question  of  educa¬ 
tional  legislation  he  thought  it  well  to  again  emphasize  what  was  said  in  the  paper 
and  by  the  different  members  of  the  conference;  that  it  is  important  that  everyone 
interested  in  education  should  be  familiar  with  the  trend  of  educational  legislation; 
that  there  is  no  doubt  at  all  as  to  a  well-defined  movement  toward  the  destruction 
of  the  college,  toward  the  absolute  control  of  all  education,  and  the  destruction  by 
that  same  method  of  private  enterprise  in  education.  While,  as  Father  Higgins 
has  said,  there  is  a  great  uncertainty  even  in  the  minds  of  the  men  who  are  moving 
along  those  lines,  there  is  no  doubt  at  ail  a3  to  the  establishment  of  the  high  school 
as  the  feeder  to  the  State  education  and  as  to  the  absolute  requirement  for  all  who 
desire  to  enter  into  the  educational  work  of  the  State.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the 
determination  on  the  part  of  the  universities  to  control  all  schedules  of  educational 
work.  And  we  need  to  have  our  eyes  thoroughly  open  to  the  fact  that  we  are  abso¬ 
lutely  ignored  in  all  those  phases  of  educational  work.  No  consideration  whatever 
is  directed  toward  the  Catholic  educational  system  for  means  of  consultation  in 
any  matter  of  education,  but  there  is  always  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  everything 
that  bears  the  name  of  Catholic  education.  There  is  the  difficulty  of  being  recog¬ 
nized  as  conforming  in  any  way  whatever  to  the  requisites  for  admission  to  the 
different  opportunities  that  are  offered  in  the  way  of  education  (illustrating  this 
by  the  existing  conditions  in  Massachusetts).  “  It  is  well  for  us  to  bear  in  mind 
all  these  things,”  Monsignor  Con aty  said,  ‘-and  realize  that  the  trend  of  educa¬ 
tional  legislation  is  against  the  private  school,  and  it  is  against  the  private  religious 


932 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


school,  and  it  is  in  particular  against  the  Catholic  educational  system.”  And,  as 
Father  Dowling  said  so  well,  we  are  not  here  by  sufferance.  We  are  American 
citizens.  We  have  our  rights  under  the  law,  and  we  have  our  conscience  obedient 
to  God.  We  have  our  duty  to  perform  in  the  work  of  education.  We  are  doing 
it  conscientiousl3T  and  faithfully,  notwithstanding  all  our  difficulties,  and  we  should 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  we  have  rights  as  citizens  as  well  as  duties  as  Chris¬ 
tians.  And  consequently  it  is  well  for  us  to  have  had  that  lesson  read  to  us  to-day 
of  the  educational  legislation  which  brings  close  to  us.  as  the  result  of  Father 
Fagan’s  patient  research,  the  trend  of  thought  relative  to  the  State  authority  in  all 
matters  of  education.  Therefore  I  wish  to  emphasize  again,  as  the  last  word  on 
this  subject,  the  importance  of  being  thoroughly  familiar  with  all  legislation  that 
bears  the  name  of  educational,  because  it  is  something  in  which  we  are  intensely 
interested,  not  only  as  Christians  and  Catholics,  but  as  citizens. 


REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  COLLEGE  ENTRANCE  REQUIREMENTS. 

The  committee  on  college  entrance  requirements  made  the  following  x>reliminary 
report,  giving  their  views  and  conclusions,  so  far  as  they  had  been  formulated: 

To  begin  the  college  course  and  to  pursue  it  successfully  and  profitably  we  think 
that  it  is  necessary  and  sufficient  that  on  leaving  the  preparatory  school  a  young 
man  should  be  able  to  stand  the  following  tests: 

1.  In  Latin  he  should  be  thoroughly  grounded  in  grammar,  including  prosody. 
He  should  be  able  to  read  ordinary  Latin  prose  at  sight  and  to  write  Latin  with 
some  degree  of  ease.  He  should  have  seen  the  authors  usually  selected  for  begin¬ 
ners’  work  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  usually  read:  Nepos,  Caesar,  Cicero 
(Letters  and  in  Catilinam),  Phaedrus,  Ovid,  and  selections  from  Virgil’s  Georgies, 
with  perhaps  one  book  of  the  .ZEneid. 

2.  In  Greek  he  should  have  a  good  knowledge  of  Greek  grammar,  including  the 
rules  for  accents  and  simpler  rules  of  prosody.  He  should  be  able  to  translate  simple 
sentences,  illustrating  constructions,  etc.  He  should  have  seen  the  usual  Greek 
authors  read  in  our  preparatory  department,  beginning  with  the  easy  witticisms 
of  Hierocles  and  the  fables  of  .ZEsop,  and  going  to  the  Anabasis  and  Cyropsedia, 
St.  Luke’s  Gospel,  the  Odes  of  Anacreon,  and  at  the  end  perhaps  taking  one  book 
of  Homer. 

3.  In  English.  The  study  of  English  should  be  correlated  with  that  of  the  clas¬ 
sics,  the  aim  being  to  secure  that  fluency  and  command  of  language,  that  accuracy 
in  the  use  of  words,  that  refinement  of  diction,  which  is  invariably  the  reward  of 
careful  work  in  translating.  The  elements  of  rhetoric  should  be  mastered — i.  e., 
the  principles  regulating  the  use  of  words  and  the  structure  of  sentences  and  par¬ 
agraphs— and  the  principles  of  good  prose  style,  etc.  The  student  should,  more¬ 
over,  be  made  acquainted  with  what  is  best  in  our  literature. 

History  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be  correlated  with  literary  studies.  In  this 
■way  the  student  should  be  made  acquainted  with  sacred  and  ancient  history, 
Roman  and  Grecian  history,  the  outlines  of  ecclesiastical  history,  and  of  the  polit¬ 
ical  history  of  his  own  countr}\  Selected  topics  and  periods  of  church  history, 
therefore  of  English  and  American  history,  should  be  mastered,  both  for  the  sake 
of  the  facts  and  in  the  two  higher  classes  for  the  sake  of  gradually  training  the 
student  to  observe  and  to  note  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  etc. 

Modern  languages  should  find  a  place  in  the  curriculum,  and  on  entering  col¬ 
lege  the  student  should  have  a  reading  knowledge  at  least  of  French  or  of  German, 
or  of  both. 

In  mathematics  he  should  have  finished  algebra  and  geometry,  plane  and  solid. 

As  regards  the  sciences,  we  believe  that  a  certain  amount  of  time  should  be  set 
apart  for  physical  geography,  physiology,  elementary  biology,  and  perhaps  ele¬ 
mentary  astronomy  or  physics  and  chemistry. 


GREEK  IN  CATHOLIC  COLLEGES. 


933 


As  to  religion  we  need  not  go  into  details.  It  is  clear  that  a  yonng  man  enter¬ 
ing  college  should  he  able  to  explain  his  belief  and  be  able  to  give  valid  reasons 
for  the  faith  that  is  in  him. 

We  urge  the  importance  of  insisting  on  living  teaching  in  religion,  history, 
and  English  literature,  not  mere  text-book  work. 

We  would  urge,  too,  the  importance  of  oral  -work  in  Latin,  so  that  the  usage  of 
the  Latin  tongue  be  not  lost  among  us,  seeing  that  Latin  is  the  universal  language 
of  the  church. 

Your  committee  wishes  to  close  by  recommending  that  the  matter  of  entrance 
requirements  be  not  allowed  to  drop,  but  that  a  special  committee  be  appointed 
to  study  the  matter  thoroughly  and  to  report  in  detail  on  the  study  of  English 
literature  and  of  science  in  the  preparatory  school. 

It  was  moved  and  seconded  that  the  report  of  the  committee  be  accepted,  which 
motion  was  duly  carried  by  a  vote  of  the  conference. 


GREEK  IN  OUR  CATHOLIC  COLLEGES. 

By  Rev.  Candidus  Eichsnlaub,  O.  S.  B., 

Of  St.  Bede's  College ,  Peru ,  III. 

In  the  question  of  Greek  we  happen  on  a  subject  of  discussion  which  has  been 
the  cause  of  much  dissension  among  the  school  men  of  our  times.  Already  for 
some  years  there  exists  a  faction  that  would  sway  public  opinion  toward  rejecting 
the  classics  and  accepting  instead  the  more  modern  sciences  as  instruments  of  edu¬ 
cation.  Judging  from  existing  conditions,  and  seeing  the  strong  efforts  continu¬ 
ally  being  made  to  introduce  new  courses  into  the  schools,  the  conclusion  lies 
patent  that  if  the  schools  do  not  deteriorate  to  the  level  of  manual- training  schools, 
they  will  be  productive  of  nothing  more  than  polished  seekers  of  material  advance¬ 
ment,  or  progressively  civilized  but  naturalistic  sociologists.  The  tendency 
toward  this  kind  of  education  is  more  noticeable  in  the  common  secondary  school, 
although  it  has  gained  strong  foothold  elsewhere.  For  the  secondary  school,  wit¬ 
ness  the  report  of  the  committee  [of  the  National  Educational  Association]  on 
college  entrance,  page  158:  “  The  attention  of  educators  has  been  of  late  repeatedly 
called  to  the  truth  that  a  four-years’  course,  consisting  almost  exclusively  of  classics 
and  mathematics,  with  scant  recognition  of  English  literature,  practically  no  mod¬ 
ern  history,  and  no  physical  or  natural  science,  is  a  course  so  unsymmetrical  as  to 
be  a  monstrosity.  The  relation  of  the  different  educational  institutions  to  each 
other  ought  to  be  such  that  a  course  preparatory  to  college  will  also  be  a  course 
well  adapted  to  fit  the  student  for  the  later  work  of  life  and  for  social  and  civil 
duties  in  case  he  should  fail  to  take  a  college  course.  It  can  not  be  claimed  that 
the  present  classical  course  in  high  schools,  constructed  with  reference  to  the  clas¬ 
sical  course  in  colleges,  makes  any  approximation  to  this  result.  The  student  who 
has  completed  a  high-scliool  course  in  preparation  for  the  classical  course  in  col¬ 
lege  has  gained,  not  a  tolerably  complete  and  symmetrical  education  as  far  as  it 
goes,  but  a  wretched  torso  of  an  education.  Nor  is  the  exclusion  of  science  inju¬ 
rious  only  to  those  whose  studies  are  interrupted  at  the  end  of  the  high-school 
course.  For  those  who  enter  college  the  ignoring  of  the  study  of  nature  in  pre¬ 
ceding  years  tends  to  unfit  them  for  success  in  such  studies.  Their  powers  of 
observation  and  imagination  of  physical  phenomena  are  well-nigh  atrophied  by 
disuse,  and  they  have  lost  their  native  curiosity  about  the  world  in  which  they 
live.  It  would  tend  to  correct  this  evil  if  a  certain  amount  of  science  were 
required  for  admission  to  the  classical  course.” 

Notwithstanding  this,  the  reaction  setting  in  within  the  past  few  years  gives 


934 


EDUCATION  KEPOKT,  1900-1901. 


hopes  for  a  wider  appreciation  of  the  classics.  The  same  report  quoted  above, 
after  enumerating  the  statistics,  goes  on  to  say:  “From  these  figures  it  appears 
that  the  study  of  Latin  in  the  last  eight  years  has  gained  in  the  enrollment  of  pupils 
at  a  rate  greater  than  that  of  any  other  high-school  study.  The  total  gain  of  174 
per  cent  is  more  than  double  the  percentage  of  increase  in  the  total  enrollment  of 
pupils  in  the  schools.  While  the  enrollment  of  pupils  in  Latin  has  thus  increased 
174  per  cent,  the  increase  of  enrollment  in  Greek  has  been  94  per  cent.  In  the  same 
period  the  increase  in  the  enrollment  in  physics  has  been  only  79  per  cent,  and  in 
chemistry  only  65  per  cent,  a  percentage  smaller  than  that  of  the  increase  in  the 
total  enrollment  in  the  schools.  It  is  at  least  encouraging  to  the  friends  of  clas¬ 
sical  study  to  notice  that  in  1897-98  almost  one-half  of  all  the  pupils  enrolled  in  the 
secondary  schools  (49.44  per  cent)  were  engaged  in  the  study  of  Latin.  With  this 
general  increase  of  interest  in  Latin  studies  undoubtedly  will  come  also  a  fuller 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  Greek  as  an  educational  instrument.  In  the  next 
decade  an  even  more  rapid  increase  in  the  enrollment  of  students  in  Greek  may  be 
expected  than  the  very  promising  one  of  94  per  cent  reported  for  the  period  cov¬ 
ered  by  the  table.” 

To  what  extent  the  Catholic  schools  have  suffered  under  the  influence  of  the 
secular  sentiment  need  not  now  be  investigated.  We  do  know,  however,  that  in 
many  instances,  both  in  matter  and  in  manner,  Greek  has  not  received  attention 
commensurate  with  its  educational  value.  How  many  of  all  our  college  graduates 
do  we  ever  meet  who  will  admit  of  having  profited  by  their  course  in  Greek,  or 
who  have  attempted,  after  completing  the  course,  to  avail  themselves  of  their 
knowledge  for  further  improvement?  If  these  facts  be  conceded,  might  not  the 
educators  as  well  agree  that  the  opportunity  is  ripe  to  debate  whether  Greek  is  of 
sufficient  importance  to  retain  it  in  the  college  curriculum  at  all?  But,  surely, 
for  Catholic  educators  there  can  be  no  question  of  dropping  this  study  from  the 
curriculum.  The  meeting  of  this  venerable  body  here  to-day  betokens  rather  an 
intention  toward  a  readjustment  of  this  branch,  giving  it  its  proper  position  and 
bringing  the  method  of  teaching  it  up  to  a  uniform  standard.  Now,  these  points 
may  not  be  solved  except  with  reference  to  the  educational  value  of  Greek. 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  with  Greek,  as  with  any  other  branch  of  study,  its  value 
in  the  curriculum  must  be  determined  by  its  own  intrinsic  worth,  as  well  as  rela¬ 
tive  superiority  to  other  studies.  In  the  case  of  Greek  the  criteria  establishing  its 
superiority  are:  (1)  The  supremacy  of  this  language  as  a  vehicle  of  thought;  (2) 
The  fact  that  it  offers  the  best  literary  productions  of  all  ages;  (8)  Its  excellence 
as  a  means  of  training  the  mind  to  comprehensive  intellection,  accuracy  of  reason¬ 
ing,  and  nicety  of  expression;  (4)  That  it  has  been  made  so  important  a  factor  in 
transmitting  to  man  the  Divine  message  of  eternal  truth  and  salvation. 

And  truly  Greek  is  easily  the  peer  among  languages,  the  perfection  of  its  struc¬ 
ture,  responding  with  fullness  of  harmonious  flow  to  every  movement  of  thought. 
The  wealth  of  its  vocabulary  and  the  rich  variety  of  its  forms  are  unparalleled  for 
giving  appropriate  expression  to  any  conception  of  the  mind,  be  it  of  concrete 
form  or  motion,  with  its  attendant  mode  and  vesture,  or  be  it  abstract  (and  imma¬ 
terial)  ideality,  or  sentiment  and  passion  in  the  various  degrees  of  tenderness  or 
power.  How  superbly  flexible  and  expressive  to  eye  and  imagination  alike  are  the 
groupings  of  terms  with  their  modifications,  according  as  they  are  arranged  to 
parade  apart  for  emphasis,  or  are  united  in  closed  phalanx  to  lend  strength  to  a 
leading  idea!  Still  more,  beside  the  color  of  moods  and  numbers  of  time,  there  is 
also  the  harmony  of  sound,  wherein  a  discordant  touch  is  scarce  allowed  to  mar 
the  pleasing  tones.  Greek,  indeed,  is  a  language  than  which  none  is  more  fittingly 
appropriate  for  instrumentation  of  human  thought. 

Well,  too,  have  those  master  minds  of  cultured  Greece  employed  the  language 
to  mold  the  edifice  of  their  sublime  conceptions.  Never  were  passion  and  pur- 


GBEEK  m  CATHOLIC  COLLEGES. 


935 


poses  of  mortals  expressed  with  truer  reality  and  more  perfect  taste  and  polished 
execution  than  in  the  epics  of  Homer.  Demosthenes,  in  his  love  for  country  and 
his  people,  furnishes  those  imperishable  models  of  oratory  which,  by  their  faith¬ 
fulness  to  objective  reasoning,  could  sway  the  people  contrary  even  to  their 
meanest  inclinations.  But  why  enlarge  on  the  merits  of  these  great  men  and 
their  works;  why  speak  singly  of  a  Pericles,  Aristophanes,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
Thucydides,  and  so  many  others,  while  we  know  that  throughout  so  many  cen¬ 
turies  the  ablest  talents  have  sought  delight  in  the  refinement  of  Grecian  litera¬ 
ture?  The  schools  of  all  civilized  countries  never  could  bemean  themselves  by 
slighting  the  artful  grandeur  of  Greek  speech.  Where  is  the  college  to-day,  unless 
existing  for  mere  material  advancement,  that  refuses  to  invite  studious  minds  to 
sit  at  the  models  of  Attic  lore — models  which  we  can  not  help  but  liken  to  those 
other  works  of  theirs,  viz,  those  plastic  imitations  of  the  ideal  human  form,  made 
always  to  be  admired,  always  and  everywhere  recognized  as  the  standard  pattern 
for  unfolding  genius? 

Can  we  wonder,  then,  that  a  language  possessing  such  ready  material  and  per¬ 
fected  by  such  subtle  intellects,  is  so  eminently  fit  to  training  young  minds  to 
comprehensive  intellection  and  accuracy  of  judgment?  In  truth,  there  is  no  tet¬ 
ter  instrument  to  develop  the  various  faculties  of  the  mind.  It  is  herein  we  find 
that  Greek  is  so  profitable  a  branch  in  the  classroom.  The  facility  of  surround¬ 
ing  single  words  with  their  modifiers  to  convey  an  adequate  expression  of  subject 
and  object  of  thought  with  accompanying  circumstance  or  ornament,  the  infinite 
ways  of  rendering  verbal  terms  with  modes  and  conditions,  can  not  but  open 
up  a  more  comprehensive  view  to  the  imagination.  The  variety  of  uses  to  which 
the  same  roots  of  words  are  adaptable,  whether  occurring  in  their  original  and 
real  sense,  or  transferred  to  a  moral  or  abstract  signification,  compel  the  student 
to  have  regard  for  the  context,  and  ever  to  subordinate  his  judgment  of  the 
signification  of  a  term  to  the  sense  conveyed  in  the  complete  sentence.  In  a 
similar  way  must  he  use  his  judgment  in  determining  the  function  of  terms 
according  to  forms  defined  by  etymological  regulation.  The  continual  exercise  in 
testing  the  fitness  of  all  must  eventually  produce  the  ability  of  accurate  judg¬ 
ment  which  is  the  distinguishing  mark  between  the  sound  thinker  and  the  voluble 
talker. 

However  indifferently  the  Catholic  educator  may  think  of  the  advantages  enu¬ 
merated,  there  is  one  other  which  he  can  not  ignore,  namely,  that  the  knowledge 
of  Greek  prepares  the  student  for  a  more  perfect  acquaintance  with  the  deposit  of 
our  holy  religion.  Especially  must  those  who,  by  the  reason  of  their  higher  edu¬ 
cation,  are  looked  upon  as  exponents  of  truth  be  in  position  to  make  themselves 
conversant  with  the  sources  whence  the  supposed  coryphasi  of  biblical  criticism 
derive  their  misguided  conclusions;  and  if  our  adhesion  to  Christianity  is  to  be  a 
“rationale  obsequium,”  how  can  the  teachers  of  it  permit  those  whom  they  are 
educating  to  remain  without  the  means  of  discriminating  between  distorted 
deductions  and  lawful  explanations,  based  on  the  text  of  the  language  chosen  to 
communicate  to  man  so  great  a  part  of  divine  revelation. 

Thus,  then,  must  we  draw  the  conclusion  that  the  study  of  Greek  in  a  course 
leading  to  higher  education  dare  not  be  neglected,  if  indeed  Catholic  institutions 
would  do  themselves  justice.  For,  taking  the  advantage  pointed  out  collectively, 
there  is  no  known  discipline  of  such  universal  value  as  a  means  toward  individ¬ 
ual,  as  well  as  social,  intellectual,  and  moral  attainments.  Of  course,  religion, 
the  vernacular  language,  and  Latin  must  claim  priority  in  as  far  as  they  are  of 
simple  necessity  or  that  they  are  the  medium  without  which  what  is  necessary 
could  not  be  obtained.  Greek,  therefore,  if  taught  in  accordance  with  its  value, 
would  demand  a  full  course  of  six  years  or  at  least  five,  supposing  the  conditions 
exceptionally  good. 


936 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


What  part  of  this  coarse  is  to  he  allotted  to  the  secondary  or  preparatory  school 
is  the  question  which,  I  understand,  is  to  he  more  specially  discussed  in  this  meet¬ 
ing.  An  adequate  decision  on  this  topic  can  not  be  given  unless  the  twofold  object 
of  the  secondary  course  receive  due  consideration.  Now,  undoubtedly  the  first 
aim  ought  to  be  development  of  the  intellective  powers;  the  second,  knowledge. 
And  it  is  precisely  herein  so  many  schools  are  sadly  deficient.  We  see  this  so 
clearly  manifest  in  the  prevalent  tendency  to  cram  the  student  with  information 
by  the  introduction  of  numberless  “ics”  and  “  ologies,’’  to  the  detriment  of  logi¬ 
cal  development.  ¥/ell  aware  of  the  results  so  forcibly  impressed  on  our  minds, 
we  can  the  better  persuade  ourselves  to  hold  more  steadfastly  to  the  past  and  its 
methods,  seeing  they  have  stood  the  test  of  worlds  and  centuries,  only  that  we  be 
mindful  to  give  later  improvements  fair  trial  and  recognition.  Development, 
then,  is  the  first  desideratum,  and  since  Greek  is  a  means  exceedingly  well 
adapted  thereto,  the  method  to  be  pursued  in  teaching  it  can  not  be  purely  that  of 
grammar,  or  the  natural,  the  pure,  the  phonetic,  the  psychological,  or  the  reading- 
method ;  but  it  must  combine  what  is  most  serviceable  in  each  in  order  to  be 
conducive  to  an  all-around  training. 

Moreover,  the  teacher  should  steadily  aim  to  have  regard  for  the  mental  opera¬ 
tions.  The  first  of  these  is  that  of  apprehension,  which  is  acquired  not  only  by 
memorizing  terms  of  the  vocabulary,  but  more  by  close  attention  to  the  value  of 
words  and  signs  arising  from  their  peculiar  forms.  This  enlarges  the  power  of 
observation  and  definite  apprehension.  The  second  operation  naturally  following 
upon  the  preceding  is  to  find  the  relation  of  ideas  and  expressions,  and,  again,  to 
distinguish  them  from  each  other  according  to  the  different  functional  value  they 
have  as  parts  of  a  simple  unit  of  connected  thought.  This  operation,  in  turn, 
increases  the  power  of  discernment,  and  must  precede  the  third,  which  consists  in 
tracing  a  whole  period  of  reasoning,  in  arranging  a  series  of  judgments  according 
to  their  coordinate  and  subordinate  relations.  This  work  tends  to  expand  the 
grasp  of  the  mind  and  to  unify  intellectual  activity  into  a  harmonious  whole. 
More  than  this,  a  fourth  operation,  that  of  analyzing  the  various  modes  of  expres¬ 
sion,  the  disposition  and  grouping  together  of  the  leading  ideas  and  judgments, 
with  their  accompanying  modifications,  leads  directly  to  a  comprehensive  view, 
extending  the  power  of  intellectual  vision.  But  superior  to  this  is  the  fifth  oper¬ 
ation,  wherein  all  mental  activity  is  shown  to  be  restricted  to  general  laws,  by 
means  of  which  alone  a  language  becomes  the  property  of  a  nation  or  community. 
By  close  study  of  these  laws,  frequently  so  extensive  in  their  generality,  the  mind 
is  still  further  trained  to  intellective  expansion,  being  led  to  recognize  an  indefi¬ 
nite  array  of  possibilities  therein;  and  by  again  applying  and  seeing  applied  these 
laws  in  the  concrete  it  learns  to  become  accurate,  and  its  judgment  gradually 
becomes  more  definite  in  objective  correctness.  A  proper  regard  being  had  for 
these  operations,  under  a  competent  teacher,  no  one  can  fail  to  see  that  such  train¬ 
ing  will  be  productive  of  solid  education  and  such  development  as  is  inseparable 
from  independent  thought  and  rational  judgment. 

Though  development  must  be  the  first  aim  in  education,  the  acquisition  of  knowl¬ 
edge  can  by  no  means  be  neglected.  The  student  of  the  secondary  department 
should  become  acquainted  with  so  much  knowledge  that  his  further  progress  be 
profitable.  It  will  never  do  to  have  learned  merely  a  set  of  forms  and  rules,  with 
some  notion  of  their  use,  nor  will  it  do  to  know  a  compendious  collection  of  words 
without  understanding  their  function.  In  order  to  obtain  an  equable  result  the 
secondary  course  must  have  its  own  end,  besides  preparing  merely  for  a  university 
course.  It  ought  to  afford  a  good  working  knowledge  of  Greek,  so  that  the  student 
be  in  position  to  pursue  intelligently  and  independently  his  reading  of  Greek,  with¬ 
out  stumbling  against  so  many  and  difficult  obstacles  as  to  cause  him  to  lay  aside 
his  books  in  despair. 


GREEK  m  CATHOLIC  COLLEGES. 


937 


It  may  therefore  be  considered  as  established  that  in  the  academic  1  course  the 
student  be  trained  to  acquire  an  accurate  knowledge  of  etymological  forms,  all 
principal  rules  of  syntax,  and  a  sufficiently  extensive  vocabulary.  This  directly 
implies  an  answer  to  the  question,  What  should  be  exacted  of  a  candidate  present¬ 
ing  himself  for  entrance  to  the  university?  for  it  excludes  mere  questioning  on 
time  and  quantity  of  matter  seen  and  demands  that  the  student,  besides  mani¬ 
festing  such  intellectual  development  as  will  render  him  capable  of  undertaking 
profounder  studies,  wull  also  give  proof  of  knowledge  sufficient  as  a  foundation  for 
easily  assimilating  its  higher  branches.  If  such  is  the  general  expression  for  the 
standard  required,  then  the  candidate  must  be  able  to  read  fluently  and  translate 
correctly  any  matter  previously  seen  in  the  course  completed;  to  parse  and  ana¬ 
lyze,  giving  account  of  forms  and  constructions,  and  must  be  able,  "without  too 
frequent  recourse  to  dictionary  or  grammar,  to  handle  intelligently  such  parts  of 
the  easier  authors  not  studied  beforehand,  i.  e.,  to  read  at  sight. 

Working  on  this  fundamental  standard,  it  is  evident  that  the  young  student 
must  already  possess  a  good  idea  of  the  grammar  of  his  own  language,  and  be 
well  versed  in  the  knowledge  of  the  value  of  terms  and  periods.  And,  if  other¬ 
wise,  he  is  not  to  be  crowded  with  a  superfluity  of  matter  apt  to  overtask  his  assim¬ 
ilative  powers;  the  study  of  Greek  should  be  deferred  to  the  second  year  after 
Latin  has  been  completed.  This  practice  the  Catholic  institutions  in  this  country 
have  almost  uniformly  adopted,  and  they  seem  the  more  inclined  to  wait  till  after 
the  second  year,  finding  it  preferable  to  begin  Latin  as  soon  as  the  schoolboy  has 
graduated  from  the  elementary  department. 

How  long  a  time  thereafter,  and  under  what  best  method  the  object  of  the 
Greek  class  may  be  attained,  must  be  decided  by  the  experience  of  observant 
teachers.  Withal,  there  seems  to  be  a  divergence  of  opinion  regarding  the  method 
of  teaching  Greek.  With  the  variety  of  methods  now  in  vogue,  no  precise  regula¬ 
tion  may  seem  feasible  for  allotting  the  time;  nor  does  it  even  seem  possible  to 
introduce  one  and  the  same  method  as  long  as  the  teachers  themselves  are  not 
equally  equipped  to  perform  duty  on  the  same  branch.  Yet  all  are  certain  that 
there  is  a  universal  movement  toward  improvement.  Let,  therefore,  the  experi¬ 
enced  outline  a  course,  serving  as  a  model  for  the  perfection  to  be  attained.  An 
attempt  at  an  outline  is  made  in  the  following  schedule: 

Schedule  for  a  three  years'  course  ( four  hours  per  iveek);  for  day  schools  five  hours 

per  week. 

First  year:  Grammar,  including  all  to  the  verbs  in  “  mi.” 

Exercises,  accompanying  each  lesson  in  grammar;  translating  Greek  into  Eng¬ 
lish,  and  English  into  Greek,  from  memory;  toward  the  end  of  the  year,  memo¬ 
rizing  small  stories  or  fables,  the  difficult  parts  receiving  extra  explanation. 

Second  year:  Grammar,  repetition;  from  the  verbs  in  “mi,”  through  irregular 
verbs  and  the  cases. 

Prepositions. 

Exercises,  accompanying  grammar  same  as  above;  translation  ditto;  Xenophon. 
Memorizing  select  passages. 

Third  year:  Grammar,  repetition  of  previous  year;  modes  and  tenses,  etc. 
Grammar  completed. 

Exercises,  Xenophon,  Homer,  a  few  chapters  of  Sacred  Scripture,  some  Greek 
Father  of  the  Church,  preferably  St.  John  Chrysostom.2 


1  Academic  must  here  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  secondary,  or  preparatory — i.  e.,  that  course 
offering  adequate  training  for  entering  a  first-class  university  course.  This  does  not  imply  any 
change  (to  be  made)  in  the  collegiate  course  preceding  the  clerical  seminary;  for  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  four  years  of  Greek  in  classics,  followed  by  a  year  or  two  in  philosophy,  is  considered 
admirable. 

2  The  reading  of  Homer,  S,  Scripture,  etc.,  in  this  course  is  intended  chiefly  for  training  in 
Greek  synthesis,  and  for  acquiring  a  large  vocabulary,  which  mast  be  the  foundation  for  a  more 
extensive  study  of  Greek  literature  later  on. 


938 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


N.  E. — It  may  be  remarked  that  the  grammar  to  be  used  be  Kuehner’s,  Butt- 
mairs,  or  Spiess's,  or  some  similar  elementary  grammar.  To  give  a  better  view  of 
the  whole  outline  of  grammar,  the  grammar  and  exercise  book  should  be  separate. 
It  will  be  found  very  advantageous  with  students  entering  upon  their  course  in 
Greek  rather  late,  or  students  that  are  farther  advanced  in  other  branches,  to  give 
them  an  occasion  of  seeing  the  whole  grammar  with  its  principal  features,  and 
exercises  corresponding,  for  a  first  year,  which  may  serve  for  two  years  of  the 
regular  course. 

Treated  in  such  or  a  similar  manner,  the  study  of  Greek,  besides  furnishing  the 
student  with  desirable  knowledge,  will  be  a  powerful  aid  in  training  the  mind  to 
facility  in  acquiring  that  definition  of  concept  so  essential  for  accurate  reasoning, 
and  give  it,  at  the  same  time,  that  faculty  of  expansion  wherewith  it  intuitively 
comprehends  a  variety  of  possibilities,  of  which  it  knows  but  one  to  be  selected 
as  the  best  and  most  fitting.  This,  then,  must  be  the  object  of  the  Catholic 
teacher  whose  faith  in  the  unchangeable  truths  of  revelation  and  Christian  phi¬ 
losophy  is  supreme,  and  who  wTill  not  sacrifice  quality  of  intellectual  development, 
a  part  of  true  education,  to  a  mass  of  confused  information,  the  outgrowth  of 
which  is  and  can  not  be  other  than  complacent  self-sufficiency  and  opinionated 
sciolism.  If,  finally,  the  teacher  acquaint  the  student  with  the  reason  and  merits 
of  the  system  he  would  conscientiously  follow  out,  the  student  will  not  only 
readily  become  reconciled  to  an  apparently  difficult  system,  but  also  gradually 
take  more  delight  in  cooperating  with  his  professor  for  obtaining  results  ending 
in  solid  satisfaction  to  both  student  and  professor. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND— 1900-1901. 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  constitutional  monarchy;  area,  England  and  Wales, 
58,186  square  miles;  population  (estimated,  1899),  81,742,588;  Scotland,  29,820 
square  milesp  population  (estimated,  1899),  4,281,850;  Ireland,  32,583  square 
miles;  population  (estimated,  1896),  4,535,516. 


Information  on  education  in  Great  Britain  in  previous  Reports. 


Title  of  article. 

Report 

of— 

Pages. 

Detailed  view  of  the  educational  system  in  England . 

1888-89 

78-111 

Religious  and  moral  training  in  public  elementary  schools,  England  and  Wales. 
Brief  view  of  the  educational  system,  with  current  statistics _ _ - . 

1888- 89 

1889- 90 

438-457 

237-248 

Educational  system  of  Scotland . . . . . 

Elementary  education  in  London  and  Paris . . . . . . 

1889-90 

1889-90 

187-236 

263-280 

Brief  view  of  systems  of  England  and  Scotland,  with  current  statistics  and 
comparison  with  1876  (England);  (1880  Scotland) _ _ 

1890-91 

125-134 

Provisions  for  secondary  and  for  technical  instruction  in  Great  Britain _ 

1890-91 

135-150 

Educational  system  of  Ireland . . _ . 

1890-91 

151-164 

Elementary  education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1892 _ _  _ 

1891-92 

97-104 

Technical  instruction  in  Great  Britain . . . . . . . 

Elementary  education  in  Great  Britain. . . . . . . . 

1891- 92 

1892- 93 

105-137 

203-208 

Religious  instruction  under  the  London  school  board . . . 

1892-93 

208-218 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  educational  statistics  and  movements,  1893 . 

1893-94 

165-185 

Educational  systems  of  England  and  Scotland,  with  statistics  and  move¬ 
ments,  1898-94 . . . . . . 

1894-95 

257-273 

The  English  educational  bill  of  1896  . . . . .  . . . 

1895-96 

79-121 

Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1895-96,  with  detailed  statements  of 
the  development  of  the  English  system . . . „ . 

1895-96 

123-135 

Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland: 

Statistics,  legislation,  1870-1897  _  _ _ _  _ _  _ 

1896-97 

3-14 

Elementary  education  in  London  .  .  . . . 

1896-97 

15-27 

Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland:  Recent  measures  pertaining  to  the 
administration  of  the  system;  to  the  improvement  of  the  teaching  force; 
the  extension  of  the  curriculum — Proposals  respecting  secondary  educa¬ 
tion— Universities  and  university  colleges . . . . . 

Brief  conspectuses  of  the  systems  of  elementary  education  in  England,  Wales, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  with  current  and  comparative  statistics— Details  of 
the  current  movements  in  England,  with  especial  reference  to  recent  leg¬ 
islation — Review  of  recent  university  movements . . . 

1897- 98 

1898- 99 

133-167 

3-65 

Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland :  Current  statistics ;  statistical  review, 
1870-1899 — Board  of  education;  organization  and  scope— University  move¬ 
ments  . . . 

1899-1900 

1167-1204 

TOPICAL  OUTLINE. 

Statistical  summary,  1900 — Brief  outlines  of  systems  of  education  of  England  and  Wales, 
Scotland  and  Ireland— Review  of  educational  movements  in  England,  1900-1901:  Measures 
respecting  higher  grade  and  evening  schools;  state  of  rural  schools;  development  of  hoard 
schools  in  the  cities  indicated  by  statistics  of  six  typical  cities,  with  citations  from  current 
reports — Detailed  statistical  tables,  current  and  retrospective  (England  and  Scotland)— Second¬ 
ary  education  in  England  and  in  Scotland— Universities  and  university  colleges:  Statistics 
(including  1889-19C0) ;  new  organizations  in  England ;  the  royal  commission  on  the  state  of  uni¬ 
versity  education  in  Ireland,  paper  by  Judge  O’Connor  Morris. 

Appended  papers:  (1)  The  Government  Education  Bill,  by  E.  Lyulph  Stanley;  (2)  A  National 
System  of  Education,  by  Cloudesley  Brereton. 


939 


940 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900=1901. 

Summary  of  current  educational  statistics — Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


Sources  of  informa¬ 
tion. 


Statesman’s  Year 
Book,  1901. 


Official  report,  1900- 


1901. 


Statesman^  Year 
Book.  1901. 


Official  report,  1900- 
1901. 


Statesman’s  Year 
Book,  1901. 


Official  report,  1900- 
1901. 


Institutions. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 
England  and  Wales. 
Universities:8 

Oxford  (23  colleges) . 

Cambridge  (18  colleges) . 

Durham  (1  college) . . 

London  (2  affiliated  colleges) . 

University  colleges  (12). . 

University  colleges  for  women 

(4). 

Bedford  College  for  Women _ 

Royal  Holloway  College  for 
Women. 

Technical:  City  and  guilds  of 
London  (4  institutions). 

Elementary  day  schools _ 

Night  schools. . . 

Training  colleges  for  elementary 
teachers. 


Scotland. 

Universities: 

Aberdeen  (1  college) . 

Edinburgh  (1  college) . . 

Glasgow  (1  college) . . . 

St.  Andrew's  (2  colleges) _ 

Dundee  University  College . 

Glasgow  Technical  College . 

Elementary  day  schools . 

High-grade  schools. . . 

'Night  schools. . . 

Training  colleges  for  elementary 
teachers. 

Ireland. 

Universities: 

Dublin  (1  college) . 

Belfast,  Queen’s  College _ 

Cork,  Queen’s  College  . . 

Galway,  Queen’s  College _ 

Elementary  day  schools _ 

Night  schools. . . 

Training  schools  for  elementary 
teachers. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Science  schools  and  classes  . . 

Art  schools  and  classes . . . 


1  Date 

report. 

Registered 
students 
or  pupils. 

Profess¬ 
ors  or 
teachers. 

Expendi¬ 

ture. 

1900 

b  3, 499 
b  2, 985 
170 

0  2, 313 

94 

1900 

126 

1900 

1900 

20 

204 

1900 

d  8, 478 

718 

1900 

427 

1 

1900 

183 

32 

1900 

120 

26 

1900 

e 1,592 

5, 705, 675 
509.251 

76 

1900 

1900 

145, 944 

|$60, 531,609 

1900 

5, 776 

732 

1900 

58 

1900 

2, 754 

107 

1900 

2,016 

105 

1900 

264 

23 

1900 

f  120 

38 

1900 

6298 

74 

1900 

1900 

753,287 
3, 271 

17,189 

7,438, 752 

1900 

82, 190 

1900 

1,250 

1, 100 

1900 

54 

1900 

311 

26 

1900 

178 

23 

1900 

91 

23 

1900 

1899 

b  770, 622 
2,182 
877 

13,074 

5,947,263 

1899 

1900 

167,280 

125,231 

1900 

5  1,357,331 

a Owens  College,  Manchester;  University  College,  Liverpool,  and  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds, 
are  associated  together  as  the  Yictoria  University;  and  the  Welsh  colleges  at  Aberystwith, 
Bangor,  and  Cardiff  as  the  University  of  Wales.  A  university,  with  which  Mason  College  is 
incorporated,  has  been  established  at  Birmingham. 
b  Undergraduates.  At  Oxford  in  1899  there  were  856  matriculations;  at  Cambridge  in  1900,  932. 
c  Also  3,189  evening  students. 
d  Includes  1,125  evening  students. 
e  Includes  800  evening  students. 
f  Also  70  evening  students, 
s  Also  3,781  evening  students. 
b  Average  enrollment. 

5  Grants  by  board  of  education. 

BRIEF  CONSPECTUS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND. 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  public  elementary  schools  of  Eng¬ 
land  enrolled  5,705,675  pupils  in  1900.  They  were  distributed  in  20,117  schools 
under  Government  inspection,  and  maintained  by  the  combined  action  of  Govern¬ 
ment  and  local  authorities.  The  total  current  expenditures,  day  and  evening 
schools,  reached  the  sum  of  $60,500,000,  of  which  the  Government  supplied  61  per 
cent  and  local  sources  36  per  cent. 

The  current  expenditure  for  day  schools  only  was  $58,538,923,  equivalent  to 
$12.54  per  capita  of  the  average  attendance,  viz,  4,666,130’.  This  number  is  81.8 
per  cent  of  the  enrollment. 


EDUCATION  IN  GEEAT  BEITAIN  AND  IKELAND. 


941 


Origin  and  essential  features  of  the  system. — The  organized  system  of  public 
elementary  schools  is  based  upon  the  education  law  of  1870,  commonly  known  as 
the  Forster  law,  from  the  name  of  its  author.  Subsequent  laws  have  fortified  and 
extended  the  system,  but  without  changing  at  all  its  essential  principles. 

As  early  as  1838  Government  had  made  an  appropriation  of  $100,000  for  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  under  the  management  of  religious  societies.  The  policy  was 
continued  and  developed  from  year  to  year,  but  with  ever-growing  evidence  of 
the  inadequacy  of  the  effort  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people.  By  the  law  of  1870 
Government  assumed  the  responsibility  of  securing  school  provision  for  all  chil¬ 
dren,  and,  without  prejudice  to  the  existing  denominational  schools,  created  a 
new  local  agency — school  boards — for  the  establishment  of  elementary  schools. 
These  boards  were  to  be  elected  by  the  taxpayers  in  each  rural  parish  and  munic¬ 
ipality,  as  circumstances  might  demand,  either  upon  local  initiative  or  upon  the 
order  of  the  Government.  The  existing  denominational  schools  were  to  be  recog¬ 
nized  as  public  elementary  schools  in  the  meaning  of  the  law  and  were  placed 
upon  the  same  footing  as  the  board  schools  with  respect  to  the  Government  grant. 

The  law  provided  that  board  schools  should  be  strictly  nonsectarian,  and  by  a 
“  conscience  clause”  prohibited  private  schools  from  forcing  religious  instruction 
upon  children  whose  parents  should  object  to  the  same.  No  public  grants  are 
allowed  for  religious  instruction.  The  law  of  1870  also  transferred  to  school 
boards  the  power  previously  exercised  by  prison  authorities  of  contributing  to  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  industrial  (reform)  schools. 

The  denominational  or  “voluntary”  schools,  as  they  are  termed,  were  excluded 
from  a  share  in  the  local  taxes  upon  which  the  boards  might  levy  for  the  support 
of  the  board  schools.  The  conditions  for  sharing  in  the  Government  grant,  which 
are  the  same  for  both  classes  of  schools,  are  set  forth  in  annual  regulations  (codes). 
These  regulations  are  sanctioned  by  Parliament  and  have  the  same  force  as  the 
law.  They  relate  to  buildings,  number  and  qualifications  of  teachers,  course  of 
study,  and  length  of  school  year. 

The  total  enrollment  in  1900  (5,705,675)  was  distributed  between  the  two  classes 
of  schools  as  follows:  Voluntary  or  denominational  schools,  53.8  per  cent;  board 
schools,  46.7  per  cent.  The  current  expenditure  for  the  “  voluntary”  schools  was 
met  from  Government  grants,  78.2  per  cent;  from  endowments,  subscriptions,  and 
fees,  21.8  per  cent.  The  current  expenditure  for  board  schools  was  met  from  Gov¬ 
ernment  grants,  53  per  cent;  local  taxes  (rates)  45  per  cent,  and  the  small  ba’ance 
from  fees  and  other  local  sources. 

The  central  authority. — The  Government  grant,  which  forms  the  chief  source  of 
income,  is  administered  by  the  board  of  education  created  in  1899  (replacing  the 
education  department  created  in  1865  to  administer  the  grant  to  denominational 
schools). 

The  distribution  of  the  grant  since  1895  has  been  made  principally  on  the  basis 
of  the  average  attendance  in  individual  schools,  the  rate  per  capita  being  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  reports  of  the  Government  school  inspectors.  These  comprise  12  chief 
inspectors,  107  inspectors,  45  subinspectors,  and  152  inspectors’  assistants,  a  special 
inspector  of  music,  a  directress  of  needlework,  and  an  inspectress  of  cookery  and 
laundry  work.  The  experiment  of  appointing  women  to  serve  as  subinspectors, 
first  tried  in  1896,  has  proved  eminently  successful. 

Local  authorities. — Apart  from  the  requirements  for  sharing  in  the  grant,  local 
authorities,  whether  private  managers  or  school  boards,  have  large  powers  and 
great  freedom  in  respect  to  the  management  of  the  schools. 

The  school  districts,  or  areas  for  which  a  school  board  should  be  formed  under 
the  law,  are  the  metropolis,  every  municipal  borough  excepting  Oxford,  and  every 
parish  not  included  in  the  former.  The  number  of  school  boards  in  1900  was  2,545, 
representing  69.5  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  districts  having  no  school  board, 
comprising  at  present  30.5  per  cent  of  the  population,  school-attendance  committees 
are  appointed  to  enforce  school  attendance  (lav/  of  1876). 

Free  tuition. — The  law  of  1891  providing  a  special  grant  for  all  schools,  whether 
board  or  voluntary,  remitting  fees,  has  had  the  effect  of  making  elementary  edu¬ 
cation  practically  free  throughout  the  land.  Of  20,117  schools  on  the  list  for 
inspection  in  1900,  it  appears  that  91  had  refused  the  fee  grant  altogether,  and  2,660 
continued  to  receive  such  fees  as  the  law  allows  (2,725  the  year  preceding).  Of 
the  total  number  of  enrolled  pupils,  88  per  cent  paid  no  fees  whatever. 

Teachers. — The  teaching  force  in  the  day  schools,  numbering  143,379  (excluding 
2,565  probationers) ,  was  composed  as  follows  in  1900:  Certificated  teachers,  44.6  per 
cent  of  the  total;  assistant  teachers,  22.6  per  cent,  and  pupil  teachers  20.5  per  cent; 
additional  women  teachers,  12.3  per  cent.  The  pupil  teachers  are  regarded  as 
teachers  in  training,  and  an  additional  grant  is  made  to  the  school  on  their  account. 

The  average  annual  salary  of  certificated  teachers  is,  for  men,  $635,  as  against 
$457  in  1870,  and,  for  women,  $425,  as  against  $279.  For  the  training  of  teachers 


942 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


there  are  44  residential  colleges  attended,  in  1899-90,  by  4,08.3  students,  and  16  day 
colleges,  with  1,528  students.  Of  the  former  institutions  42  are  denominational 
and  2  are  private  and  undenominational.  The  day  colleges,  with  two  exceptions, 
are  departments  or  annexes  of  university  colleges.  The  training  colleges  are  all 
under  Government  inspection  and  receive  annual  grants  for  “Queen’s  scholars,” 
who  are  admitted  upon  proof  of  required  attainments  and  who  pledge  themselves 
to  adopt  and  follow  the  juofession  of  teacher  in  a  public  elementary  school  or  other 
specified  schools.  The  expenditure  for  the  residential  colleges  for  1898-99  was 
£210,786  ($1,024,419) ,  two- thirds  of  which  was  met  by  the  Government  grant.  The 
expenditure  for  the  day  colleges  was  £47,459  ($230,650),  three-fourths  of  which  wTas 
met  by  Government  grants. 

The  superannuation  law  of  1898  provides  for  the  retirement  of  teachers  for  age 
(65  years)  or  disability  with  an  annual  allowance.  This  allowance  is  made  up 
partly  by  an  annuity  purchased  by  small  sums — £3  for  a  man  and  £2  for  a  woman — 
deducted  annually  from  each  teacher's  salary,  and  partly  by  a  State  pension  cal¬ 
culated  according  to  the  years  of  actual  service  performed  by  the  teacher. 

Legislation  since  1870. — The  most  important  modifications  of  the  system  of  ele¬ 
mentary  education  introduced  since  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1870,  either  by 
amending  laws  or  by  annual  regulations  having  the  force  of  law,  are  as  follows: 

Law  of  1876,  restricting  the  employment  of  children  under  14  years  of  age  and 
making  it  the  statutory  duty  of  every  parent  to  cause  his  children  to  receive  effi¬ 
cient  elementary  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic;  also  creating 
school-attendance  committees  in  districts  having  no  school  boards.  Law  of  1880,; 
obliging  local  educational  authorities  to  make  by-laws  for  the  enforcement  of 
compulsory  school  attendance.  Annual  regulations  of  1875  and  1880,  extending 
the  list  of  optional  or  specific  subjects  and  adding  a  seventh  grade  to  the  six 
already  established,  thereby  laying  the  foundation  for  higher  grade  schools. 
Annual  regulations,  1882,  introducing  a  merit  grant,  to  be  awarded  upon  the  basis 
of  average  attendance. 

Annual  regulations,  1890,  making  important  provision  for  teaching  science 
and  drawing,  also  providing  for  Government  aid  to  day  training  colleges  (normal 
schools) . 

Law  of  1891,  providing  for  an  extra  grant  in  lieu  of  fees  at  the  rate  of  ten  shil¬ 
lings  per  capita  of  average  attendance  for  all  schools  remitting  fees. 

Laws  of  1893,  (1)  making  eleven  years  the  minimum  age  for  exemption  from  school 
attendance  and  requiring  an  examination  in  a  grade  not  lower  than  the  fourth  for 
every  child  seeking  exemption  from  school  attendance;  (2)  authorizing  school 
boards  to  make  special  provision  fcr  the  elementary  instruction  of  blind  children 
and  of  deaf  and  dumb  children. 

Annual  regulations,  1893,  constituting  evening  schools  as  evening  continuation 
schools.  Annual  regulations,  1895,  substituting  for  the  system  of  formal  and 
individual  examinations  by  the  Government  inspector  two  annual  inspectorial 
visits,  to  be  made  without  notice,  and  apportioning  the  Government  grant  on  the 
basis  of  average  attendance. 

Law  of  1897,  providing  a  special  grant  for  the  benefit  of  “voluntary  ”  (chiefly 
denominational)  schools  at  the  rate  of  5  shillings  per  capita  of  average  attendance; 
also  authorizing  the  federation  of  voluntary  schools  and  the  allotment  of  the  grant 
at  the  discretion  of  the  governing  bodies  of  the  federations. 

Laws  of  1899,  (1)  defective  and  epileptic  children’s  act  “  empowering  local  educa¬ 
tional  authorities,  at  their  discretion,  to  establish  special  schools  or  classes  for 
mentally  or  physically  defective  children  and  special  boarding  institutions  for 
juvenile  epileptics;  ”  (2)  law  raising  the  minimum  age  for  exemption  from  school 
attendance  from  eleven  to  twelve  years;  (3)  creating  a  board  of  education  to  replace 
“the  education  department  and  the  science  and  art  department,  providing  also  for 
the  transfer  to  the  new  board  of  certain  powers  exercised  by  the  charity  commis¬ 
sioners  with  respect  to  educational  trusts  and  endowments,  and  for  the  transfer 
to  the  board  of  the  educational  functions  of  the  board  of  agriculture.”  Further, 
the  law  authorizes  ‘  ‘  a  consultative  committee,  to  be  constituted  by  an  order  in 
council,  consisting  of  persons  qualified  to  represent  the  views  of  universities  and 
other  bodies  interested  in  education  for  the  purpose  of  framing,  with  the  approval 
of  the  board  of  education,  a  register  of  teachers  and  of  advising  the  board  of  edu¬ 
cation  on  any  matter  referred  to  them  by  the  board.”  The  law  also  authorizes 
the  board  “to  inspect  any  school  supplying  secondary  education  and  desiring  to 
be  so  inspected.”  Thus  a  step  has  been  taken  toward  unifying  in  some  measure 
the  agencies  of  secondary  and  of  elementary  education. 

Law  of  1900,  extending  the  period  of  compulsory  attendance. 

Auxiliary  legislation. — 1889-1891.  Technical  instruction  laws  authorizing  county 
councils  to  levy  a  tax  not  exceeding  a  penny  in  the  pound  for  the  support  of 
technical  schools. 


EDUCATION  IN  (TREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


943 


1890.  Local  taxation,  customs,  and  excise  law,  placing  the  surplus  of  the  liquor 
duties  at  the  disposal  of  county  councils,  with  the  privilege  of  applying  the  same 
to  technical  instruction. 

BRIEF  CONSPECTUS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION  IN  SCOTLAND. 

The  system  of  education  in  Scotland  was  organized  by  a  law  of  1872  on  a  basis 
similar  to  that  of  the  English  system  as  regards  support  from  the  public  treasury 
and  the  Government  inspection  of  schools.  Scotland  had,  however,  a  system  of 
public  schools  dating  from  a  law  of  1696  which  required  that  a  school  be  estab¬ 
lished  in  every  parish.  The  country  was  thus  prepared  for  a  system  of  universal 
school  boards  as  provided  for  by  the  law  of  1872,  The  law  differed  also  from  the 
English  law  of  1870  in  that,  following  the  traditions  of  the  old  parish  system,  it 
made  provision  for  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  The  latter  did  not 
share  in  the  treasury  grant,  but  by  subsequent  laws  were  allowed  support  from 
local  taxes.  Whereas  compulsion  has  been  gradually  introduced  into  the  English 
system,  the  Scotch  law  made  education  compulsory  for  all  children  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  13  (raised  to  14  in  1883),  or  until  a  certificate  of  exemption  should 
be  secured.  The  standard  or  grade  for  exemption  was  made  the  fifth  (lav/  of 
1878) ;  the  age  for  exemption  is  twelve  (law  of  July,  1899). 

A  law  just  passed,  1901,  strengthens  the  compulsory  measures  without,  how¬ 
ever,  changing  the  age  limits. 

Religious  instruction  in  the  schools  of  Scotland  was  left  to  local  authorities  with 
the  simple  restriction  of  a  conscience  clause  making  the  attendance  of  children  at 
the  religious  exercises  optional  with  the  parents.  A  grant  in  lieu  of  fees  (law  of 
1889)  has  had  the  effect  of  making  the  schools  practically  free  schools. 

In  1S85  the  Scotch  education  department  arranged  for  the  inspection  of  endowed 
and  other  secondary  schools  applying  for  the  service.  In  1888  the  department 
established  a  leaving  certificate  for  students  who,  on  the  completion  of  a  course 
of  secondary  study,  pass  the  certificate  examination.  . 

The  number  of  secondary  schools  inviting  inspection  in  1900  was  93,  of  which 
32  were  higher  class  public  schools,  25  endowed  schools,  and  36  private  schools. 
The  number  of  candidates  for  the  leaving  certificate  in  1899  was  16,771;  in  1888  it 
was  972. 

A  large  number  of  university  and  professional  authorities  accept  the  certificate 
in  lieu  of  such  preliminary  examinations  as  are  held  under  their  direction. 
Through  the  service  of  inspection  and  examination  the  secondary  schools  of  Scot¬ 
land  have  been  brought  into  close  relation  with  the  education  department. 

Under  the  local  taxation  (customs  and  excise)  act  1890  and  other  acts  providing 
for  the  application  of  public  funds  to  secondary  and  technical  education,  the  local 
authorities  expended  for  these  purposes  in  1900-1901  the  sum  of  £67,656  ($338,000). 

SYSTEM  OF  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  IN  IRELAND. 

The  system  of  national  education  in  Ireland  dates  from  1831,  v/hen  a  board  of 
commissioners  for  education  was  created  by  the  Government.  In  1845  the  board 
was  incorporated  by  royal  charter,  and  in  1861  a  supplemental  charter  was  granted, 
under  which  10  members  must  be  Roman  Catholics  and  10  Protestants.  The 
board  is  composed  always  of  representative  men,  who  adhere  to  the  policy  of  strict 
impartiality  in  religious  matters.  The  schools  under  the  supervision  and  foster¬ 
ing  care  of  the  board  are  supported  by  State  and  local  funds.  They  may  be  denomi¬ 
national  schools  (i.  e. ,  Roman  Catholic  or  Protestant)  or  mixed,  in  respect  to  reli¬ 
gion,  but  the  rights  of  parents  in  the  matter  are  strictly  guarded  by  a  conscience 
clause  in  the  school  regulations,  which  provides  that  no  child  be  allowed  to 
attend  a  religious  exercise  of  a  denomination  other  than  his  own,  except  upon  the 
written  request  of  the  parent. 

Grants  in  aid  for  the  building  of  schoolhouses  are  allowed  by  the  commissioners, 
but  must  be  proportioned  to  the  amount  raised  locally.  The  State  pays  also  the 
larger  proportion  of  the  salaries  for  teachers,  requiring  a  minimum  annual  aug¬ 
mentation  from  local  funds  of  £12  ($80).  Altogether  the  State  bears  about  94  per 
cent  of  the  annual  expenditure  for  the  schools. 

To  avoid  religious  complications  the  State  provides  the  text-books  for  secular 
branches,  which  are  issued  at  a  small  cost  to  the  pupils. 

For  purposes  of  Government  supervision  the  country  is  divided  into  60  districts, 
which  are  grouped  in  6  divisions,  each  in  charge  of  a  head  inspector.  Under  these 
are  29  district  inspectors,  7  unassigned  inspectors,  and  10  inspectors’  assistants. 
Inspectors  and  their  assistants  are  appointed  upon  examination  testing  their 
scholastic  and  professional  qualifications. 

Local  civil  authorities  have  no  control  over  the  schools.  The  local  managers 


944 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  schools,  who  are  generally  clergymen,  come  into  direct  relations  with  the  board 
of  commissioners.  They  appoint  and  dismiss  teachers  and  arrange  the  details  of 
the  school  work.  Of  a  total  of  2,936  managers  in  1899,  four-fifths  were  clerical. 

The  commissioners  have  direct  control  of  a  special  class  of  schools  called  “  model 
schools,”  for  which  they  provide  the  buildings. 

4  •  They  are  intended,  as  their  name  indicates,  to  afford  models  of  the  best  methods 
of  instruction  and  organization,  and  to  serve  as  practice  schools  for  students  in 
training  colleges  or  normal  schools.”  These  schools  numbered  30  in  1899,  with  an 
enrollment  of  9,615  day  pupils,  included  in  the  enrollment  given  in  Table  I. 

A  compulsory  school  law  was  passed  in  1892,  but  it  has  been  imperfectly 
enforced,  and  Ireland  still  stands  below  the  other  divisions  of  the  United  Kingdom 
in  respect  to  school  attendance,  as  is  shown  by  the  most  recent  statistics.  These 
give  the  following  rates  of  attendance  to  enrollment: 


Per  cent. 

England  _ _ 82.3 

Wales _ _ 77.9 

Scotland _ _ 83.7 

Ireland _ _ _ _ _ 62 


Convent  and  monastery  schools  afford  a  large  part  of  the  provision  for  elemen¬ 
tary  education,  and  receive,  under  certain  conditions,  aid  from  the  Government. 

The  number  of  such  schools  fulfilling  the  conditions  for  aid  reported  in  1899 
was  336,  with  an  enrollment  of  107,196  pupils. 

For  the  training  of  teachers  there  are  one  national  and  four  denominational 
normal  schools,  which  receive  grants  in  aid  from  the  Government.  There  were 
801  students  in  training  in  1899.  Provision  for  agricultural  instruction  is  an 
important  feature  of  the  system.  Instruction  in  the  theory  of  agriculture  is  com¬ 
pulsory  in  all  rural  schools  for  boys  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  classes,  and 
optional  for  girls. 

The  commissioners  maintain  also  two  model  agricultural  schools,  and  in  1897 
they  reported  38  school  farms  in  connection  with  elementary  schools  and  116 
schools  having  school  gardens  attached. 

An  intermediate  education  board  was  established  in  1878  for  the  examination  of 
intermediate  or  secondary  pupils.  In  1899  the  number  of  candidates  for  examina¬ 
tion  was  7,768  (5,726  boys  and  2,042  girls),  as  compared  with  9,073  in  1898  and 
6,852  in  1881.  There  was  paid  to  the  managers  of  the  schools  the  sum  of  $265,000 
on  the  results  of  the  examination.  The  expenses  of  the  board  are  met  by  a  Gov¬ 
ernment  grant  of  £34,240  (in  1899)  and  local  revenues  amounting  to  £60,591,  or  a 
total  of  £94,831  ($474,155). 

In  1897-98  twelve  local  authorities  in  Ireland  expended  altogether  £5,649  ($28,245) 
on  technical  instruction,  the  money  being  granted  out  of  rates  (local  taxes)  under 
the  ‘‘technical  instruction  acts.” 


Review  of  Educational  Movements  in  England  in  1900-1901. 

MEASURES  AFFECTING  HIGHER  GRADE  BOARD  SCHOOLS. 

The  most  important  events  of  the  year  pertaining  to  education  in  England  grew 
out  of  judicial  decisions  affecting  the  higher  grade  board  schools.  These  schools 
have  been  sanctioned  by  the  annual  regulations  for  elementary  schools,  which 
have  authorized  the  teaching  of  advanced  subjects  and  awarded  special  grants  for 
the  same,  and  they  have  been  fostered  by  additional  grants  from  the  science  and 
art  department.  The  latter  have  been  allowed  upon  the  condition  that  certain 
equipments  and  faculties  were  furnished  and  have  thus  promoted  the  organization 
of  highdT  grade  schools  distinguished  as  schools  of  science.  The  development  of 
evening  schools  lias  followed  somewhat  the  course  of  that  of  the  higher  grade 
day  schools.  They  have  ceased  since  1893  to  be  merely  elementary  schools  and 
have  become  continuation  schools,  chiefly  for  scientific  and  commercial  training, 
and  providing  also  for  social  recreation  and  improvement. 

By  the  judicial  decisions  referred  to  above  it  was  declared  illegal  for  school 
boards  to  apply  the  funds  derived  from  local  taxes  (rates)  to  the  support  of  higher- 
grade  schools  or  for  the  instruction  of  adults.  As  the  aid  to  the  advanced  schools 
from  the  science  and  art  department  had  been  previously  withdrawn,  these  deci- 


EDUCATION  IN  GEE  AT  BEITAIN  AND  IEELAND. 


945 


sions  virtually  deprived  the  school  boards  of  funds  for  the  work.  The  particu¬ 
lar  case  upon  which  the  decision  was  rendered  was  that  of  the  London  school 
board,  against  which  surcharges  were  brought  by  a  municipal  auditor  (Mr.  Cock- 
erton)  on  account  of  expenditures  incurred  for  instruction  in  subjects  not  recog¬ 
nized  as  elementary. 1 

Upon  an  appeal  to  the  courts  the  case  was  decided  against  the  board.  The 
effect  of  this  decision,  commonly  known  as  the  “  Cockerton  judgment,”  was  thus 
defined  by  Sir  John  Gorst,  vice-president  of  the  education  department: 

The  judgment  does  practically  two  things.  First,  it  decided  that  school  boards 
could  not  employ  the  fund  procured  by  the  school  rate  for  giving  instruction  in 
any  of  their  schools  which  was  not  elementary.  It  is  quite  true  that  the  court 
did  not,  and  probably  could  not,  define  the  exact  meaning  of  the  word  “elemen¬ 
tary,”  but  they  intimated  that  the  day  school  code  of  the  board  of  education  was 
what  I  think  they  called  the  high-water  mark  of  elementary  education.  The  sec¬ 
ond  point  decided  was  this:  That  school  boards  could  not  give  any  instruction  of 
any  kind  whatever  to  persons  who  were  not  children.  Again,  the  court  did  not 
define  where  childhood  ceased;  but  the  board  of  education  had  been  advised,  as 
the  London  school  board  appears  to  have  been  advised  by  its  counsel,  that  it  would 
not  be  safe  to  place  the  limit  of  childhood  higher  than  15. 

The  chief  causes  for  the  opposition  thus  suddenly  developed  to  a  work  previously 
sanctioned  by  the  Government  appear  to  be,  first,  the  fact  that  the  school  boards 
are  gradually  encroaching  upon  the  domain  of  secondary  education.  The  studies 
and  the  methods  of  the  higher  grade  schools  make  it  necessary  indeed  to  consider 
them  in  any  scheme  for  systematizing  the  divers  and  conflicting  agencies  engaged 
in  secondary  education;  second,  the  natural  antagonism  of  the  two  forces  that  are 
contending  for  supremacy  in  educational  affairs.  The  elementary  school  system, 
as  shown  in  the  introductory  prospectus,  comprises  denominational  schools  under 
private  management  and  board  schools  under  public  control.  The  former  not 
only  antedate  the  Foster  law,  but  by  their  church  and  private  affiliations  pre¬ 
serve  traditions  of  a  policy  interwoven  with  the  entire  religious  history  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  Before  the  Reformation  4  4  there  were  schools  for  the  poor,  connected  in  many 
cases  with  the  monasteries.  Such  as  were  founded  after  the  Reformation  were, 
for  the  most  part,  independent  bodies,  but  the  general  character  of  the  objects 
which  the  founders  proposed  to  themselves  was  the  same— that  of  giving  special 
advantages  to  poor  children  who  were  either  distinguished  for  special  aptitude  or 
were  the  natives  of  particular  districts,  or  related  to  the  founders.”2 

This  policy  of  private  or  of  ecclesiastical  endowment  of  education  has  been 
gathering  strength  from  age  to  age,  and  preserves  to  this  day  the  practical  monop¬ 
oly  of  secondary  education.  In  the  field  of  elementary  education  these  traditional 
forces  are  unable  at  present  to  prevail  against  that  later  civic  impulse  which  gave 
rise  to  the  law  of  1870  and  the  new  agency  of  elected  school  boards.  The  com¬ 
plications  have  been  increased  by  the  functions  of  the  county  councils  under  the 
technical  instruction  laws. 

An  immediate  demand  for  some  measure  which  should  continue  the  schools 
interfered  with  by  the  court  decisions  arose  from  the  vast  number  of  students 
affected  thereby.  In  evening  schools  alone  there  were  not  less  than  150,000  pupils 
who,  under  that  decision,  must  cease  their  attendance.  Dr.  Macnamara,  in  a 
speech  before  the  House,  said: 

There  were  280,000  pupils  who  took  up  and  were  qualified  for  grant  in  one  or 
other  of  the  elementary  subjects;  62,000 in  English  subjects;  18,500  in  languages— 
French,  German,  Welsh,  and  Latin;  82,000  in  mathematics;  42,000  in  science  sub¬ 
jects;  101,068  in  commercial  subjects;  113,000  in  miscellaneous  subjects — vocal 


1For  the  full  particulars  of  this  decision  see  articles  by  Hon.  E.  Lyulph  Stanley  and  Sir  J  G. 
Fitch,  cited  in  the  Commissioner’s  Report  for  1899-1900,  pp.  1210-1223. 

2  See  report  of  commissioners  appointed  in  1858  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  popular  education 
in  England.  Vol.  I,  p.  15  (issued  1861). 

ED  1901 - 60 


946 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

music,  ambulance,  home  nursing,  and  shorthand;  80,851  in  domestic  economy  and 
needlework,  and  1,846  in  other  subjects.  The  point  he  wished  to  bring  out  was 
that  260,000  pupils  took  up  elementary  subjects,  and  would  honorable  members  not 
say  that  their  impression  of  the  right  honorable  gentleman's  speech  was  that  these 
people  were  engaged  upon  science?  A  point  he  wished  to  make  with  regard  to  the 
260,000  pupils  was  that  many  of  these  were  persons  whose  early  education  had  been 
entirely  neglected.  Many  of  them  were  over  15  years,  and  whose  education  had 
been  neglected  early  in  life  and  they  did  not  come  back  to  science  and  art  instruc¬ 
tion.  They  came  back  for  rudimentary  instruction,  and  it  was  a  calamitous  thing 
if,  even  at  15,  pupils  were  to  be  prohibited  from  continuing  this  education.1 

Upon  a  close  analysis  of  the  numbers  it  was  found  that  of  80,000  pupils  on  the 
roll  of  the  London  board  evening  schools,  30,000  were  over-16  years  of  age.  The 
number  of  pupils  in  day  schools  affected  by  the  decision  was  variously  estimated. 
Sir  John  Gorst,  having  regard  only  to  branches  distinctly  recognized  as  higher,  put 
the  number  as  low  as  900.  The  president  of  the  “Association  of  Headmasters  of 
Higher  Grade  and  Organized  Science  Schools  ”  estimated  that  the  limit  of  age  would 
affect  directly  7,000  pupils.  Moreover,  the  impossibility  of  maintaining  the  schools 
on  the  basis  on  which  they  had  been  organized  would  actually  extend  the  unfortunate 
effect  of  the  decision  to  the  entire  body  of  pupils  in  those  schools.2  Parents,  phi¬ 
lanthropists,  and  labor  organizations  united  with  school  boards  in  protests  against 
a  measure  wThich  threatened  to  put  an  end  to  the  instruction  of  such  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  aspiring  pupils  from  the  laboring  classes.  Petitions  poured  in  upon  mem¬ 
bers  of  Parliament  insisting  that  some  provision  should  be  made  to  prevent  the 
threatened  evil.  Meanwhile  the  Government  endeavored  to  allay  the  excitement 
by  an  adjustment  which  it  was  supposed  would  meet  the  needs  of  all  pupils  in 
elementary  schools  who  were  able  to  prolong  their  studies  up  to  the  age  of  15,  but 
who  are  not  likely  to  remain  at  school  beyond  that  age.  This  was  done  by  includ¬ 
ing  in  the  annual  regulations  for  elementary  schools  dated  March,  1901,  a  minute3 


1  Quoted  from  a  report  of  Dr.  Mcnamara’s  speech. 

2  A  return  issued  by  the  House  of  Commons  regarding  higher  grade  board  schools  has  been 
received  as  this  goes  to  press.  This  return  includes  all  the  higher  grade  board  schools  (48  in 
number)  which  comprised  a  school  of  science  in  1900-1901.  These  48  schools  enrolled  19,774  chil¬ 
dren  10  years  old  and  upward,  and  of  this  number  8,670  were  in  the  school  of  science  section. 
The  “  Schoolmaster,”  commenting  on  the  return,  says: 

These  8,670  pupils  all  received  an  education  that  includes  the  work  of  the  first  six  standards  at 
least;  they  belong  almost  exclusively  to  the  industrial  and  lower  middle  classes,  and  they  are 
now  receiving  a  course  „of  instruction  which,  though  not  so  perfect  as  it  might  be,  includes  Eng 
lish,  one  foreign  language,  drawing,  and  two  or  three  of  the  basal  sciences.  It  ought  to  be  a 
matter  of  congratulation  that  something  is  being  done  in  these  schools  to  fit  the  future  genera¬ 
tion  for  the  keen  competition  that  the  country  has  to  meet.  Add  to  these  considerations  the 
undoubted  fact  that  but  for  these  higher  grade  board  schools  most  of  the  pupils  would  finish 
their  education  sooner  than  they  do,  our  satisfaction  ought  to  be  all  the  greater,  and  our  efforts 
to  induce  more  of  them  to  complete  the  full  course  increased. 

The  school  of  science  course  is  divided  into  an  elementary  course  and  an  advanced  course. 
The  elementary  course  occupies  two  years,  and  gives  a  complete  grounding  in  the  subjects 
already  enumerated.  In  the  advanced  course  the  pupils  continue  their  studies  further,  taking, 
for  example,  the  advanced  stage  of  certain  science  subjects  and  a  course  of  mathematics  that 
includes  four  books  of  Euclid  and  plane  trigonometry.  From  the  first  two  tables  of  the  return 
we  learn  that  in  the  year  1900-1901  about  12  k  per  cent  of  the  pupils  in  the  schools  of  science  were 
doing  this  advanced  work.  This  is  not  so  great  a  percentage  as  we  should  like  to  see,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  it  is  a  percentage  of  the  number  then  in  the  schools,  and  not  a  percentage 
of  the  smaller  number  in  the  schools  three  years  ago,  and  these  pupils  of  the  advanced  course 
are  pupils  of  at  least  three  years’  standing.  It  does  not  follow  that  87 1-  per  cent  finish  their  edu¬ 
cation  with  the  elementary  course,  for  many  pupils  leave  this  course  to  become  pupil-teachers, 
or  to  continue  their  training  with  a  scholarship  in  a  technical  or  other  high  school. 

The  return  includes  also  certain  higher  grade  schools  (40  in  London,  and  the  girls’  department 
of  4  London  schools  included  in  the  former  class  and  8  provincial)  which  do  not  include  a  school 
of  science.  These  schools  enrolled  23,968  pupils  10  years  of  age  and  upward,  of  whom  910  were 
above  15  years  of  age. 

3  The  text  of  the  minute  is  here  reproduced  from  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  for  1899-1900: 

[Minute  of  the  board  of  education,  April  6,  1900,  establishing  higher  elementary  schools.] 

A  public  elementary  school  may  be  recognized  by  the  board  of  education  (hereinafter  called 
the  board)  as  a  higher  elementary  school  under  the  following  conditions: 

1.  The  school  must  be  organized  to  give  a  complete  four  years’  course  of  instruction  approved 
by  the  board. 

2.  No  child  shall  be  admitted  into  a  higher  elementary  school  unless  he  (a)  has  been  under 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 


947 


of  the  board  of  education,  issued  the  year  before,  which  provided  for  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  higher  elementary  schools  of  a  new  type  to  be  fostered  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment.  The  minute  had  not  been  included  in  the  regulations  for  elementary 
schools  at  the  time  of  its  adoption  and  was  generally  interpreted  as  a  part  of  the 
policy  which  was  excluding  the  school  boards  from  any  further  participation  in 
advanced  work. 

It  had  been  the  avowed  intention  of  the  London  school  board  to  appeal  the 
Cockerton  case  from  the  courts  to  the  House  of  Lords,  but  they  were  induced  to 
abandon  this  purpose  by  the  announcement  that  the  education  department  would 
make  provision  for  the  continuance  of  the  advanced  work.  A  general  expectation 
was  created  that  the  matter  would  be  adequately  adjusted,  but  the  mere  inclusion 
of  the  minute  in  the  code  satisfied  no  one.  Its  provisions  were  not  well  adapted 
to  the  higher  board  schools  and  its  restrictions  were  fatal  to  the  hopes  of  a  large 
body  of  pupils.  The  hampering  conditions  of  the  “minute”  are  fully  set  forth  in 

instruction  at  a  public  elementary  school  other  than  a  higher  elementary  school  for  at  least  two 
years,  and  (6)  has  been  certified  by  an  inspector  of  the  board  to  be  qualified  to  profit  by  the 
instruction  offered  in  the  higher  elementary  school. 

3.  The  fitness  of  any  child  to  continue,  or  be  promoted  from  one  year’s  coarse  to  another,  in  a 
higher  elementary  school  shall  be  certified  by  an  inspector  of  the  board. 

4.  (a-)  Attendances  may  not  be  recognized  in  a  higher  elementary  school  for  any  scholar  who 
is  upward  of  15  years  of  age,  and  (6)  no  scholar  may  remain  in  a  higher  elementary  school  beyond 
the  close  of  the  school  year  in  which  he  or  she  is  15  years  old. 

The  average  attendance  for  any  period  is  found  by  dividing  the  total  number  of  attendances 
made  during  that  period  by  the  number  of  times  for  which  the  school  has  met  during  such 
period.  For  the  purpose  of  reckoning  the  average  attendance  at  a  higher  elementary  school  an 
attendance  shall  mean  attendance  during  two  and  one-half  hours. 

5.  (a.)  The  school  year  of  every  higher  elementary  school  is  the  year  ending  on  July  31,  and  no 
scholar  may  be  admitted  for  any  year’s  course  later  than  November  1.  (6)  After  November  1, 
1900,  scholars  newly  admitted  into  a  higher  elementary  school  must  commence  with  the  first- 
year  course. 

6.  Temporary  article. — Up  to  August  1, 1901,  the  qualification  for  admission  to  the  first-year 
course  shall,  as  a  rule,  be  competency  to  pass  Standard  IV  of  the  code  as  shown  to  the  satisfac¬ 
tion  of  an  inspector  of  the  board. 

7.  (a)  The  school  must  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  board  to  be  necessary  in  the  locality, 
and  (6)  the  premises  must  be  recognized  by  the  board  as  suitable  for  the  purposes  of  a  higher 
elementary  school. 

8.  The  teaching  staff  of  the  school  must  possess  such  qualifications  as  may  be  laid  down  from 
time  to  time  by  the  board  for  the  purposes  of  a  higher  elementary  school. 

In  the  first  and  second  year  courses  there  shall  be  a  teacher,  accepted  as  qualified  by  the  board, 
for  every  40  scholars  (or  less) ;  in  the  third  and  fourth  year  courses  there  shall  be  a  teacher  so 
qualified  for  every  30  scholars  (or  less)  in  average  attendance. 

The  grant  may  be  reduced  at  the  rate  of  not  more  than  10s.  per  annum  for  every  unit  of 
annual  average  attendance  above  the  number  for  which  the  school  staff  is  recognized  by  the 
board.  This  reduction  will  as  a  rule  be  one-twelfth  of  10s.  for  every  month  daring  which  the 
staff  has  been  insufficient  for  the  annual  average  attendance. 

9.  The  managers  of  any  school  who  desire  such  school  to  be  recognized  as  a  higher  elementary 
school  must  submit  for  the  approval  of  the  board  before  July  1  in  any  year  proposals  for  a  cur¬ 
riculum  and  time-table  and  such  other  information  as  may  be  required  by  the  board. 

10.  The  grants  made  to  higher  elementary  schools  are  as  follows: 


Principal  grant. 


Higher 

scale. 

Lower 

scale. 

First  year . . . . . 

s-27 

S‘  23 

Second  year. ... . . . _ .  _  _ 

35 

30 

Third  year . . . 

47 

45 

Fourth  year . . . 

65 

55 

The  board  shall  decide  which,  if  either  of  these  grants  shall  be  paid  in  the  case  of  each  year’s 
course  after  considering  the  report  and  recommendation  of  the  inspector  upon  each  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  four  points;  (a)  The  suitability  of  the  instruction  to  the  circumstances  of  the  scholars 


948 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


the  following  motions  formulated  by  the  executive  of  the  national  union  of  teach¬ 
ers  before  the  decision  to  incorporate  it  in  the  ordinary  school  regulations  was 
known,  but  reported  and  unanimously  carried  in  the  annual  conference  which 
was  held  after  that  decision  was  made  public. 

That  this  conference  again  puts  on  record  its  appreciation  of  the  official  recog¬ 
nition  of  the  higher  elementary  education  which  is  given  by  the  minute  of  the 
board  of  education  of  April  6,  1900,  but  it  protests  against  those  terms  of  the 
higher  elementary  schools  minute  and  against  that  official  interpretation  of  them 
which  degrade  the  higher  grade  and  organized  science  schools  to  elementary  sci¬ 
ence  schools.  It  calls  upon  Parliament  to  remedy  the  following  defects,  which 
will  be  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  these  schools  of  the  people:  First,  the  restric¬ 
tion  of  admission  to  those  children  who  have  been  for  two  years  in  an  elementary 
school;  second,  the  restriction  of  admission  subject  to  the  absolute  decision  of  the 
inspector;  third,  the  limitation  of  age  to  15  years;  fourth,  the  condition  requiring 
scholars  to  commence  with  the  first  year’s  course,  whatever  their  qualifications  and 
abilities  may  be;  fifth,  the  provision  in  clause  12  which  precludes  the  engagement 
of  special  teachers  for  special  subjects. 

That  this  conference  claims  for  English  and  Welsh  children  advantages  and 
opportunities  equal  to  those  which  have  been  granted  to  higher  grade  schools  and 
departments  in  Scotland  with  regard  to  (a)  discretionary  power  as  to  curricula; 
(b)  grants  on  an  equally  liberal  scale;  (c)  recognition  of  higher  departments; 
( d )  extension  of  school  age. 

That  where  the  circumstances  do  not  permit  of  the  establishment  of  higher  eie- 
menuary  schools  or  departments  due  provision  should  be  made  for  similar  educa¬ 
tion  by  means  of  suitable  grants  to  higher  classes  in  public  elementary  schools 
where  such  classes  are  established  with  consent  of  the  board  of  education. 

That,  in  the  opinion  of  this  conference,  the  age  limit  of  15  years  in  regard  to  the 
new  code  is  far  too  low  to  allow  of  a  full  course  of  higher  elementary  education 
and  is  of  opinion  that  it  should  be  raised  to  18  years,  as  it  is  in  Scotland. 

That  the  higher  grant  be  not  only  given  to  higher  grade  schools,  but  also  to 
higher  grade  classes. 

That  this  conference  is  of  opinion  that  the  board  of  education  is  interpreting  the 
minute  on  higher  elementary  schools  in  such  a  way  as  to  injure  the  cause  of 
national  education. 

Especially  do  we  deplore  t  he  attempt  to  stereotype  the  higher  elementary  school 
as  an  “elementary  school  of  science,”  because,  in  all  large  industrial  and  commer¬ 
cial  centers,  another  type  of  school  giving  a  training  for  commercial  pursuits  is  at 
present  urgently  required. 


and  the  neighborhood.  ( b )  The  thoroughness  and  intelligence  with  which  the  instruction  is 
given,  (c)  The  sufficiency  and  suitability  of  the  staff.  ( d )  The  discipline  and  organization. 

The  inspector  will  recommend  the  higher  grant  unless  he  is  unable  to  report  favorably  upon 
the  school  under  these  heads. 

Grant  f  or  practical  work. 


Higher 

scale. 

Lower 

scale. 

First  year  . . . . 

s. 

8 

S  6 

Second  year _ _ _ _ _ 

12 

10 

Third  year . . . . . . . . . 

18 

15 

Fourth  year . . . . . . . 

25 

18 

This  grant  will  only  be  awarded  where  special  provision  for  such  work,  as  regards  premises 
and  equipment,  is  made  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  board.  The  board  shall  decide  which,  if  either, 
of  these  grants  shall  be  paid  in  the  case  of  each  year’s  course  after  considering  the  report  and 
recommendation  of  the  inspector  upon  each  of  the  points  named  in  paragraphs  (a)  to  (cZ)  of  this 
section. 

11.  No  grant  may  be  received  from  the  board  of  education  by  any  higher  elementary  school 
in  addition  to  the  grants  named  in  section  10  of  this  minute,  with  the  exception  of  the  fee  grant. 

12.  No  member  of  the  teaching  staff  may  undertake  duties  not  connected  with  the  school 
which  may  occupy  any  part  whatever  of  the  school  hours. 

13.  Separate  registers  and  separate  accounts  must  be  kept  for  the  higher  elementary  school. 

14.  No  scholar  may  attend  a  higher  elementary  school  who  is  attending  an  evening  school  or 
class  under  the  regulations  of  the  board.  This  does  not  apply  in  the  case  of  a  scholar  attending 
an  art  class  above  group  1,  under  the  regulations  of  the  board. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


949 


In  the  opinion  of  this  conference  the  local  educational  authority  is  the  best  judge 
of  the  type  of  school  suited  to  the  local  needs;  and  the  liberty  with  regard  to  cur¬ 
riculum  which  the  code  extends  to  elementary  schools  in  general  should  be  extended 
to  the  higher  elementary  schools. 

In  the  opinion  of  many  the  inclusion  of  the  minute  in  the  regulations  for  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  did  not  empower  the  school  boards  to  undertake  even  the  advanced 
work  for  which  it  provided;  such  was  the  conviction  of  the  Liverpool  school 
board,  as  expressed  in  the  following  letter  addressed  to  the  secretary  of  the  board 
of  education: 

Sir  Thomas  Street,  Liverpool,  May  2,  1901. 

Sir:  I  am  desired  to  inform  you  that  the  board  have  at  once  taken  into  their 
very  earnest  consideration  the  position  with  regard  to  the  instruction  in  their 
schools  in  which  they  are  so  suddenly  and  so  unexpectedly  placed  by  (what  they 
can  not  help  considering)  the  extremely  ill-advised  action  of  the  London  school 
board  in  withdrawing  the  important  points  raised  by  the  “  Cockerton  case  ”  from 
the  decision  of  the  highest  tribunal  in  the  land.  The  board  look  upon  the  judg¬ 
ment  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  that  case,  which  by  the  action  of  the  London  school 
board  becomes  now  the  law  of  the  land,  as  a  most  disastrous  blow  to  the  cause  of 
elementary  education  and  to  the  welfare  not  only  of  the  vast  industrial  classes  of 
this  country,  but  also  to  the  interests  (moral,  social,  and  commercial  alike)  of  the 
whole  community. 

The  board,  however,  feel  that  they  would  not  be  morally  justified,  even  if  they 
were  prepared  to  accept  the  legal  consequences  of  their  doing  so,  in  failing  to  com¬ 
ply  immediately  with  an  authoritative  statement  of  the  law,  however  much  that 
statement  may  fall  short  of  what  they  believe  to  be  wise,  and  of  what  they  have 
hitherto  been  advised  to  be  legal.  They  have,  therefore,  at  once  decided  to  bring 
the  instruction  in  their  schools  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  into  harmony  with 
the  law  as  it  appears  to  be  laid  down  in  that  judgment,  leaving  it  to  the  action  of 
the  constituencies  and  to  the  wisdom  of  Parliament  to  find  a  remedy  for  the  evils 
that  will  arise  therefrom.  They  say  “appears  to  be  laid  down,”  because  after  the 
most  careful  consideration  they  have  been  able  to  give  to  the  judgment  they  have 
been  unable  to  satisfy  themselves  completely  as  to  the  meaning  of  its  somewhat 
ambiguous  terms.  The  judgment  appears  to  them  to  affirm  the  following  propo¬ 
sitions: 

1.  That  under  the  act  of  1870  school  boards  are  not  justified  in  giving  in  their 
public  elementary  schools,  whether  day  or  evening,  anything  beyond  elementary 
education,  as  the  latter  may  be  understood  for  the  time  being. 

2.  That  the  “education  prescribed  by  the  Whitehall  code  ”  for  the  time  being  in 
force  “  embraces  elementary  education  up  to  its  high-water  mark.” 

3.  That  whatever  instruction  is  given  by  school  boards,  whether  in  day  or  even¬ 
ing  schools,  must  be  confined  to  “children;”  i.  e. ,  apparently  to  young  persons 
under  16  years  of  age;  and 

4.  That  it  is  not  competent  for  either  branch  of  the  board  of  education,  by  “code 
or  directory,”  to  extend  in  any  way  the  statutory  powers  of  school  boards. 

Put  shortly,  the  conclusions  from  the  judgment  appear  to  be  that  whatever 
instruction  is  compulsory  under  the  code  for  the  time  being  in  force  may  legally 
be  given  by  school  boards  at  the  cost  of  the  rates;  whatever  is  merely  optional 
may  not. 

If  this  view  is  correct,  the  following  appear  to  the  board  to  be  its  practical 
consequences: 

(a)  The  course  of  instruction  prescribed  by  article  15  (a)  and  (i)  is  legal  in  all 
board  schools. 

( b )  That  prescribed  by  article  15  (b)  (ii)  is  also  legal  “wherever  the  circum¬ 
stances  of  the  school,  in  the  opinion  of  the  inspector,  make  it  desirable.” 

(c)  That  contemplated  in  article  15  (b)  (in),  being  optional,  is  illegal. 

(d)  The  further  education  of  any  child  beyond  the  standards,  or  of  any  child 
over  14  years  of  age  who  has  been  twelve  months  in  Standard  VII,  would  also 
appear  to  be  illegal,  and  this  difficulty  to  be  in  no  way  remedied  by  the  special 
minute  for  the  establishment  of  higher  elementary  schools,  the  adoption  of  that 
minute  not  being  within  what  are  now  declared  to  be  the  limits  to  the  statutory 
powers  of  school  boards;  and 

(e)  The  conduct  of  evening  schools  as  at  present  carried  on  becomes  wholly 
illegal,  for  where  the  instruction  is  in  elementary  subjects  it  is  illegal  because 
given  to  persons  who  are  not  “  children,”  and  where  it  is  given  to  children  it  is 
illegal  because  it  is  not  in  elementary  subjects. 

The  board  therefore  desire  to  urge  the  board  of  education  to  promote  legislation 
at  the  earliest  possible  moment  for  restoring,  as  far  as  may  be,  the  powers  of  school 


950 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


boards  to  what  those  powers  have  hitherto  been  understood  to  be,  and  to  render 
legal  the  valuable  work  in  day  or  evening  schools  which  has  hitherto  been  carried 
out  by  them. 

Failing  such  legislation,  however,  they  desire  me  to  say  that  after  the  close  of 
the  current  educational  school  year,  in  July  nest,  they  will  be  compelled  to  dis¬ 
continue — (a)  manual  instruction  for  boys;  ( b )  cookery  and  laundry  wrork  for 
girls;  c)  all  instruction  for  ex-standard  scholars;  and  (d)  the  whole  of  the  evening 
school  work  they  have  hitherto  carried  on. 

They  have  accordingly  felt  themselves  compelled,  though  with  the  utmost 
reluctance,  to  give  provisional  notice  to  terminate  the  engagements  of  all  their 
teachers  employed  in  manual  instruction,  cookery,  and  laundry  work — most  of 
whose  appointments  require  three  months’  notice— and  to  notify  the  managers  of 
voluntary  schools  who  send  scholars  in  these  subjects  to  the  board’s  centers  that 
they  can  no  longer  enjoy  this  advantage  after  the  31st  July  next. 

They  are  also  taking  steps  to  intimate  to  the  parents  of  all  their  scholars  now  in 
Standard  VII  and  upward  that  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  board  to  continue  the 
education  of  their  children  after  the  close  of  the  current  educational  school  year. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  them  also  to  inform  the  students  who  have  been  in 
attendance  at  their  evening  schools  that  the  board  can  no  longer  provide  similar 
opportunities  of  self-improvement,  and  to  intimate  to  the  managers  and  teachers 
of  voluntary  schools  in  which  they  have  hitherto  carried  on  evening  schools,  as  well 
as  to  their  own  teachers,  their  inability  to  reopen  such  schools. 

With  regard  to  much  of  the  instruction  hitherto  given  in  their  schools  in  sub¬ 
jects  included  in  article  15  (b)  (ii)  of  the  code  as  relate  to  children  within  the 
standards,  the  board  are  in  communication  with  His  Majesty’s  inspector  as  to  how 
much  of  it,  in  his  opinion,  the  circumstances  of  the  respective  schools  render  desir¬ 
able,  and  further  action  on  their  part  may  be  necessary  when  they  have  received 
his  decision  thereon. 

As  an  indication  of  the  urgency  of  action  in  the  desired  direction  being  taken  by 
your  board  with  the  least  possible  delay,  I  am  desired  to  mention  that  the  number 
of  boys  now  in  the  board’s  schools  who  would  be  deprived  of  manual  instruction 
at  the  commencement  of  next  session  is  over  7,000,  and  the  number  of  similar 
children  from  voluntary  schools  is  1,332,  comprising  900  from  Church  of  England, 
216  from  Roman  Cathoiic,  and  216  from  Nonconformist  schools;  that  the  number  of 
girls  similarly  affected  with  regard  to  cookery  is,  from  the  board’s  schools  nearly 
7,000,  from  the  voluntary  schools  nearly  500;  that  with  regard  to  laundry  work 
there  are  nearly  1,000  from  board  schools,  as  well  as  26  from  voluntary  schools. 
In  reference  to  the  latter  subject  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  board  have  not  at 
present  accommodations  for  dealing  with  all  the  girls  eligible,  but  are  engaged  in 
supplying  the  deficiency.  The  number  of  Standard  VII  and  ex-YII  scholars 
affected  is  slightly  over  2,000;  the  number  of  evening-school  students  who  were  in 
attendance  during  the  last  session  amounted  to  nearly  8,500,  and  this  number 
would,  in  the  ordinary  course,  be  materially  increased  during  the  coming  session. 

Edward  M.  Hance,  Cleric. 

The  Liverpool  school  board  at  once  took  energetic  measures  to  make  the  facts 
widely  known.  A  copy  of  the  above  letter  was  sent  to  every  member  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  from  Liverpool,  and  the  following  circular  was  prepared  for  circulation 
among  parents: 

I  am  desired  to  inform  you  that  by  a  recent  judgment  of  the  court  of  appeal 
upon  certain  surcharges  made  upon  members  of  the  London  school  board  it  has 
been  decided  that  it  is  not  competent  for  school  boards,  as  the  law  stands  at  pres¬ 
ent,  to  provide  at  the  expense  of  the  rates  any  education  other  than  that  which  is 
purely  elementary. 

This  judgment  is,  in  many  respects,  a  material  alteration  in  what  has  hitherto 
been  understood  both  by  school  boards  and  by  the  Government  educational  depart¬ 
ment  to  be  the  powers  of  the  school  boards:  but  as  the  London  school  board  has 
decided  not  to  carry  the  appeal  further,  the  judgment  must,  in  the  absence  of 
fresh  legislation,  be  taken  to  determine  the  matter  for  the  future. 

One  of  the  consequences  of  this  judgment  is  that  it  is  no  longer  legal  for  school 
boards  to  incur  any  expense  on  the  further  education  of  children  who  have  passed 
through  the  seven  standards  of  the  board  of  education’s  code— except,  perhaps,  by 
a  repetition  of  the  wTork  of  the  seventh  standard — or  upon  that  of  any  child  who, 
being  over  14  years  of  age,  has  been  under  instruction  for  twelve  months  in  Stand¬ 
ard  VII.  As,  unfortunately,  this  change  will  from  July  31  affect  the  education  of 
your  child  at  the  above  school,  unless  in  the  meantime  Parliament  confers  addi¬ 
tional  powers  upon  school  boards,  I  am  desired  to  convey  this  intimation  to  you 


EDUCATION  IN  GEEAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


951 


at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  and  to  suggest  that  you  take  an  opportunity  of 
conferring  with  the  head  master  of  the  school  upon  the  subject. 

From  the  appreciation  which  the  parents  have  shown  of  the  educational  advan¬ 
tages  hitherto  provided  in  the  board  schools  of  this  city,  the  board  feel  sure  that 
the  effect  of  this  judgment  in  seriously  restricting,  so  far  as  the  children  of  the 
whole  of  the  industrial  and  of  a  large  part  of  the  commercial  classes  are  concerned, 
the  opportunities  of  self-improvement  and  of  preparation  for  their  future  commer¬ 
cial  or  industrial  careers  will  be  in  the  highest  degree  unacceptable  to  the  parents 
of  the  great  bulk  of  the  scholars  in  the  board  schools. 

The  board  would  venture  to  suggest  that  every  parent  who  feels  himself  or  her¬ 
self  aggrieved  in  this  matter  should  at  once  write  to  the  Parliamentary  represent¬ 
ative  of  his  or  her  division — whose  name  will  be  found  on  the  accompanying  slip— 
and  to  the  board  of  education,  Whitehall,  London,  SW.,  urging  them  to  press  upon 
the  Government  the  immediate  introduction  of  a  measure  to  restore  to  the  school 
board  the  full  power  of  continuing  unabated  to  provide  for  the  young  people  of 
this  great  commercial  center  the  educational  advantages  they  have  hitherto 
supplied. 

A  form  of  petition  to  Parliament  was  also  drawn  up  for  circulation  among 
parents  and  ratepayers.  This  petition  expressed  “the  dismay  which  the  legal 
decision  excited  and  the  belief  that  it  would  affect  most  prejudicially”  the  well¬ 
being  and  industrial  prospects  of  the  petitioners’  children,  and  would  place  them 
at  serious  disadvantage  in  the  competition  of  life,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  citi¬ 
zens  of  other  states,  but  also  in  respect  of  their  fellow- subjects  north  of  the  Tweed, 
and  closed  as  follows:  “  The  petitioners,  therefore,  pray  that  the  honorable  House 
make  such  legislative  provision  as  shall  secure  to  your  petitioners  and  their  chil¬ 
dren  equal  educational  advantages  to  those  which  your  honorable  House  has  pro¬ 
vided  for  our  fellow-citizens  in  Scotland.” 

LEGISLATIVE  MEASURES. 

Under  the  pressure  of  these  events  the  Government  suddenly  determined  to 
renew  the  endeavor  made  in  1896  to  deal  with  the  entire  problem  of  the  local 
administration  of  secondary  education.  In  May  an  education  bill  was  submitted 
to  the  House  of  Commons  by  Sir  John  Gorst,  who  styled  it  a  bill  “  to  establish  in 
every  part  of  England  and  Wales  a  local  education  authority  for  the  supervision 
of  education  of  every  kind,  whether  elementary,  secondary,  or  technical.”  This 
measure  excited  scarcely  less  opposition  than  the  similar  bill  of  1896,  but  as,  like 
that  bill,  it  was  speedily  withdrawn,  its  actual  provisions  and  the  criticism  which 
it  provoked  are  of  little  general  interest  save  for  the  light  they  throw  upon  what 
appears  to  be  the  present  policy  of  the  Government  with  respect  to  education.  In 
this  view  the  article  by  Hon.  E.  Lyulph  Stanley  appended  to  this  review  has  his¬ 
toric  interest.  One  clause  of  the  bill  provided  for  the  continuance  of  the  higher- 
grade  schools,  and  its  withdrawal  was  followed  immediately  by  the  introduction 
of  a  short  bill  (education  bill  No.  2)  dealing  solely  with  this  matter.  The  text 
of  this  second  bill  is  as  follows: 

Where  a  school  board  has  at  any  time  during  the  twelve  months  immediately 
preceding  July  31,  1901,  maintained  out  of  school  funds,  any  school  or  class  to  the 
maintenance  of  which  the  school  fund  is  not  lawfully  applicable,  the  council  of  the 
county  or  county  borough  within  which  the  school  or  class  is  held,  or,  with 
the  sanction  of  the  board  of  education,  any  other  local  authority  under  the  tech¬ 
nical  instruction  act  for  the  district  within  which  the  school  or  class  is  held,  may 
empower  the  school  board  to  carry  on  for  a  period  of  one  year  from  that  day  the 
work  of  the  school  or  class  to  such  extent  and  on  such  terms  as  may  be  agreed  on 
between  such  council  or  local  authority  and  the  school  board,  and"  to  supply  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  school  or  class  such  sum  out  of  the  school  fund  as  the  coun¬ 
cil  or  local  authority  may  sanction.  Where  any  expenses  incurred  by  a  school 
board  in  respect  of  such  school  or  class  before  the  said  day  are  sanctioned  by  the 
local  government  board  the  legality  of  these  expenses  shall  not  be  questioned  in 
any  court. 

This  bill,  rushed  through  Parliament  and  passed  in  the  short  space  of  a  month, 
has  not  allayed  the  excitement  caused  by  the  previous  measures.  The  most 


952 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


obnoxious  features  of  the  general  bill  reappeared  in  fact  in  the  urgency  bill.  Its 
bearing  was  set  forth  in  a  dispassionate  manner  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  Lord 
Reay  and  Earl  Spencer.  The  former,  in  offering  an  amendment,  said: 

The  bill  proposed  to  constitute  county  councils  or  county  borough  councils  the 
authority  for  secondary  education,  or  any  offier  local  authority  under  the  technical 
instruction  acts.  But  wThat  the  bill  actually  did  was  to  leave  a  school  board  free 
to  make  arrangements  writh  the  local  authority,  and  the  county  council  would 
have  to  decide  upon  various  disputed  points,  and  the  result  would  be  decisions 
varying  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  whereas  a  decision  by  the  board  of  edu¬ 
cation  would  have  general  application.  The  fact  that  the  county  or  town  council 
would  determine  the  number  of  these  continuation  schools  and  the  question  of 
overlapping  would  be  certain  to  lead  to  friction.  It  might  be  said  that  the  local 
authorities  would  not  spoil  their  holiday  to  make  investigations,  and  would  simply . 
allow  the  school  boards  to  proceed.  But  there  were  no  guaranties  for  this  in  the 
bill,  which  must  be  interpreted  by  the  minute  of  July  12.  The  action  of  the  Leeds 
city  council  in  making  their  consent  contingent  upon  the  adoption  of  their  sug¬ 
gestions  for  the  avoidance  of  overlapping  showed  the  necessity  for  an  appeal  in 
these  questions  to  the  board  of  education.  Such  an  appeal  was  given  in  bill  No.  1. 
As  to  the  financial  aspect  of  the  question,  if  the  estimates  for  next  year,  out  of 
which  the  grant  for  the  new  schools  would  be  paid,  were  framed  as  those  of  the 
present  year  were  framed,  then  the  grant  under  article  17  of  the  minute  would 
not  be  available  for  any  schools  but  public  elementary  schools.  The  parliamentary 
grant  must  be  appropriated  as  prescribed  by  the  act  and  for  the  purposes  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  act,  for  if  the  new  claims  were  allowed  to  come  on  the  grant,  the 
money  available  for  the  other  claims  would  be  reduced.  In  order  to  place  on 
record  their  views  in  opposition  to  this  bill,  he  begged  to  move  that  no  bill  can 
be  satisfactory  which  does  not  enable  the  board  of  education  to  empower  school 
boards  to  carry  on  out  of  the  school  fund  any  schools  affected  by  the  recent  judg¬ 
ment  for  the  period  of  one  year  to  the  same  extent  and  on  the  same  conditions  as 
were  sanctioned  by  the  board  of  education  for  the  year  1900-1901, 

Earl  Spencer,  who  followed  in  support  of  the  amendment,  dwelt  upon  the  gen¬ 
eral  policy  which  the  bill  embodied. 

They  were  told  [he  said]  that  this  bill  was  due  to  the  Cockerton  judgment,  but  the 
Cockerton  judgment  might  have  been  dealt  with  in  a  different  way.  The  illegality 
of  the  schools  affected  by  the  Cockerton  judgment  might  have  been  taken  away. 
Ever  since  the  act  of  1870,  gradually,  no  doubt,  but  with  increasing  force,  the 
school  boards  of  the  country  had  established  higher  education  schools,  continua¬ 
tion  schools,  and  they  had  given  education  to  adults,  to  those  over  15  years  of  age. 
He  ventured  to  think  that  it  would  have  been  a  much  wiser  way  of  dealing  with 
the  difficulty  to  legalize  the  old  method  than  to  meet  it  by  this  bill.  He  said  now, 
what  he  had  said  before,  that  to  draw  the  line  too  tightly  and  too  strongly  between 
elementary  schools  and  secondary  schools  would  be  a  serious  blow  to  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  the  people.  There  was  a  large  number  of  children  who  might  remain,  and 
therefore  it  was,  to  his  mind,  a  very  serious  matter  if  they  deprived  them  of  this 
secondary  education.  The  noble  duke  said  there  was  another  mode,  and  with  that 
the  amendment  of  his  noble  friend  dealt— namely,  that  the  matter  should  be  referred 
to  the  education  board.  He  did  not  for  a  moment  say  that  this  ought  to  be  con¬ 
tinued  for  long,  but  as  a  temporary  expedient  in  getting  over  the  difficulty  of  the 
Cockerton  judgment,  he  believed  it  would  be  a  far  better  solution  than  that  pro¬ 
posed  by  the  bill.  The  noble  duke  spoke  of  the  great  interest  which  had  been 
taken  in  this  question,  and  he  should  give  him  the  reason  why  there  had  been  such 
a  great  amount  of  opposition.  The  Government  attached  immense  importance  to 
establishing  in  this  temporary  bill  a  great  principle  of  education — namely,  laying 
down  the  principle  by  which  secondary  education  should  be  governed  in  the  future. 
That  was  one  of  the  reasons  why  many  of  them  opposed  this  bill  in  the  form  in 
which  it  was  presented  to  them.  They  did  not  think  the  Government  was  justi¬ 
fied,  in  a  temporary  measure  like  this,  in  carrying  a  great  principle  with  regard  to 
secondary  education.  It  was  a  great  principle  to  lay  down  what  in  the  future  was 
to  be  the  local  authority  for  managing  secondary  education.  At  first  it  seemed  as 
if  the  Government  were  going  to  put  all  education  under  one  authority,  and  it  was 
wondered  whether  possibly  they  were  going  to  put  it  under  the  school  boards.  But 
they  very  soon  saw  that  that  was  not  to  be  the  policy,  and  the  authority  chosen 
under  the  bill  was  county  councils.  His  noble  friend  had  shown  what  great  diffi¬ 
culties  might  arise  in  regard  to  this.  Many  of  the  county  councils  were  already 
overburdened  with  work.  In  his  own  county  a  resolution  was  passed  against  this 
very  thing.  In  a  large  county  like  Northampton,  where  men  come  long  distances 


EDUCATION  1JST  GREAT  BRIT  AIK  AND  IRELAKD. 


953 


to  attend  the  county  council,  they  found  it  almost  impossible  to  add  any  new  labors 
to  the  work  of  the  council.  If  they  added  secondary  education  and  then  primary 
education — for  this  bill  was  a  step  in  that  direction — they  would  find  that  the 
county  councils  could  not  carry  out  the  work.  He  thought  that  was  a  very  grave 
consideration.  They  would  have  to  establish  schools  in  order  to  give  the  secondary 
education  which  was  required,  and  that  would  involve  an  enormous  increase  of 
the  work,  which  he  knew  they  had  done  exceedingly  well  in  connection  with  tech¬ 
nical  education.  At  present  county  councils  were  entirely  free  from  the  religious 
difficulty  and  its  unpleasant  consequences.  The  moment  they  had  a  number  of 
secondary  schools  placed  under  the  councils  there  would  be  a  struggle  for  the  man¬ 
agement  of  them  between  those  who  were  in  favor  of  certain  denominational  teach¬ 
ing  and  those  who  were  in  favor  of  a  more  generous  education.  And  if  elementary 
education  were  put  under  the  control  of  the  county  councils  as  well  this  difficulty 
would  be  enormously  increased.  He  was  glad  to  hear  what  the  noble  duke  had 
said  about  school  boards,  and  he  was  glad  to  think  that  he  did  not  agree  with  what 
had  been  said  elsewhere,  that  it  was  a  farce  to  think  that  school  boards  were  elected 
with  any  educational  object.  Personally  he  thought  it  would  be  a  great  disaster 
if  any  serious  check  were  put  on  school  boards,  which  had  done  enormously  good 
work  in  the  country.  He  most  heartily  supported  the  amendment  of  his  noble 
friend,  which  embodied  a  much  more  sensible  proposal  than  that  contained  in  the 
bill  now  before  the  House.  It  dealt  with  the  temporary  difficulty  in  a  way  which 
did  not  create  such  great  and  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  the  bill  did,  and  if  his 
noble  friend  pressed  his  amendment  to  a  division  he  should  be  heartily  glad  to  vote 
with  him. 

Though  the  amendment  was  lost,  these  speakers  voiced  the  sentiments  of  many 
members  of  both  Houses  and  also  of  a  large  constituency,  especially  in  the  great 
industrial  centers.  Already  the  forces  for  and  against  the  policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment  are  organizing  for  what  promises  to  be  a  bitter  and  protracted  struggle. 

In  considering  the  action  of  the  Government  in  restricting  local  activity  in 
respect  to  popular  education,  it  must  be  remembered  that  every  new  impulse 
toward  democracy  in  England  is  offset  by  a  conservative  movement  for  the  pres¬ 
ervation  of  what  is  established.  The  attitude  of  the  Government  in  the  matter  of 
higher  grade  board  schools  apparently  does  not  imply  hostility  to  progress  so  much 
as  concern  for  its  methods  and  bearings.  This  view  is  very  clearly  set  forth  in  an 
article  by  Mr.  Cloudesley  Brereton  entitled  “A  national  system  of  education,” 
which  is  included  among  the  papers  appended  to  this  chapter. 

EDUCATIONAL  PROGRESS — STATE  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

While  the  higher  departments  of  the  elementary  school  work  of  England  are 
suffering  from  confused  and  adverse  policies,  there  are  not  wanting  many  signs 
of  vigor  and  progress  in  respect  to  the  work  as  a  whole.  Among  such  evidences 
should  be  noted  the  deep  concern  everywhere  manifested  in  the  condition  of  rural 
schools.  The  public  agitation  of  this  subject  has  led  to  an  official  inquiry  into 
the  financial  status  of  all  the  public  elementary  schools  of  England.  The  tabu¬ 
lated  returns  make  it  evident  that  the  great  mass  of  the  rural  schools  have  not 
sufficient  funds  for  their  work.  This  is  true  not  only  of  the  denominational 
schools,  which  predominate  in  the  country  districts,  but  of  the  small  proportion 
under  school  boards.  The  situation  was  forcibly  summed  up  by  Dr.  Macnamara, 
M.  P.,  in  a  speech  at  a  public  conference  held  in  connection  with  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  national  union  of  elementary  teachers: 

The  village  schools,  he  insisted,  were  being  most  shamefully  neglected.  The 
State  did  as  little  as  it  could  for  them,  and  the  localities  did  less".  Pinchbeck  and 
shabby  to  a  degree  was  the  financial  treatment  accorded  to  these  schools.  The 
grants  from  the  central  exchequer  were  paid  to  all  schools,  town  and  rural,  on  the 
capitation  principle.  The  plan  might  be  all  right  where  the  number  of  children 
by  which  the  capitation  payment  was  to  be  multiplied  was  pretty  large;  but 
where  the  number  of  children  was  small,  the  capitation  plan  was  disastrous.  The 
small  school  must  have  a  lump  sum  from  the  exchequer  every  year  sufficient  to 
meet  its  annual  charges  for  maintenance  and  establishment.  Without  this  the 
head  teacher  would  remain  scandalously  underpaid  and  shamefully  unaided  in 
his  labors.  Again,  the  local  aid  to  the  village  school  was  shockingly  meager. 


954 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Mostly  the  villagers  are  too  poor  and  too  doubtful  about  the  advantages  of  educa¬ 
tion  to  supplement  the  central  aid  with  anything  like  generous  local  subventions. 
Where  there  is  a  school  board  the  area  is  so  restricted  and  the  ratable  value  so 
low  that  a  large  portion  of  the  local  rate  raised  is  eaten  up  in  machinery  expenses; 
and  where  there  is  not  a  school  board  the  majority  of  the  people  escape  any  local 
charge  altogether  on  the  plea  that  they  prefer  denominational  to  undenominational 
religious  instruction,  the  real  preference  being  a  disinclination  to  pay  for  either. 
Now,  this  grotesque  and  haphazard  plan  of  financing  the  village  school  means, 
first  of  all,  shocking  understaffing.  Roughly,  throughout  the  rural  areas  he  might 
safely  say  that  one-third  only  of  the  teachers  employed  were  properly  qualified 
adults.  The  other  two-thirds  were  either  juvenile  pupil  teachers  or  unqualified 
young  people  with  little  or  no  claim  to  the  genuine  title  of  teacher.  As  a  fact, 
there  was  only  one  certificated  teacher  to  every  90  village  children  in  the  country. 
The  Government  education  bill,  he  hoped,  would  provide  for  the  creation  of  county 
education  boards  generally  to  supervise  and  direct  the  operations  of  the  village 
schools,  the  great  bulk  of  whose  income,  if  not,  indeed,  the  whole  of  it,  should 
come  from  imperial  sources.1 

i  The  following  resolutions  on  the  subject  offered  by  Dr.  Macnamara,  who  has 
devoted  himself  particularly  to  this  cause,  were  unanimously  adopted  by  the 
union: 

This  conference  is  of  opinion  that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  cost  of  maintenance 
of  national  education  should  be  supplied  from  the  national  exchequer,  so  as,  first, 
to  provide  adequate  financial  treatment  for  all  schools;  second,  to  diminish  the 
present  unequal,  oppressive,  and  often  unjust  incidence  of  the  school-board  rate; 
third,  to  distribute  the  cost  of  education  fairly  over  the  whole  country;  fourth, 
to  abolish  the  present  eleemosynary  system  of  insufficient  and  varying  voluntary 
contributions. 

And  this  conference  resolves  (1)  that  the  accounts  of  all  voluntary  schools 
should  be  subjected  to  the  same  strict  audit  at  the  hands  of  the  public  auditor  as 
are  the  accounts  of  board  schools;  (2)  that  it  is  desirable  to  secure  the  abolition 
of  all  charges  for  rent  in  voluntary  schools. 

In  his  speech  on  presenting  the  resolutions  Dr.  Macnamara  stated  further  that 
there  were — 

five  millions  of  children  in  the  elementary  schools  at  the  present  time.  Three  mil¬ 
lions  of  these  were  on  the  roll  of  the  voluntary  schools  and  2,000,000  on  the  roll  of 
board  schools.  The  difference  between  the  two  systems  arose  partly  as  a  result 
of  the  difference  in  local  management,  partly  as  a  result  of  the  difference  in 
the  character  of  religious  instruction,  and  partly  as  a  result  of  the  difference  in  the 
nature  and  the  amount  of  local  financial  support.  It  was  the  last  of  these  differ¬ 
ences  to  which  he  wished  to  draw  particular  attention.  With  regard  to  the  cen¬ 
tral  exchequer  money  they  might  say  that  practically  board  and  voluntary  schools 
got  pretty  much  the  same  amount.  The  local  support,  in  the  case  of  the  board 
schools,  came  from  the  rates  of  the  locality,  and  to  a  small  extent  from  school 
fees.  In  the  case  of  voluntary  schools  it  came  from  voluntary  contributions, 
income  from  endowments,  and  from  school  fees.  There  was  no  claim  upon  the 
public  rates.  The  difference  in  the  character  and  nature  of  the  local  support 
given  was  this:  Last  year  the  board  schools  were  able  to  get  from  the  local  rates 
and  the  small  amount  of  school  fees  24s.  2d.  per  child,  whereas  the  voluntary 
schools  were  able  to  get  from  their  sources  only  7s.  9d.  per  child.  The  difference 
was  16s.  5d.  a  child  for  the  year.  That  difference  had  been  mitigated  by  certain 
preferential  acts  of  Parliament,  which  did  not  come  to  much,  so  that  in  the  net 
it  came  down  to  a  difference  of  10s.  6d.  a  child.  That  was  what  Mr.  Balfour 
called  the  “intolerable  strain”  which  he  put  on  the  managers  and  supporters  of 
the  voluntary  schools.  But  the  real  persons  who  bore  the  intolerable  strain  aris¬ 
ing  from  this  differentiation  were  the  voluntary-school  teachers.  The  net  difference 
of  10s.  6d.  was  almost  entirely  accounted  for  when  they  looked  at  the  salary 
sheets  of  the  voluntary  schools  and  those  of  the  board  schools.  A  preference  for 
denominational  instruction  was  often  given,  and  no  doubt  truly  given  in  many 
cases,  as  a  reason  for  voluntary  schools,  but  in  the  great  bulk  of  cases  the  prefer¬ 
ence  was  not  for  denominational  as  against  undenominational  instruction,  but  the 
preference  for  a  system  under  which  they  could  get  out  of  paying  for  either. 
They  had  to  get  rid  of  the  grotesque  anachronism  of  endeavoring  to  maintain  the 
intellectual  equipment  of  the  people  at  the  hand  of  charity.  School  rates  were 
levied  over  two-thirds  of  the  country;  the  other  one-third  had  not  a  local  rate. 


1  Quoted  from  report  of  speech. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


955 


The  incidence  of  the  rate  was  roost  grotesque.  It  was  a  halfpenny  here,  a  penny 
there,  sixpence  somewhere  else.  Is.  somewhere  else,  Is.  6d.  somewhere  else,  2s.  in 
another  place,  and  it  went  up  as  high  as  3s.  4d.  in  one  particular  place.  In  the 
rural  area  the  school  board  was  largely  eaten  up  by  an  unnecessary  multiplication 
of  miniature  pieces  of  local  administration.  Take  the  county  of  Norfolk.  Leav¬ 
ing  out  the  county  boroughs  of  Yarmouth  and  Norwich,  there  were  140  school 
boards  for  22,000  school  board  children.  London  had  one  school  board  for  550,000 
children,  and  whatever  did  they  want  140  school  boards  down  here  for?  Look  at 
the  incidence  of  the  local  public  rate.  In  the  parish  of  Firsfield  (Norfolk)  it  was 
l^d.  In  the  parish  of  New  Buckenham  it  was  2s.  Id.  They  must  get  away  from 
this  hotch-potch  work.  Take  the  village  of  Little  Framsham.  He  had  nothing 
against  Little  Framsham— he  did  not  even  know  where  it  was— but  according  to 
the  Blue  Book  it  was  in  Norfolk.  In  that  village  there  was  one  board  school,  with 
an  average  attendance  last  year  of  36  children.  That  board  school,  with  that 
average  attendance,  necessitated  the  triennial  election  of  a  school  board  of  5  mem¬ 
bers,  and  it  had  a  paid  clerk.  See  how  that  worked  out.  A  penny  in  the  pound 
in  Little  Framsham  raised  a  precept  of  £4  17s.  If  they  wanted  one  decent  pupil 
teacher  there  was  a  four-penny  rate  gone.  The  election  cost  £6 19s.  Id.  That  was 
nearly  three  halfpence  gone.  The  clerk’s  salary  was  £8.  That  was  nearly  two¬ 
pence  gone.  The  legal  expenses  cost  £3  Is.  Id.,  so  that  the  total  administrative 
charges — this  was  educational  home  rule  run  mad — in  Little  Framsham  amounted 
to  £18  2s.,  so  that  a  threepenny  rate  out  of  the  sixpenny  i  ate  which  they  levied,  or 
half  of  the  local  support,  was  gone  before  they  got  to  the  school  at  all.  That  was 
not,  as  they  might  suppose,  an  extreme  case.  It  was  a  common  experience  to  find 
in  a  village  school  board  half  the  rate  eaten  up  by  the  multiplication  of  miniature 
pieces  of  administrative  machinery  before  they  had  got  to  the  school  at  all.  They 
must  throw  the  great  bulk  of  the  charge  on  the  central  exchequer.  Education 
was  a  national  matter  just  as  much  as  the  army  and  the  navy.  They  ought  to 
treat  the  matter  as  an  essential  necessity  to  their  progress  as  a  nation.  He 
demanded  a  larger  support  from  the  central  exchequer,  and  if  they  had  a  local 
margin,  they  must  collect  it  over  all  the  area,  and  nobody  must  be  allowed  on  any 
account  to  escape.  He  did  not  begrudge  the  expenditure  of  £120,000,000  last  year 
and  this  year  on  the  army  and  the  navy  and  the  war,  but  what  he  said  was  that 
the  intellectual  equipment  of  any  great  nation,  to-day,  at  any  rate,  was  far  more 
important  than  the  physical  equipment,  having  regard  to  the  future  of  the  nation. 
“Not  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  knitted  gun,  nor  the  smoothed  rifle,  but  ‘  out  of  the 
mouths  of  babes  and  sucklings’  is  the  strength  ordained  that  shall  still  the  enemy 
and  the  avenger.”  Their  disregard  for  public  education  was  costing  them  dear 
all  the  world  over.  They  were  only  a  small  people  numerically,  and  they  had  got 
to  make  up  for  the  smallness  of  their  numbers  by  the  higher  equipment  of  the 
individual  unit.  Their  people  must  give  up  the  idea  that  some  divine  power  had 
given  them  a  monopoly  and  the  supremacy  all  the  world  over.  They  had  got  to 
fight  their  way  according  to  their  capacity,  and  it  was  for  them  to  claim  that  the 
financing  of  their  schools  v?as  placed  on  as  generous  a  basis  as  their  army  and 
navy,  and  to  see  that  the  British  people  of  to-morrow,  who  were  in  the  schools  of 
to-day,  were  equipped  so  that  they  might  adequately  and  properly  carry  forward 
the  great  heritage  which  was  falling  into  their  hands — the  heritage  of  the  imperial 
greatness  of  their  country.1 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  BOARD  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  CITIES. 

The  phenomenal  progress  in  popular  education  in  England  during  the  past 
thirty  years  pertains  to  the  cities  and  is  due  chiefly  to  the  aroused  interest  of 
parents  and  the  active  propaganda  maintained  by  the  school  boards. 

Table  II  presents  the  statistics  of  London  and  65  county  boroughs,  from  which 
it  appears  that  59.7  per  cent  of  the  pupils  enrolled  in  elementary  schools  within 
the  borders  of  these  administrative  areas  are  in  board  schools.  For  the  whole 
country  the  proportion  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  board  schools  is  47  per  cent,  and 
for  the  counties,  excluding  the  county  boroughs,  only  37.5  per  cent.  Thus  it 
appears  that  board  schools,  which  did  not  exist  prior  to  1870,  have  become  the 
great  educational  agency  in  the  cities.  The  purpose  of  the  law  of  1870,  as  already 
stated,  was  to  provide  for  the  education  of  the  large  proportion  of  youth  who  were 
not  drawn  into  the  denominational  schools.  The  neglected  children  belonged 
chiefly,  although  not  exclusively,  to  the  poorer  classes,  and  the  school  boards  have 


1  Quoted  from  report  of  speech. 


956 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


studied  every  means  of  securing  the  attendance  of  such  children.  The  first  neces¬ 
sity  was  to  get  children  into  the  schools,  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  this  was 
a  small  part  of  what  must  be  done  to  dissipate  the  ignorance  of  the  masses. 
The  policy  of  allotting  the  Government  grant  to  schools  at  a  certain  rate  per  cap¬ 
ita  for  individual  passes  in  the  Government  examination  (technically  payment 
upon  results),  bad  as  it  was,  educationally  had  the  advantage  of  showing  the 
necessity  of  favorable  conditions  in  the  schools  themselves  and  of  a  certain  meas¬ 
ure  of  health  and  strength  in  the  children  to  be  instructed. 

Grading  and  the  sifting  out  of  hopelessly  defective  children  have  been  promoted, 
indirectly,  at  least,  by  the  policy.  It  has  served  also  to  show  in  a  very  convinc¬ 
ing  manner,  that  half-starved,  overworked  children  can  not  reach  even  mod¬ 
erate  requirements  in  the  most  elementary  subjects.  Thus  the  sense  of  public 
responsibility  for  the  education  of  the  poor,  which  developed  pari  passu  with  the 
extension  of  suffrage,  has  led  to  other  public  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  unfortunate 
classes.  The  detailed  school  statistics  of  six  selected  cities  (Table  ITI,  Parts  A  and 
B)  show  the  relative  strength  of  the  board  and  the  nonboard  schools  in  these  cit¬ 
ies  and  the  direction  of  efforts  for  the  adjustment  of  the  school  provision  to  the 
needs  of  special  classes.  The  success  of  these  efforts  is  an  interesting  proof  of 
the  flexibility  and  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  system  under  which  they  have 
been  fostered. 

The  proportion  of  children  classified  as  infants  (column  3)  is  large.  With  few 
exceptions,  these  are  children  below  7  years  of  age  (the  lower  limit  of  the  compul¬ 
sory  school  age).  The  Government  has  promoted  the  interests  of  these  younger 
children  by  allowing  a  higher  per  capita  grant  where  special  facilities  are  provided 
for  them.  The  latest  requirement  for  the  highest  grant  (9s.  per  capita  a,s  against 
7s.,  the  lower  grant)  is  a  separate  department  for  infants  under  a  certificated 
teacher  of  their  own,  or  a  separate  class  under  a  teacher  not  less  than  18  years  of 
age  approved  by  the  inspector. 


Table  II. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


957 


Average  number  of  schol¬ 
ars  in  attendance. 

Total. 

zoaz  jo  g  2  ^  go  co  ^  jo  oo  co  ^  g  S  S  c^co" 

CO 

Board 

schools. 

18383888  12888  !8  |glsillllgllssll 

0^7  I  I^OSOOIO-cfr— 7c^!M  loos'll 

Y  olun- 
tary 
schools. 

ig81|i!lgaillgfsllliSl|Sllgllll 

-^-^cocO'd7-=i7o<facrcO'^''j7o 

Number  of  scholars  on  the 
registers. 

Total. 

§ll2!il!IISlls!s§lsllllllI!lIl! 

gS®S'S8S3“'"S“"SS“ra'”S"SSS“«'c‘3Sa‘“3"S3 

Board 

schools. 

8B3S1S88  iliSI  ji  iBS868§8M8883i8 

»g!>7^co'adr-7cO -^7  'HHCO!>  ■  •  CO  rHOfcDlO  Oi  TOCOtoV?  00  lOCOTOrH 

Volun¬ 

tary 

schools. 

IssIlsISgsIllsllMIP.P.P.sMsgl 

n  «  to ^  io  !>r aTai"  co  to- o  irs -^7  ^7  ^7  o -^7  eo  co -rilic 

Accommodation. 

Total. 

SSS3§S38SS88888SSf§8838S8825S8S 

|3*'gWS“^SS¥3”"aSSSS^S^'SSa3S33 

Board 

schools. 

ilgllisi  18888  jg  iSS388888§8888S8 

mxHN«rt  co-^7  1  o"  r-7  of  to'  i  ■  asHgd'io'NON  to"c^  to"  to  to  c| 

Volun¬ 

tary 

schools. 

SllljPlSjglj^ 

gCOlOjTO  jH  t^CO  -ch"-*  gi®  gdr-H-^CC  TO  ICC  TO" Ol  O  TO  -^7 to"  TO>"  -cj7 CO"  TO"  Cl"  CO 

Number  of  schools  (institutions 
under  separate  management). 

l^o*  punj£) 

ISS-fegSSS^^SSSSSSSSISgSSSSSSSSS^gSS 

•siooqos  p-iuog 

•sfooqos 

•sxooqos 

jeiXXopuBusiiiJe' 

jcOrH  r-l  j  TO  i  ;  CO  N8  CCt  |  — 1  rH  i  i  i  i  r-i 

•oiXoqa'BO  unmoy; 

HNK^OQONWWO^i^Uft^HWWCOWHHHCOHHHHHHWO 
O  r-l 

•uuAerse  m 

TO  ;  ■  i — 1 1 — 1  j-#  |  j  ■  ; <N  CO  r-l  r-l  j  J  <M  IhhHNH  j  j  !  j  !  rH 

■put?i 

-sua  jo  qoanqo 

jo  ibiiouuN 

One- 
sixth  of 
popula¬ 
tion 
(1891) 
(propor¬ 
tion  re¬ 
quiring 
school 
accom¬ 
moda¬ 
tion). 

tlSflgp^ 

gTOTO  TO  05  0  Clad  TO  TOOS  TO-tHOS  CO'to  ad't^'iTO  Cl  1-  TO  -h"  TO  TO-dTO  odjro  aTcd 

Popula¬ 
tion  (1891). 

3338381888111813383831833818888 

|s3¥s|ss¥aag¥s¥s¥§i3si5s¥3¥sgss| 

t)7 

London  and  county 
boroughs. 

England  ( excluding 
Monmouthsh  ire). 

London... . 

Barrow-in-Furness _ 

Bath _ _ _ _ 

Birkenhead _ _ 

Blackburn . . 

Bolton . 

Bootle . . 

Bournemouth... . 

Bradford . . 

Brighton . . 

Bristol . 

Burnley . 

Bury . . 

Canterbury . 

Chester . 

Coventry . 

Croydon . 

Derby . . . 

Devonport . 

Dudley . 

Exeter . 

Gateshead . . . 

Gloucester . 

Gnmsbv  . 

Halifax . 

Hanley . 

Hastings . 

Huddersfield . . 

Ipswich . . . 

Kingston-upon-Hull _ 

Table  Il—Continned. 


958 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Average  number  of  schol¬ 
ars  in  attendance. 

Total. 

Board 

schools. 

11  ilsSlllllsIs 
ssS  ȴ 

88 

Ao 

18183 

is  S“? 

[  jSSSB  ill 

7  |  AV®  .i/j 

i  ! 

Volun¬ 

tary 

schools. 

8SSl^SS§SS§S_SAMARS3SSSa98Sa|S 

o' ci  o’  eg"  A A  rH  co  A  —T ad  so  ta  in' cT cd  A cd  o' ■£ in  -A  cd  cT  cd  cd 

Number  of  scholars  on  the 
registers. 

Total. 

mmsmmmmimmmmmsmm 

Board 

schools. 

11  illllllslllS 
ss  dsdd-ssa  ss' 

11 
i>  N 

ilSll 

i  ':§S3S 

if 

iSoHo 

;id 

Volun¬ 

tary 

schools. 

sssssis&isig^ 

A  r-j  ot  j#  ©  t-  cd  A"  A  used  55  -^co  jA^idod^  j-h 

Accommodation. 

Total. 

Si8SgS813£§3g8S8Bim§!Sg§SS 

s¥^s|¥s¥gs¥s¥8¥s¥s:*¥s33aa3s3s0i' 

Board 

schools. 

11  188838881838 

SS3  isssssa^'saa  “S 

11 

QOV 

illll 

!  iliss  ill 

d  ■t-Tod'coo  jed 

Volun¬ 

tary 

schools. 

illl§ipilplSlllll81iS13ililS 

cd  cd  t-  eg  ^  id  jo  -d ©  ed  co  © » i q  ci -sji" i>  cd  A l-7 cd  ia  edededod 

Number  of  schools  (institutions 
under  separate  management). 

TBlo}  pu^jQ 

gSSggj  ::::::::: 

•sjooqos  p.raog 

SS  i.SS  ;  |  ;  f  ;  i  |  ;  i 

•sjooqos 

AjujunjoA  [Hi  ox 

48 

27 

19 

112 

94 

•spotps 

joqp  pun  qstqjg 

jf-Hr HOC  I  ;  ;  ;  ;  ;  ;  •  • 

•oiIoqi’BO  uumog 

S^SiS 

•mn?o[so  /a 

!  rH  G'i  ©  CD  ;  ;  j  <  j  |  j  j  | 

•puui 
-Sag  jo  qoanqo 
jo  paotpK 

38 

22 

15 

65 

57 

One- 
sixth  of 
popula¬ 
tion 
(1891) 
(propor¬ 
tion  re¬ 
quiring 
sch  ooi 
accom¬ 
moda¬ 
tion). 

SsglllillllSslIilSlsliSllllSEs 

sa®ss'as¥S8's'-s'sft'a33assssss“'s®'s>: 

Popula¬ 
tion  (1891). 

lisIlllsISlSliilllllliillSllli 

|s¥s|88B||g”¥S|8PE:8|88SseS|SaS 

| 

London  and  county 
boroughs. 

England  ( excluding 
Monmouthsh  ire ) — 

Continued. 

Leeds . . 

Leicester. . 

Lincoln . 

Liverpool  . . . 

Manchester . . 

Middlesbrough . 

Newcastle  on  Tyne . 

Northampton . 

Norwich . .  _ 

Nottingham . 

Oldham . 

Oxford . 

Plymouth . . 

Portsmouth . . . 

Reading . 

Rochdale . 

neiens . 

Salford . . . 

Sheffield . . 

Southampton . 

►jOUlil  OUieiUS- . I 

Stockport . 

Sunderland . 

Walsall. . _ . 

West  Bromwich . 

West  Ham . 

wigan . 

W  ol  verhampton . . . . 

Worcester . i 

49, 334 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 


959 


1  8,048 

11,280 

1  00 
« 

J  tO 

cc 

CO  05  55 
CD  CO  CO 

WHH 

CO 

CO 

to 

1,937,412 

Or- i 

CD  H 

3 

to 

0 

CO 

18,857 

8,761 

11,353 

Is 

|  c§ 

O 

05 

§ 

00  05 

co  co 

"H  05 

COO 

05 

S 

lO 

£ 

NOO 

CDr-TrH 

CO 

t- 

of 

1 

|g 

9,345  1 

13,629 

O 

00 

g 

of 

31,341 

13,940 

18,456 

CO 

0 

to 

1 

oi 

tO<N! 
rH  CO 
^HO 
trfto' 

to 

CO 

CO 

CO  IS 
Ci  CCHO 

sss 

0J 

CO 

u- 

CO 

05 

00 

CO 

3,930 

8,547 

<tt 

ocT 

01 

05 

8,380 

3,094 

4,891 

to 

CD 

1  CO  1 

ls1 

co 

1  to 

1  ^ 
as 

9, 674 
15, 678 

co 

co 

CO 

to 

CO 

rH 

of 

05  -H  05 

ess 

0  co  of 

ll 

8 

0 

00 

orf 

oj 

to 

of 

5,408 

4,940 

1 

§ 

CQ  too 

3lo§* 

efo'rH 

WHH 

§& ! 
co"  I 

rf 

1 

i 

4,266  I 

10,738 

co 

I 

8,617 

1,559 

5,379 

|| 
ZD  j 

co 

0 

s 

1 

*  1 
'  ' 

‘  1 
i  i  1 

i  1  j 

it 

II 

»  1  1 
:  :  1 
:  1 

:  ;  : 

|f 

*  ■  i 

•  • 

•  • 

>  •  i 

i 

1 1 

■  1  i 

1  ' 

•  • 

*  »  i 

:  i  i 

ii 

I 

:  i  1 

i  1  ; 

in 

; 

in 

:ll 

co 

CO 

N 

05 

Silo  1 

CM  T-H  1 
00  rH  | 

rH 

rH 

1 

21,486 
9,118 
15, 058 

1 

rH  rH  I 
CO  O 

CO  o 

05r'i'f'  1 
rH  O 

rH 

co 

rH 

CO 

to 

! 

128,915 
54, 707 
90, 349 

ill 

Grand  total . j  11, 858, 435 

Yarmouth,  Great. . 

York  . . 

Total . 

Wales  and  Monmouth¬ 
shire. 

Cardiff . 

Newport  (Mon.) . 

Swansea . 

Total . 

&Q 


© 

ft- 

P? 

•"S  3 

'O  o 

PrP 

© 

ft 

w 

w 


JP  §  >1 
^  ft:r-P 


i°s» 

c3  ©rd7!  k! 

S|^l§ 

%  g  ieo  ° 

£J>  £  m 


8*2  » 

p  2  go 

gf&l 

P*  Qi  fH  O 

R.g  ffl 


SO© 

O  <X> 

’■C  S 

cS  c3 

P3 


-M 

So  g 


|S8 

§2* 


(2  O  ®  B  8 


h  o 
g  o 

O  _cl 

Mo 


P  5  “ 
111 
Sts’© 

flfl® 


p  p 

a.2 

043 

Ah 


feS 

°  p 


oo  co  i- 

CO  tH  tO 


i  tO  CO 


coo 

7— ICO 

coco 


§o§ 

coo 


<M  Hr 


00  CO  *  00 


CCCO^C 


ONHCOC 
CO  Xt»  <M  05  CD 


SS8SS 


<M  (M  I-  OI  CO 
HiO  H  O  05 
to  CO  rH  OI  02 


CO  rH  tO  00  CO 
i—i  CO  CD  "H 
r-lCOCCOW 

SS-SSsS 

rH  <M  CO  to  CO 


05  05  G5  05  05 
CO  00  00  00  O0 


•S'ti  o  „ 
Sip  o  © 

.£  £  p-ft 

S'S  ©  g«« 


Estimated  by  medical  officer. 


Table  III.  B — School  statistics ,  1900. 


960 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Industrial  schools. 

Boarding. 

•pauoq 
poips  jo  eSamp 
at  srtdnd  jo  aoqumj^ 

CO  iNCJfli 

»-H  <10  05  CO 

o  1  tj-  t— i 

O?  !  r-T 

•pjuoq  jootps  Aq 
pouiujuiuta  aequm^i 

CO 

>> 

cS 

Q 

•ju0un[OJug; 

3 

©  ; 

Maqmn^i 

(M  j 

^  i 

Truant 

schools. 

•juemqoaua 

i  _  : 

8  ; 

coo 

•joqum^j 

<M 

Evening 
classes  or 
schools. 

•juQtnqojug; 

O  CO  CO  <M  00 

CO  ^iCrHO 

in  io  cTodi>^ 

•joqumj^; 

1  CO  MICMH 

Advanced 
classes  or 
higher  grade 
schools. 

•ju0ui[p.iug; 

oo  0*0  ■  oi 

CO  O  •  CM 

O  Cj  O  1 0 

?  jrH 

•aequmj^ 

-rH  ClCi — 1  H 

Schools  or 
classes  for 
feeble¬ 
minded. 

•q.ueuijp.iug; 

O  O  i-l  CO 

CO  CCOCi^ 

o 

csT 

•jequmx 

SS 

Schools  and  classes 
for  blind  and  deaf 
children. 

Blind  and  deaf 
children  under 
care  of  the 
school  board. 

Board¬ 

ing 

schools. 

1  OONCO 

|  CO  1-  *o 

Day 

schools. 

674 

46 

•jo  aeqranjsj; 

&  °* 

1  1 

Enrollment  in 
board  schools. 

•sjuujui  su  pessup 
sjidnd  jo  uoijaodoatj 

Per  cent. 
35. 7 

36.5 

(M(M 

Total. 

05  COW 

?— 1  ClT 

O  C5C 

8  S> 

in 

co 

O  CO 

KcToo 

a 


■S'd  o_. 

tjjfH  o? 

.5,2  P'S 

.§ 

CQPQt-lcc 


d  tog 

p.n't 
2  © 
g-ss 
8|~ 
el? 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  961 

The  following  statements  relate  to  the  progress  in  the  work  of  school  boards  or 
to  special  features  of  the  work  comprised  in  Table  III  B. 

London — Increase  of  school  accommodation  and  enrollment. — The  school  board 
for  London,  which  consists  of  55  members,  was  created  immediately  after  the 
passage  of  the  school  law  of  1870.  At  that  time  there  were  574,673  children  of 
school  age  in  London,  and  there  were  only  261,158  school  places  available  for 
them.  The  board  is  organized  in  several  distinct  committees,  each  responsible 
for  a  particular  part  of  the  v/ork,  but  for  many  years  the  energies  of  all  the  mem¬ 
bers  were  taxed  to  the  utmost  by  the  mere  effort  to  secure  sites  for  required  schools, 
erect  buildings,  and  get  the  neglected  children  into  them.  According  to  the  offi¬ 
cial  report  for  1900,  there  were  scheduled  in  March  of  that  year  827,712  children 
between  the  ages  of  3  and  13,  and  for  these  781,553  school  places  were  required. 
The  actual  school  provision  was  767,470  places  (546,483  in  board  schools,  220,887  in 
nonboard  schools). 

The  average  number  of  children  on  the  rolls  was  755,940,  of  which  number  70 
per  cent  were  enrolled  in  board  schools.  The  increased  accommodation  has  been 
made  wholly  by  the  board,  the  number  of  places  in  non  board  schools  being  less 
than  in  1870,  when  the  board  was  created. 

The  number  of  children  between  the  ages  of  3  and  13  who  were  not  upon  the 
rolls  of  efficient  schools  in  1800  was  119,538.  These  were  accounted  for  as  follows: 

Two  thousand  and  ninety  children  were  under  instruction  in  some  other  way, 
viz,  1,017  receiving  efficient  instruction  at  home  and  1,073  attending  nonefficient 
schools.  Of  those  who  are  not  under  any  instruction  at  all,  there  were  97,511 
children  under  5  who  did  not  and  can  not  be  compelled  to  permanently  attend 
school.  The  remaining  19,937  children  comprised  the  following:  Those  who  were 
wholly  exempt,  those  who  were  permanently  disabled,  those  who  were  in  the 
country,  those  who  are  ill  or  delicate  or  who  reside  in  houses  where  there  is  infec¬ 
tious  illness,  those  who  were  out  of  school  owing  to  the  want  of  accommodation 
or  owing  to  accommodation  being  unsuitable,  those  who  were  under  surveillance 
by  the  respective  divisional  committees,  and  a  few  others  who  could  not  be  classi¬ 
fied. 

There  were  57,305  children  over  13  on  the  rolls  of  efficient  schools. 

The  enormous  effort  expended  in  keeping  track  of  the  children  is  indicated  by 
the  staff  of  the  committee  engaged  in  this  work.  It  includes  10  divisional  super¬ 
intendents,  with  11  assistants,  33  clerks,  14  office  attendants,  332  ordinary  visitors, 
and  13  unattached  visitors  who  serve  in  the  absence  of  ordinary  visitors. 

The  street  visitors,  of  whom  one  is  attached  to  each  division,  are  engaged  in 
dealing  with  the  cases  of  those  children  who  frequent  the  streets  or  open  spaces, 
markets,  railway  stations,  etc. 

Schools  for  special  classes. — The  board  maintains  eight  day  schools  for  blind 
children,  which  had  an  attendance  of  202  pupils  in  1900.  In  these  schools  the  chil¬ 
dren  have  medical  attention  and  are  often  so  benefited  that  they  can  be  returned 
to  the  ordinary  schools.  A  few  are  subsequently  advanced  to  the  Royal  Normal 
College  for  the  Blind. 

The  board  has  also  opened  19  day  centers  for  the  education  of  deaf  children. 
The  average  attendance  for  the  year  1900  was  472,  and  the  number  of  teachers 
employed  63.  The  oral  method  of  instruction  is  employed  excepting  in  the  case 
of  extremely  backward  children  who  can  not  be  taught  on  purely  oral  methods. 
During  the  year  a  number  of  the  younger  children  were  grouped  together  for 
separate  instruction.  Of  this  school  the  report  says: 

It  is  an  ideal  infant  school,  and  the  interest  and  intelligence  of  these  young  deaf 
children  is  being  stimulated  in  a  marked  degree.  It  is  hoped  that  the  methods 
employed  so  successfully  here  will  be  copied  by  all  the  infant  teachers  at  the  other 
centers,  and  with  that  end  in  view  they  are  paying  visits  to  the  school.  The 
delight  these  young  deaf  children  take  in  drawing,  especially  in  color,  is  some¬ 
thing  akin  to  the  blind  child’s  fondness  for  music. 

ED  1901 - 61 


962 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  London  board  established  schools  for  feeble-minded  children  as  early  as 
1891 .  The  work  has  steadily  increased,  and  for  1900  there  were  reported  43  schools 
or  centers,  as  they  are  called,  with  accommodation  for  2,030  pupils  of  the  class 
designated.  The  schools  are  under  the  supervision  of  Mrs.  E.  M.  Burgwin,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  specialist,  and  all  the  teachers  are  trained  for  the  work,  which  is  largely 
individual  and  exceedingly  arduous.  In  the  poorer  districts  the  children  attend¬ 
ing  these  schools  are  supplied  with  milk  during  the  morning  session  and  a  meal 
at  midday,  the  cost  being  defrayed  by  private  funds. 

The  senior  boys  where  possible  attend  the  manual-training  center,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  regret  that  all  the  capable  lads  can  not  for  want  of  room  obtain  this 
form  of  instruction.  Many  of  them  could  also  probabty  be  prepared  to  earn  their 
living  in  laundries  and  restaurants  if  able  to  attend  the  proper  classes.  The  girls, 
by  needlework,  housewifery,  cookery,  and  laundry  instruction,  leave  school  well 
able  to  earn  their  own  living.  A  master  of  a  boys’  school  writes:  “  You  will  be 
pleased  to  hear  that  I  have  this  morning  sent  one  of  the  lads  who  came  to  me  out 
of  the  special  school  a  year  ago  to  a  good  place  in  a  stick  factory,  where  the  train¬ 
ing  in  design,  etc.,  which  he  began  in  the  special  school  and  continued  here,  will 
be  of  use  to  him.  He  is  to  have  6  shillings  a  week  to  begin  with.”  This  proves 
that  the  time  spent  upon  drawing,  design,  and  color  work  is  a  profitable  form  of 
instruction  as  well  as  an  agreeable  change  from  the  drudgery  of  the  three  R’s. 

For  neglected,  unruly,  and  incorrigible  children  the  board  maintains  3 residen¬ 
tial  schools,  1  day  industrial  school,  and  2  truant  schools,  and  is  also  empowered 
to  commit  children  to  other  certified  industrial  schools.  In  1900  the  total  num¬ 
ber  of  children  under  the  care  of  the  beard  in  industrial  and  truant  schools  was 
3,893. 

An  interesting  department  of  the  provision  for  incorrigible  boys  is  the  Shaftes¬ 
bury  training  ship.  Here  the  boys  are  subjected  to  regular  discipline  and  train¬ 
ing  which  prepares  them  for  the  merchant  marine  and  naval  service,  in  which 
several  lads  from  the  ship  have  already  distinguished  themselves.  Measures  are 
taken  by  the  board  to  maintain  some  care  over  the  boys  even  after  they  have  left 
the  ship. 

Birmingham. — The  Birmingham  schools  have  been  particularly  distinguished 
by  the  provision  for  physical  training.  On  this  subject  the  Government  inspector 
reports: 

No  account  of  school  life  in  Birmingham,  however  incomplete  otherwise,  ought 
to  fail  to  notice  the  provision  for  physical  training,  which  is,  I  believe,  unique. 
Apart  from  the  regular  and  systematic  exercises  carried  on  in  all  the  schools  of 
the  city,  a  very  comprehensive  scheme  exists  for  the  encouragement,  promotion, 
and  control  of  outdoor  games,  as  well  as  drill  and  gymnastics.  This  scheme  is  a 
section  of  the  work  of  the  Birmingham  Athletic  Institute,  by  whom  it  is  fathered 
and  financed.  It  is  managed  by  a  committee  of  8,  upon  which  board  and  denom¬ 
inational  schools,  head  and  assistant  masters  are  equally  represented,  with  a 
member  of  the  institute  council  as  chairman  and  the  general  secretary  of  the 
institute  as  secretary.  Under  these  auspices,  cricket,  football,  swimming,  run¬ 
ning,  and  gymnastics  are  systematically  organized.  Challenge  shields  are  com¬ 
peted  for  annually,  while  medals  and  books  are  awarded  to  the  individual  boys  of 
the  winning  teams,  with  free  passes  to  the  county  cricket  ground  for  cricket,  and 
medals  to  the  teachers  who  have  acted  as  trainers.  The  only  condition  of  entry 
is  that  the  competitors  must  be  under  14,  and  not  above  the  sixth  standard;  they 
must  have  been  on  the  register  of  the  school  continuously  for  the  previous  three 
months,  and  must  remain  so  during  the  period  of  competition.  It  is  particularly 
pleasing  that  the  leading  athletic  clubs  of  the  city  foster  and  partially  support 
those  branches  of  sport  with  which  they  are  particularly  concerned,  thus  keeping 
themselves  in  touch  with  the  boys,  creating  a  recruiting  ground  for  their  own 
ranks,  and  giving  them  a  keen  desire  to  excel. 

To  add  importance  to  the  various  competitions  in  the  eyes  both  of  the  boys  and 
of  the  public  the  finals  are  contested  publicly  and  in  classic  places,  e.  g.,  the  final 
match  for  the  cricket  shield  is  played  on  the  county  cricket  ground,  with  county 
professionals  as  umpires  and  judges  of  the  prizes.  That  for  the  football  shield  is 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


963 


played  immediately  before  the  final  for  the  Birmingham  District  and  Counties 
Football  Association  challenge  cup.  with  the  same  officials  for  both  matches.  The 
100-yard  interschool  race  is  decided  at  the  Ashton  Villa  ground. — the  best  athletic 
ground  in  the  city — the  race  being  managed  in  every  way  as  at  a  senior  meeting; 
the  swimming  finals  are  taken  on  a  night  specially  set  apart  at  the  best  first-class 
baths  in  the  city  with  a  leading  public  person  as  chairman;  and  those  for  drill  and 
gymnastics  at  a  public  gathering  in  the  gymnasium  of  the  Athletic  Institute,  the 
leading  professors  acting  as  judges. 

The  chief  difficulty — I  need  scarcely  say  how  great  it  is — as  regards  cricket  and 
football  is  the  want  of  public  playing  spaces;  but  the  senior  clubs  recognize  this 
and  occasionally  allow  the  use  of  their  grounds.  A  great  deal  is  done  by  the  city 
baths  committee  to  foster  the  learning  of  swimming  in  elementary  schools.  Poles 
with  bands  attached  are  kept  for  the  use  of  teacher  and  boys,  and  free  passes  are 
awarded  to  the  boys  who  learn  to  swim  one  length  of  the  bath — about  BO  yards. 
These  free  passes  entitle  the  holders  to  admission  to  the  baths  for  a  yea/,  even 
though  they  may  have  left  school  for  work  during  that  year.  Better  still,  they 
are  now  renewed  yearly  so  long  as  the  boy  is  a  scholar;  so,  that  if,  as  it  does  hap¬ 
pen.  a  boy  of  7  or  8  years  of  age  can  swim  a  length  of  the  bath  he  is  entitled  to 
free  admission  for  the  remainder  of  his  school  days.  During  the  past  year  350 
boys  have  become  entitled  to  free  passes,  in  addition  to  67  old  holders  still  at 
school.  I  much  regret  to  notice  that  out  of  the  36  schools  represented  6  only  are 
voluntary  schools.  Here  again  are  the  disabilities  of  limited  staffs;  a  teacher  can 
not  be  spared  to  take  the  boys. 

I  am  glad  to  have  the  opportunity  of  recognizing  the  untiring  and  successful 
efforts  of  Mr.  J.  Adams,  headmaster  of  the  City  Road  board  school  and  secretary 
of  the  Athletic  Institute,  in  connection  with  the  sports  section  of  school  life  in 
Birmingham.  (Report  of  Board  of  Education  1899-1900,  pp.  173, 174.) 

Bradford. — The  educational  authorities  of  Bradford  have  been  active  in  endeav¬ 
ors  to  correlate  the  different  classes  o:  schools.  The  technical  college  of  that  city 
was  transferred  to  the  municipal  authorities  in  1899.  The  statute  under  which  it 
has  been  reorganized  provides  that  no  secondary  day  school  or  school  of  science 
shall  be  carried  on  in  the  college,  hut  that  day  and  evening  classes  may  he  held — 

(a)  In  the  subjects  of  art  and  of  manual,  scientific,  or  technical  instruction  con¬ 
nected  with  the  trades  and  manufactures  of  Bradford  and  the  neighborhood,  to 
which  none  shall  be  admitted  under  the  age  of  15  years,  except  on  the  recom¬ 
mendation  oUthe  governing  body  of  the  school  in  which  they  have  been  taught, 
and  in  no  case  under  the  age  of  14  years. 

( b )  In  advanced  commercial  subjects  at  day  and  evening  classes,  to  which 
none  shall  be  admitted  under  the  age  of  16  years. 

Pupils  are  prepared  for  the  college  in  the  higher  grade  board  schools  and  in  the 
6‘  grammar  school.'’  For  the  benefit  of  poor  children  of  marked  ability  free  schol¬ 
arships  tenable  at  the  higher  grade  schools  have  been  established.  In  March, 
1900,  an  examination  was  held  at  which  587  candidates  were  present  and  259 
obtained  scholarships. 

In  this  connection  the  report  of  the  school  board  for  1900  presents  the  following 
statement: 

Maintenance  scholarships. — The  granting  of  maintenance  scholarships  to  poor 
scholars,  thereby  enabling  the  parents  to  forego  their  earnings  and  securing  the 
attendance  at  school  of  bright  and  intelligent  children,  has  been  continued  and 
extended,  though  the  committee  regret  that  their  action  has  been  greatly  cur¬ 
tailed  owing  to  the  city  council's  grant  not  being  of  a  more  liberal  character. 
With  the  view  of  meeting  the  case  of  the  added  areas,  15  additional  scholarships 
have  been  granted  during  the  year  1900.  The  allowance  in  each  case  is  12s.  6d. 
per  month. 

Gifts  for  maintenance  scholarships. — A  letter  was  read  at  the  hoard  meeting 
held  on  August  30,  1899,  offering  to  give  £22  10s.  in  order  to  provide  three  mainte¬ 
nance  scholarships  for  one  year  on  condition  that  the  name  of  the  donor  was  not 
divulged.  It  was  resolved  that  the  thanks  of  the  board  be  forwarded  to  the  donor, 
with  an  expression  of  regret  that  he  does  not  wish  his  name  to  be  coupled  with  the 
scholarships.  A  similar  gift  was  reported  on  October  24, 1900,  from  the  same  donor. 

In  connection  with  the  opening  of  the  new  commercial  school  in  Carlton  street 
176  free  scholarships  have  been  awarded,  26  scholars  electing  to  pay  the  fee  of  6d. 
per  week. 


964 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Scholarships  icon  by  board  school  scholars. — During  the  term  of  the  present 
board  the  following  scholarships  have  been  won  by  pupils  attending  the  board’s 
schools: 


1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Nutter  scholarship  at  grammar  school  (boys) . 

1 

1 

Higher  grade  school  scholarships  (boys  and  girls) . 

318 

176 

235 

Commercial  school  scholarships  (boys) . 

138 

Brown  scholarships  at  grammar  school  (boys) . . . 

o 

1 

Governors1  scholarships  at  grammar  school  (boys) . 

4 

Lister  scholarships  at  grammar  school  (boys) . _ . 

2 

Private  scholarships  at  grammar  school  (boys) . „ . . 

i 

City  Council  scholarships  at  grammar  school  (boys) . 

16 

41 

9 

City  Council  scholarships  at  grammar  school  (girls) . . 

2 

Foundation  scholarships  at  grammar  school' (girls) . 

2 

2 

3 

Total . . . . 

343 

223 

388 

It  should  be  noted  in  connection  with  the  second  item  recorded  that  free  scholarships— tenable 
at  the  higher  grade  board  schools— are  awarded  to  scholars  from  both  board  and  voluntary 
schools,  without  distinction,  but  the  numbers  given  do  not  include  the  scholars  from  the  latter. 

Numerous  scholarships  have  been  won  at  the  technical  college,  but  a  complete  statement  can 
not  be  given. 

Liverpool. — In  their  report  for  the  triennial  period  ending  November  25, 1900,  the 
Liverpool  school  board  give  interesting  particulars  respecting  the  conduct  of  their 
day  industrial  schools.  Of  the  industrial  schools,  both  residential  and  day,  it  should 
be  said  that  they  are  a  modified  kind  of  reform  school,  to  which  unruly  children 
may  be  sent  by  the  school  authorities  without  the  process  of  conviction  in  the  courts. 
The  residential  industrial  schools  date  back  to  a  law  of  1866,  but  the  school  law  of 
1870  transferred  the  power  of  commitment  to  these  from  the  prison  authori  ties  to  the 
school  authorities.  The  law  of  1876  authorized  the  establishment  of  day  industrial 
schools  for  the  children  of  drunken  and  dissolute  parents  for  whom  the  ordinary 
penalties  of  the  compulsory  school  lawTs  have  no  terror.  Most  of  these  children, 
by  reason  of  dirt,  nakedness,  or  hunger,  are  both  unfit  and  unable  to  attend  other 
schools.  In  the  day  industrial,  in  addition  to  ordinary  instruction,  manual  train¬ 
ing  and  food  are  provided. 

The  law  of  1876  gave  rise  also  to  truant  schools,  in  which  special  arrangements 
are  made  for  the  discipline  and  detention  of  vagrant  and  unruly  youth. 

With  respect  to  the  day  industrial  schools  the  Liverpool  board  report  as  follows: 

The  treasury  make  an  allowance  of  Is.  per  child  per  week  toward  the  expenses 
of  this  kind  of  school;  and  this  amount,  with  that  which  the  parents  have  been 
ordered  by  the  magistrates  to  contribute,  if  the  latter  were  fully  paid,  would, 
until  recently,  have  defrayed  the  entire  cost  of  maintenance.  The  number  of  chil¬ 
dren  under  commitment  to  these  schools  has,  however,  fallen  off  so  much  lately 
(from  1,222  in  1891  to  673  in  1900 — a  decrease  of  549,  or  nearly  45  per  cent)  that  the 
cost  per  head  on  the  average  attendance  has  risen  from  2s.  lOd.  to  8s.  9d.  per  week. 
During  the  year  ended  December  31,  1899,  the  deficiency  arising  from  this  cause 
involved  a  charge  upon  the  rates  of  £1 ,817.  It  has,  however,  been  found  impos¬ 
sible,  owing  mainly  to  the  change  in  the  mode  of  procedure  introduced  by  the 
summary  jurisdiction  act,  1879,  to  enforce  the  payment,  by  the  parents,  of  any 
large  portion  of  the  amount  ordered;  with  the  result  that  the  actual  cost  of  these 
schools  to  the  rates  during  the  twelve  months  which  ended  on  September  29  last 
amounted  to  a  little  over  £4,900.  The  following  figures  will  show  even  more 
strongly  the  disastrous  effect  of  the  alteration  introduced  by  the  act  referred  to. 
The  sum  which,  under  the  magistrates’  orders,  became  due  from  the  parents 
during  the  three  years  ended  September  29,1900,  was  £7,374;  of  which  sum  only 
£1,256,  or  17  per  cent,  was  actually  collected  from  them,  a  further  amount  of 
£413  being  received  from  the  various  boards  of  guardians.  Out  of  a  correspond¬ 
ing  amount  of  £6,611,  which  fell  due  in  the  three  years  preceding  the  operation 
of  the  summary  jurisdiction  act,  1879,  no  less  than  £3,942,  or  nearly  60  per  cent  of 
the  whole  amount,  was  actually  received  from  the  parents. 

The  present  board  have  recently,  for  hygienic  considerations,  adopted  for  these 
schools  a  somewhat  more  varied  and  slightly  more  liberal  dietary  scale,  which 
will,  no  doubt,  to  some  little  extent,  add  to  the  future  cost  of  the  schools. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


965 


Through  the  continued  kindness  of  some  few  gentlemen,  the  children  of  these 
schools  have,  during  the  term  of  the  present,  as  during  those  of  some  preceding 
boards,  enjoyed  each  year  a  holiday,  varying  in  length  from  a  week  to  a  fort¬ 
night,  in  camp  near  the  Meols  shore,  under  the  care  of  their  teachers.  The  only 
charge  involved  thereby  to  this  board  has  been  the  provision  of  a  slightly  more 
generous  dietary  than  that  which  is  provided  for  the  children  when  at  their  respec¬ 
tive  schools,  and  the  cost  of  carriage  of  the  provisions  to  the  camp.  This  holiday 
is  found  to  have  a  very  beneficial  effect,  not  only  upon  the  health  of  the  children, 
but  also  upon  their  relations  with  the  teachers  of  the  school.  It  brings  teachers 
and  children  together,  and  inspires  mutual  confidence  and  regard  between  them, 
in  a  way  that  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  the  school  can  not  effect;  and  it  thus 
greatly  assists  the  superintendents  in  learning  the  real  character  and  individual 
needs  of  the  young  people  intrusted  to  their  care. 

The  board  are  also  much  indebted  to  lady  members  of  the  Kyrle  Society  for  the 
interest  they  take  in  these  children,  and  for  devoting  in  each  of  the  schools,  to 
their  amusement  and  elevation,  an  hour  once  a  fortnight  in  the  afternoon,  in  pro¬ 
viding  “  happy  afternoons.” 

The  order  in  council  under  which  children  are  committed  to  day  industrial 
schools  requires  that  the  religious  denomination  of  each  child  shall,  as  far  as 
practicable,  be  ascertained  and  be  specified  in  the  warrant  of  commitment;  that  a 
child  shall  be  sent,  when  possible,  to  a  school  conducted  in  accordance  with  the 
tenets  of  the  religious  body  to  which  he  belongs;  and  also,  that  ministers  of  religion 
shall  be  admitted,  at  times  to  be  approved  by  the  secretary  of  state,  “for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  instructing  him  in  religion.”  The  elementary  education  act  of  1876,  also, 
under  whose  provisions  this  order  in  council  is  issued,  extends  to  day  industrial 
schools  those  provisions  of  the  elementary  education  act,  1870,  which  affect  in¬ 
dustrial  schools  established  by  school  boards,  one  of  which  is  that  such  schools, 
when  established,  shall  be  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  industrial  schools  act, 
1866,  and  not  to  those  of  the  elementary  education  act  itself. 

In  view  of  these  provisions,  a  former  board  adopted,  after  consultation  with  the 
then  secretary  of  state,  and  the  present  board  have  continued,  the  following  regu¬ 
lation  on  this  important  subject,  viz: 

17.  Religions  instruction  shall  be  governed,  by  the  following  rules: 

(1)  Religious  instruction  and  observances  shall  take  place  each  day  from  9  to  9.30  a.  m.  and 
from  5.40  to  G  p.  m. 

(2)  The  ordinary  religious  instruction  and  observances  shall  consist  of  prayers  and  hymns 
and  reading  from  the  Bible,  with  such  explanations  and  instructions  therefrom  in  the  principles 
of  religion  and  morality  as  are  suited  to" the  capacity  of  children;  and  in  the  selection  of  such 
prayers  and  hymns,  and  in  explanations  and  instruction  from  the  Bible,  no  attempt  shall  be  made 
to  attach  children  to  or  to  detach  them  from  any  particular  denomination. 

(3)  No  child  shall  attend  the  religious  instruction  or  observances  or  shall  be  taught  the  cate¬ 
chism  or  tenets  of  any  religion  to  which  his  parents  or  guardians  object,  or  other  than  that  to 
which  he  is  stated  in  the  order  of  detention  or  attendance  order  to  belong. 

(4)  With  regard  to  children  who  are  specified  in  the  order  of  detention  or  attendance  order  as 
belonging  to  any  particular  religious  persuasion,  the  managers  shall,  so  far  as  practicable,  make 
arrangements  that  such  children  shall,  during  the  times  set  apart  for  religious  instruction, 
attend  religious  instruction  or  observances  conducted  voluntarily  by  ministers  of  such  persua¬ 
sions,  or  by  such  responsible  teachers  of  the  school  or  other  persons  as  are  delegated  by  such 
ministers  with  the  approval  of  the  board. 

(5)  While  any  religious  instruction  or  observance  is  going  on  none  of  the  scholars  or  teachers 
shall  be  employed  in  any  other  manner  in  the  same  room. 

(6)  Facilities  shall  be  provided  for  special  religious  instruction  being  given  at  stated  times  on 
Sunday,  by  volunteers,  to  such  of  the  children  of  their  respective  churches  as  of  their  own  free 
will  may  attend  such  instruction. 

Under  the  terms  of  paragraph  (4)  of  this  rule  most  of  the  board’s  teachers  in 
these  schools,  delegated  by  ministers  of  their  own  respective  denominations,  with 
the  sanction  of  the  board,  give  distinctive  religious  teaching  to  the  children  belong¬ 
ing  to  those  denominations. 

Manchester. — The  following  account  of  one  of  the  free  schools  of  Manchester  is 
given  by  a  correspondent  of  the  Manchester  Guardian: 

The  school  which  I  visited  has  at  least  twTo  claims  to  distinction.  In  the  first 
place,  it  has  a  roof  playground.  The  children  go  for  their  school  games  up  among 
the  chimney  pots  and  the  lightning  conductors,  which  they  might  almost  touch. 
This  dizzy  playground  is,  of  course,  walled  and  railed  securely,  but  at  one  end 
there  is  a  wire-barred  window  through  which  you  may  look  down  upon  and  over 
the  back  yards  and  smoking  chimneys  of  the  city,  hearing  the  while  the  murmur 
of  its  unceasing  “labor  anthem ’’—surely  a  fit  watchtower  for  Carlyle’s  night  phi¬ 
losopher.  In  the  second  place,  this  was  the  first  school  in  Manchester  to  be  built 
on  the  class-room  principle.  F ormerly  all  the  classes  in  an  elementary  school  were 
taught  in  one  large  hall.  The  national  society  in  its  early  years  laid  down  the 
lines  upon  which,  in  its  opinion,  the  schools  for  the  common  people  should  be 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


>66 


built.  “A  barn/’  its  circular  said,  “furnishes  no  bad  model,  and  a  good  one  may 
easily  be  converted  into  a  school.”  For  many  years,  even  far  into  the  era  of  school 
boards,  elementary  schools  were  planned  upon  the  barn  model.  But  the  up-to- 
date  school  building  is  divided  into  class  rooms,  with  a  large  central  hall  which  is 
intended  to  be  a  reservoir  of  fresh  air  and  to  be  occupied  by  the  children  only  in 
the  hours  of  prayer  and  singing,  but  which  too  often,  owing  to  the  crowded  state 
of  the  school,  has  to  be  used  for  the  ordinary  work  of  class  teaching.  A  third 
characteristic  of  the  school  under  notice  is  that  it  is  a  “mixed”  school — that  is  to 
say,  boys  and  girls  are  taught  in  it  side  by  side.  In  Great  Britain  the  dividing 
line  between  mixed  schools  and  schools  in  departments  seems  to  be  a  line  of  lati¬ 
tude.  In  the  south  there  are  no  mixed  schools;  in  the  north  mixed  school  are 
universal.  That  is  a  broad  and  general  statement  of  the  fact.  The  Wesleyan 
Methodists  have  mixed  schools  both  north  and  south,  but  that  is  because  they 
learned  their  educational  ideals  from  David  Stow,  a  great  Scotch  educationist  of 
the  first  half  of  the  century.  The  objections  to  the  mixed  system  are  mostly  mor¬ 
bid.  One  excellent  member  of  the  Manchester  school  board  a  few  years  ago  held 
that  even  the  infants  ought  to  be  separated  according  to  sex.  But  the  system 
has  been  found  to  be  successful  in  Manchester,  and  it  has  now  been  applied  to 
some  30  schools. 

In  the  large  infants'  hall  fires  were  blazing  cheerfully  in  two  open  fireplaces. 
Without  there  was  all  the  dreariness  of  a  typical  Manchester  day;  here  rain  and 
fog,  and  Manchester  itself  could  easily  and  agreeably  be  forgotton.  Even  the 
school  canary,  which  ought  to  have  special  prejudices  in  his  blood  against  a  Lan¬ 
cashire  October,  was  expressing  his  giant  soul  in  delighted  song.  Plants  and 
flowers  were  suspended  around  him  and  stood  in  the  windows  and  upon  .shelves. 
Answering  my  look  of  pleasure  as  my  eyes  fell  upon  detail  after  detail  of  this 
bright  nursery  school— the  green  plants,  the  singing  canary,  the  goldfish  in  a 
tank — the  head  mistress,  who  is  tireless  and  cheerful  because  she  is  in  the  midst 
of  work  which  she  enjoys,  said,  “We  can't  take  the  children  to  the  country  in 
Manchester  schools,  so  we  bring  the  country  to  them  as  much  as  possible.  We 
plant  and  grow  in  the  school  acorns  and  beans,  and  hyacinths  and  crocuses.  Our 
school  pets  include  a  newt,  a  snail,  and  a  beetle,”  which  were  produced  before  me. 
There  is  a  small  museum  in  a  glass  case  placed  on  the  floor,  so  that  all  the  children 
may  see  it.  It  contains,  among  many  articles  of  natural  history,  a  wasp  nest  and 
a  bee  hive,  without,  however,  “  the  singing  masons  building  roof's  of  gold.” 

•  Another  case  holds  models  of  three  landscapes — one  in  the  Arctic  regions  with 
a  snow  hut,  the  second  a  desert  in  Africa  with  a  camel,  and  the  th:rd  an  English 
meadow  “  with,”  as  an  awe-struck  little  girl  says,  “  a  cow  that  moos.”  The  little 
boys  and  girls  are  all  happy  and  clean  and  well.  They  were  fixing  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet  upon  their  minds  or  learning  to  count  or  to  write.  The  wonder  of 
babyhood  had  not  quite  left  their  faces,  and  yet  they  had  made  some  beautiful 
artificial  flowers,  produced  neat  specimens  of  writing,  and  begun  simple  painting. 

The  babies’ class  is  pretty  much  what  its  name  says — a  class  of  babies.  “Is 
there  any  good  in  having  such  very  young  children  here?  ”  I  asked.  The  teacher, 
who  looks  ahead,  replied:  “  It  is  good  for  the  children  to  come  here  and  learn  a 
little  at  their  play;  it  is  good  for  the  mothers  to  have  such  a  place  as  this  to  send 
them  to,  and  it  is  good  for  the  schools  and  the  teachers — afterwards,”  which  means 
that  children  who  have  been  through  the  babies’  class  are  easier  to  teach  in  the 
standards  than  those  who  are  not  sent  to  school  until  they  are  5  years  of  age.  A 
little  boy  3  or  4  years  old  was  pulling  at  my  coat.  “We  have  a  white  mouse,”  he 
said,  “and  it  comes  out  and  eats  bread.”  I  witnessed  the  mouse  feeding,  to  the 
delight  of  his  baby  owners.  The  class  room  of  these  very  little  children  is  perhaps 
more  a  nursery  than  a  schoolroom.  They  play  at  skittles  and  count  as  they  bowl 
one  over,  and  a  swing  and  a  see  saw  aid  their  instruction  similarly.  In  the  glass 
cupboard  there  is  a  tea  service,  and  the  babies  have  occasional  tea  parties.  'When 
1  saw  them  most  of  them  were  nursing  dolls.  One  little  girl,  who  had  just  come 
to  school  and  was  not  yet  reconciled  to  her  new  surroundings,  had  laid  her  doll  on 
one  side  and  was  sitting  apart,  not  crying,  but  brooding  over  what  no  doubt  was  a 
very  deep  sorrow.  In  place  of  the  dolls,  engines  and  working  donkeys  are  provided 
for  the  boys,  “for  boys,”  says  the  teacher,  “like  change.”  But  the  toy  of  which 
the  babies  think  most  is  a  model  of  a  coast  scene.  In  this  there  is  a  sandy  beach 
with  a  sailing  boat  and  a  bathing  van,  and  there  is  a  light-house  tower  in  which, 
on  rare  occasions  and  as  a  great  treat,  a  night  light  is  burned.  All  the  time  the 
babies  are  learning  something,  and  what  is  perhaps  more  important,  they  are 
unconsciously  becoming  related  and  attached  to  school  and  school  life. 

In  the  senior  school,  which  is  under  an  earnest  and  zealous  teacher,  there  is 
naturally  a  look  of  more  serious  purpose  in  the  eyes  of  the  children.  They  are 
older  and  more  is  expected  of  them.  Boys  and  girls  sit  side  by  side.  In  mixed 


EDUCATION  IN  GEE  AT  SEXTAIN  AND  IEELAND. 


967 


schools  in  some  other  parts  of  the  country  the  hoys  sit  all  on  one  side  of  a  table 
and  the  girls  all  on  the  other,  and  a  hoy  is  sometimes  sent  to  sit  among  the  girls 
as  a  punishment,  which  is  a  thing  terrible  to  be  borne.  But  in  this  school  the 
mixing  is  real,  and  sometimes  a  boy  is  at  the  head  of  the  class  and  sometimes  a 
girl.  Though  of  course  there  are  no  games  or  toys  here,  the  hall  of  the  senior 
school  is,  like  that  of  the  infants,  made  bright  with  flowers  and  plants.  The 
children  are  neat  and  sharp.  At  the  sound  of  a  gong  they  change  from  one  lesson 
to  another  with  the  simultaneous  punctuality  of  soldiers.  Looking  at  their  bright, 
interested  faces  I  could  almost  believe  that  some  of  them  liked  school,  and  I  confided 
the  suspicion  to  their  teacher.  “X  am  sure  the  boys  of  to-day  like  school  much 
more  than  the  bojTs  of  a  dozen  years  ago,”  he  replied.  “  Their  teachers  are  more 
qualified,  more  humane,  and  more  satisfied  with,  their  conditions,  and  these  things 
make  school  life  more  pleasant.”  One  boy  confessed  to  me  in  the  presence  of  his 
teacher  that  he  liked  algebra.  I  should  have  been  inclined  to  doubt  it  and  to  sus¬ 
pect  him  of  a  sinister  design  had  he  not  declared  with  perfect  candor  (also  in 
the  presence  of  his  teacher)  that  there  was  one  lesson  which  he  “detested,”  and 
that  was  the  lesson  in  singing  and  ear  tests.  I  thought  it  equally  creditable  to  the 
boy  and  to  the  teacher  that  such  a  hold  declaration  should  be  maae  without  hesi¬ 
tation  on  the  one  side  and  without  rebuke  on  the  other.  The  incident  goes  some 
way  to  account  for  the  improved  tone  which  has  of  late  years  been  noticed  in  the 
elemental  schools.  Boys  and  girls  are  now  rational  beings,  and  not  pieces  of  a 
great  machine. 

Manchester  stands  preeminent  among  English  cities  for  progress  in  the  coordina¬ 
tion  of  different  classes  of  schools.  This  work  is  incidentally  disclosed  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  article: 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  MANCHESTER. 

In  no  English  city  is  a  more  sensible  or  more  thorough  provision  for  technical 
education  to  be  found  than  in  Manchester.  Whatever  standard  of  comparison  is 
adopted,  be  it  the  number  of  students  under  instruction  in  proportion  to  the  popu¬ 
lation,  the  amount  of  annual  expenditure,  the  number  of  the  schools,  or  the 
enthusiasm  of  its  administrators  and  teachers,  Manchester  will  take  one  of  the 
foremost  places  in  the  educational  ranks  of  the  country.  In  some  particulars, 
indeed,  Manchester  stands  almost  alone.  In  the  arrangements  which  the  technical 
instruction  committee  of  its  city  council  and  its  school  board  jointly  have  made  to 
secure  the  coordination  of  all  educational  efforts  within  their  borders,  and  so  avoid 
that  overlapping  which  is  such  a  prolific  source  of  loss  and  disappointment  in 
many  other  districts,  this  center  of  the  great  cotton  industry  may  well  serve  as  an 
example  of  a  community  where  the  first  object  of  public  men  is  to  secure  educa¬ 
tional  efficiency  and  not  to  assist  the  glorification  of  a  particular  board  or 
committee. 

This  success  is  largely  to  be  attributed  to  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  any 
successful  system  of  technical  instruction  must  be  adequately  based  upon  a  gradu¬ 
ated  supply  of  elementary  and  secondary  education.  It  is  too  often  imagined  that 
technical  education  is  independent  of  the  work  of  the  public  elementary  and  the 
grammar  schools.  But  in  Manchester  it  has  been  for  years  borne  in  inind  that  it 
is  only  those  youths  who  have  received  a  thorough  preliminary  education  who 
reap  any  advantage  from  the  lectures  and  laboratory  work  of  the  technical  school, 
be  it  never  so  perfectly  equipped  and  staffed.  The  student  of  education  conse¬ 
quently  finds,  when  he  endeavors  to  account  for  the  satisfactory  system  of  tech¬ 
nical  instruction  in  Manchester,  that,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  public  elementary 
schools,  supplying  besides  the  three  R's  an  elementary  introduction  to  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  physics  and  chemistry,  the  school  board  have  provided  four  higher  grade 
schools,  all  of  them  furnished  with  a  “school  of  science,” and,  as  readers  of  Nature 
know,  the  curriculum  of  schools  of  this  type  is  eminently  suitable  as  an  introduc¬ 
tory  course  for  boys  and  girls  who  will  later  proceed  to  the  technical  school. 

Adequate  provision  is  also  made  for  the  children  of  a  higher  social  status.  Man¬ 
chester  is  weil  provided  with  secondary  schools.  Its  grammar  school  and  its  high 
school  for  girls  both  deservedly  occupy  high  places  among  the  public  schools  of 
the  country.  Manchester  grammar  school,  moreover,  appears  to  have  been  one  of 
the  first  to  teach  practical  chemistry,  for  it  possessed  a  small  laboratory  as  long 
ago  as  1888. 

There  is,  too,  every  facility  offered  to  bright  children  of  the  elementary  schools 
to  pass  forward  either  to  the  higher  grade" school  or  to  the  grammar  school,  this 
desirable  end  being  secured  by  a  sensible  scheme  of  scholarships.  By  the  same 
means  a  vital  connection  is  assured,  by  way  of  the  secondary  schools,  between  the 
elementary  schools  and  the  municipal  technical  school  and  the  university  college. 


968 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


Nor  are  the  educational  needs  of  youths  who  have  begun  the  serious  business  of 
life  neglected.  All  the  schools,  to  the  work  of  which  brief  reference  has  been 
made,  are  intended  for  young  people  who  have  as  yet  entered  neither  trade  nor 
profession.  But  in  all  manufacturing  districts  the  great  mass  of  the  workers  have 
to  complete  their  education  by  well-sustained  efforts  in  evening  classes  of  one  kind 
or  another.  The  authorities  in  Manchester  are  fully  alive  to  this  fact,  and  a  won¬ 
derfully  complete  system  of  evening  classes  has  grown  up,  in  which  it  is  interest¬ 
ing  to  note  that  the  school  board  and  the  technical  instruction  committee  can 
work  together  without  friction  and  with  the  best  results.  Two  sets  of  these  classes 
are  in  vogue.  First,  there  are  the  classes  with  which  the  school  board  are  more 
directly  concerned — the  evening  continuation  schools  in  which  youngsters  from  12 
to  16  years  of  age  who  have  left  the  public  elementary  school  for  the  shop,  the 
warehouse,  or  the  factory  are  either  preparing  themselves  for  the  more  advanced 
classes  of  the  technical  school  or  are  perfecting  and  continuing  the  work  they  did 
at  school  with  a  view  to  making  themselves  of  greater  value  to  their  employers. 
Secondly,  there  are  the  evening  classes  of  the  technical  school,  intended  for  young 
men  and  women  of  16  and  upward,  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  adequate 
idea  in  a  few  sentences.  To  really  appreciate  what  is  being  done  in  such  classes 
every  winter’s  evening  in  large  manufacturing  districts,  it  is  necessary  to  visit  the 
schools  where  they  are  held.  The  determined  efforts  the  young  men  and  women, 
who,  be  it  remembered,  have  generally  spent  a  laborious  day  earning  their  daily 
bread,  will  make  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  science  on 
which  their  work  depends,  or  to  become  familiar  with  the  canons  of  art  they  hope 
to  apply  in  designing,  are  well  calculated  to  inspire  the  hope  that  this  country  will 
some  day  take  its  former  position  in  the  industrial  contest  among  the  nations. 

The  students  of  the  day  technical  school  and  day  school  of  art  are  composed 
chiefly  of  the  sons  of  middle-class  parents.  In  the  majority  of  cases  they  do  not 
enter  seriously  into  the  work  of  manufacture  and  distribution  until  after  com¬ 
pleting  their  studies.  It  is  gratifying  to  be  able  to  report  that  there  are  some 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  Some  enterprising  employers  have  made  arrangements  for 
sending  certain  of  their  employees  to  the  technical  school  during  the  day — the 
employers  themselves  bearing  the  expense  thereby  incurred.  It  is  much  to  be 
desired  that  this  far-seeing  policy  may  be  more  general^  adopted.  And  there  are 
also  the  scholarship  holders  from  the  higher  grade  schools.  Such  is,  in  skeleton 
form,  the  system  of  technical  education  which  has  been  gradually  evolved  in 
Manchester.  *  *  * 

Another  cause  of  the  high  state  of  development  of  education  in  Manchester  is 
the  broad  view  which  the  technical  instruction  committee  have  taken  of  their 
duties.  On  at  least  two  separate  occasions  they  have  arranged  for  their  director, 
with  certain  members  of  the  committee,  to  visit  foreign  countries  to  study  other 
systems  of  technical  instruction,  and  on  another  occasion  they  have  sent  him  alone 
to  visit  the  United  States.  In  this  way  these  Manchester  authorities  have  become 
practically  acquainted  with  German  and  American  ideas  of  education.  They 
have  not  endeavored  to  follow  slavishly  such  methods  in  their  entirety,  but  have 
not  hesitated  to  import  notions  they  considered  suitable  for  the  peculiar  needs  of 
their  own  district. 

The  same  committee  have  also  taken  a  large  part  in  the  formation  of  public 
opinion  in  matters  educational  in  Lancashire.  At  their  instigation  several  con¬ 
ferences  have  been  held  of  representatives  of  the  numerous  county  boroughs 
in  their  immediate  neighborhood.  Resolutions  have  been  adopted  and  widely 
circulated  urging  the  need  of  legislation  to  insure  that  secondary  (including  tech¬ 
nical)  education  shall  be  placed  under  the  control  of  municipal  councils,  though 
the  desirability  of  coopting  upon  the  educational  committee  an  effective  minority 
of  persons  of  special  experience  in  all  grades  of  instruction,  as  well  as  of 
encouraging  the  joint  action  between  the  authorities  of  county  boroughs  and 
that  of  the  administrative  county  have  been  recognized.  But,  if  they  would  con¬ 
sider  this  question  more  from  the  national  point  of  view,  this  enterprising  local 
authority  for  education  might  come  to  a  different  conclusion.  What  is  the  state 
of  affairs  in  southeast  Lancashire?  For  the  sake  of  example  let  Manchester  be 
taken  as  a  center,  and  consider  chiefly  the  technical  education  of  the  district.  In 
this  central  city  there  will  shortly  be,  in  full  working  order,  a  technical  school, 
erected  and  equipped  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a  million,  and  really 
provided  with  accommodation  enough  for  all  the  advanced  technical  students 
which  the  whole  area  under  consideration  could  provide.  Yet,  within  easy  walk¬ 
ing  distance,  there  is  the  Salford  Royal  Technical  Institute,  also  admirably 
organized  and  generously  staffed,  and  this  simply  because  Salford  happens  to  be 
a  separate  borough.  The  other  boroughs  of  this  same  area  are,  moreover,  very 
close  together.  Stockport,  with  its  own  technical  school,  is  within  about  5  miles, 
and  has  a  splendid  train  service  connecting  it  with  Manchester.  Bury,  Bolton, 


EDUCATION  IN  GEEAT  BEIT  AIN  AND  IEELAND. 


969 


Oldham,  Rochdale,  and  other  boroughs  are  sufficiently  near  for  their  advanced 
students  to  be  drafted  to  Manchester  for  instruction — the  railway  fares  could 
easily  be  provided  by  means  of  scholarships.  It  would  certainly  seem  as  though, 
in  the  best  interests  of  technical  education,  an  area  much  larger  than  that  of  a 
county  borough  is  desirable.  With  boroughs  so  near  as  they  are  in  southeast 
Lancashire  there  is  bound  to  be  duplication  and  reduplication  of  buildings  and 
appliances.  To  have  a  school,  like  the  new  technical  school  at  Manchester  will 
be,'  engaged  in  elementary  work,  which  could  be  done  equally  well  at  much  less 
cost  elsewhere,  is  to  lose  a  grand  opportunity  of  providing  one  center  at  least  for 
advanced  technical  instruction,  of  which  the  country  stands  in  growing  need. 
Experience  shows,  too,  that  the  same  staff  can  not  successfully  undertake  to  teach 
crowds  of  elementary  pupils  and  also  really  be  of  assistance  to  the  comparatively 
few  picked  students  who  will  well  repay  any  opportunities  placed  in  their  path 
for  advanced  study  and  subsequent  research  in  applied  science. 

That  there  is  no  difficulty  in  getting  students  to  travel,  as  has  been  suggested, 
is  borne  out  by  an  appendix  to  the  last  report  of  the  Manchester  committee  for 
technical  instruction.  It  is  there  set  forth  that  last  year  there  were,  among  the 
4,318  students  of  the  technical  school,  no  fewer  than  2,268  students  from  out- 
districts,  of  whom  18  came  from  Bolton,  25  from  Bury,  44  from  Oldham  and 
Hollinwood,  16  from  Rochdale,  348  from  Salford,  and  43  from  Stockport,  to  name 
only  a  few  towns  from  a  long  list  in  the  report  before  us. — A.  T.  Simmons, 
Nature,  Jan.  31,  1801,  p.  337. 

Sheffield — Increase  in  school  ‘provision. — In  a  retrospective  survey  of  the  work 
of  the  Sheffield  board  of  education  for  thirty  years,  from  November  28,  1870,  to 
November  28,  1900,  the  clerk  of  board,  Mr.  John  Francis  Moss,1  say's: 

Looking  back  to  the  time  when  the  only  education  obtained  by  hundreds  of 
children  in  Sheffield  was  got  by  fitful  attendance  at  dame  schools,  some  of  them 
carried  on  in  miserable  hovels  by  persons  who  could  not  write  simple  sentences, 
and,  indeed,  not  properly  spell  many  words  of  one  syllable,  and  having  regard  to 
the  ample  provision  now  made  as  compared  with  that  which  existed  thirty  years 
ago,  one  may  well  be  thankful  for  the  wonderful  development  of  our  educational 
system.  Fortunately,  the  voluntary  schools  of  those  days  did  noble  service,  as 
they  are  doing  now,  but  they  were  deplorably  handicapped  and  the  people  were 
sadly  wanting  in  appreciation  of  their  value.  The  average  attendance  at  efficient 
schools  of  all  kinds  in  1871,  in  Sheffield,  was  11,985.  The  average  for  the  year 
1900  was  54,681.  We  roughly  estimate  that  more  than  140, 000  children  have  passed 
through  our  board  schools  alone  since  the  time  we  started  with  ten  small  tempo¬ 
rary  schools  in  January7,  1872,  and  I  will  not  hazard  an  appraisement  of  the  good 
influence  which  must  have  been  exercised  on  the  lives  and  characters  of  those 
who  now  join  in  ruling  the  destinies  of  this  great  city.  I  say  without  affectation 
and  without  fulsome  flattery  that  Sheffield  owes  a  deep  debt  of  gratitude  to  the 
members  of  the  ten  successive  school  boards  who  have  devoted  themselves  with 
so  much  zeal  and  self-sacrifice  to  the  responsible  and  arduous  duties  which  have 
devolved  upon  them.  They  have  had  the  distinction  of  being  pioneers  in  various 
important  developments,  and  they  have  seen  some  of  the  results  of  their  enlight¬ 
ened  and  broad-minded  policy  in  the  successes  gained  by  those  for  whom  ade¬ 
quate  training  was  heretofore  unobtainable,  and  who  now  fill  important  and 
specially  useful  positions.  The  intellectual  life  of  the  community  has  been 
quickened,  the  pleasures  of  life  have  been  extended  to  greater  numbers,  wider 
views  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship  have  obtained,  and  our 
industrial  and  commercial  interests  have  been  advanced;  while  looking  at  the 
question  from  another  point  of  view  we  find  that  juvenile  crime  has  diminished 
in  a  remarkable  degree  thoughout  the  United  Kingdom,  and  as  the  schools  have 
increased  the  prisons  of  the  country  have  been  reduced.  Sheffield  has  fully  shared 
in  this  improvement.  But  I  must  not  trouble  you  with  details  further  than  to 
indicate  the  extent  of  the  work  in  which  y ou  are  directly  concerned.  The  Shef¬ 
field  school  board  has  already  accommodation  in  its  own  schools  for  41,675  chil¬ 
dren  and  preparations  have  been  made  for  further  extensions.  Its  teaching  staff 
(including  pupil  teachers  and  candidates  on  probation)  numbers  1,146,  and  the 
administrative  staff,  53,  while  there  are  also  66  caretakers,  skilled  workmen,  and 
laborers  regularly  employed,  making  altogether  1,265  persons  engaged.  The 
board  is  responsible  for  looking  after  the  attendance  of  66,957  children  on  the  rolls 
of  public  elementary  schools,  and  bigger  responsibilities  still  await  us  when  the 
corporation  act  of  1900  comes  into  operation.-— School  Board  Chronicle,  Decem¬ 
ber  8,  1900:  629. 


1  Mr.  Moss  has  held  the  position  of  clerk  to  the  board  during  the  entire  period  of  thirty  years. 


970  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

STATISTICS  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF  ENGLAND,  CURRENT  AND  RETROSPECTIVE. 


The  following  statistics  from  official  sources1  give  the  principal  school  statistics 
for  1900,  and  also  show  the  progress  of  the  system  from  year  to  year: 

Table  IY  shows  the  comparative  growth  of  board  and  “voluntary”  schools, 
the  latter  chiefly  denominational,  as  indicated  by  average  attendance  for  successive 
years  from  1870  to  1899,  inclusive.  The  relation  is  emphasized  by  the  accompany¬ 
ing  diagram.  Table  Y  shows  the  accommodation  and  enrollment  in  the  different 
classes  of  schools  for  the  years  1890-1000. 


Table  IY. — Number  of  children  in  average  attendance  in  public  elementary  day 
schools,  board  and  voluntary,  inspected  during  the  year. 


Year  ending 
Aug.  31 — 


1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 
1871 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1881 
1885 


Board. 

Volun¬ 

tary. 

Board. 

j  Year  ending 
Aug.  31 — 

Board. 

Volun¬ 

tary. 

Board. 

1,152,389 

1,231,434 

1,327,432 

Per  cent. 
0.0 

1886 . . 

1,251,307 

1,315,461 

1,378,008 

2,187, 118 
2,211,920 
2,236,961 

Per  cent. 
36.  4 

8,726 
69, 983 

0.0 
0. 7. 

1887  . 

1888  . 

37.3 

38.1 

1,412,497 

4.7 

1889 . . 

1, 424, 835 

2,257.790 

38.7 

138, 293 

1,540,468 

8.2 

1890 . 

1,457,358 

2, 260!  559 

39.2 

227, 285 

1, 609, 895 

12.4 

I  1891 . 

1,491,571 

2,258.385 

39.8 

328, 071 

1.  656, 502 

16.5 

i  1892 . 

1,570,397 

2,300, 377 

40.6 

427, 533 

1, 723, 150 

19.9 

1  1893 . 

1,688,668 

2, 411,362 

41.2 

559,078 

1.846,119 

23.2 

1  1894 . 

1, 777, 797 

2,448,037 

42.1 

669, 741 

1,925.254 

25.8 

!  1895 . 

1, 879, 218 

2,445, 812 

43.4 

■769, 252 

1,981,664 

28.0 

i  1898 . 

1,956,992 

2, 465,919 

44.2 

856, 351 

2,007,184 

29.9 

!  1897 . 

2,016,547 

2,471,996 

44.9 

945,231 

2, 069. 920 

31.3 

|  1898 . 

2,072, 911 

2, 481,254 

45.5 

1,028,904 

2, 098, 310 

32.9 

1899 . . . 

2,137,805 

2, 499, 133 

46.1 

1, 115, 832 

2, 157, 292 

34.1 

1900 . 

2,177,253 

2,488,877 

47.0 

1,187,455 

2, 183. 870 

35.2 

1  Annual  reports  of  the  committee  of  council  on  education,  1870  to  1898-99,  inclusive;  report  of 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle’s  commission,  1861;  report  of  the  royal  commission  on  the  elementary 
education  acts,  1888;  special  reports  on  educational  subjects,  education  department,  1896-97; 
reports  of  the  board  of  education,  1899-1900,  1900-1901.  The  retrospective  tables  are  derived 
chiefly  from  the  two  last-named  sources  and  the  final  report  of  the  committee  of  council  in  edu=> 
cation  (1883-99). 


Voluntary  Schools.  .  Board  Schools . 


971 


EDUCATION  IN  OB.EAT 


BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


TABLE  IV  ILLUSTRATED  BY  MEANS  OF  A  CURVE  DIAGRAM, 


972 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901, 


Table  V. — Accommodation  and  enrollment  in  the  several  classes  of  elementary 

schools .  1890-1900. 


oo^ 

-SsS'S 

Number  of  departments  in  which 
separate  head  teachers  are  em¬ 
ployed. 

|  a  s 

rS  O  C, 
o  o  ^ 

A  ^  m 

o 

a, 

fcPo 

*  •§  g 

Denomination. 

Number  of  si 
i.  e.,  instil 
under  seps 

managemer 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Mixed. 

Infants 

Total. 

Number  of  sc 

for  whom  f 

modation  i 

vided. 

!h 

a 

o 

© 

a 

a 

fc 

Actual  ave 

number  of 

ars  in  atten 

Schools  connected 

with  National  So¬ 
ciety  or  Church  of 

England _ 

•11,777 

1,740 

1,665 

9,459 

3, 653 

18,517 

2,802,525 

2, 300, 150 

1,885,802 

Wesley  an  schools - 

458 

29 

23 

426 

713 

182, 800 

156, 666 

125, 727 

Roman  Catholic 

schools _ 

1,045 

237 

226 

800 

522 

1,785 

394,0591 

316, 769 

I  255, 036 

British  and  other 

schools. . 

1,079 

155 

127 

860 

398 

1,540 

331,614 

269,421; 

220,032 

Total  voluntary 

schools. _ _ 

14, 359 

2,161 

2,041 

11,545 

4,808 

20,555 

3,710,998 

:  3,043,006 

2,  486, 597 

School-board  schools. . 

5, 758 

1,899 

1,871 

3, 755 

3,233 

10,758 

2, 833,094 

2,662,669 

2,201,049 

Grand  total,  1900- 

20, 117 

4, 060 

3,912 

15,300 

8,041 

31,313 

6,544,092 

5, 705, 675 

4, 687, 646 

Total,  1899 

20, 118 

4, 084 
4. 086 

3, 926 
3, 896 

15, 199 

8,018 

7,868 

31, 227 

6,441, 145 
6,316,866 

5,672,403 

4,644,213 

4,544,165 

Total,  1898  _ _ 

19, 937 

15, 061 

30,911 

5,601,249 

Total,  1897 _ ...  . 

19,957 

4, 137 

3,915 

15, 031 

7, 775 

30. 858 

6, 220, 158 

5,509,845 

4,489,043 

Total,  1896  . 

19,897 

4, 131 

3, 866 

14,991 

7,627 

30.615 

6, 098, 669, 

5,443,904 

4,447,179 

Total,  1895  . . . 

19, 800 

4, 131 

3, 845 

14, 910 

7,491 

30,377 

5,966,272 

!  5,325,858 

4,346,428 

Total,  1894  . . 

19, 756 

4, 152 

3,837 

14, 859 

7, 321 

30, 169 

5,873,098 

!  5,235,887! 

j  4,254,314 

Total,  1893  . 

19,682 

4, 164 

3,813 

14, 810 

7,178 

29,965 

5, 739, 501 

5,153,542 

4,120,457 

Total,  1892  . . 

19,634 

4, 185 

3,830 

14, 744 

7, 0S9 

29,858 

5,730,888 

5,037,402 

!  3,882,989 

Total,  1891  . . 

19,535 

4, 213 

3,828 

14, 610 

6,947 

29,598 

5,041,360 

4,883,329 

3,754,493 

Total,  1891) . . . 

19, 498 

4,218 

3,829 

14. 560 

6,S6l 

29,468 

5, 566, 507 

1 

4, 825, 560 

3, 732, 327 

Table  VI. — Status  of  school  hoards  in  1900. 


Classification  of  boards. 

Number. 

Compul¬ 

sory 

election. 

Volun¬ 
tary  elec¬ 
tion. 

Popula¬ 
tions  un¬ 
der  school 
boards 
(census  of 
1891). 

Loncl  on ...... . . . . . . . . 

1 

197 

2,347 

1 

140 

1,049 

4,228,635 
9, 747, 986 
6,206,372 

County  and  municipal  borough . . . . 

Unincorporated  towns  and  rural  parishes . 

57 

a  1,298 

»  Of  these,  205  ordered  because  of  the  closing  of  private  schools. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 


973 


Table  VII. — Population  of  England  and  Wales  under  school  hoards  and  school- 
attendance  committees;  also  the  population  subject  to  by-laws  until  the  elementary- 
education  act  of  1880  made  by-latvs  universal. 


Year 

end¬ 

ing 

Apr. 

1— 


Total  pop¬ 
ulation  of 
England 
and  Wales. 


Under  school 
boards. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 


Per¬ 

cent¬ 

age. 


1872  - 

1873  - 

1874  - 

1875  - 

1876  .. 

1877  - 

1878  - 

1879  ... 

1880  - 
1881 .. 
1882- 

1883  - 

1884  - 
1885- 
1886  „ 

1887  - 

1888  - 

1889  - 

1890  - 

1891 .. 
1892  - 

1893.. 

1894  - 

1895  - 

1896  .. 
1898  - 

1899.. 
1900- 


a  22, 712, 266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
22, 712,266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
22,712,266 
*  25,974,489 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
25,974,439 
« 29,002,525 
29,002,525 
29,002,525 
29,002,525 
29,002,525 
d  29,002,525 
29,002,525 


9, 711, 667 
9,994,582 
10,494,507 
11,647,998 
12,522,537 
12,829,831 
12, 994, 977 
13, 150, 219 
13, 192, 722 
13,318,492 
13,422,630 
15,980,403 
16,081,618 
16,153,855 
16,256, 554 
16, 284, 451 
16,313,997 
16,413,395 
16,481,753 
16,580,279 

16.614.432 
19, 199, 335 
19,620,379 

19.760.433 
19, 830, 388 
19, 979, 924 

d  20,067, 477 
20, 142, 993 


42.7 
44.0 

46.2 

51.2 

55. 1 

56.4 

57.2 

57.8 
58.0 

58.6 
59.0 

61.5 

61.9 
62.1 

62.5 

62.7 

62.8 

63.1 
63.4 

63.8 

63.9 

66.1 

67.6 
68.1 

68.3 
68.8 

69.1 

69.2 


Under  by-laws 
of  school  boards. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Per¬ 

cent¬ 

age. 

8,142,639 
8, 926, 349 
9, 442,  744 
9, 856. 041 
10,467,615 
11,221,363 
11,914,946 
12,395,550 
12, 606, 453 
13,318,492 

35.4 

39.3 

41.5 

43.3 
46.0 

49.4 
57.0 

54. 5 

55.5 

58.6 

. . 

. 

Under  school- 
attendance  com¬ 
mittees. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 


Per¬ 

cent¬ 

age. 


9,717,289 
9,562,047 
9,519,544 
9,393, 744 
9,289,636 
9.994,036 
9;  892, 821 


42.7 

42.1 

41.9 

41.3 

40.9 

38.4 
38.0 


9,820,584 
9, 717,885 
9,689,988 
9,660,442 
9,561,044 
9, 492, 686 
9,394,160 


37.8 

37.4 
37.2 

37.1 

36.8 

36.5 

36.1 


9, 360, 007  36. 0 

9, 803, 190  33.  8 

9,382.146  32.3 


9,242,092 
9,172, 137 
9,022,601 
8, 935, 048 
•  8, 859, 532 


21.8 

31.6 

31.2 

30.8 

30.8 


Under  by-laws 
of  school-attend¬ 
ance  commit¬ 
tees. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 


Per¬ 

cent¬ 

age. 


1, 702, 639 
3,083, 609 
3, 665, 705 
9,393, 744 


7.4 

13.5 

16.1 

41.3 


Percent¬ 
age  of 
popula¬ 
tion  un¬ 
der  com¬ 
pulsory 
by-laws. 


35.4 

39.3 

41.5 

43.3 

46.0 

49.4 

59.5 

68.1 

71.6 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100. 0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
1G0.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100. 0 
100. 0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.  0 
100.  0 
100.0 


a  Census  of  1871. 

*  Census  of  1881. 

0  Census  of  1891.  This  census  is  the  latest  that  has  been  taken.  It  is  estimated  that  the  census 
for  1901  will  show  a  much  larger  population  under  school  boards  than  that  shown  for  1900. 

dThis  population  is  under  the  j urisdiction  of  2,527  school  boards,  viz,  the  London  school  board, 
193  municipal  borough  boards,  and  2,333  parish  boards. 

e  This  population  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  788  school-attendance  committees,  viz,  117  in 
municipal  boroughs,  92  in  urban  districts,  and  579  in  unions. 


974 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Tlie  board  of  education  has  issued  summaries  of  the  “  standards  of  exemption” 
in  England  and  Wales,  the  last  issue  being  for  1900.  The  following  are  the  essen¬ 
tial  facts: 

Table  VIII. — The  standards  ( grades )  of  exemption. 


I.  Local  authorities  fixing  for  half  time: 

Standard  II _ _ ... _ _ 

Standard  III _  _ _ 

Standard  IV _ _ _ _ 

Standard  V _ _ 

II.  For  full  time: 

Standard  IY. _ _ _ 

Standard  V_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Standard  VI _  - _ _ _ - 

Standard  VII _ _ 

The  advance  since  1897  is  indicated  by  the  following: 


121 

1,180 

1,462 

177 

886 

2,003 

883 

72 


1897. 

1900. 

Local  authorities  fixing  for  full  time: 

Standard  IV . . . . . 

1.209 

886 

Standard  V . . . 

1,848 

140 

3,008 

383 

Standard  VI . . . . . . 

Standard  VII- . . . . . - . . 

4 

The  latest  measures  affecting  school  attendance  are  explained  as  follows  in  the 
Report  of  .the  Board  of  Education  for  1900-1901. 

The  elementary-education  (school  attendance)  act,  1899,  was  followed  last  year 
by  the  elementary-education  act,  1900,  which  introduced  further  changes  into 
the  law  of  school  attendance.  It  enabled  school  authorities  toextend  their  by-laws 
so  as  to  include  children  up  to  the  age  of  14,  raised  the  penalties  that  could  be 
inflicted  on  parents  from  5s.  to  20s.,  and  increased  the  number  of  attendances 
required  for  exemption  by  the  elementary-education  act,  1876,  from  250  to  350. 
The  law  of  school  attendance  under  the  elementary-education  acts,  as  it  now 
stands,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  If  the  by-laws  contain  a  special  provision  to  this  effect,  children  may  be 
employed  in  agriculture  at  the  age  of  11,  provided  that  they  attend  school  250 
times  a  year  up  to  the  age  of  13. 

(2)  With  this  exception,  no  child  subject  to  the  by-lawTs  can  obtain  either  par¬ 
tial  or  total  exemption  under  the  age  of  12. 

(3)  A  child  between  12  and  13,  or  (if  the  by-laws  are  extended)  between  12  and 
14,  can  only  obtain  total  or  partial  exemption  on  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the 
by-laws. 

(4)  In  districts  where  the  by-laws  are  still  restricted  to  children  of  13  years  of 
age  a  child  between  13  and  14  can  obtain  total  exemption  either  on  passing  the 
fourth  standard,  or  on  making  350  previous  attendances  after  5  years  of  age  in  not 
more  than  two  schools  during  each  year  for  five  years. 

(5)  A  child  between  12  and  14  may  claim  partial  exemption  on  making  300  pre¬ 
vious  attendances,  butin  the  view  of  the  board  this  exemption  can  only  be  claimed 
in  cases  where  the  by-laws  themselves  contain  a  provision  for  partial  exemption. 

Since  the  passing  of  the  act  school  authorities  have  been  actively  engaged  in 
revising  their  existing  by-laws,  and  some  1,300  new  sets  of  by-laws  have  been 
either  finally  or  provisionally  approved  by  the  board.  In  all  these  cases  the  board 
has  secured  the  adoption  of  at  least  the  fifth  standard  for  total  exemption,  and 
with  a  very  few  exceptions  of  at  least  the  fourth  standard  for  partial  exemption. 
The  local  authorities  have,  as  a  rule,  availed  themselves  of  the  power  to  extend  the 
age  limit  to  14,  only  some  150  having  up  to  the  present  time  declined  to  do  so. 
The  “  agricultural  ”  by-law  has  been  adopted  in  about  500  cases,  principally,  of 
course,  in  rural  districts.  The  process  of  by-law  revision  is  still  being  actively  pro¬ 
ceeded  with,  and  it  is  hoped  that  within  another  year  the  by-laws  throughout  the 
country  may  become  adapted  to  recent  legislation. 


EDUCATION  IN  GEE  AT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  975 

Table  IX. —Expenditure  on  public  elementary  education  ( England  and  Wales), 
187 1-1895  (current  and  capital). 


(a) 

(5) 

<*> 

m 

(e) 

(/) 

(9) 

W 

<*) 

XJ1  rtf 
©  U 
•43  C3 

G 

t  o'rt  8? 

u 

W  ' 

ig 

.g£*  . 

a 

G  S  G  S3 

Year. 

aid  from  ra 
(local  taxes  bo 
schools  only). 

■jluntary  subsc 
tions  and  inc< 
from  endowme 

ital  of  columns 
and  (b). 

ses  of  scholars 
alementary  sch 
and  students 
training  college 

>tal  of  columns 

(6),  and  (d). 

:hool  board  1c 

for  building  1 

poses. a 

stimated  subsc 

tions  for  volant 

school  building! 

og 

22  ft.®  ft 
rd  CD  0  ® 
ccr3 

<D  fl 

«.2  at 

0  ^ 

tjl  III 

CL 

> 

H 

£ 

E-i 

$  ^ 

02 

1871 _ 

£71,184 

£509,262 

£580,446 

£546, 421 

£1, 126, 867 

£600 

£441,201 

£1,568, 668 

£927, 524 

1872--.- 

162, 491 

581, 014 

7  43, 505 

607, 692 

1,351,197 

|  63.487 

441. 201 

1,855, 885 

1, 117. 878 

1873 _ 

251,906 

642,650 

894,556 

699,597 

1,594, 153 

1  861,458 

441,201 

2, 896, 812 

1,248. 851 

1874 . 1 

373, 859 

709, 712 

1,083,571 

826, 244 

1,909, 815 

1.539,111 

441,201 

3, 890, 127 

1,341,-089 

1875 _ 

588, 845 

799, 387 

1,388,232 

948, 120 

2.336,352 

1.435,989 

441.201 

4, 213, 542 

1,496,471 

1878 . 

868,418 

878, 757 

1.747,175 

1, 049, 892 

2. 797. 067 

1,462,956 

441,201 

4, 701, 224 

1,642,283 

1877 _ 

1,108,316 

920,564 

2,028, 880 

1,154,909 

3;  183;  789 

1, 821, 330 

441,201 

5,446,320 

1,897,350 

1878 _ 

1,328,275 

918, 390 

2,246,685 

1,292,615 

3, 539, 280 

1,500, 163 

441,201 

5, 480, 644 

2, 191,017 

1879 

1,486,250 

1.579,752 

913, 550 
805; 612 

2, 399, 800 
2,485,364 

\ ,  392, 289 

3, 792, 089 
3, 938, 156 

1 , 083, 636 

441 , 201 

5,316.926 

2, 348, 704 

1880 . 

•1,452,  792 

1,090,258 

441,201 

5,469,615 

'2, 529, 572 

1881 . 

1,772,263 

897, 279 

2, 669,542 

1,530,829 

4,200,471 

982,154 

441, 201 

5, 623, 826 

2, 636,936 

1882 _ 

1,837,566 

893, 79o 

2,731,362 

1,607,888 

4, 339, 250 

975, 245 

441,201 

5,755,696 

2,824,462 

1883 _ 

1,990, 162 

891,346 

2,881,508 

1,684,087 

4, 565, 595 

850, 051 

441, 201 

5, 856, 847 

2, 866, 260 

1884 _ 

2,207,806 

913, 525 

8,121,331 

1,759,289 

4, 880, 620 

1,171,288 

441, 201 

6,493, 109 

<3, 135, 843 

1885 

2,354,006 

2,545,492 

933, 959 
917,080 

3,287,965 

3,462,572 

1,818,579 

1,840,382 

5, 108, 544 

1,198,364 

691,601 

441, 201 

6,  746, 109 
6,435,756 

*3,285.227 

,3,476,633 

1886. . 

5, 302, 954 

441,201 

1887 _ 

2,641,554 

923, 985 

3,565,539 

1,862,042 

5,427,581 

430, 462 

441,201 

6,299,244 

(3,511,654 

1888 _ 

2,631,433 

932,403 

3, 563, 836 

1.890,537 

5. 454, 373 

401, 114 

441,201 

6, 296, 688 

3, 606, 868 

1889 _ 

2,666,264 

941, 748 

3,608,012 

1,932,607 

5,540,619 

574. 828 

441,201 

6,556,648 

3,684, 192 

1890 _ 

2, 968, 096 

945, 114 

3,913,210 

1, 969, 032 

5, 882, 242 

377, 397 

441,201 

6, 700, 840 

3,  741 , 351 

1891 _ 

3,331,473 

982, 113 

4,293,586 

2, 000, 676 

6,294,262 

574,064 

441,201 

7,309,527 

4,185,142 

1892 _ 

3, 462, 356 

980,342 

4,442,698 

1,320,405 

5, 763, 103 

949,076 

411,201 

7,153,380 

6, 092, 366 

1893 _ 

3, 619,167 

960, 012 

4, 609, 179 

393,261 

5, 002, 440 

914,539 

411,201 

6,358,180 

6, 495, 841 

1894 _ 

3,  732, 3-12 

969, 553 

4, 721,895 
4,988,783 

360, 530 

.  5,082,425 

1,557,885 

441,201 

7,081,511 

6, 650, 969 

1895 

3, 987,  790 
5, 557, 537 

1, 000, 893 

342, 900 

5,331,683 

1,869,362 

441,203 

7,642,246 

6,963,279 

8,973,871 

1900  .. 

Total. 

49,587,066 

21, 892, 146 

71, 459, 212 

1 

32, 283, 715j 

103,742,927 

24,376,418 

11,030,027 

139,149, 372 

79, 895, 762 

a  The  law  of  1870  authorized  school  hoards  to  borrow  money  on  the  security  of  local  taxes 
(rates)  for  the  building  of  schoolhouses.  Up  to  the  1st  of  April,  1901,  the  education  department 
had  sanctioned  loans  to  the  amount  of  £41,624,484  ($208,122,320).  The  new  accommodation  thus 
furnished  is  sufficient  for  2,788,120  children.  The  estimated  cost  per  child  is  thus  about  £14  18s. 
7d.  ($73).  The  department  has  also  sanctioned  loans  to  the  amount  of  £133,998  to  10  school  boards 
for  providing  accommodation  for  729  blind  and  deaf  children,  and  also  £28,818  18s.  to  5  school 
boards  for  providing  accommodation  for  390  defective  children. 


PROPORTION  OF  TOTAL  EXPENDITURE  WHICH  FELL  (d)  ON  THE  CENTRAL  FUNDS  OF  THE 
STATE,  (6)  ON  OTHER  SOURCES  OF  REVENUE. 


Year. 

State. 

Other 
sources  of 
income. 

Year. 

State. 

Other 
sources  of 
income. 

Year. 

State. 

Other 
sources  of 
income. 

1871  . 

37.16 

62.84 

1886 

35.08 

64.92 

1893 

50.54 

49.46 

1876 . 

25. 89 

74.11 

1891 . 

36. 4-1 

63. 59 

1894 . 

48.44 

51. 56 

1881 . 

31. 93 

68.07 

1892 _ 

48.00 

54.00 

1895. . 

47.68 

52.32 

976 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


Table  X. — Average  expenditure  ( on  maintenance  only )  per  scholar  in  average 

attendance. 


Year  ending  August  31. 


1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 

1881. 

1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 


Board 

schools. 

Voluntary  j 
schools. 

Year  ending  August  31. 

Board 

schools. 

Voluntary 

schools. 

£. 

s. 

d. 

£. 

s. 

d. 

£. 

s. 

d. 

£. 

s.  d. 

1 

5 

5 

1886  . 

2 

4 

Ilf 

1 

16  44 

1 

5 

6f 

1887  . 

2 

4 

74 

1 

16  44 

1 

8 

u 

1 

5 

1888  . 

2 

4 

l4 

74 

1 

16  4 

1 

14 

54 

1 

9 

111 

1869  . 

2 

4 

64 

1 

16  44 

1 

15 

44 

1 

10 

104 

1890  . . 

2 

5 

114 

1 

16  114 

1 

16 

11 

1 

11 

10J 

1891 . . 

2 

7 

If 

1 

17  8 

2 

1 

4* 

1 

13 

51 

1892  . . . . 

2 

8 

4f 

1 

17  94 

2 

1 

44 

1 

13 

9 

1893  . . 

2 

8 

14 

1 

17  6f 

2 

1 

9f 

1 

14 

0 

1894  . . 

2 

8 

9f 

1 

18  If 

2 

2 

Of 

1 

14 

6 

1895  . 

2 

10 

lf 

1 

18  Hi 

2 

1 

HI 

1 

14 

7f 

1896  . 

2 

11 

Ilf 

1 

19  6f 

2 

1 

6 

1 

14 

114 

1897  . 

2 

13 

24 

2 

0  6 

2 

1 

64 

1 

14 

6f 

1898  . . . . 

2 

13 

94 

2 

2  4f 

9 

1 

34 

1 

14 

104 

1899  . . . . 

2 

15 

7 

2 

5  li 

2 

1 

84 

1 

15 

2 

1900  . 

2 

17 

8 

2 

6  5 

2 

5 

4 

1 

15 

94 

Table  XI. — Comparative  view  of  income  for  maintenance  only ,  day  and  evening 

schools,  1894-1900. 


Classification  of  sources. 

Total  local  sources. 

Total  Government 
grants. 

1894. 

1900. 

1894. 

1900. 

National  Society,  or  Church  01  England. . 

W  esleyan . _  _ . 

£958, 485 
59, 488 
96, 994 
153, 891 
1,826,071 

£937,609 
53, 897 
93, 835 
169,  710 
3,078,954 

£2,613,956 
191, 647 
309, 903 
355, 603 
2,612, 140 

£3,407,479 
233, 450 
462, 492 
427, 701 
3, 474, 799 

Roman  Catholic _ _ _ _ _ _ 

British  and  other  schools . 

Board  schools . . . . . 

Total  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

3, 094, 929 

4,334,009 

6,083,249 

8,002, 978 

Table  XII. — The  central  exchequer  grants. — The  total  of  the  exchequer  grant 
for  the  year  ended  December  31, 1900,  was  £8,978,871  11s.  9d.  The  following  table 
shows  how  this  amount  was  allocated  and  a  contrast  with  last  year: 


For  year  ended 
December  31, 
1900. 

Compared  with  year  ended  De¬ 
cember  31,  18S9. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

1.  Annual  grants  for  day  and  evening 
scholars: 

Dav  . 

£  s.  d. 

5,095,929  12  9 
195,641  14  2 
2,341,812  16  4 
19,840  4  0 

205,865  14  0 
195, 344  16  11 
47,711  1  11 

J  294,208  15  1 

749  11  10 

£  s.  d. 
360,956  4  8 
14, 303  10  10 
31.047  17  2 
745  18  9 

38,581  7  4 
16,867  3  6 
8,820  3  4 

548  17  4 

79  18  1 

£  s.  d. 

Evening _ _ 

2.  Fee  grants  for  day  scholars . . 

3.  Grants  for  blind  and  deaf  children . . 

4.  Grants  to  school  boards  under  act  33 

and  34  Viet.,  c.  75,  s.  97 . 

5.  Annual  grants  to  training  colleges . 

6.  Pensions  and  gratuities  to  teachers . 

7.  Administration:  £  s.  d. 

Office  in  London .  82,441  15  2 

Inspection  . . .  210, 096  13  2 

Contingencies  of  office.  1,688  6  9 

8.  Organization  of  districts,  etc.,  under 

act  33  and  34  Viet.,  c.  75 . 

9.  Special  inquiries . - . . . 

39  4  0 
221,499  10  1 

79  8  11 

10.  Aid  grant . . 

576,760  4  9 

11.  Refund  of  cost  of  training  recovered 
from  teachers . . . 

Total . . . 

8,973,871  11  9 

471,951  1  0  221,618  3  0 

| 

EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 


977 


Table  XIII. — Number  of  teachers  in  public  elementary  day  schools. 


Certificated  teachers: 
Men— 

Trained . 

Untrained . 


Total 


W  omen — 

Trained  ... 
Untrained. 


Total 


Assistant  teachers: 

Men . 

W  omen . 

Pupil  teachers  (including  pro¬ 
bationers)  :  a 

Boys . 

Girls . . . 

Additional  teachers,  -women... 


Total  men . 

Total  women  b 


Total . 

Per  cent  of  men. 


Year  ending  Aug.  31 — 


1870. 


6, 395 


6,072 


487 


6, 884 
8,228 


13,266 

15,775 

29,041 


45. 68 


1875. 


7,548 

2,284 


9,832 


7,324 
3, 787 

11,111 


984 

1,729 


10, 842 
18,403 


21,656 

31,243 

52,899 


41 


1880. 


9,546 
3, 975 


13,521 


9,347 

8,554 

17, 901 


1885. 


11,287 

5,026 


16.313 


11,371 

13,022 

24,393 


2,681  5,104 

4,971  11,514 


10. 822 
21,306 
2,352 


27,024 

46,530 

73,554 


36.74 


7,625 
20, 113 
4,292 


29, 042 
60,312 

89,354 


32.5 


1890. 


12, 770 
5, 934 


18, 704 


12,873 

14,962 


27,835 


5,254 

18,530 


7, 695 
23,467 
5,210 


31,653 

73,042 


104, 695 


30.23 


1895. 


15,023 

6,200 


21,223 


15,616 
16, 102 


31, 718 


5,047 

22,914 


7,246 
28. 757 
11 ; 678 


S3, 516 
93, 067 


128,583 


26.46 


1899. 


17,436 
6!  817 


24,253 


18,584 

19,248 


37,832 


4,725 

25,508 


6,643 
28, 706 
16, 717 


35.621 
106, 763 


142,384 


25.01 


1900. 


17,651 

6,908 


24,557 


19,317 
20, 164 


39,481 


5,121 
27, 315 


6,035 
24, 956 
17, 512 


35, 713 
109,266 


144,979 


24.7 


a  Year  ending  Dec.  31  for  years  1870, 1875,  and  1880. 

b  Includingjpupil  teachers  and  probationers,  the  latter  numbering  2,658  in  1899  are  not  included 
in  number  of  teachers  given  in  Tables  I  and  XIV. 


Table  XIV. — Proportion  of  each  class  of  teachers  to  the  total  number. 


Year. 

Certifi¬ 

cated 

teachers. 

Assistant 

Pupil 

teachers, 

including 

proba¬ 

tioners. 

Total.® 

Percents 

ige  of  total  teach¬ 
ers.8' 

teachers. 

Certifi¬ 

cated. 

Assist¬ 

ant. 

Pupil. 

1870 . 

12,467 

20.940 
31,442 
40, 706 
46,539 

52.941 
62, 085 
64, 058 

1  262 

14,612 
29,245 
32, 128 

28,341 
52,898 
71,202 
85, 062 

44.0 

4.4 

51.6 

1875 . 

2, 713 
7,652 
16,618 
21,784 
27, 961 
30,233 
32,436 

39.6 

5.1 

55. 3 

1880 . 

44.1 

10.8 

45.1 

1885 . 

27, 738 

47.9 

19.5 

32.6 

1890 . 

31,162 

99,485 

115.905 

46.8 

21.9 

31.3 

1895 . 

34,003 

46.1 

24.3 

29.6 

1899 . 

33,349 
30, 991 

CO  CO 

CO 

'jcV 

rH  rH 

49.4 

24.1 

26.5 

1900 . 

52.5 

31.3 

16.2 

aNot  including  additional  women  teachers  first  employed  in  1880. 


Table  XV. — Average  annual  salaries  of  certificated  teachers. 


Masters. 

Mistresses. 

Year. 

Average  salary  of — 

Percentage  in 
receipt  of 
salaries  over 
£300. 

Average  salary  of— 

Percentage  in 
receipt  of 
salaries  over 
£200. 

Princi¬ 

pal 

teach¬ 

ers. 

Assist¬ 

ant 

teach¬ 

ers. 

All 

teach¬ 

ers. 

Princi¬ 

pal. 

All 

teach¬ 

ers. 

Princi¬ 

pal 

teach¬ 

ers. 

Assist¬ 

ant 

teach¬ 

ers. 

All 

teach¬ 

ers. 

Princi¬ 

pal. 

All 

teach¬ 

ers. 

1870  . 

£94 

£57 

1875  . . 

109 

65 

1880 

121 

1.05 

73 

0.51 

1885  . 

£132 

£90 

121 

2.  ii 

1. 56 

£79 

£63 

74 

2.05 

1.34 

1890  . 

134 

90 

120 

2. 95 

2.01 

83 

66 

76 

2.75 

1.68 

1895  . 

138 

98 

122 

3.21 

1.97 

88 

73 

81 

3.51 

1.93 

1899  . 

144 

102 

125 

3. 54 

1.97 

94 

76 

84 

3.  95 

1.85 

1900 

145.7 

3.6 

1.9 

95.7 

4.1 

1.9 

ED  1901- 


■62 


978 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1903-1901. 

Table  XYI. — Students  in  residence  and  in  day  training  colleges. 


Year. 

College. 

Men. 

Women. 

Total. 

1S70-71  . . . 

Residential . 

1,112 

1,203 

2,315 

1900-1801  . 

. do . „ . - 

1,488 

630 

2,597 

893 

b  4, 253 
1,355 

Total  . . . . . 

Day . 

2, 118 

3,490 

5, 608 

Tnorc.a.se  in  29  yea.rs  _  _  _  _ 

106 

2,287 

3,293 

aDay  training  colleges  were  first  opened  in  1880. 
b  Includes  168  day  students. 


Table  XYII. — Comparison  of  the  last  ten  years  with  1S70  and  1876. 


Year  ending  Aug.  31 — 


1870 

(Revised 

Code). 

1876. 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 

Schools  (institutions)  inspected  by 

Her  Majesty’s  inspectors  . . . 

8,281 

14,273 

19,419 

19,508 

19,515 

Voluntary  schools. . 

8,281 

12,677 

14, 743 

14, 761 

14, 684 

1, 596 

4,676 

4, 747 

4,831 

Departments  under  separate  head 

teachers  in  those  schools . 

12,061 

20, 782 

29,339 

29,533 

29, 672 

Scholars  for  whom  accommodation  is 

provided . . . . 

1, 878, 584 

3,426,318 

5,539,285 

5,628,201 

5,692,975 

Percentage  to  estimated  popula¬ 

tion  . . . 

8.50 

14. 13 

18.84 

19.35 

19.36 

Scholars  oii  the  school  registers . . 

1,693,059 

2,943, 774 

4, 804, 149 

4, 824, 683 

5,006, 979 

Percentage  to  estimated  popula¬ 

tion  _ . . 

7.66 

12.08 

16.34 

16.59 

17.03 

Scholars  in  actual  average  attend¬ 

ance®.  . . . . . 

1,152,389 

1,984,573 

3,717, 917 

3, 749,956 

3, 870, 774 

Percentage  to  estimated  popula¬ 

tion  . 

5.21 

8.10 

12.64 

12. 89 

13. 16 

Percentage  to  scholars  on  the 

school  registers _ _ _ _ 

68. 06 

67. 42 

77.39 

77.72 

77.31 

Average  attendance  for  payment  in 

infant  schools  and  classes . 

1,107,805 

1,121,990 

1, 180, 782 

Average  attendance  for  payment  in 

schools  for  older  scholars. . . 

2,632, 731 

2, 650, 960 

2, 712, 969 

Average  attendance  of  scholars  who 

earned  grants  upon  examination  in 

class  subjects . .  . . 

2, 492,918 

2, 521, 974 

2, 595, 127 

Scholars  qualified  for  grant  in  specific 

subjects . . . . . . 

78, 611 

90, 087 

90,070 

Number  of  departments  in  which  sing¬ 

ing  was  taught: 

By  ear . . . 

16, 823 

13,054 

11,833 

10,623 

By  notes . . 

3, 815 

16,227 

17, 645 

18, 996 

Number  of  schools  in  which  were 

taught — 

Military  drill . 

1,056 

1,414 

1,385 

1,352 

Manual  instruction . 

145 

285 

Science . . . 

420 

513 

Physical  exercises . 

1,441 

1,703 

Half-time  scholars . 

201,284 

175, 437 

173, 040 

172, 363 

School  libraries . 

4,401 

4. 967 

5,560 

Savings  banks . . . . 

2,498 

2, 629 

6,383 

Certificated  and  provisionally  certifi¬ 

cated  teachers15  . . . . 

12,467 

23,053 

46, 539 

47,823 

48,772 

Assistant  teachers . . . 

1,262 

3,173 

21,784 

23, 508 

23,558 

Additional  teachers . . 

543 

5, 210 

5, 681 

6, 951 

Pupil  teachers . . 

14, 304 

32, 231 

29, 610 

28, 131 

26,961 

“Annual  grant  ” . 

£562,611 

£1,316,864 

£3,326,177 

£3, 434, 759 

£3,561,300 

In  Table  II  will  be  found  separately  tbe  average  attendance  in  board  and  voluntary  schools. 
Men  teachers  and  women  teachers  are  given  separately  in  Table  XIII. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  979 
Table  XVXL — Comparison  of  the  last  ten  years  with  1870  and  1876 — Continued. 


Year  ending  August  31— 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


Schools  (institutions)  inspected  by  Her 

Majesty’s  inspectors . - _ 

Voluntary  schools . 

Board  schools _ _ _ _ 

Departments  under  separate  head 

teachers  in  those  schools.- . . 

Scholars  for  whom  accommodation  is 

provided . . 

Percentage  to  estimated  population . 

Scholars  on  the  school  registers _ 

Percentage  to  estimated  population . 
Scholars  in  actual  average  attendance  a . 
Percentage  toestimated  population. 
Percentage  to  scholars  on  the  school 

registers . . . . . 

Average  attendance  for  payment  in  in¬ 
fant  schools  and  classes . . 

Average  attendance  for  payment  in 

schools  for  older  scholars . 

Average  attendance  of  scholars  who 
earned  grants  upon  examination  in 

class  subjects . . 

Scholars  qualified  for  grant  in  specific 

subjects . 

Number  of  departments  in  which  sing¬ 
ing  was  taught: 

By  ear. . 

By  notes _ _ _ 

Number  of  schools  in  which  were 
taught— 

Military  drill . . . . . . 

Manual  instruction . . 

Science . . . 

Physical  exercises . . . 

Half-time  scholars . 

School  libraries . . . . 

Savings  banks _ _ 

Certificated  and  provisionally  certifi¬ 
cated  teachers  b. . 

Assistant  teachers . . 

Additional  teachers . . 

Pupil  teachers . . . . . 

“Annual  grant” . 


19,577 

14,673 

4,904 

29,804 

5, 762. 617 
19.38 
5,126,373 
17.24 
4,100,030 
13.79 

79.98 

1,276,302 

2,848,549 

2,752,261 

100,120 


9, 655 
20,106 


1,346 

430 

557 

1,938 

184,018 

5,832 

8,548 

49,340 

25,123 

8,534 

27,288 

£3,783,237 


19, 709 
14,628 
5,081 

30,033 

5,832,944 
19.44 
5, 198,741 

17.29 
4,225,834 

14.06 

81.29 
1,318,478 
2,926,629 


2,884,196 

113,384 


8,690 
21, 300 


1,343 

677 

573 

2,259 

140,831 

6,225 

8,668 

50,689 
26,067 
10, 196 
28, 739 
£3,926, 641 


19, 739 
14,  479 
5,260 

30,237 

5,937,288 
19. 53 
5,289,469 
17.43 
4,325,030 
14.23 

81.61 

1,333, 6S0 

3,008,798 

2,980,948 

128,012 

7,892 

22,302 


1,572 
'  949 
632 
3,185 
126,896 
6,381 
8,410 

52,941 
27,961 
11, 678 
31,476 
£4,081,281 


19,848 

14,416 

5,432 

30,521 

6,0T?,3T* 

5,422,989 

17.60 

4,422,911 

14.35 

81.55 

1,370,392 

3, 070,550 


3, 052, 692 
138,814 


7,204 

23,280 


1,903 
1,178 
783 
5,333 
119, 747 
6,550 
8,065 

56, 712 
25,393 
12,838 
33,529 
£4,217,506 


Year  ending  August  31- 


Schools  (institutions)  inspected  by  Her 

Majesty’s  inspectors . . 

Voluntary  schools . 

Board  schools . . . . . . . 

Departments  under  separate  head 

teachers  in  those  schools _ 

Scholars  for  whom  accommodation  is 

provided _ _ _ 

Percentage  to  estimated  population. 

Scholars  on  the  school  registers _ 

Percentage  to  estimated  population . 
Scholars  in  actual  average  attendance 1 . 
Percentage  toestimated  population. 
Percentage  to  scholars  on  the  school 

registers . . . . 

Average  attendance  for  payment  in  in¬ 
fant  schools  and  classes _ 

Average  attendance  for  payment  in 

schools  for  older  scholars _ 

Average  attendance  of  scholars  who 
earned  grants  upon  examination  in 

class  subjects. . . . 

Scholars  qualified  for  grant  in  specific 

subjects - - - - 

Number  of  departments  in  which  sing¬ 
ing  was  taught: 

By  ear . . . . 

By  notes . . 


1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

19,958 

14.434 

5,524 

19,937 

14,382 

5,555 

20,064 
14, 432 
5,632 

20,100 
14,409 
5, 691 

30,847 

30,911 

31,173 

31,234 

6,215,199 
20.01 
5,507,039 
17. 73 
4,488,543 
14.45 

6,316,866 
20.11 
5,576,868 
17.76 
4,554, 165 
14.50 

6,417,514 
20.21 
5,654,092 
17.81 
4,636,938 
14. 60 

6,509.611 
20.28 
5,686,114 
17. 71 
4, 666, 130 
14.53 

81.50 

81.66 

82.01 

82.06 

1,391,091 

1,428,321 

1,476,309 

1,478,211 

3,117,469 

3,148,851 

3,195, 671 

3,230,238 

3,107,051 

3,143,618 

3,192,794 

3,227,985 

156,314 

175,689 

346,301 

330,815 

6,536 

24,284 

5, 899 
24,991 

5,250 
25,  901 

4,577 
26, 638 

a  In  Table  II  will  be  found  separately  the  average  attendance  in  board  and  voluntary  schools. 
b  Men  teachers  and  women  teachers  are  given  separately  in  Table  XIII. 


980  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Table  XVII.— Comparison  of  the  last  ten  years  with  1870  and  1S76— Continued. 


Year  ending  August  31— 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Number  of  schools  in  which  were 
taught— 

Military  drill . 

Manual  instruction . . 

Science . . 

Physical  exercises . 

Half-time  scholars . . . . 

School  libraries . 

Savings  banks . . . . 

Certificated  and  provisionally  certifi¬ 
cated  teachers  a. . . . . 

Assistant  teachers . . .  .  - 

Additional  teachers  . . . . 

Pupil  teachers . 

“Annual  grant” . - 

2,418 

1,274 

901 

7,845 

110,654 

7,066 

7,489 

58, 814 
25, 208 
14, 155 
32, 598 
£4,339, 739 

2,555 

1,335 

951 

8,569 

103,678 

7,398 

7,383 

59,874 
26, 736 
15. 136 
31,038 
£4,554,932 

2,659 

1,587 

1,075 

9,115 

95,621 

7,875 

7,337 

62, 085 
30,233 
18, 717 
30, 783 
b£4, 835,055 

2,838 

1,708 

1,229 

9,675 

89,036 

8,114 

7,133 

64,038 
32,436 
17,512 
29, 393 
£4, 911,269 

a  Men  teachers  and  women  teachers  are  given  separately  in  Table  XIII. 

b  Annual  grant  only.  The  total  grant  from  the  public  treasury,  including  fee  grant  and 
special  grants,  amounted  to  £12,324,308. 


Table  XVIII. — Comparative  statistics  of  education  in  Scotland. 


Years. 

1872.  1880. 

I 

1890. 

1900. 

Estimated  population . 

Number  of  schools . 

Departments: 

Day . 

3,395,802 

3,705,314 

4,109,275 

4,324, 944 

1, 979 

2,133 

3, 064 

3, 377 

3,076 

3,405 

3,135 

3,592 

31 

952 

893,842 

9,292 

5,064 

753,287 
3, 271 
82, 190 

626, 089 
2,940 
43,962 

10.845 

2,418 

3,926 

1,250 

110 

a  $7, 436, 752 

Higher  grade _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Evening  continuation . . 

Accommodation : 

Day  schools _ _ _ _ 

68 

281,688 

277 

602,054 

191 

714,865 

Higher  grade  . . . 

Evening  continuation  schools  (not  connected 
with  day  schools) _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1, 361 

534,428 

420 

664, 466 

Number  on  the  registers: 

Day  schools. . 

Higher  grade  schools . 

Evening  continuation  schools . 

Average  attendance: 

Day  scholars . . . 

213,549 

20,279 

401,618 

16,524 

512, 690 

Higher  grade  scholars . . . . . 

Evening  continuation  scholars . 

Number  of  teachers: 

Certificated  .  . . . . . . 

3,653 

2,566 

14,297 

5,330 
444 
4, 582 
892 

11,636 

7,745 

1,320 

3,883 

861 

Assistant . . . . . . . 

Pupil . . . 

3.642 

729 

Queen’s  scholars  in  training  colleges . 

Queen’s  students _ _ _ _ 

Current  expenditures . . . 

$4,122,879 

sFor  day  schools  only. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND. 

A. — England. 

Secondary,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed,  middle-class  education  in  England  is 
unorganized,  and  there  are  no  complete  statistics  of  schools  of  this  grade.  The 
report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Secondary  Education  (1894)  followed  provi¬ 
sionally  the  classification  of  schools  adopted  by  the  previous  commission  of  1864. 
The  latter  body  “distinguished  three  grades  of  secondary  schools,  according  to  the 
age  up  to  which  the  pupils  normally  remain  at  school.  For  the  first  grade  this 
age  is  18  or  19;  for  the  second  grade,  16  or  17;  for  the  third  grade,  14  or  15.”  The 


EDUCATION  IN  OS  EAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


981 


schools  of  each  grade  were  further  distinguished  by  their  mode  of  support  as 
endowed,  proprietary,  and  private. 

During  the  century  just  closed  the  Government  made  repeated  efforts  to  deal 
with  the  endowed  schools.  In  1853  a  lav/  was  passed  which  constituted  a  charity 
commission  to  inquire  into  the  condition  and  management  of  charities  and  to  frame 
schemes  for  their  proper  administration.  Educational  endowments  were  thus 
brought  under  sux^er vision,  and  as  a  final  result  the  endowed  schools5  law  wras 
passed  in  1865,  under  which  the  administration  of  many  educational  endowments 
has  been  reorganized. 

Several  royal  commissions  were  also  appointed  during  the  last  half  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  to  investigate  specified  classes  of  secondary  schools.  The  first  of 
these  was  Lord  Clarendon’s  commission,  1861,  to  inquire  into  the  nine  leading 
public  schools;  that  is,  as  defined  by  Mr.  Balfour,  “schools  of  the  order  which, 
receiving  the  sons  of  the  higher  and  wealthier  classes  of  the  country,  have  sent  the 
largest  proportion  of  pupils  to  the  universities  and  adhered  more  exclusively  to 
a  classical  education.  Seven  of  the  schools — Eton,  Winchester,  Westminster, 
Charterhouse,  Harrow,  Rugby,  and  Shrewsbury — were  boarding  schools.  The 
youngest  of  them,  Charterhouse,  had  been  in  existence  since  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century;  the  oldest,  Winchester,  since  1387.  In  1861  they  were 
educating  2,696  boys.”  Mr.  Balfour  adds  in  a  footnote:  “In  1897  they  had  nearly 
5,000  boys,  and  the  whole  of  the  schools  of  about  the  same  caliber  in  England 
admitted  to  the  Headmaster’s  Conference,  about  90  in  number,  had  24,000  pupils, 
including  these  5,000. 5,1 

In  1864  a  commission  was  appointed  under  Lord  Taunton  to  inquire  into  the  edu¬ 
cation  given  in  secondary  schools  which  were  included  neither  in  the  preceding 
commission  nor  in  the  Newcastle  (elementary  schools)  commission  of  1859.  In 
1867  Lord  Taunton's  commission  presented  a  very  comprehensive  report.  The 
total  number  of  endowed  schools  that  came  within  the  scope  of  their  inquiry  was 
820,  of  which  572  were  endowed  secondary  grammar  schools.  The  number  of 
scholars  in  these  schools,  excluding  198  that  had  become  purely  elementary,  was 
nearly  40,000.  The  report  also  included  86  proprietary  schools  for  boys  and  36  for 
girls.  The'  commissioners  devoted  a  separate  chapter  of  their  report  to  the  second¬ 
ary  education  for  girls,  which  they  found  to  be  in  a  very  backward  state.  “The 
effect  produced  by  this  revelation,”  says  Mr.  Balfour,  “was  so  great  and  gave 
so  much  impetus  and  so  much  support  to  those  who  were  devoting  themselves  to 
this  work  that  within  ten  years’  time  endowments  had  been  provided  for  45  new 
schools  for  girls,  containing  from  50  to  400  pupils  each.  The  Girls’  Public  Day 
School  Company,  founded  in  1873  on  a  business  basis,  had  34  schools  in  1897,  with 
7,150  pupils.”1 2 

The  commission  of  1894,  of  which  Mr.  Bryce  was  chairman,  was  appointed  to 
consider  ;  5  what  are  the  best  methods  for  establishing  a  well-organized  system  of 
secondary  education  in  England,  taking  into  account  existing  deficiencies  and 
having  regard  to  such  local  sources  of  revenue  from  endowment  or  otherwise  as 
are  available  or  may  be  made  available  for  this  purpose.”  Their  report,  in  nine 
volumes,  was  presented  in  1895.  No  attempt  at  any  complete  enumeration  of  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  was  made  by  the  commission,  but  the  education  department  ten 
years  later  undertook  a  voluntary  census  of  all  schools  in  England  (omitting 
Monmouthshire,  which  comes  under  the  Welsh  intermediate  education  act  of  1889) 
between  the  public  elementary  schools  and  the  universities  and  university  colleges. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  information  thus  obtained  it  was  found  difficult  to 
classify  the  schools  according  to  grade  or  efficiency;  they  were  consequently 


1  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  by  Graham  Balfour,  p.  157. 

2  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  p.  160. 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


982 

grouped  in  five  classes,  according  to  the  constitution  of  their  controlling  authori¬ 
ties,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Form  of  control. 

Schools  for  hoys. 

Schools  for  girls. 

Mixed  schools. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Boys  in 
them. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Girls  in 
them. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Pupils  in 
them. 

Private  enterprise . . 

1,311 

46,617 

3,886 

80,386 

970 

26,037 

Subscribers . . . . 

70 

8,719 

99 

6,331 

38 

3,636 

Companies . . . . 

48 

5,188 

99 

13.338 

3 

308 

Endowed,  etc . 

503 

59,517 

86 

14,119 

31 

3,035 

Local  authority . 

27 

3,373 

3 

375 

46 

6,996 

(5)  The  above  table  may  also  be  given  in  percentages,  as  follows: 


Percentage  of 
total. 

Percentage  of 
total. 

Percentage  of 
total. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Number 
of  boys. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Number 
of  girls. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Number 

of 

pupils. 

Private  enterprise . 

66.9 

38.1 

91 

70.3 

80.1 

65.3 

Subscribers . . 

3.6 

7.1 

3.1 

5.5 

2.6 

9 

Companies . 

2.5 

4.2 

3?  1 

11.6 

.3 

.7 

Endowed,  etc . 

25.6 

48.6 

3.7 

12.3 

2.7 

7.5 

Local  authority . 

1.4 

1.8 

.1 

o 

4.1 

17.4 

The  following  table  shows  the  classification  of  the  pupils  by  age  periods: 


Age3. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Percentage  of 
total. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Under  12 _ _ _ _ _ _ 

64,339 
79, 359 
14, 804 

60, 866 
57, 040 
15, 136 

40.6 

50 

9.3 

45.7 

42.9 

11.3 

Retwepn  12  and  16 

Over  16  . . 

Total . . . 

158, 502 

133,042 

' 

No  pupils  were  included  in  this  return  for  whom  grants  were  claimed  from 
the  education  department  or  who  might  only  be  receiving  instruction  in  occasional 
classes  or  evening  schools.  Students  at  universities,  university  colleges,  and  tech¬ 
nical  institutes  (except  so  far  as  regarded  secondary  day  schools  conducted  in  the 
buildings  otherwise  devoted  to  technical  instruction)  were  also  excluded  from  the 
return. 

The  public  authorities  connected  with  secondary  education  up  to  the  establish¬ 
ment,  in  1899,  of  the  board  of  education  were:  (1)  The  charity  commissioners,  whose 
jurisdiction  was  limited  to  dealing  with  endowments  in  England  and  Wales.  (2) 
The  department  of  science  and  art,  through  which  Government  aid  was  extended 
to  science  and  art  schools  and  classes.  (3)  The  education  department,  whose 
statutory  connection  with  secondary  education  extended  simply  to  the  approval 
or  disapproval  of  schemes  for  endowed  schools  submitted  by  the  charity  commis¬ 
sioners.  The  influence  of  the  department  upon  the  development  of  secondary  edu¬ 
cation  has  not,  however,  been  limited  to  this  slight  relation  with  the  endowed 
schools.  It  has  been  a  growing  and  forceful  influence  through  the  recognition 
accorded  to  higher  grade  classes  and  schools  in  connection  with  the  elementary 
schools  and  also  from  the  authority  to  distribute  Government  grants  to  university 
colleges  and  training  colleges  (normal  schools).  (4)  The  board  of  agriculture, 
which  by  the  law  creating  it  (1889)  was  authorized  to  inspect  and  report  upon 
“any  school  (not  being  a  public  elementary  school)  in  which  technical  education, 
practical  or  scientific,  is  given  in  any  subject  connected  with  agriculture  (includ¬ 
ing  horticulture)  and  forestry.  ” 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


983 


The  functions  of  these  various  Government  agencies  are  now  merged  in  the 
board  of  education. 

The  local  authorities,  county  councils,  and  county  borough  councils  are  brought 
into  relation  with  secondary  education  by  powers  given  them  under  the  Techni¬ 
cian  instruction  laws  (see  pp.  942, 943). 

The  following  particulars  relating  to  secondary  education  are  from  the  report 
of  the  board  of  education  for  1900: 

The  total  number  of  students  who  received,  under  the  board,  science  or  art 
instruction  in  science  classes  or  schools  of  art  and  art  classes,  and  scientific  and 
general  instruction  in  schools  of  science,  was  292,111,  and  the  total  number  of 
schools  or  institutions  in  which  such  instruction  was  given  was  2,330.  The  grants 
paid  amounted  to  £279,286  7s.  ($1,357,331.) 

Scotland  is  included  in  the  above  statistics. 

For  inspection  and  examination  of  secondary  schools  in  Wales  and  Monmouth¬ 
shire  there  is,  under  the  Welsh  intermediate  education  acts  of  1889,  an  intermediate 
education  board  of  80  members,  appointed  by  the  councils  qf  the  counties  and 
county  boroughs,  the  school-governing  bodies,  and  other  bodies  interested.  The 
number  of  schools  examined  in  1898  was  88,  being  20  for  boys,  20  for  girls,  41  dual, 
and  7  mixed.  The  permanent  teaching  staff  numbered  408  (219  male  and  189 
female)  exclusive  of  178  visiting  teachers.  The  number  of  pupils  examined  was 
6,912,  of  whom  3,274  were  girls.  *  *  * 

Under  acts  passed  in  1889-1891  funds  may  be  applied  by  local  authorities  in 
England  and  Wales  to  technical  instruction.  The  amount  so  applied  in  England 
in  1897-98  was  £759,400  (about  $8,797,000)  and  in  Wales  £40,062  (about  $200,310). 
In  some  cases  local  authorities  expend  the  money  directly  in  providing  instruction, 
but  usually  they  make  grants  to  schools  and  other  institutions,  or  provide  scholar¬ 
ships  or  other  assistance  for  successful  students.  The  instruction  includes  science, 
art,  and  technical  and  manual  instruction:  in  Wales  it  embraces  also  secondary 
education. 

B— Secondary  Education  in  Scotland. 

In  view  of  the  confused  state  of  secondary  education  in  England  and  the  recent 
action  with  respect  to  the  higher-grade  board  schools,  it  is  interesting  to  note  the 
liberal  policy  in  respect  to  such  schools  pursued  by  the  department  of  education 
for  Scotland  and  the  progress  made  in  coordinating  the  various  classes  of  second¬ 
ary  schools,  as  stated  in  the  brief  outline  of  education  in  Scotland  (p.  943).  The 
law  of  1872  made  provision  for  secondary  schools,  and  subsequent  laws  authorized 
their  support  from  local  taxes.  The  secondary  schools  of  Scotland  have  been 
brought  into  relation  with  the  department  by  the  inspection  service,  and  the  leav¬ 
ing  examination,  and  great  progress  has  been  made  in  systematizing  and  coordi¬ 
nating  tli8  agencies  of  secondary  education  under  private,  and  those  under  public 
management. 

With  respect  to  this  work  the  Scotch  education  department  in  their  report  for 
1900-1901  make  the  following  statement: 

The  lines  of  organization  of  secondary  education  in  day  schools  are  fixed  by  the 
education  act  (Scotland)  of  1872,  which  distinguishes  between  those  public  or 
other  schools  which  may  share  in  the  Parliamentary  grant,  and  those  others  defined 
in  the  act  as  1  4  higher-class  schools,”  which  may  not.  It  has  been  thought  more 
in  accordance  with  sound  administration  that  all  forms  of  instruction  in  the  for¬ 
mer  class  of  schools  should  be  aided  from  the  Parliamentary  grant,  and  accord¬ 
ingly  in  the  code  of  1899  and  succeeding  codes  provision  has  been  made  for  the 
payment  of  very  substantial  grants,  obtained  in  part  from  the  commutation  of 
science  and  art  grants  formerly  paid  to  these  schools,  on  account  of  the  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  pupils  who  by  obtaining  the  merit  certificate  (offered  on  the  comple¬ 
tion  of  an  elementary  course),  have  shown  their  fitness  for  more  advanced 
instruction.  In  very  few  of  these  schools  do  the  pupils  remain  beyond  the  age  of 
15  years,  and  regard  must  be  had  in  framing  a  curriculum  for  the  advanced  depart¬ 
ments  of  these  schools  to  this  circumstance,  as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  a  very  con¬ 
siderable  proportion  of  these  pupils  will  on  leaving  school  follow  occupations  of 
an.  industrial  or  commercial  nature.  Great  stress  has  accordingly  been  laid  on 
the  teaching  of  science,  drawing,  and  modern  languages  in  such  schools,  in  com¬ 
parison  with  subjects  which,  although  intellectually  valuable,  are  less  likely  to  be 
of  practical  use  to  pupils  who  will  leave  school  at  a  comparatively  early  age. 
Further,  it  has  been  thought  that  the  teaching  of  science  should  consist  rather  in 


984 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


the  experimental  investigation  of  fundamental  principles  than  in  detailed  study 
of  some  special  branch,  while  in  the  teaching  of  such  subjects  as  arithmetic, 
drawing,  and  languages,  opportunities  of  practical  application  should  be  con¬ 
stantly  in  view.  But  considerable  freedom  will  be  left  to  managers  to  adapt  cur- 
rieulums  to  special  schools,  and  the  grant  will  be  paid  on  a  satisfactory  completion 
of  the  curriculum  as  a  whole,  and  not  according  to  the  number  of  separate  sub¬ 
jects  wrhich  may  be  taken  up. 

Higher-class  schools  are,  as  already  stated,  not  eligible  to  share  in  the  Parlia¬ 
mentary  grant,  but  some  of  them  have,  in  the  past,  been  in  receipt  of  considerable 
sums  of  varying  amount  from  the  science  and  art  vote  on  account  of  instruction 
in  a  variety  of  special  subjects  according  to  syllabuses  of  the  science  and  art 
directory  (issued  by  the  education  department).  Certain  others  have  received 
aid  from  this  vote  in  a  different  form,  namely,  as  schools  of  science,  the  grants  to 
which  are  for  the  most  part  paid  on  a  general  curriculum  embracing  a  definite 
amount  of  instruction  in  specified  branches  of  science  and  art.  It  is  our  desire  to 
foster  instruction  in  science  and  art  in  higher-class  schools  in  every  possible  way 
consistent  with  a  due  regard  to  the  general  aims  of  these  schools,  and  to  that  end 
special  regulations  have  been  devised,  and  have  met  with  general  approval. 

The  further  instruction  in  special  subjects  of  pupils  who  have  already  com¬ 
pleted  their  day-school  course  is  at  present  conducted  under  two  sets  of  depart¬ 
mental  regulations,  viz,  the  provisions  of  the  code  for  evening  continuation 
schools,  and  the  science  and  art  directory.  Certain  subjects  of  instruction,  for 
example,  certain  science  subjects  and  various  forms  of  drawing  are  common  to 
both,  and  though  the  instruction  in  science  and  art  classes  is  as  a  rule  of  a  more 
advanced  character,  this  is  not  necessarily  and  has  not  always  been  in  point  of 
fact  the  case,  and  for  the  more  elementary  stages  of  these  subjects  the  rates  of 
payment  proposed  do  not  differ  greatly.  Grants  to  the  former  set  of  classes  are 
made  from  the  parliamentary  vote,  and  to  the  latter  from  the  vote  for  science  and 
art.  It  is  obvious  that  under  this  arrangement  there  is  no  very  clear  line  of  de¬ 
marcation  between  the  two  sets  of  classes  and  even  considerable  risk  of  duplica¬ 
tion  of  grants.  Guided  by  our  experience  of  the  working  of  these  classes  since 
the  transfer  of  the  administration  of  science  and  art  grants  in  Scotland  to  this 
department,  and  proceeding  upon  principles  which  were  set  forth  at  length  in  our 
report  of  last  year,  we  have  now  devised  a  set  of  regulations  applicable  to  all 
classes  for  the  further  instruction  of  those  who  have  left  school.  This  code  of 
regulations  is  at  present  before  Parliament. 

A.  further  step  in  the  consolidation  of  educational  administration  in  Scotland 
has  been  taken  during  the  past  year  by  the  transfer  to  this  department  of  the 
charge  of  the  Museum  of  Science  and  Art  in  Edinburgh.  It  will  be  our  object, 
while  maintaining  to  the  full  the  efficiency  of  the  museum  for  its  former  pur¬ 
poses,  to  use  it  where  possible  to  reenforce  other  educational  agencies,  and  particu¬ 
larly  to  turn  it  to  account  for  the  benefit  of  the  classes  dealt  with  in  this  section 
of  our  report. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  under  the  proposed  code  of  regulations  for  continuation 
classes  one- fourth  at  least  of  the  expenditure  upon  these  classes  must  be  found 
locally,  it  becomes  important  to  consider  what  aid  may  be  expected  for  these 
classes  and  also  for  the  central  institutions  referred  to  in  the  code  from  the  residue 
grant  allotted  to  town  and  county  councils  under  the  local  taxation  customs  and 
excise  act,  1890.  The  sum  allotted  varies  in  amount,  but  under  the  local  taxation 
act  of  1898  it  is  relieved  of  certain  prior  charges  by  which  it  was  formerly  liable 
to  be  decreased,  and  according  to  the  return  to  Parliament  for  the  year  1899-1900 
it  amounts  to  £71,192  2s.  9d.,  as  compared  with  the  sum  of  £58,793  13s.  Id.,  avail¬ 
able  in  the  year  1898-99  and  £48,073  3s.  9d.  in  the  year  18)7-98.  Of  this  sum  of 
£71,192  2s.  9d.,  £17,359  Gs.  3d.  was  allocated  by  local  authorities  to  the  relief  of 
rates,  while  £53,832  16s.  6d.  was  allocated  for  purposes  of  technical  education. 

Vvhiie  this  sum  is  larger  than  the  sum  allotted  to  this  purpose  in  previous  years, 
it  forms  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  total  sum  available,  which  would  seem  to 
indicate  a  retrograde  attitude  on  the  part  of  local  authorities  as  regards  technical 
education.  The  sum  of  £53,832  16s,  6d.  allocated  to  technical  education  from  the 
grant  of  the  year  was  augmented  from  unexpected  balances  and  other  sources  to 
the  sum  of  £72,527  3s.  2d.,  of  which  £54,136  6s.  4d.  has  been  expended  during  the 
year,  leaving  a  balance  (reserved  for  purposes  of  technical  education)  of  £18,390 
14s.  lOd.  This  balance  shows  a  progressive  increase  in  succeeding  years.  It  wTould 
thus  appear  that  the  sum  at  present  reserved  for  technical  education  might,  if 
carefully  applied,  of  itself  go  far  to  supply  the  local  contribution  necessary  under 
the  continuation  school  code,  which  will  in  certain  directions  have  a  more 
extended  application  than  the  regulations  which  it  supersedes,  and  may  embrace 
a  wider  variety  of  classes,  while  that  sum  by  no  means  exhausts  the  funds  at  the 
disposal  of  local  authorities  for  purposes  of  technical  education. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


985 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

Higher  education  is  provided  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  by  universities  and 
university  colleges,  and  professional  education  by  special  schools  of  medicine 
attached  to  the  principal  hospitals  and  by  schools  of  law  and  of  theology. 

The  number  of  students  in  the  universities  and  university  colleges  for  the  suc¬ 
cessive  years  of  the  decade  1889-1800  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  XIX. — Attendances  at  universities  of  Great  Britain ,  1889-1900. a 


Students. 


Universities  and  university  colleges. 


1889. 


1892. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


England  and  Wales: 

Oxford  (23  colleges) . 

Cambridge  (19  colleges) . . 

Durham  (1  college) . 

University  colleges . 

University  colleges  for  women  (4) . 

Bedford  College  for  Women. . 

Royal  Holloway  College  for  W omen 
Technical:  City  and  guilds  of  Lon¬ 
don  (4  institutions) . - . ... 

Scotland:'1’ 

Aberdeen  (1  college)  . . 

Edinburgh  (1  college) . * - 

Glasgow  (1  college)  . 

St.  Andrews  (2 colleges).. . . 

Dundee  University  College . 

Glasgow  (Technical)  College . 


3,100 
2,971 
207 
8, 78S 
321 


909 
3,576 
2, 165 


208 

307 


3,212 
2, 909 
212 
7,607 


881 
3, 208 
2, 140 
196 
160 


3,232 

2,912 

196 

7,300 

371 

146 


748 

3,138 

2,041 

205 

250 


3,256 

2,839 

196 

8,390 

371 

148 


695 
2, 949 
1,878 
199 
107 


3,256 
2,839 
171 
11, 778 
379 
190 


691 

2,836 

1,842 

204 

107 


3.365 
2,895 
171 
11, 097 
393 
180 


691 

2,825 

1,866 

220 

183 

251 


IRELAND. 


Dublin  University  (1  college) 

Belfast  Queen’s  College . . 

Cork  Queen’s  College _ 

Galway  Queen’s  College . 


1,193 

422 

255 

110 


1,103 

1,124 

1,123 

394 

353 

353 

230 

253 

224 

108 

108 

108 

Students. 


1, 123 
392 
206 
105 


Universities  and  university  colleges. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

Increase  or 
decrease, 
1889-1900. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

England  and  Wales: 

Oxford  (23  colleges) . 

3,408 

3,412 

3,448 

3,499 

+  389 

Cambridge  (19  colleges) . . 

2,929 

3,019 

3,016 

2,985 

+  14 

Durham  (1  college) . . 

171 

174 

170 

170 

-  37 

University  colleges . . 

°13, 411 

10,133 

11,301 

d  10, 789 

+2,001 

University  colleges  for  women  (4) . 

393 

406 

400 

427 

+  106 

Bedford  College  for  Women . 

192 

223 

170 

183 

Royal  Holloway  College  for  Women 

110 

110 

120 

Technical:  City  and  guilds  of  Lon¬ 

don  (4  institutions) . . . 

1,515 

1,592 

1,592 

Scotland: 

Aberdeen  (1  college) . 

755 

749 

765 

732 

-  177 

Edinburgh  (1  college).... . 

2,812 

2,813 

2, 848 

2,754 

—  822 

Glasgow  (1  college) . 

1,789 

1,918 

2,010 

2,016 

-  149 

St.  Andrews  (2  colleges) . . . 

236 

254 

261 

284 

+  56 

Dundee  University  College . . 

175 

160 

116 

320 

-  187 

Glasgow  (Technical)  College . . 

283 

260 

268 

298 

IRELAND. 

Dublin  University  (1  college). . 

1,100 

1,084 

1,100 

1, 100 

•  -  93 

Belfast  Queen's  College. . . . 

343 

343 

311 

311 

•  -  111 

Cork  Queen’s  College  . . 

206 

187 

188 

188 

e  -  77 

Galway  Queen’s  College . . . 

105 

91 

91 

91 

•  -  19 

6  The  statistics  are  taken  from  the  Statesman’s  Year-Book  for  the  dates  specified. 
b  For  account  of  the  Carnegie  Trust  for  the  universities  of  Scotland  see  Chapter  XXIII  and 
the  Commissioner’s  Statement. 

cThe  unusually  high  attendance  this  year  seems  due  to  excess  of  evening  students. 
d  Includes  2  London  colleges. 
e  Decrease  from  1892  to  1899. 


986 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


University  colleges  and  the  new  universities. — The  rise  of  university  colleges  in 
the  great  centers  of  industry  is  the  most  important  event  in  the  recent  history  of 
higher  education  in  Great  Britain.  These  colleges  are  characterized  by  their  lib¬ 
eral  provision  for  science  instruction  and  for  technical  training,  and  also  by  the 
admission  of  women  on  the  same  terms  as  men.  Private  and  public  resources 
have  combined  in  their  support,  and  the  last  and  most  striking  phase  of  their 
development  is  their  ascent  into  university  organization.  Owens  College,  Man¬ 
chester  (dating  from  1851);  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds  (1874),  and  University  Col¬ 
lege,  Liverpool  (1881),  are  comprised  in  Victoria  University,  incorporated  in  1880. 
The  three  colleges  of  Wales — Aberystwyth,  Bangor,  and  Cardiff — pertain  to  the 
University  of  Wales,  incorporated  in  1893,  and  Mason  College,  Birmingham,  is  the 
nucleus  of  Birmingham  University,  incorporated  1900.  The  development  has 
been  stimulated  also  by  a  parliamentarj' grant  which  has  been  appropriated  annu¬ 
ally  since  3889  to  be  shared  by  the  university  colleges  of  England  on  the  condition 
that  they  submit  reports  to  the  education  department. 

The  grant  which  began  at  £15,000  was  raised  to  £25,000  in  1897.  Upon  similar 
terms  the  three  university  colleges  of  Wales  receive  each  annually  £4,000  from  the 
treasury. 

The  University  of  London  lias  been  reorganized  in  accordance  with  the  statutes 
and  regulations  drawn  up  by  the  royal  commission  appointed  under  the  “  Univer¬ 
sity  of  London  acts,5’  1898.  Under  these  statutes,  which  received  the  royal  assent 
June  29,1900,  the  university  undertakes  teaching*  functions  in  addition  to  the 
examination  work  which  was  formerly  its  exclusive  function. 

The  schools  of  the  university  as  named  in  the  statutes  are  as  follows: 

(1)  University  College  and  King’s  College  (admitting  women  in  all  the  facul¬ 
ties),  (2)  the  10  medical  schools,  (3)  the  6  theological  colleges,  (4)  the  Royal  Col¬ 
lege  of  Science  and  the  Southeastern  Agricultural  College  (in  agriculture  only), 
(5)  the  City  and  Guilds  Institute  (in  engineering),  (6)  the  London  College  of  Eco¬ 
nomics,  (7)  the  Royal  Holloway  College  and  Bedford  College.  To  this  list  the  senate 
may  add  at  its  discretion  any  public  educational  institution  within  the  prescribed 
limits.  All  schools  will  be  open  to  visitation,  and  are  liable  to  be  removed  from 
the  list. 

The  “  Inns  of  Court,”  which  at  first  refused  to  consider  the  proposal  of  the  com¬ 
missioners,  have  since  come  into  the  scheme,  which  insures  the  organization  of  a 
faculty  of  law. 

Two  new  faculties  are  created:  (1)  Engineeringand  (2)  economics  and  political 
science  (including  commerce  and  industry).  Students  in  these  subjects  are  not 
granted  distinct  degrees,  but  the  diploma  of  their  degree  in  science  will  indicate 
the  courses  of  study  pursued. 

The  royal  commission  on  the  state  of  university  education  in  Ireland. — The 
appointment  of  a  royal  commission  to  report  on  the  state  of  university  education 
in  Ireland  is  the  most  important  event  in  the  current  history  of  higher  education 
in  that  country.  In  the  article  appended  the  history  and  present  state  of  the  prob¬ 
lem  are  set  forth  very  clearly  from  the  standpoint  of  a  Roman  Catholic.  It  is 
important  that  this  standpoint  should  be  understood,  since  it  is  the  dissatisfaction 
of  Roman  Catholics  with  the  present  adjustments  that  has  led  to  the  appointment 
of  the  commission. 

THE  IRISH  UNIVERSITY  COMMISSION,  AND  UNIVERSITY  EDUCATION  IN  IRELAND.1 

The  commission  has  at  last  been  appointed  which  the  Government  promised  a 
long  time  ago  was  to  report  on  the  state  of  university  affairs  in  Ireland.  The 
inquiry  has  been  limited,  and  also  extended  beyond  what  was  expected  would  be 
the  case;  it  is  not  to  refer  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  it  is  to  embrace  “technical  ” 


From  the  Fortnightly  Review,  September,  1901. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


987 


as  well  as  academic  teaching.  This  arrangement  tends  to  divert  attention  from 
the  paramount  object  of  the  commission’s  labors,  the  high  education  of  Catholic 
Ireland,  and  so  far  is,  I  think,  a  mistake;  and,  without  making  invidious  remarks, 
the  selection  of  the  commissioners  is  hardly  well  fitted  to  satisfy  the  just  claims 
of  the  Irish  Catholics.  The  commissioners,  however,  are  able  and  conscientious 
men,  and,  if  they  are  not  sufficiently  “racy  of  the  Irish  soil,”  if  the  Catholic 
element  in  their  composition  is  too  weak,  if  the  majority,  judging  from  their 
antecedents,  are,  not  improbably,  indisposed  to  favor  the  Irish-Catholic  demand, 
still  they  will  investigate  their  subject  with  assiduous  care  and  skill,  and  will 
doubtless  make  a  valuable  report  upon  it.  But  I  am  not  very  hopeful  that,  what¬ 
ever  they  may  do,  the  Irish  university  question  will  be  settled  in  accordance  with 
what,  I  am  convinced,  is  justice,  within  a  short  space  of  time,  or  even  in  the 
present  Parliament.  The  Government  is  notoriously  divided  in  this  matter,  and 
has  put  it  off  to  a  more  convenient  season;  in  two  very  striking  instances  at  least 
it  appointed,  or  pledged  itself  to  appoint,  commissions,  and  has  not  taken  a  single 
further  step,  though  the  subjects  on  hand  were  of  the  first  importance.  But  what¬ 
ever  may  be  the  result  of  this  commission's  work,  the  principles  on  which  high 
education  in  Ireland  will  be  adjusted  at  last  are,  I  believe,  hardly  open  to  doubt; 
like  Catholic  emancipation  and  other  reforms  of  the  kind,  what  is  rightly  due  to 
Catholic  Ireland  will,  in  time,  be  conceded.  Many  forces  and  influences,  some 
extremely  strong,  may  prevent  this  consummation  in  the  near  future,  may  possi¬ 
bly  retard  it  even  for  years.  The  fanatics,  who  cling  to  the  evil  memories  of  a 
sectarian  ascendancy,  all  but  dead  in  Ireland;  the  philosophers,  who  would 
make  the  State  indifferent  in  education  to  the  Divine,  and  would  place  it  on  a 
purely  secular  basis;  and  the  self-styled  Liberals,  who  insist  that  even  the  highest 
education  must,  in  their  phrase,  “  be  free,”  but  also  flout  the  profound  objection 
that  to  throw  open  places  of  superior  learning  to  all  comers,  without  regard  to 
their  religious  faith,  all  but  implies  that  religion  is  to  be  set  at  naught  in  them,  if 
stringent  precautions,  at  least,  are  not  taken— of  course,  deprecate  or  denounce  the 
Irish-Catholic  claim.  Nor  is  it  to  be  forgotten  that  large  parts  of  Protestant 
England  have  a  deep  distrust  in  this  matter  of  the  Irish  priesthood;  nor  yet  that 
the  recent  conduct  of  the  Irish  Nationalist  members  has  made  English  public 
opinion  estranged  from  Ireland.  Truth  and  justice,  however,  will  in  the  long  run 
triumph.  If  the  Irish  Protestant  and  the  Irish  Catholic  are  to  be  placed  on  equal 
levels  in  university  life;  if  high  Irish  education  is  not  to  show  the  taint  of  the 
domination  of  sect;  if  the  equitable  rights  of  Catholic  Ireland  are  not  to  be  ignored; 
and  if  in  the  sphere  of  the  conduct  of  man  the  Irish  Catholic  is  to  he  given  bread 
instead  of  a  stone,  the  conditions  of  university  affairs  in  Ireland  will  be  ultimately 
transformed  in  legitimate  Catholic  interests. 

In  this  cursory  survey  I  shall  chiefly  consider  high  education  in  its  different 
bearings  on  the  position  and  the  case  of  Catholic  Ireland.  To  understand  the 
subject  it  is  necessary  to  glance  back  at  the  history  of  university  life  in  Ireland. 
There  was  no  Irish  Oxford  or  Cambridge  in  the  Middle  Ages;  an  attempt  to  estab¬ 
lish  a  university  failed,  in  a  land  torn  by  feudal  and  tribal  dissension,  and  in  which 
the  Roman  Church  of  the  pale  and  the  old  Celtic  Church  were  in  perennial  strife. 
Elizabeth  founded  Trinity  College  toward  the  close  of  her  reign  on  a  site  of  a 
monastery  “near”  Dublin,  lately  suppressed.  It  was  the  purpose  of  the  Queen, 
and  of  the  two  first  Stuarts,  that  the  college  should,  like  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
comprise  other  colleges,  and  should  expand  into  a  university  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word.  This  consummation,  however,  became  impossible  during  the  civil 
wars  and  troubles  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Trinity  College  absorbed  into 
itself  the  germ  of  the  university  that  was  never  formed,  and  when  the  evil  reign 
of  Protestant  ascendancy  had  set  in  in  Ireland  it  became  an  institution  confined  to 
the  dominant  caste,  which  lorded  it  over  a  subjugated  race.  Its  governing  body, 
its  dignities,  its  honors,  its  degrees,  were  limited  to  the  ruling  class  of  Protestant 
Ireland.  The  Catholic  pariah  was  shut  out  from  its  walls,  and  the  same  restric¬ 
tion  applied  to  the  Presbyterian  Irish,  held  in  special  dislike  as  Swift's  writings 
prove,  by  the  college  authorities  in  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
college  wTas  thus  an  appanage  of  a  uominant  minority  of  sect,  resting  on  an  arti¬ 
ficial  and  narrow  basis,  and  not  a  university  in  any  respect.  But  a  great  moral 
change  passed  over  it  by  degrees,  due  in  part  to  the  teaching  of  one  of  its  most 
splendid  ornaments,  and  in  part  to  the  influences  of  the  better  era  which  began  in 
Ireland  after  the  reign  of  George  II.  Berkeley  had  the  genius  to  perceive  that 
Protestant  Ireland  could  not  prosper  in  any  of  its  parts  if  left  in  isolation,  apart 
from  the  people.  He  certainly  wished  that  education  of  all  kinds  should  be  dif¬ 
fused  through  the  Irish  community;  he  probably  desired  that,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  the  Irish  Catholic  and  the  Irish  Presbyterian  should  have  access  to  Trinity 
College  as  a  great  place  of  learning. 


988 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


At  all  events,  a  school  of  enlightened  men  grew  up  in  the  college  after  his  day; 
and  as  the  evil  spirit  of  the  penal  laws  of  Ireland  died  out  and  the  liberalism  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  made  itself  felt,  a  movement  began  in  the 
Irish  Parliament  and  found  support  in  the  college  itself,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  remove  or  to  weaken  the  exclusive  barriers  which  fenced  it  round  and  to  open 
it  to  all  Irishmen  without  distinction  of  creed.  In  1793-94,  the  year  of  the  first 
great  measure  of  relief  for  Catholic  Ireland,  Trinity  College  brought  to  an  end 
the  system  of  mere  Protestant  ascendency  which  had  prevailed  within  it;  it 
admitted  Catholics  and  Presbyterians  to  its  degrees.  Very  probably,  in  the  true 
spirit  of  Berkeley  and  Grattan,  it  would  have  made  all  its  members  eligible  to 
even  its  highest  distinctions,  including  a  position  in  its  governing  body,  had  not 
its  statutes  and  ordinances  made  this  impossible.  This  noble  reform  anticipated 
by  half  a  century  what  was  afterwards  done  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

This  change  placed  the  college  on  a  broader  basis,  made  it  less  than  before  the 
exclusive  monopoly  of  a  sect,  even  made  it  a  national  institution  in  a  limited 
sense,  and  this  has  not  been  without  beneficent  results.  The  Irish  Presbyterians, 
indeed,  have  not  largely  availed  themselves  of  the  excellent  education  it  has 
always  afforded,  especially  of  late  years.  They  have,  more  and  more,  had  recourse 
to  seats  of  academic  learning  in  their  province  of  Ulster.  But  a  certain  number 
of  the  upper  and  of  the  upper  middle  classes  of  Catholic  Ireland  have  been  for 
more  than  a  century  trained  in  the  college  and  have  had  the  advantage  of  its  dis¬ 
cipline  in  the  battle  of  life.  This  body  of  men  comprises  eminent  scholars,  bril¬ 
liant  luminaries  of  the  bench  and  bar,  names  illustrious  in  the  arts  of  healing, 
statesmen  and  orators  who  have  shone  in  the  Imperial  Parliament.  And  though 
Trinity  College,  from  1793  to  the  present  day,  has  in  its  government,  its  teaching, 
and  its  essential  character  remained  practically  a  Protestant  place  of  learning  with 
an  immense  majority  of  Protestant  members,  it  has  never  been  whispered  that 
its  authorities  have  tampered  or  made  attempts  to  tamper  with  the  faith  of  its 
alumni  not  of  the  prevailing  communion.  They  have  never  dreamed  of  making 
a  proselyte.  In  this  respect  they  have  been  above  reproach  and  suspicion.  It 
should  be  added  that  the  college  fully  kept  up  with  the  march  of  intellect  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  has  freed  itself  from  the  stigma  of  the  “silent  sister,”  at 
no  time  properly  attached  to  it;  it  has  ever  held  a  high  place  in  the  letters  and 
science  of  Europe;  it  has  been  called,  indeed,  the  one  institution  in  Ireland  of 
which  all  Irishmen  are  proud.  This  great  foundation,  nevertheless,  has  never 
been  a  university  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  and  has  never  met  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  Irish  community  as  a  whole.  Students  of  all  creeds  are  made  eligible 
to  its  degrees;  but  its  governing  authorities,  its  fellows,  its  professors,  and  its 
scholars,  could  for  many  years  be  composed  of  Protestants  only;  its  regime  was 
that  of  the  small  Protestant  upper  class  in  Ireland.  There  was  no  place  in  this 
for  members  of  other  communions;  and  this  restriction,  though  lately  removed  by 
law,  continues  virtually  in  existence  to  the  present  day.  The  teaching  of  the  col¬ 
lege,  too,  has  been  anti-Catholic  to  some  extent;  the  genius  loci  has  been  always 
anti-Catholic.  The  Catholics  it  has  educated  have  been  extremely  few  in  number, 
and,  if  not  as  distinctly  as  of  late  years  the  Catholic  Church  of  Ireland  has  ever 
disapproved  of  the  entrance  of  Catholics  within  its  walls  and  of  their  participa¬ 
tion  in  its  studies  and  training.  The  college,  moreover,  has  no  sister  colleges  and 
no  power  of  expansion  like  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  if  its  endowments  are 
no:  very  large,  these  have  practically  been  confined  to  members  of  the  one  favored 
religion.  Trinity  College,  in  a  word,  reformed  as  it  has  been  and  admirable  as  it 
is  as  a  place  of  learning,  has  never  ceased  to  be  a  survival,  in  fact,  of  the  Protes¬ 
tant  ascendency  of  a  bygone  age,  and  it  retains  this  peculiar  character  to  this  hour. 

The  anomalies  of  the  Irish  University  system,  its  inequalities,  nay,  its  marked 
injustice,  attracted  the  serious  attention  of  Peel,  when,  after  the  repeal  move¬ 
ment  of  1843-44,  he  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of  reform  in  Ireland.  His  policy, 
as  enlightened  as. the  opinion  of  the  day  permitted,  was  to  leave  Trinity  College 
completely  intact  as  a  bulwark  of  the  Irish  established  church  protected  by  the 
treaty  of  union;  but  to  place  by  its  side  institutions  of  a  university  type,  which 
would  redress  what  was  vicious  in  the  existing  order  of  things  and  would  meetthe 
case  of  Presbyterian  and  especially  of  Catholic  Ireland.  The  principles  on  which 
the  great  minister  founded  his  scheme  were  in  harmony  wvith  the  rather  shallow 
liberalism  of  the  time,  but,  I  believe,  were  essentially  false;  assuredly  they  were  ill- 
designed  to  effect  his  chief  object,  the  advancement  of  high  education  among  the 
Catholic  Irish.  Peel  tried  to  embody  in  Irish  university  life  the  ideas  which, 
under  conditions  very  widely  different,  had  been  established  in  primary,  or 
“national  education,”  as  it  has  been  called  in  Ireland.  The  government  of  Lord 
Grey  had  set  up  the  “national”  system  in  the  hope1  that  the  warring  races  and 


1  This  hope,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say,  has  not  been  realized. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BBITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


989 


faiths  of  Ireland  would  be  reconciled,  to  a  certain  estent,  by  instruction  given 
their  children  in  our  new  schools.  The  method  adopted  was  that  secular  teaching 
should  be  afforded  by  masters  and  mistresses  appointed  by  the  State  to  pupils  col¬ 
lected  under  the  same  roofs,  but  that  religious  instruction  should  oe  afforded  to 
the  pupils  kept  apart  by  the  clergy  of  their  respective  communions. 

To  those  who  are  convinced  that,  in  the  training  of  the  young,  the  divine  should 
be  combined  with  the  human,  and  certainly  should  not  be  postponed  to  it,  this 
system  was  open  to  grave  objections;  and  it  was  generally  condemned  by  the 
clergy  of  the  Irish  established  church  and  by  a  considerable  section  of  the  Irish 
Catholic  priesthood.  But  the  “  national  ”  schools  were  mere  day  schools,  in  which 
children  were  assembled  for  a  few  hours  each  day;  the  simple  rudiments  only 
could  be  taught  in  them;  instruction,  therefore,  of  a  purely  secular  kind  could  be 
given  to  the  young  together  in  these,  and  religious  instruction  could  be  given 
apart  without  much  offense  to  conscientious  scruples;  the  “religious  difficulty,” 
in  a  word,  was  not  prominent;  and,  if  not  without  opposition,  the  “national” 
system  has  been  accepted  in  Ireland,  and,  as  a  scheme  of  primary  education,  has 
become  largely  successful.  The  “national”  system,  I  have  said,  was  as  far  as 
possible  made  the  model  of  the  new  university  system  to  be  formed  in  Ireland. 
The  Queen's  colleges  of  Belfast,  of  Galway,  of  Cork  were  founded,  the  first  for  the 
higher  education  of  the  Irish  Presbyterians,  the  two  last  for  the  higher  education 
of  "the  Irish  Catholics;  they  were  liberally  endowed  and  furnished  with  a  staff  of 
professors,  masters,  and  heads;  and  they  were  affiliated  to  the  Queen's  University, 
as  it  was  named,  which,  like  Trinity  College,  was  empowered  to  grant  honors  and 
degrees.  The  principles  of  education  in  these  places  of  learning  were  assimi'ated 
to  those  in  the  “  national  ”  schools;  that  is,  secular  knowledge  was  to  be  imparted, 
in  these  seminaries,  to  the  students  together,  as  part  of  the  collegiate  and  univer¬ 
sity  course;  and  this,  indeed,  was  all  that  was  to  be  taught.  But  religious  instruc¬ 
tion,  as  such,  was  not  to  be  given;  they  had  to  pick  up  this,  as  they  best  could, 
apart;  it  was  abandoned  to  the  clergy  outside  the  college  walls;  in  a  word,  was 
left  to  shift  for  itself. 

This  system  was  founded  on  a  basis  essentially  unsound.  The  objections  to  it 
were  numerous,  and,  I  think,  decisive.  Secular  instruction,  if  confined  to  the 
mere  rudiments,  can  be  rightly  made,  as  the  phrase  is,  “combined;  ”  that  is,  it  can 
be  afforded  to  children  in  schools  together;  but  in  the  case  of  high  education  this 
is  well-nigh  impossible,  for  here  it  is  scarcely  practicable  to  lay  down  what  is 
really  secular.  Religious  questions  of  all  kinds,  for  example,  enter  into  moral 
philosophy,  metaphysics,  modern  history,  even  physical  science;  it  is  all  but  hope¬ 
less  to  try  to  teach  young  men  these  subjects  under  a  common  system;  the  neces¬ 
sary  result  is  that,  under  this  condition,  these  great  studies  must  be  disregarded 
or  largely  neglected.  Religious  instruction,  again,  can  be  dispensed  with  in  sim¬ 
ple  day  schools,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  “national”  system,  may  be  left  to 
the  parents  of  the  pupils  and  to  their  clergy;  but  how,  consistently  with  Chris¬ 
tian  duty,  could  it  be  dispensed  with  in  collegiate  and  universitj7  life,  and  in  the 
ease  of  youths,  at  a  most  critical  age,  be  virtually  excluded  from  collegiate  and 
university  teaching?  The  new  university  institutions  set  up  by  Peel  in  Ireland 
were  thus, in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  “nonreligious;”  and  it  requires  little 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  man  to  be  convinced  that  they  were  “  irreligious,”  for 
this  very  reason,  with  whatever  fine  names  they  might  be  tricked  out,  as  “  free,” 
“liberal,”  “undenominational.”  etc.,  their  spirit  and  tendencies  were  anti- 
Christian.  They  were  calculated,  in  the  case  of  superior  minds,  to  form  men 
of  the  type  of  Gibbon  and  Hume,  and  in  the  case  of  inferior  to  promote  religious 
indifference  and  many  kinds  of  scepticism.  The  Queen's  colleges  and  the  univer¬ 
sity  were  at  once  denounced  as  “godless”  by  the  high  church  party  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  though  its  opposition  was  easily  overcome,  the  objections  it  made 
have  never  been  answered  and  have  since  that  time  been  sanctioned  by  most  real 
thinkers.  The  reception  of  the  measure  was,  for  a  while,  uncertain  in  Ireland. 
The  “  Young  Ireland  ”  party,  rather  jealous  of  the  Catholic  priesthood,  and  earnest 
in  the  cause  of  education  of  the  highest  order,  desired  that  the  experiment  should 
be  tried;  but  O’Connell  denounced  the  whole  scheme  from  the  outset,  and  after  a 
few  days'  hesitation  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops  concurred.  In  1850  this  decision 
was  solemnly  confirmed  by  the  judgment  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  Ireland;  the 
Queen’s  colleges  and  university  were  proscribed  as  seats  of  education,  “dangerous 
to  faith  and  morals;”  true  Catholics  were  enjoined  to  avoid  them,  and  the  anath¬ 
ema  of  the  synod  was  ratified  at  Rome.  As  the  result  the  two  Queen's  colleges 
of  Cork  and  Galway,  designed  for  Irish  Catholic  youths,  proved  almost  failures, 
and  though  the  Queen’s  College  of  Belfast  struck  root  and  flourished,  and  has 
become  filled  with  Presbyterian  students,  this  system  of  education,  as  a  whole, 
has  not  been  successful.  In  1854  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops,  seeking  to  promote 
education  on  the  principles  they  deemed  true,  founded  the  “Catholic  University 


990 


EDUCATION  KEPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  Ireland,”  as  it  has  been  called;  its  first  head  was  the  illustrious  Newman.  The 
work  of  this  institution  has  been  most  praiseworthy,  though  it  has  depended  on  the 
contributions  only  of  a  very  poor  communion.  But  the  Catholic  University  was 
no  more  than  a  high  school.  Unlike  Trinity  College  and  the  Queen’s  University,  it 
could  not  grant  degrees  and  it  was  left  without  any  support  from  the  State. 

This  position  of  affairs  in  Irish  high  education  continued  unchanged  during  a 
series  of  years.  More  than  one  statesman,  indeed — notably  the  late  Lord  Mayo— 
was  alive  to  all  that  was  faulty  in  it.  That  Trinity  College  with  its  endowments 
should  remain  practically  an  academic  close  borough  for  a  fraction  of  the  Irish 
community,  and  that  the  Catholic  University,  designed  to  be  a  seminary  for  the 
large  upper  middle  classes  of  Catholic  Ireland,  should  not  have  a  university  status 
and  should  not  receive  a  shilling  of  public  money  was  obviously  in  a  high  degree 
unjust,  and  in  spite  of  ‘'liberal”  paeans,  noisy,  and  bold,  the  Queen's  colleges  and 
university  were  not  fulfilling  their  mission.  Feeble  efforts  at  reform  proved 
abortive.  It  was  not  until  1873  that  Mr.  Gladstone  took  up  the  Irish  university 
question  and  made  an  attempt  to  effect  a  settlement  of  it. 

The  minister  addressed  himself  earnestly  to  his  task;  high  education  in  Ireland, 
he  had  recently  exclaimed,  wasthe-third  branch  of  the  famous  upas  tree,  the  bale¬ 
ful  shadow  of  which  was  blighting  the  land:  but  the  measure  he  proposed  was  the 
worst  of  his  Irish  reforms  of  this  period;  it  ended  in  complete  and  ignominious 
failure.  With  characteristic  historical  leanings  Mr.  Gladstone  recurred  to  the 
policy  of  Elizabeth  and  her  two  first  successors,  and  sought  to  create  a  university 
for  the  whole  Irish  community,  a  foundation  which  Trinity  College  had,  as  it 
were,  swallowed  up.  and  which  after  the  passing  of  the  infamous  penal  code  could 
not  include  the  Irish  Catholics  within  its  precincts.  This  university  was  to  be  the 
only  authority  to  confer  degrees  in  Ireland;  it  was  to  be  supreme  in  Irish  univer¬ 
sity  life;  its  governing  body  was  to  be  composed  in  part  of  the  nominees  of  the 
Government  and  in  part  of  the  heads  of  the  institutions  to  be  connected  with  it; 
the  Queen’s  University  was  to  disappear;  Trinity  College,  and  two  of  the  Queen's 
colleges— that  of  Galway  was  to  be  suppressed  as  hopeless — the  Catholic  Univer¬ 
sity,  and  a  few  other  colleges  w’ere  to  be  affiliated  to  it  as  subordinate  members. 
The  position,  however,  of  these  different  groups  of  colleges,  under  this  scheme, 
was  to  be  wholly  unequal.  Trinity  College  was  to  retain  its  endowments,  with 
the  exception  of  £12,000  a  year,  to  be  transferred  to  the  new  National  Univer¬ 
sity,  as  it  was  called;  and  it  was  to  be  thrown  open,  from  top  to  bottom,  to  the 
fullest  extent,  on  ‘  ‘  liberal  ”  and  ‘  ‘  undenominational  ”  principles.  The  two  Queen's 
colleges,  too,  were  to  preserve  their  “  free”  character  as  before,  but  to  be  subsi¬ 
dized  by  the  State;  but  the  Catholic  University  was  not  to  receive  a  farthing,  and 
this,  too,  was  to  be  thecase  of  any  other  colleges,  if  these  were  “  denominational,” 
and  of  a  sectarian  complexion.  The  project,  therefore,  was,  on  the  face  of  it, 
unjust,  and  scandalously  unjust  to  Catholic  Ireland:  and  yet  this  was,  perhaps, 
not  the  worst  of  its  features.  Mr.  Gladstone  applied  to  education  of  the  higher 
kind  in  Ireland  the  principles  which  Peel  had  unfortunately  applied  to  the  Queen’s 
colleges  and  University  many  years  before,  principles  not  only  essentially  vicious, 
but  denounced  as  “Godless”  by  High  Churchmen,  and  at  the  Synod  of  Thurles, 
and  proved  to  be  mischievous  in  Ireland  after  long  experience.  The  education  in 
the  National  University  was  to  he  strictly  secular;  it  was  to  be  afforded  to  the 
students  together;  religions  education  was  not  to  be  countenanced  by  the  State; 
it  might  be  afforded  to  the  students  apart  as  they  pleased,  but  it  was  not  to  enter 
university  life;  and  that  secular  education  should  be  wholly  secular,  moral  philos¬ 
ophy,  metaphysics,  and  modern  history  were  to  be  left  out  of  the  university 
course. 

The  eloquence  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  his  power  over  the  House  of  Commons, 
sustained  this  ill-conceived  measure  for  a  few  short  days.  Ere  long,  however,  pro¬ 
tests  came  in  from  all  kind  of  quarters,  and  it  was  universally  condemned  in  Irish 
opinion.  Admirable  debates  were  held  in  Trinity  College;  its  leading  men  recog¬ 
nized  the  just  claims  of  Catholic  Ireland,  and  acknowledged  that  they  were  not 
satisfied  by  the  bill;  but  they  were  indignant  that  their  time-honoured  foundation 
should  be  stripped  of  part  of  revenues  by  no  means  excessive;  they  especially 
resented  that  Trinity  College  should  be,  in  a  great  degree,  placed  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  castle,  a  provision  fatal  to  its  independence  and  its  free  life,  and  that 
the  noblest  studies  of  the  intellect  of  man  should  be  banished  from  the  alma  mater 
of  Berkeley  and  Edmund  Burke.  In  all  this  educated  Irishmen  fully  concurred, 
and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops,  backed  by  the  laity  without 
a  dissentient  voice,  were  loud  in  their  condemnation  of  the  minister's  project*. 
They  reiterated  with  emphasis  the  objection  of  their  predecessors,  that  the  new 
university  would  be  simply  “  Godless,”  a  “place  in  which  Mammon  was  set  above 
God;”  they  declared  that  they  would  do  all  that  in  them  lay  to  keep  Catholic  Ire- 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


991 


land  away  from  it,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Queen’s  colleges;  they  dwelt  strongly  and 
rightly  on  the  gross  unfairness  of  leaving  the  Catholic  University  and  colleges  of 
the  same  type  unendowed,  and  practically  imposing  on  them  a  heavy,  and  even  a 
shameful  penalty.  This  general  manifestation  of  adverse  opinion  had  a  powerful 
effect  on  the  House  of  Commons;  a  formidable  opposition  was  arrayed  against  the 
bill.  Disraeli  described  the  measure  as  “simply  atheistic,”  and  the  epithet 
expressed  his  real  view,  for  in  high  education  he  was  of  the  faith  of  Edmund 
Burke;  he  singled  out  for  censure  the  exclusion  from  university  teaching  of  the 
best  and  most  fruitful  parts  of  learning,  though  on  the  ‘ 4  unreligious  ”  principle 
which  was  of  the  essence  of  the  scheme,  this  limitation  was,  no  doubt,  logical. 
One  of  the  best  speakers  against  the  bill  was  Ball,  one  of  the  ablest  representatives 
of  Trinity  College,  an  orator,  who,  in  after  years,  held  the  great  seal  of  Ireland; 
his  comments  were  moderate,  just,  and  wise.  The  Conservative  party  followed, 
of  course,  its  leader:  not  a  few  Liberals  fell  off  from  Mr.  Gladstone;  the  members 
from  Ireland,  almost  with  one  voice,  voted  against  the  measure.  The  bill  was 
rejected  by  a  small  majority;  one  of  the  most  powerful  administrations  of  the  cen¬ 
tury  was  virtually  wrecked. 

In  the  year  that  witnessed  the  defeat  of  this  sorry  measure,  Parliament,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  late  Mr.  Fawcett,  effected  a  change  in  the  constitution  of 
Trinity  College,  which  was  ‘  ‘  to  settle  the  Irish  University  question.”  The  “free,” 
the  “  liberal,”  the  “  undenominational  ”  principle  was  applied  to  this  seat  of  learn¬ 
ing  with  a  stringency  that  never  applied  to  an  old  university  before.  Every  office 
and  privilege  in  the  college  was  made  open  to  its  members  without  regard  to 
religious  faith;  “  not  only  a  Homan  Catholic,  or  any  Dissenter,  even  a  Unitarian, 
but  a  Jew,  a  Turk,  or  an  avowed  Atheist  might  become  a  fellow  or  a  teacher  of 
the  college;  it  is  possible  that  any  one  of  these,  even  the  latter,  might  be  provost.”1 
It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  anything  like  this  was  done  at  Oxford  and  Cam¬ 
bridge  by  the  legislation  which  relaxed  their  tests;  the  essentially  religious  char¬ 
acter  of  these  great  foundations  has  been  fully  preserved.  Trinity  College  was 
thus  in  theory  made  “  nonreligious,”  that  is,  I  think,  “irreligious;”  it  was  assimi¬ 
lated,  in  conception,  to  a  Queen’s  College;  but  it  was  idle  to  suppose,  as  was  vainly 
imagined,  that  Irish  Catholics  would  resort  to  it  more  largely  than  before,  or 
that  the  Irish  Catholic  Church  would  be  satisfied.  On  the  contrary,  now  the  col¬ 
lege  has  been  placed  on  this  new  footing,  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops  have  more 
than  ever  condemned  it,  and  quite  rightly,  on  the  principles  they  maintain;  the 
Catholics  educated  in  it  are  now  a  mere  handful  of  students.  Happily,  however, 
for  Ireland  and  Irish  Protestants,  Trinity  College  has  not  been  divested  of  its 
religious  character;  in  fact  it  remains,  to  all  intents,  a  Protestant  place  of  learn¬ 
ing;  its  governing  body  and  dignitaries  are  nearly  all  Protestants;  it  is  a  Protes¬ 
tant  institution  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  It  is,  therefore,  still  regarded  by  the 
Irish  Catholics  and  by  the  heads  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  Ireland  as  a  relic  of  the 
Protestant  ascendency  and  consequently  to  be  avoided  as  a  place  of  high  education; 
and  the  only  result  of  Mr.  Fawcett’s  “  reform  ”  has  been  to  strengthen  the  barriers 
which  exclude  the  great  majority  of  Irishmen  from  university  life.  After  Dis¬ 
raeli  had  become  minister,  in  1874,  that  great  statesman  made  an  attempt  to 
redress  the  injustice,  of  which  he  was  fully  conscious,  in  the  condition  of  ^high 
education  in  Ireland;  no  doubt  can  exist  that  he  wished  to  provide  the  Catholic 
University  of  Ireland  with  funds  from  the  State,  and,  perhaps,  to  raise  it  to  the 
level  of  Trinity  College.  But  English  opinion  would  not  permit  this;  Disraeli, 
now  Lord  Beaconsfield,  made  a  compromise  in  1879-80.  The  Queen’s  University 
was  abolished;  and  other  seats  of  education  having  been  left  as  they  were,  a  Royal 
University  was  established,  empowered  to  confer  degrees  on  the  students  of  all 
foundations,  who  should  pass  the  examinations  required  for  the  purpose.  The 
Catholic  University  and  other  institutions  of  this  type  were  thus  enabled  indirectly 
to  obtain  degrees  for  those  who  were  educated  within  their  precincts;  and  this 
has  certainly  been  a  beneficent  reform.  But  the  Royal  University  is  merely  an 
examining  board,  not  a  university  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word;  and  the  Catholic 
University  remains  unendowed,  while  Trinity  College  and  the  Queen’s  Colleges 
possess  sufficient  endowments  and  wealth.  The  Catholic  University,  it  should  he 
added,  has  been  divided  into  separate  colleges;  but  it  fully  retains  its  original 
character;  it  is  a  Catholic  foundation  ruled  by  the  heads  of  the  Irish  Catholic 
I  Church. 

f  This,  therefore,  is  the  state  of  high  Irish  education  in  the  first  year  of  the 
[  twentieth  century..  Trinity  College  provides  an  admirable  training  for  the  Irish 
!  Protestant;  but  it  is  a  Protestant  institution  in  its  essential  nature;  and,  just  and 
liberal  as  its  authorities  are,  it  contains  very  few  Catholic  students,  and  it  is  dis¬ 
countenanced  by  their  religious  directors.  The  Queen’s  College  of  Belfast  satisfies 


1  See  Irish  Education,  by  Butt,  p.  35.  A  masterly  tract. 


992 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Presbyterian  Ireland;  but  the  Queen's  Colleges  of  Galway  and  Cork  have  failed  to 
bring  Catholics  within  their  spheres  in  anything  like  their  due  proportion;  and 
they  are  proscribed  as  “  Godless  ”  by  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops,  as  they  were  pro¬ 
scribed  by  High  Churchmen  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Irish  Catholic, 
therefore,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  all  but  practically  excluded  from  these  institu¬ 
tions;  and  though,  if  he  happens  to  be  a  member  of  the  Catholic  University,  and 
of  foundations  of  the  kind,  he  may  obtain  a  degree  given  by  an  examining  board, 
he  has  really  hardly  any  place  in  Irish  University  life;  he  is  virtually  nearly  shut 
out  from  it.  And  Trinity  College  and  tlie  Queen's  colleges  are  supplied  with  the 
funds  they  require  by  the  State,  and  the  Catholic  University,  a  place  of  learning, 
to  which  the  upper  middle  class  of  the  Irish  Catholics  would  naturally  resort, 
which  is  a  seminary  upheld  by  the  leaders  of  their  Church,  and  which,  many  as 
its  disadvantages  are,  has  done  excellent  work,  is  left  out  in  the  cold,  and  as  such 
does  not  receive  a  shilling.  I  do  not  envy  those  who  refuse  to  see  that  this  whole 
scheme  of  education  is  radically  unjust,  and  gives  Catholic  Ireland  a  real  and 
great  grievance;  indeed;  the  arguments  of  its  supporters  ought  to  reduce  them  to 
silence.  It  is  said  that  high  education  in  Ireland  has  long  been  placed  on  a  true 
basis,  because  it  is  “free,”  “liberal,”  and  “undenominational;”  because  Trinity 
College  and  the  Queen's  Colleges  admit  all  persons  within  their  spheres,  whatever 
may  or  may  not  be  their  religious  faith,  and  because  in  any  case  the  Royal  Uni¬ 
versity  can  grant  degrees  to  those  who  choose  to  avail  themselves  of  it.  But 
what  is  the  value  of  these  pleas  in  the  face  of  long  experience  and  the  simple  facts 
of  the  case?  Abstractedly,  Trinity  College  is  “open;”  but  really  it  is  closed  to 
nine-tenths  of  the  Catholics,  who  ought  to  have  a  share  in  a  university  career  in 
Ireland;  they  believe  it  to  be  an  institution  perilous  to  their  faith,  and  a  monument 
of  the  sectarian  domination  of  the  past. 

It  is  exactly  the  same  w’.th  the  Queen’s  colleges,  save  that  the  objection  is  more 
decisive.  They  are  practically  barred  to  the  Irish  Catholic,  for,  “  free,”  “liberal,” 
and  “  undenominational  ”  as  they  may  be,  the  heads  of  his  church  have  pronounced 
them  “godless,”  and  he  keeps  studiously  aloof  from  them.  And  can  it  be  said 
that  these  scruples  of  conscience  and  even  these  prohibitions  are  mere  blind  big¬ 
otry?  Reverse  the  instance  of  Trinity  College.  Were  the  State  to  set  up  a  great 
Catholic  seat  of  learning  in  Dublin  and  to  surround  it  with  the  traditions  of  Cath¬ 
olic  power,  how  many  Irish  Protestants  would  have  recourse  to  it,  even  though  it 
were  fully  thrown  open  to  them?  Or.  were  the  colleges  of  the  great  foundations 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  assimilated  to  the  Queen's  colleges,  would  not  the  cry 
go  forth  that  what  was  “ nonreligious ”  was  “godless,”  and  how  many  English 
parents  would  send  their  sons  to  them?  For  myself  I  agree  with  Newman  and 
Edmund  Burke  on  this  grave  question.  I  believe  that  the  Catholic  aversion  to 
Trinity  College  and  the  Queen’s  colleges  is  perfectly  right;  at  all  events,  it  has 
been  unequivocally  shown  during  a  long  series  of  years.  And  this  being  so,  on 
what  pretense  of  justice  can  Irish  Catholics  be  virtually  kept  out  of  the  only  seats 
of  education  endowed  by  the  State  in  Ireland  and  relegated  to  an  examining  board 
and  to  a  Catholic  seminary  which  the  State  has  starved?  Is  not  this  a  palpable 
and  gross  wrong;  nay,  may  it  not  be  described  as  a  sinister  attempt  to  compel  or 
to  bribe  the  Irish  Catholic  into  accepting  a  system  of  education  of  which  he  disap¬ 
proves  at  heart? 

One  argument,  indeed,  if  it  can  be  called  an  argument,  against  doing  right  to 
Catholic  Ireland  in  university  education  and  all  that  it  involves  can  not  be  passed 
over,  even  within  my  scanty  limits.  “Popery,”  it  is  said,  is  an  intolerable  thing; 
Protestant  England  must  have  nothing  to  do  with  it.  To  establish  and  endow  in 
Ireland  a  place  of  learning  for  “papists”  is  therefore  touching  the  unclean  and 
bowing  down  to  Baal.  Irish  “papists”  must  put  up  with  Trinity  College  and 
Queen’s  colleges  as  they  are.  This  pernicious  stuff  is  not  without  effect  on  the 
masses  in  England;  it  especially  gratifies  the  “nonconformist  conscience,”  given 
to  straining  at  gnats  and  swallowing  camels.  Its  influence  was  seen  in  a  singular 
Radical  vote,  which,  when  home  rule  was  before  the  House  of  Commons  in  1893, 
enabled  the  Irish  iDarliainent  to  set  up  a  Catholic  university  of  the  most  exclusive 
type,  which  Radicalism  -would  have  tabooed  in  the  Imperial  Parliament.  The 
strength  of  this  prejudice  can  not  be  ignored;  it  is  still  a  real  danger  to  the  Irish 
Catholic  claim.  But  if  an  argument  such  as  this  were  to  prevail,  many  Catholic 
institutions  ought  to  be  shut  up,  and  it  is  only  worthy  of  Mr.  Kensit  and  those 
who  follow  in  his  train;  no  statesman,  openly  at  least,  would  adopt  it.  The  newly 
appointed  commission  will  no  doubt  consider  the  question  they  have  to  deal  with 
in  its  various  aspects,  and  especially  with  reference  to  the  demand  of  Catholic 
Ireland.  Two  general  schemes  of  reforming  high  Irish  education  on  equitable 
and  enlightened  principles  have  been  advocated  within  many  years;  I  shall  briefly 
direct  attention  to  them.  The  first  scheme  would  to  some  extent  be  modeled  on 
the  lines  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s  defunct  measure;  but  it  would  be  free  from  its  palpable 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BBITAIN  AND  IBELAND. 


993 


errors,  and  certainly  would  be  a  great  improvement  on  it.  A  national  university 
would  be  set  up  in  Ireland;  it  would  be  the  supreme  seminary  of  high  Irish  learn¬ 
ing;  it  should  have  the  power  to  confer  degrees  and  honors;  but  probably  the 
Royal  University  would  be  left  unchanged,  and  should  have  a  right  to  grant 
degrees  as  an  examining  board.  The  governing  body  of  the  new  institution  should 
be  composed  of  the  heads  of  the  colleges  to  be  connected  with  it,  with  no  admix¬ 
ture  of  nominees  of  the  Government;  it  should  be  independent,  but  should  receive 
adequate  support  from  the  State.  Trinity  College  wouid  lose  its  privilege  of  con¬ 
ferring  degrees,  but  in  other  respects  it  would  remain  intact;  it  would  retain  the 
revenue  it  possesses;  it  wouid  be  free  to  maintain  its  present  system  of  teaching 
and  training.  But  Trinity  College,  the  Catholic  University,  and  the  Queen's  col¬ 
leges— those  of  Galway  and  Cork — being  perhaps  suppressed,  but  Belfast  College 
being  left  as  it  is,  with  the  possible  addition  of  a  few  other  colleges,  would  be 
affiliated  to  the  university  that  would  represent  Ireland.  This  should  have  its 
professorial  and  teaching  staff,  and  it  should  of  course  hold  examinations  of  the 
students  of  the  subordinate-colleges,  in  order  to  grant  degrees  and  other  honors. 
The  Catholic  University  should  be  reasonably  well  endowed,  as  Trinity  College 
and  the  Queen’s  colleges  are;  but  it  should  cease  to  be  wholly  under  Catholic 
Episcopal  control.  Its  governing  body  should  contain  a  lay  element,  and  its  pro¬ 
fessors  and  teachers  should  not  be  exclusively  Catholics,  though  it  would  remain 
essentially  a  Catholic  seat  of  learning.  In  consideration  of  the  assistance  to  be 
afforcled  by  the  State,  the  heads  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland,  it  is  well  known, 
would  agree  to  these  terms. 

The  advantages  of  this  scheme  can  not  be  gainsaid;  theoretically,  it  is  entitled 
to  very  high  praise.  That  it  would  tend  to  reconcile  the  hostile  races  and  faiths 
of  Ireland  by  bringing  their  youth  together  in  the  province  of  learning  is  a  vain 
imagination,  in  my  judgment;  the  hopes  of  the  authors  of  the  “national”  system 
in  this  respect  have  in  no  sense  been  realized.  But  certainly  it  would  remove  the 
anomalies  and  the  one-sided  and  manifold  wrong  which  high  education  in  Ireland 
as  it  exists  presents;  it  would  produce  equality  within  this  important  sphere:  it 
would  place  the  Irish  Protestant  and  the  Irish  Catholic  on  the  same  level;  it  would 
make  high  Irish  education  really  free.  W ere  it  carried  into  effect  probably  we 
should  hear  no  more  about  “Protestant  ascendency ”  and  “godlessness”  in  the 
university  system  of  Ireland;  a  great  Catholic  grievance  would  be  removed; 
parents  who  wished  for  a  Protestant,  a  Catholic,  or  a  “nonreligious”  education 
for  their  sons  would  have  a  complete  unbiased  choice. 

A  national  university,  too,  in  Ireland  would  have  this  special  merit;  it  would 
promote  general  competition  in  university  life;  the  youth  of  the  affiliated  colleges 
would  vie  with  each  other  in  the  race  for  university  degrees  and  honors;  the  ablest 
students  would  secure  the  best  prizes;  “  a  career  would  be  thrown  open  to  every 
kind  of  talent.”  The  value  of  all  this  must  be  acknowledged;  this  scheme,  never¬ 
theless,  I  greatly  fear,  would  practically  not  succeed  in  Ireland  under  the  actual 
conditions  of  the  national  life.  The  beads  of  the  affiliated  colleges  would,  under 
this  system,  be  the  governing  body  of  the  university  to  be  brought  into  being:  is 
it  probable,  things  being  what  they  are  in  Ireland,  that  they  would  agree  even  in 
the  administration  and  the  management  of  the  new  foundation?  Place  Dr.  Salmon, 
the  provost  of  Trinity  College,  Archbishop  Walsh,  to  whom  the  Catholic  University 
owes  so  much,  and  Dr.  Hamilton,  the  president  of  the  Queen’s  College  of  Belfast, 
in  supreme  command  on  the  university  board,  and  could  they  be  expected  to  con¬ 
duct  its  general  affairs  in  harmony?  And  if  things,  as  is  but  too  likely,  should  be 
brought  to  a  deadlock,  would  not  the  ‘  ‘  ca.stle  ”  have  a  plausible  excuse  to  intervene, 
to  place  its  nominees  on  the  governing  body,  and  thus  to  deprive  the  university 
of  its  independence,  its  most  precious  possession?  And  even  if  this  apprehension 
were  to  prove  vain,  would  there  not  remain  an  obstacle  of  even  much  greater 
force?  How  could  the  chiefs  of  the  university  fix  a  standard  of  common  studies, 
in  subjects  in  which  religious  questions  would  arise,  for  the  examinations  to  be 
held  for  degrees  and  honors?  Would  not  “  the  religious  difficulty  ”  cause  discord 
that  nothing  could  reconcile?  And  would  not  the  inevitable  result  be  that  moral 
philosophy,  metaphysics,  modern  history — nay,  physical  science — would,  as  the 
three  first  were  under  Mr,  Gladstone’s  project,  be  excluded  from  the  university 
course;  and  that  this  plan  of  learning  would  be  a  mere  caput  mortuum  as  regards 
the  noblest  pursuits  of  the  intellect  of  man? 

The  second  scheme  is  much  less  ambitious;  but  it  is  less  open  to  objections  I 
fear  very  grave;  it  is  more  conservative  and  in  unison  with  existing  facts.  Trinity 
College  should  be  left  completely  untouched;  it  should  preserve  its  right  to  confer 
degrees;  its  funds  and  its  mode  of  education  should  remain  as  they  are.  Two  of 
the  Queen’s  colleges  would  disappear  as  useless,  but  the  Queen’s  College  of  Belfast 
should  be  made  a  place  of  Presbyterian  learning,  with  a  power  to  grant  degrees 


ED  1901 - 63 


994 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-3901. 


and  with  increased  endowments;  it  should  become  a  university  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  word;  the  Royal  University  should  continue  to  be  an  examining  board, 
empowered  to  grant  degrees  and  honors  to  all  who  should  merit  both,  and  notably 
to  the  many  students  in  Ireland  who  can  not  afford  residence.  The  Catholic  Uni¬ 
versity  and  its  dependent  colleges  should  receive  full  and  frank  recognition  from 
the  State:  it  should  be  supplied  with  suitable  buildings  and  sufficient  funds;  it 
should  have  the  same  privilege  as  its  rivals  to  confer  degrees  and  honors.  But,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  first  scheme,  it  should  not  be  wholly  under  Episcopal  control; 
its  governing  body  should,  in  part,  be  composed  of  laymen;  its  professors  and 
teachers,  if  in  the  main  Catholics,  should  not  necessarily  be  all  of  that  faith. 
This  scheme  would  be  free  from  the  immense  difficulties  which  the  establishment 
of  a  national  university  in  Ireland  presents;  it  would  remove  the  injustice  which, 
in  high  Irish  education,  stares  us  in  the  face;  it  would,  as  far  as  possible,  leave 
things  as  they  are,  and  it  would  be  more  consonant  to  Irish  opinion,  and  more  in 
accord  with  Irish  ideas  than  any  national  university  that  could  be  set  up.  It 
would  also  make  high  education  wholly  untrammeled;  and  if  it  is  urged  that  it 
forms  a  “denominational”  system  in  Irish  university  life,  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  this  is  what  all  communions  in  Ireland  desire  at  heart  to  possess.  It  is  gen 
erally  understood  that  a  project  of  this  kind  is  favored  by  the  authorities  of  Trinity 
College:  it  would  doubtless  be  well  received  by  Presbyterian  Ireland;  it  would  be 
acceptable  to  Catholic  Ireland  and  her  heads.  Apart  from  the  miserable  pretense 
that  “it  is  a  vice  to  pay  and  bribe  Popery,”  which  I  only  notice  to  pass  it  by,  the 
only  plausible  argument  against  this  plan  is  that  the  power  given  to  different 
places  of  learning  to  confer  degrees  and  honors  might  lower  the  standard  of  their 
value;  the  degrees  of  the  Catholic  University,  it  is  hinted,  would  be  almost  worth¬ 
less.  But  this  is  the  affair  of  the  students  who  seek  degrees;  the  value  of  these 
are  quickly  gauged,  so  to  speak,  in  the  market;  inferior  degrees  would  soon  be 
found  to  be  inferior;  and  as  to  the  sneer  at  the  presumed  bad  qualities  of  Catholic 
university  degrees,  the  great  success  of  the  students  of  this  foundation  at  the 
examinations  of  the  Royal  University  during  a  series  of  years,  many  as  are  the 
disadvantages  in  their  way,  is  a  sufficient  guaranty  that  this  offensive  hypothesis 
is  false.  The  argument,  in  a  word,  is  mere  dull  bigotry:  besides,  the  degrees  of 
the  Royal  University  are  open  to  all  men,  if  those  of  the  Catholic  University  were 
not  up  to  a  proper  standard,  as  most  certainly  would  not  be  the  case.  For  the  rest 
the  Irish  university  question  is  pressing;  the  unfairness  of  the  present  arrange¬ 
ments  can  not  long  continue;  if  justice  is  not  done  to  Catholic  Ireland  in  this 
matter,  Trinity  College  and  the  Queen’s  co'leges  will,  in  the  long  run,  probably 
go  the  way  of  the  late  Irish  Established  Church.  The  commission,  I  trust,  will 
at  least  lay  down  the  lines  of  an  equitable,  comprehensive,  and  wise  reform. 

William  O’Conner  Morris. 


APPENDED  PAPERS. 


The  Government  Educational  Bill.1 

[From  the  Contemporary  Review,  June,  1901.1 

It  is  not  easy  to  overstate  the  importance  and  far-reaching  effect  of  this  bill.  If 
it  passes  into  law  it  revolutionizes  our  whole  educational  system,  not  only  by 
what  it  enacts,  but  still  more  by  what  it  directly  contemplates,  by  the  avowal  of 
the  Government  which  introduces  it  and  by  the  creation  of  machinery  which, 
once  in  existence,  is  proposed  to  be  made  applicable  to  all  grades  of  education. 

It  will  probably  be  well  to  state  what  the  bill  does,  and  to  examine  how  it  may 
be  worked,  and  probably  will  be  -worked. 

The  title  of  the  bill  is  significant.  It  is  a  bill  to  make  provision  for  and  confer 
certain  powers  on  local  educational  authorities  in  England  and  Wales. 

The  authorities  are  not  authorities  for  education  “  other  than  elementary,”  as  in 
the  bill  introduced  by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  last  year.  They  are  general  educa¬ 
tion  authorities  over  the  whole  country.  The  first  clause  says:  “  The  council  of 
every  county  and  county  borough,  acting  through  an  Education  Committee,  con¬ 
stituted  in  accordance  with  a  scheme  made  by  the  council  and  approved  by  the 


1  Introduced  May  7, 1901.  Withdrawn  June  27. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


995 


board  of  education,  shall  be  the  education  authority  for  the  county  or  county 
borough.” 

Sir  John  Gorst,  in  introducing  the  bill,  at  the  outset  declared  that  it  was  in¬ 
tended  that  this  authority  should  deal  with  ail  education.  In  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  on  Tuesday,  May  7,  he  stated:  “  The  bill  is  to  establish  in  every  part  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  Wales  a  local  educational  authority  which  is  intended  to  supervise  edu¬ 
cation  of  every  kind,  whether  elementary,  secondary,  or  technical,”  and  Mr.  A. 
Balfour  is  reported  in  the  Times  of  May  18  as  writing  to  Mr.  Gray,  M.  P.:  “The 
Government  quite  recognise  that  until  both  primary  and  secondary  education  in 
each  district  are  confided  to  a  single  educational  authority  we  can  not  regard  our 
educational  system  as  properly  organized.”  He  goes  on  to  say  that  the  present 
bill,  though  incomplete,  “is  evidently  a  necessary  preliminary  to  any  such 
advance.  ” 

Thus  we  may  take  it  that  the  authority  now  proposed  to  be  set  up  is  to  be  the 
one  authority  in  its  district  for  all  grades  of  education,  and  it  is  from  this  point  of 
view,  and  not  for  the  mere  instalment  enacted  by  the  bill,  that  it  must  be  exam¬ 
ined.  Moreover  we  must  look  at  several  clauses  of  the  bill  in  their  operation  when 
elementary  education  is  placed  under  this  new  authority. 

Now,  what  is  the  authority  which  it  is  proposed  to  create.  It  is  not  the  county 
council  or  the  county  borough  council,  which,  though  not  elected  for  education, 
is  nevertheless  a  body  based  on  local  popular  election.  It  is  to  be  the  county  or 
county  borough  council,  acting  through  an  education  committee.  There  was  a 
great  deal  of  discussion  in  1896,  when  the  Government  introduced  their  bill  set¬ 
ting  up  the  county  council,  as  to  what  was  to  be  the  relation  of  the  council  to  its 
committee. 

In  that  bill  it  was  enacted  that  the  education  authority  was  to  be  the  county 
council,  acting  through  a  statutory  education  committee;  and  a  great  deal  of 
interesting  discussion  was  necessary  to  elicit  the  intention  of  the  Government. 

Those  who  are  in  favor  of  representative  institutions  will  desire  that  the  elected 
representative  local  authority  should  not  only  be  theoretically,  but  practically, 
the  effective  local  authority  for  administrative  purposes. 

Much  turns  on  whether  by  the  words  “acting  through  an  education  committee  ” 
it  is  intended  that  the  proceedings  of  that  committee  shall  or  shall  not  be  liable  to 
confirmation  or  rejection  by  the  county  council.  / 

Sir  John  Gorst,  on  April  16,  1896,  in  answer  to  a  question  on  this  point  gave  a 
Delphic  utterance  which  hardly  helped  the  inquirer.  He  said:  “  The  reports  (of 
the  education  committee)  will  be  governed  by  section  82,  subsection  2,  of  the  local 
government  act,  1888,”  and  again  he  said  they  would  be  under  the  general  law. 

Mr.  Chamberlain,  the  great  champion  of  universal  municipal  authority,  in  a 
letter  to  Mr.  Ansell,  a  constituent  wrote:  “The  committee  will  be  subject  to  the 
general  instruction  of  the  council,  and  they  will  no  doubt  report  to  it,  like  other 
committees,  so  that  their  proceedings  will  be  public,  and  subjected  to  popular 
criticism  and  control.”  Nevertheless,  Sir  John  Gorst,  on  another  occasion,  said 
that  the  education  committee  would  be  like  the  watch  committee,  which,  on  many 
points  does  not  obtain  the  confirmation  of  its  acts  by  the  council,  but  acts  proprio 
vigore.  It  was  most  important  that  this  point  should  be  cleared  up.  But  the 
readers  of  the  debates  of  1896  will  find  that  as  explanations  multiply  the  clouds 
thicken.  Mr.  Balfour  will  be  found  (Hansard  xli,  page  1284)  saying  that  he 
agrees  with  Mr.  Chamberlain  and  with  Sir  John  Gorst,  and  that  the  committee 
will  be  like  the  watch  committee. 

Sir  William  Karcourt,  however,  and  Mr.  Evans  both  made  it  clear  that  the 
statements  and  references  of  the  Government  were  incorrect.  Mr.  Evans  pointed 
out  that  the  law  creating  a  watch  committee  did  not  make  the  council,  acting 
through  the  watch  committee,  the  authority  for  dealing  with  the  police,  but  made 
the  watch  committee  itself  that  authority.  It  was  further  pointed  out  that  there 
is  a  marked  distinction  between  allowing  a  watch  committee,  composed  exclu¬ 
sively  of  members  of  a  town  council  and  sometimes  composed  of  the  whole  town 
council,  to  act  without  confirmation;  and  allowing  a  body  which  is  only  partially 
representative,  and  in  which  the  representative  element  may  be  only  a  bare 
majority,  to  act  in  the  same  way.  Sir  William  Hareourt  finally  completed  the 
exposure  by  quoting  the  operation  of  section  88  of  the  local  government  act  of 
1888,  which  provides  that  every  committee  shall  report  its  proceedings  to  the 
council  by  whom  it  was  appointed,  but  to  the  extent  to  which  the  council  so  direct, 
the  acts  and  proceedings  of  the  committee  shall  not  be  required  *  *  *  to  be 
submitted  to  the  council  for  their  approval. 

If  in  the  bill  now  before  the  House  of  Commons  the  words  were  “  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  section  82,  subsection  2,  of  the  local  government  act  of 
1888,”  then  the  county  council  might,  in  such  instances  as  it  pleased,  delegate  the 
power  of  acting  without  confirmation  to  its  education  committee,  but  except  so 


996 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


far  as  the  council  granted  such  delegation  the  committee  would  require  confirma¬ 
tion  of  its  acts.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  intention  and  purpose  of  the  Government 
in  1896,  and  also,  presumably,  at  the  present  time,  is  to  create  education  commit¬ 
tees  which,  when  once  the  money  has  been  voted  to  them  by  the  council,  will  act 
in  substantial  independence  of  the  council.  Further,  the  bill  of  1901  limits  the 
powers  of  the  council  much  more  than  the  bill  of  1896.  In  1896  the  council  were 
free  to  compose  their  committee  with  or  without  outsiders.  They  might  retain 
the  complete  representative  character  of  that  committee  with  no  element  of  nomi¬ 
nees,  and  they  had  a  free  hand  in  the  event  of  their  admitting  outsiders  to  settle 
how  many  there  should  be  and  how  they  should  be  admitted.  They  could  also 
modify  the  composition  of  their  committee  from  time  to  time. 

The  present  bill  puts  practically  the  wThole  power  in  the  hands  of  the  board  of 
education.  The  council  may  submit  a  scheme,  and  the  board  of  education  may 
approve  it  or  reject  it,  or  suggest  modifications.  But  if  the  board  of  education 
withhold  their  consent  for  twelve  months  they  then  acquire  the  absolute  right  to 
frame  the  scheme  by  themselves.  All  they  are  bound  to  do  is  to  provide  that  a 
majority  of  the  members  shall  be  members  of  the  council.  The  bill  does  not  even 
say" that  they  must  be  members  elected  by  the  council.  Thus,  with  a  conserva¬ 
tive  board  of  education  and  a  conservative  county  council,  all  may  go  smoothly; 
but  suppose  a  radical  council  in  a  town  like  Leicester  or  Halifax.  If  the  board  of 
education  objects  to  the  scheme  submitted,  they  may,  at  the  end  of  a  year,  frame 
a  scheme  in  which  they  may  nominate  the  members  of  the  town  council,  and  add 
any  person  they  please  to  represent,  as  Sir  John  Gorst  twice  said  was  intended, 
the  various  “  interests  ”  of  the  district — “interests”  being  probably  hostile  to  any 
expansion  of  education  which  might  clash  with  those  interests. 

And  it  is  intimated  that  this  unrepresentative  body  is  hereafter  to  be  entrusted 
with  the  control  of  primary  as  well  as  of  secondary  education.  The  promoters  of 
the  project  by  these  means  could  represent  the  forces  hostile  to  popular  education 
twice  over.  In  a  school  board,  on  a  town  council,  the  whole  community  is  repre¬ 
sented,  the  friends  of  a  liberal  measure  of  education  and  the  foes,  the  friends  of 
undenominational  education  under  public  control,  and  the  friends  of  denomina¬ 
tional  schools  under  private  management.  In  many  towns  the  latter  have  the 
majority  on  the  school  board.  It  is,  however,  suggested  that  such  school  boards 
as  those  of  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  elected  by  all  the  citizens,  are  not  adequate 
to  deal  fairly  with  church  interests,  and  we  shall  probably  have  the  claim  put  for¬ 
ward  that  on  the  new  committee  the  Diocesan  Association,  the  Wesleyans,  the 
Roman  Catholics,  shall,  ex  officio,  be  represented,  to  say  nothing  of  associations 
of  teachers  in  secondary  schools,  and  so  forth.  The  moment  people  are  put  on  a 
public  board  as  advocates  of  “interests”  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  apt  on  that 
board  to  act  as  advocates,  not  as  impartial  colleagues.  This  has  already  been 
noted  on  certain  technical  boards,  where  special  associations  have  been  invited  to 
nominate  representatives,  and  these  representatives  have  been  heard  in  debate 
frankly  to  admit  that  they  sat  there  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  those  who  sent 
them.  But  what  will  be  the  effect  on  the  education  committee  as  a  whole? 

In  our  local  civic  life  parties  are  often  fairly  balanced  on  the  county  or  borough 
council,  and  the  committees  are  also  constituted  to  reproduce  the  proportions  of 
the  main  body.  Thus,  if  we  had  an  education  committee  of  31  in  a  large  borough 
such  as  Birmingham  or  Manchester,  of  whom  16,  or  even  18,  were  taken  from  the 
council,  these  16  or  18  would  be  not  very  unequally  divided,  but  if  to  these  we  add 
a  dozen  representatives  of  “  interests,”  the  greatest  interest  of  all — that  of  a  lib¬ 
eral  supply  of  good  education  to  the  unorganized  mass  of  the  industrial  popula¬ 
tion — will  be  in  danger  of  going  to  the  wall.  Let  anyone  read  the  organs  of  the 
secondary  teachers,  papers  such  as  the  Journal  of  Education  and  the  Educational 
Times,  and  they  will  see  a  bitter  jealousy  of  wThat  they  consider  the  encroachment 
of  popular  education.  See  also  the  utterances  of  the  deputations  from  the  bodies 
of  secondary  teachers  who  wait  on  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  They  go  so  far  that 
even  the  Duke  is  obliged  mildly  to  remind  them  that  the  higher  grade  schools  of 
the  school  boards  are  doing  useful  work,  and  that  what  is  needed  is  not  their  abo¬ 
lition  or  destruction  but  their  coordination. 

If  elementary  education  is  to  be  put  under  these  new  committees,  the  whole  life 
and  activity  which  have  characterized  the  growth  of  elementary  education  in  our 
large  towns  will  disappear.  Not  only  will  the  instruction  be  reduced  as  low  as 
possible,  and  few  or  no  higher  elementary  schools  will  be  promoted,  but  on  ques¬ 
tions  of  school  provision  districts  will  be  left  unprovided  for  and  the  interests  of 
denominational  schools  will  be  energetically  protected.  That  one  of  the  effects  of 
superseding  school  boards  by  town  councils  is  to  secure  rate  aid  to  denominational 
schools  is  admitted  by  Sir  John  Gorst  himself  in  an  article  written  by  him  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century  Magazine  of  November,  1896.  He  there  says  (p.  705)  that  if 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


997 


the  school  hoard  were  a  committee  of  the  town  council  it  would  have  had  regard 
to  the  general  interest  of  the  town.  ‘  ‘  It  would  have  clearly  been  the  interest  of 
the  town  at  large  to  keep  the  already  existing  schools  on  foot— to  make  them  per¬ 
fectly  efficient,  and  to  build  new  schools  only  so  far  as  it  might  become  necessary 
to  supplement  existing  accommodation.  The  interests  of  the  managers  of  volun¬ 
tary  schools  would  have  been  identical  with  those  of  the  town,  and  when  interests 
are  identical  parties  easily  come  to  terms.”  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  part  of 
the  scheme  of  the  bill  before  us  that  shortly  the  education  authority  shall  take 
over  elementary  education  in  day  schools,  and  that  then  the  denominational 
schools  shall  be  aided  out  of  the  rates.  This  it  is  which  makes  the  proposed  con¬ 
stitution  of  the  new  education  authority  a  matter  of  such  serious  moment.  Once 
constituted,  the  education  committee  can  not  be  changed  without  the  consent  of 
the  board  of  education. 

Passing  now  from  the  constitution  of  the  education  authority  to  its  p>owers,  we 
come  to  clause  2  of  the  bill. 

Here  the  ridiculous  inefficiency  of  the  bill  for  good,  side  by  side  with  its  wide- 
reaching  effect  for  mischief,  stands  out.  Both  in  the  bill  of  1896  and  in  last  year’s 
bill,  it  was  enacted  that  the  whole  of  the  beer  and  spirit  money  (residue  under 
section  1  of  customs  and  excise  act,  1890)  should  be  applied  to  education. 

This  year  the  money  is  merely  applicable — that  is,  county  and  county  borough 
councils  are  free  if  they  please  to  apply  a  whole  or  part  in  relief  of  the  rates. 
Surely  the  least  that  should  be  done,  if  we  are  in  earnest  in  creating  new  author¬ 
ities  to  develop  higher  education,  is  to  require  that  the  whole  of  this  fund  shall 
necessarily  be  applied  to  this  purpose. 

In  clause  8,  subsection  2,  we  come  to  a  very  important  provision,  to  which  little 
attention  has  hitherto  been  directed.  It  is  here  enacted  that  the  council  may  levy 
a  rate  for  “special  county  purposes,”  and  the  council  may  determine  what  parishes 
are  to  be  liable  to  contributions  for  any  special  county  purposes. 

There  is  nothing  said  as  to  the  right  of  the  ratepayers  in  the  specially-rated  area 
to  have  a  voice  in  the  spending  of  this  money.  But  at  once  we  see  the  power  of 
levying  a  rate  in  aid  of  a  denominational  privately-managed  school.  The  county 
authority  has  power  to  establish  or  to  aid  elementary  evening  continuation  schools. 
By  levying  a  rate  in  a  rural  parish  with  no  school  board,  they  may  materially  aid 
the  day  school  by  paying  an  extra  salary  to  the  head  teacher  for  evening  work,  by 
paying  a  rent  for  the  building,  and  in  other  ways;  and,  of  course,  when  the  other 
elementary  restrictions  are  removed,  as  we  are  warned  they  will  be,  this  packed 
county  education  committee  may  subsidize  by  means  of  local  twopenny  rates  any 
voluntary  schools  in  the  county  without  any  provision  that  the  ratepayers  so 
assessed  shall  manage  the  schools  to  which  they  contribute,  or  secure  equal  oppor¬ 
tunities,  regardless  of  churchmanship,  for  the  appointment  of  teachers  or  even  of 
pupil  teachers  in  the  school.  Fancy  in  a  Nonconformist  county  like  Cornwall,  if 
by  means  of  a  judicious  admixture  of  “interests  ”  in  the  education  committee,  the 
village  church  schools  were  to  be  aided  in  this  way.  In  a  Conservative  county 
like  Dorsetshire,  Berkshire,  Sussex,  and  many  others  that  might  be  mentioned,  the 
future  of  the  villages  would  indeed  be  gloomy,  with  irresponsible  management  and 
exclusive  religious  ascendancy  permanently  imposed  upon  them.  The  remedy,  per¬ 
haps,  will  be  little  better  than  the  mischief — the  introduction  of  the  ecclesiastical 
question  into  county  council  elections,  and  the  transference  from  school  boards  to 
the  new  educational  authorities  of  the  so-called  “religious  question.”  It  will  be 
noticed  that  clause  5  contains  the  restrictions  upon  an  education  authority  as  to 
the  aid  they  may  give  to  schools.  There  is  no  prohibition  against  a  county  coun¬ 
cil  establishing  or  maintaining  a  school  in  which  there  shall  be  exclusive  religious 
teaching  of  one  type — for  instance,  Church  of  England — and  in  which  the  head 
teacher  and  all  the  staff  may  be  required  to  be  in  orders  or  members  of  a  particu¬ 
lar  church.  If  the  school  is  a  boarding  school,  there  need  not  even  be  a  conscience 
clause.  Thus  an  education  authority  might  take  over  one  of  the  notorious  Wood¬ 
ard  schools,  with  all  its  existing  rules,  and  maintain  the  present  committee  of 
managers  as  a  local  committee,  maintaining  also  all  the  practices  which  have 
raised  so  much  apprehension  among  ordinary  Protestants. 

They  might  by  the  terms  of  the  act  take  over  and  support  a  Roman  Catholic 
convent  school,  taught  and  managed  by  nuns.  All  the  safeguards  which  were 
contained  in  the  technical -instruction  acts  are  swept  away. 

The  least  we  should  demand  is  that  in  any  school  established  or  maintained  by 
the  new  authority  there  shall  be  no  preference  or  disability  for  any  member  of  the 
teaching  staff,  or  for  any  scholar,  by  reason  of  his  belonging  or  not  belonging  to 
any  church,  and  that  care  shall  be  taken  in  constituting  any  committee  of  man¬ 
agement  that  no  persons  be  excluded  by  reason  of  their  church  membership,  but 
that  both  in  teaching  and  in  management  the  whole  constitution  shall  be  free 
from  ail  denominational  bias. 


998 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Equally  stringent  conditions  would  not  be  applied  to  all  schools  aided,  but  at 
any  rate  provision  should  be  made  that  where  the  public  aid  exceeds  the  private 
income  from  subscriptions  and  endowment  somewhat  similar  conditions  should 
be  imposed,  and  where  they  are  not  accepted  the  aid  should  be  limited  so  as  to 
secure  that  sectarian  institutions  shall  be  in  substance  maintained  by  the  contri¬ 
butions  of  those  who  manage  them  and  enforce  their  sectarian  character. 

Clause  6  is  a  very  complicated  one,  and  is  intended  to  overcome  the  difficulty 
which  was  perhaps  the  principal  cause  of  the  shipwreck  of  the  bill  of  1898,  namely, 
the  jealousy  between  the  county  and  noncounty  boroughs.  It  is  here  proposed 
that  where  any  urban  district  will  raise  any  rate  not  exceeding  one  penny  in  the 
pound  sterling  for  the  purposes  of  the  act,  they  may,  by  agreement  with  the  county 
authority,  or,  failing  agreement,  by  the  decision  of  the  board  of  education,  do  so, 
and  in  that  case  the  urban  authority  in  question  shall  manage  the  schools  or  col¬ 
leges  within  their  immediate  area  to  such  an  extent  as  may  be  agreed  between 
them  and  the  county  authority,  or,  failing  agreement,  may  be  decided  by  the  board 
of  education. 

Everything  is  here  finally  left  to  the  board  of  education,  who  are  masters  of  the 
situation.  This  is  another  of  the  numerous  provisions  of  the  bill  which  substitute 
bureaucratic  absolutism  for  definite  constitutional  rights.  It  is,  of  course,  hoped 
that  this  offer  will  appease  the  lesser  boroughs.  But  they  will  still  be  at  the  mercy 
of  the  county  authority,  for  supposing  the  smaller  urban  authority  to  levy  its  rate 
and  get  the  support  of  the  board  of  education,  it  will  be  in  the  power  of  the  county 
authority  then  to  levy  under  clause  3,  subsection  2,  the  twopenny  rate  as  a  special 
purpose  on  the  urban  district  in  question,  and  thereby  force  them  to  maintain 
what  would  be  a  county  school  out  of  a  special  local  rate:  or,  again,  the  county 
might  leave  them  the  county  school  to  manage  without  any  funds  by  which  to 
support  it,  in  which  case  we  may  readily  imagine  that  the  urban  authority  would 
not  make  the  request  for  management  contemplated  in  the  section. 

Before  we  come  to  the  important  schedule  of  acts  repealed,  we  may  deal  briefly 
with  clauses  8  and  9,  which  profess  to  get  over  the  difficulty  caused  by  what  is 
known  as  the  Cocker  ton  judgment. 

Briefly  the  facts  are  these: 

For  many  years,  ever  since  the  passing  of  the  act  of  1870,  and  before  that  act, 
grants  were  paid  to  elementary  schools  by  the  science  and  art  department.  Pub¬ 
lic  elementary  schools  were  recognized  as  recipients  of  these  grants  by  the  direct¬ 
ory,  which  is  the  official  set  of  regulations  of  the  science  and  art  department,  and 
by  the  code,  which  similarly  regulates  that  part  of  the  education  department 
which  is  administered  from  Whitehall. 

Briefly  to  illustrate  how  far  this  went  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  1868-69-70 
the  science  and  art  department  founded  scholarships  to  be  competed  for  in  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  and  to  be  held  by  scholars  in  elementary  schools  up  to  the  age  of 
16,  subject  to  passing  yearly  in  one  or  more  subjects  of  science  and  art  set  forth 
in  the  scheme. 

Similarly  the  code  in  1871  provided  that  grants  should  not  be  paid  to  scholars  in 
public  elementary  schools  from  Whitehall  for  any  subjects  for  which  the  same 
scholars  were  receiving  grants  from  the  science  and  art  department.  At  that  date 
scholars  working  in  Standard  IV  could  be  presented  and  earn  grants  from  the 
science  and  art  department:  but  the  limit  was  gradually  raised  till  at  length  no 
scholar  who  was  not  working  as  high  as  Standard  VII  was  eligible  for  the  general 
grants  of  the  science  and  art  department. 

But  during  the  last  few  years  the  board  of  education  has  changed  its  policy, 
which  for  many  years  encouraged  and  stimulated  the  teaching  of  science  to  scholars 
in  elementary  schools,  and  through  successive  limitations  so  changed  its  regula¬ 
tions  as  at  length  to  lay  it  down  that  no  scholar  on  the  roll  of  a  public  elementary 
school  could  receive  grants  from  the  science  and  art  department.  At  the  same  time 
the  regulations  of  this  department,  which  for  more  than  forty  years  had  pro¬ 
claimed  that  it  existed  for  the  benefit  of  the  industrial  classes,  were  changed  so  as 
to  transfer  to  the  middle  class  those  grants  which  Parliament  had  so  long  voted 
for  the  industrial  class. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  school  board  for  London  was  surcharged  by  the 
auditor  for  certain  payments  made  in  connection  with  the  science  and  art  depart¬ 
ment  on  the  ground  that  school  boards  had  no  power  to  spend  the  rate  or  the 
school  fund  upon  teaching  under  the  science  and  art  department,  either  in  day  or 
in  evening  schools. 

When  the  matter  came  before  the  court  judgment  was  given  in  favor  of  the  con¬ 
tention  of  the  auditor,  and  it  must  therefore  be  taken  as  legally  decided  that  the 
practice  which  has  prevailed  ever  since  the  passing  of  the  education  act  is  illegal, 
and  that  school  boards  have  no  power  to  mark  their  scholars  on  the  registers  of 
the  science  and  art  department,  or  to  obtain  grants  from  that  department.  But, 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BEITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


999 


in  addition,  other  points  were  touched  upon  and  other  intimations  of  opinion  given 
by  the  judges  which,  though  not  essential  to  the  judgment,  yet  raise  serious  doubts 
of  legality  in  the  minds  of  all  members  of  school  boards. 

One  is,  how  far  the  code  is  not  only  a  standard  of  obligation  but  also  a  limit  of 
the  right  to  teach. 

The  school  boards  had  generally  considered  that  the  code  laid  down  the  condi- 
sions  of  Parliamentary  grants  but  did  not  fetter  the  right  of  school  boards  any 
more  than  that  of  other  managers  to  teach  other  subjects,  provided  they  conformed 
to  the  definition  of  an  elementary  school  laid  down  in  the  act  that  “the principal 
part  of  the  instruction  should  be  elementary.” 

In  support  of  this  opinion  they  bore  in  mind  that  the  code,  down  to  1882,  paid 
grants  for  scholars  in  day  schools  up  to  18,  implying  many  years  of  teaching 
beyond  the  highest  standard:  that  the  free  education  act  gave  parents  a  right  to 
free  education  up  to  15,  which  implied  one  or  two  years’  instruction  beyond  the 
range  of  the  standards,  and  that  the  code  itself,  even  at  the  present  day,  recog¬ 
nizes  payment  for  scholars  beyond  the  seventh  standard  up  to  the  age  of  14. 

The  new  higher  elementary  education  clauses  in  the  code  also  recognize  pay¬ 
ment  for  scholars  up  to  15  and  attendance  up  to  the  close  of  the  year  in  which 
they  reach  15.  All  this,  however,  is  now  shrouded  in  an  atmosphere  of  doubt 
and  obscurity  owing  to  various  incidental  dicta,  of  the  judges.  There  is,  more¬ 
over,  another  vital  question  raised  in  reference  to  evening  continuation  schools. 

At  the  passing  of  the  education  act,  1870,  the  Government  and  Parliament  rec¬ 
ognized  attendance  in  these  schools  and  payment  for  scholars  up  to  the  age  of  21. 
Subsequently  the  code  from  time  to  time  varied  the  upper  age  for  payment,  but 
in  1892  abolished  all  upward  limit  and  paid  for  adults  of  any  age. 

In  consequence  of  this  school  boards  have  greatly  extended  their  evening  school 
work  and  large  numbers  of  adults  attend  these  schools,  not  only  for  more  advanced 
teaching,  but  also  for  teaching  of  a  very  elementary  kind.  The  judges,  however, 
who  heard  the  case  stated  that,  in  their  opinion,  the  act  of  1870  dealt  only  with 
children  and  that  the  rights  of  school  boards  were  limited  by  that  act,  and  conse¬ 
quently,  that  while  it  was  quite  lawful  for  the  board  of  education  and  for  Parlia¬ 
ment  to  vote  money  for  the  instruction  of  adults  in  evening  schools  it  was  not 
competent  for  school  boards  to  take  advantage  of  those  grants. 

As  school  boards  are  the  bodies  which  have  done  far  the  most  in  the  work  of 
evening  schools,  this  intimation  of  opinion  came  as  a  matter  of  great  surprise  and 
threatened  to  close  a  large  number,  in  some  cases  nearly  all,  the  evening  schools. 
In  the  year  ending  August,  1900,  there  were  on  the  roll  509,000  scholars  in  evening 
schools;  of  these  832,000  were  in  board  schools  and  177,000  in  other  schools. 

Of  the  scholars  in  board  schools,  51,000  were  over  21,  about  44,000  between  18 
and  21,  and  73,000  between  16  and  18. 

If  we  take  the  opinion  of  the  judges  in  the  strictest  sense,  all  these,  amounting 
to  168,000  scholars,  or  more  than  half  those  attending  board  schools,  would  have 
to  be  excluded.  Even  if  only  those  over  21  were  reckoned  as  adults  enormous 
injury  would  be  inflicted  on  the  work,  and  every  one  is  agreed  that  this  work  not 
only  should  not  be  arrested,  but  should  be  encouraged  to  go  forward.  The  Gov¬ 
ernment,  by  clauses  8  and  9,  claim  that  they  are  dealing  adequately  with  the  ques¬ 
tion.  They  proposed  that  where  a  school  board,  at  the  passing  of  the  act,  is  main¬ 
taining  out  of  the  school  fund  a  school  which  it  is  not  lawful  for  them  so  to  main¬ 
tain,  they  may  apply  to  the  education  authority  and  pending  the  constitution  of 
the  educational  authority  they  may  apply  to  the  county  council,  who  may  author¬ 
ize  them  to  continue  the  school  on  such  terms  a3  they  may  agree,  and  failing 
agreement,  on  such  terms  as  the  board  of  education  may  decide. 

First  of  all,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  this  clause  is  not  adequate.  What  is 
wanted  is  a  declaration  by  Parliament  of  what  it  is  and  what  it  is  not  lawful  for 
a  school  board  to  do.  In  the  case  of  all  public  elementary  schools  it  had  not  hith¬ 
erto  been  doubted  that  the  code  indicated  a  range  within  which  at  least  all  public 
elementary  schools  were  entitled  to  teach.  This  is  now  discredited.  No  one 
questions  that  the  recognition  of  adults  in  evening  schools  was  a  wise  recognition 
and  is  doing  much  good  in  the  country.  We  want  an  affirmative  Parliamentary 
enactment  that  all  managers  of  public  elementary  schools,  board  and  voluntary, 
are  legally  entitled  to  take  full  advantage  of  all  the  provisions  of  the  codes  for  the 
time  being. 

The  code  is  brought  before  Parliament  yearly.  Parliament  votes  money  yearly 
for  the  purposes  of  the  code.  Should  Parliament  disapprove  of  the  code  in  any 
item  no  one  can  doubt  that  the  Government,  which  depends  on  Parliament  for  its 
existence,  would  modify  any  clause  to  which  Parliament  seriously  objected.  We 
have  therefore  sufficient  sanction  for  the  conformity  of  the  code  to  the  prevalent 
opinion  of  the  country,  and  have  a  fair  claim  to  ask  that  a  clause  be  enacted  pro- 


1000 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


vidiiig  that  school  boards  shall  be  entitled  to  nse  the  school  fund  for  the  purpose 
of  all  teaching  which  is  recognized  by  the  codes  in  force  for  the  time  being. 

As  to  the  grants  under  the  science  and  art  department,  the  Government  is  at 
liberty  to  modify  its  conditions  from  year  to  year,  and  it  has  so  modified  them  as, 
apart  from  the  Cocker  ton  judgment,  to  exclude  school  boards  from  benefiting  by 
them.  Some  of  us  regret  that  policy,  but  in  face  of  the  action  of  those  who  have 
power  to  act  we  can  only  regretfully  submit,  and  hope  that,  pending  the  day 
when  the  English  democracy  will  insist  upon  being  as  well  treated  in  their  schools 
as  their  fellow-citizens  in  Scotland,  the  Government  will  administer  the  higher 
elementary  education  section  of  the  code  in  the  spirit  they  promised  when  they 
first  introduced  the  minute  and  not  in  the  spirit  by  which  they  have  subsequently 
minimized  and  defined  it  away.  Then,  at  any  rate,  all  those  who  wish  for  as  lib¬ 
eral  a  scheme  of  education  as  the  lav/  offers  up  to  15  will  be  able  to  obtain  it  with¬ 
out  obstruction. 

But  suppose  clauses  8  and  9  to  become  law— at  the  soonest  this  bill,  with  its 
numerous  wide-reaching  and  serious  innovations,  can  not  become  law  till  the  end 
of  July.  By  that  date  the  boards  and  the  county  councils  will  have  adjourned  for 
the  summer  holidays,  and  even  if  they  had  not,  can  anyone  suppose  that  the  nego¬ 
tiations  necessary  could  be  rapidly  completed,  even  if  they  did  not  result  in  an 
appeal  to  the  board  of  education.  Meantime  all  the  arrangements  for  the  autumn 
session  of  even  ng  schools  should  even  now  be  nearly  complete,  and  if  put  off  till 
August  or  September  can  not  be  completed.  Nothing  will  meet  the  present  dead¬ 
lock  short  of  a  bill  of  one  clause,  authorizing  school  boards  which,  during  the  ses¬ 
sion  preceding  the  passing  of  the  act,  have  conducted  schools  declared  illegal  by 
the  recent  judgment,  to  continue  those  schools  for  one  year,  and  for  another  year 
if  authorized  by  the  board  of  education,  pending  the  settlement  by  a  well- 
considered  bill  of  all  the  questions  raised. 

The  clause  under  observation  is  also  inadequate  in  that  it  only  deals  with  exist¬ 
ing  schools,  but  the  need  for  evening  schools  for  adults  is  a  growing  one,  and 
school  boards  should  have  power  not  only  to  continue  those  they  have,  but  also 
to  open  new  ones  where  they  are  necessary. 

We  now  turn  to  the  acts  repealed.  It  would  seem  that  by  the  repeal  of  the 
technical  instruction  act  Ireland  is  left  without  any  provision  for  technical  instruc¬ 
tion.  But  more  important  is  the  loss  of  the  safeguards  already  referred  to. 

Sir  John  Gorst,  in  his  speech  introducing  the  bill,  said  that  as  the  provisions  of 
the  technical  acts  were  reenacted  there  was  no  longer  any  need  for  them.  The 
following  facts  should  be  considered  in  connection  with  that  statement: 

In  lieu  of  the  provision  of  the  act  of  1889  prohibiting  the  local  authority  from 
supplying  or  aiding  instruction  to  scholars  in  the  standards  in  an  elementary 
school,  the  local  authority  is  now  merely  forbidden  from  making  a  grant  to  or 
establishing  or  maintaining  a  public  elementary  day  school. 

If  a  school  refuses  the  conscience  clause  of  the  act  of  1870,  and  thereby  is  pre¬ 
vented  from  being  a  public  elementary  day  school,  it  may  be  aided  or  even  main¬ 
tained  by  the  new  authority.  Moreover,  so  long  as  the  new  authority  does  not 
give  a  grant  to  the  school,  it  may  supply  instruction  to  scholars  working  in  the 
standard,  and  thereby  intrude  itself  into  the  sphere  of  elementary  instruction. 

The  technical  act,  1889,  made  the  appointment  of  a  committee  optional.  The 
new  bill  makes  it  compulsory. 

Subsection  3  of  section  1  and  section  2,  both  safeguarding  the  rights  of  school 
boards,  are  repealed. 

All  local  authorities  except  county  councils  and  county  borough  councils  are 
abolished.  The  rights  conferred  by  section  6  of  the  bill  on  urban  authorities  fall 
far  short  of  the  rights  they  enjoyed  under  the  previous  acts. 

The  schools  for  science  and  art  act,  1891,  is  not  repealed,  but  it  is  hard  to  see 
how,  when  the  local  authority  mentioned  in  that  act  is  abolished,  the  power  given 
to  managers  to  transfer  their  schools  can  subsist  in  reference  to  the  absolutely 
new  and  different  authority  created  by  the  present  bill. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  by  the  bill,  clause  1  (7)  and  clause  3  (1),  the  power  to 
raise  a  rate  is  reserved  to  the  council,  and  not  delegated  to  the  education  commit¬ 
tee.  Thus  while  the  council,  by  ref  using  to  raise  a  rate,  may  cripple  the  opera¬ 
tions  of  its  committee,  it  is  apparently  intended  that  it  shall  be  unable  to  control 
the  application  of  the  rate  when  made.  This  is  an  obscure  point,  coupled  with 
the  other  question  whether  the  education  committee  is  or  is  not  subject  to  section 
82,  subsection  2,  of  the  local  government  act,  1888.  Certainly  county  councils  will 
not  like  to  be  ousted  from  the  decision  of  such  questions  as  to  Jiow  much  of  the 
money  voted  by  them  shall  be  allotted  to  scholarships,  and  what  the  number,  ten¬ 
ure,  value,  etc.,  of  these  scholarships  shall  be;  how  much  money  shall  be  spent  on 
technical  as  opposed  to  secondary  education;  how  much  to  technological  and  trade 
classes  as  distinct  from  general  science  and  art  instruction. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


1001 


It  may  be  noticed,  further,  that  whereas  school  boards  are  subject  to  the  greatest 
publicity  in  respect  to  their  work,  so  much  so  that  by  section  87  of  the  act  of  1870 
every  rate  payer  is  entitled  at  reasonable  times  to  inspect  and  take  copies  of  all 
books  and  documents  belonging  to  or  under  the  control  of  a  school  board,  there 
is  no  such  power  or  any  similar  power  for  a  rate  payer  to  know  what  this  new 
education  committee  may  be  doing.  Indeed,  in  the  largest  technical  education 
committee  in  England  it  is  contended  that,  being  a  committee  of  the  county  coun¬ 
cil,  all  its  reports  and  documents  are  confidential,  and  no  one  has  a  legal  right  to 
see  even  its  minutes  or  inspect  its  accounts.  As  the  sittings  of  this  new  body  will 
in  most  cases  be  private,  some  power  for  the  rate  payer  of  seeing  their  accounts 
and  reports  is  surely  a  matter  of  great  importance.  It  is  of  importance  to  insist 
on  this  even  with  the  present  powers  proposed  by  the  bill,  but  in  view  of  the 
avowed  intention  of  making  these  bodies  the  elementary  local  authorities  of  the 
future,  into  which,  as  Sir  John  Gorst  said,  the  school  boards  will  be  absorbed, 
the  point  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

As  to  the  efficiency  of  the  proposed  committee,  even  for  the  purposes  at  present 
included  in  the  bill: 

There  is  no  obligation  on  the  council  to  find  any  funds.  There  is  no  obligation 
to  provide  sufficient  means  of  education:  there  is  no  machinery,  as  there  was  in 
the  case  of  elementary  education  under  the  act  of  1870,  to  ascertain  what  educa¬ 
tion  is  needed.  There  is  no  security  that  the  local  authority  shall  have  regard  to 
the  suitability  of  existing  school  provision,  either  as  to  premises,  fee,  staff,  or 
denominational  character. 

It  is  clear  that  if  we  are  to  have  local  municipal  authorities  for  secondary  as  well 
as  for  technical  education  we  should  not  make  an  attack  on  municipal  liberty  by 
forcing  these  bodies  to  form  composite  committees  on  which  “interests”  must  be 
represented,  nor  can  we  safely  trust  the  discretion  or  fairness  of  the  present  board 
of  education  so  far  as  to  make  them  masters  of  the  situation.  If  Parliament 
desires  a  committee  of  composite  character  it  should  lay  down  some  limits  within 
which  the  discretion  of  the  council  should  be  fettered.  But  it  is  submitted  that  at 
the  present  day  we  shall  be  safest  if  we  frankly  recognize  the  elective  authori¬ 
ties,  assuming  them  to  be  fit  to  be  trusted,  and  abandon  this  purpose  of  packing  a 
popular  body  with  nominated  associates  forced  on  it  from  without  for  the  purpose 
of  defending  interests,  not  of  advancing  education,  Above  all,  let  us  not  make 
nugatory  the  power  of  the  purse  which  bodies  imposing  a  rate  ought  to  possess — 
the  power  of  voting  their  estimates  in  detail  and  by  an  appropriation  bill  securing 
that  the  money  they  vote  shall  go  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  vote  it. 

The  dangerous  power  of  subsidizing  schools  under  private  management,  the 
obvious  intention  that  these  subsidies  shall  be  used  for  elementary  schools,  and  the 
consequence  which  may  follow — that  the  parents,  especially  in  rural  districts,  may 
be  deprived  of  the  power  of  managing  the  schools  to  which  they  are  by  law  forced 
to  send  their  children — make  it  the  more  essential  that  we  should  not  replace  the 
school  board  by  a  body  in  which  the  partisans  and  advocates  of  clericalism  and 
irresponsible  management  shall  be  put  in  a  position  of  vantage  to  scheme  for  the 
control  and  administration  of  money  levied  from  the  ratepayers  without  giving 
the  ratepayers  who  find  the  money  the  fullest  voice  in  its  application,  and  secur¬ 
ing  that  they  have  the  fullest  management  of  the  schools  so  supported.  If  this  bill 
becomes  law  the  people,  both  in  towns  and  in  rural  districts,  but  especially  in  the 
latter,  must  give  up  all  hope  of  further  progress  in  the  schools  available  for  the 
mass  of  the  community.  They  will  see  them  stunted  and  crippled  through  the  j eal- 
ousy  of  feeble  schools,  nominally  secondary,  but  often  inferior  in  all  but  the  fee 
charged  to  the  best  board  schools,  and  they  will  see  the  combination  of  -this  jeal¬ 
ousy  with  clericalism  and  sectarianism  carry  out  a  successful  conspiracy  against 
the  aspirations  of  those  who  look  for  brighter  days  for  the  people  of  England, 
which  never  needed  more  than  now,  in  these  days  of  keen  international  com¬ 
petition,  the  best,  the  broadest,  the  most  popular,  and  the  most  expansive  sys¬ 
tem  of  public  schools  for  the  whole  community. 

Public  schools  under  public  management  for  all,  an  aim  which  would  slowly 
have  come  round  but  for  the  opposition  of  powerful  interests,  will  have  to  be  the 
rallying  cry  of  the  progressive  section  of  the  English  people  if  once  the  existing 
compromise  of  our  national  system  is  torn  up  in  the  interest  of  ecclesiastical 
supremacy. 


E.  Lyulph  Stanley. 


1002 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


A  National  System  of  Education. 

[From  the  Fortnightly  Review,  May,  1901.] 

Is  a  coordinated  system  of  national  education  impossible  in  England— that  is,  a 
system  that  takes  in  the  whole  “populus”  and  is  not  concerned  with  the  “plebs  ” 
alone?  Or,  leaving  out  the  universities,1  which  can  always  come  in  later,  can  not 
some  scheme  be  devised  whereby  nationally  and  territorially,  at  the  center  and  in 
the  localities,  all  our  secondary,  technical,  higher  grade,  board,  voluntary,  and 
even  private  schools  for  both  sexes  may  be  brought  into  a  real  if  elastic  organiza¬ 
tion,  and  help  us  thereby  to  present  an  undivided  front  to  the  steady,  phalanx¬ 
like  pressure  that  better  organized  nations  are  already  exercising  on  us,  so  much 
so,  that  in  the  world  of  trade,  which  is  often  the  first  in  which  the  international 
struggle  for  existence  makes  itself  manifest,  we  everywhere  see  our  outposts  being 
driven  in  and  our  lines  of  communication  threatened,  while  the  general  effects  of 
this  growing  competition  are  beginning  to  make  themselves  felt  in  the  United 
Kingdom  itself? 

Our  war  office  is  often  held  up  to  ridicule  as  a  model  of  inefficiency.  But  what 
should  we  think  of  it  were  the  various  branches  of  the  service  under  the  control 
“of  no  fewer  than  ten  separate  cabinet  ministers,”  whose  “several  departments 
usually  scorn  to  consult  together?”2 3  Yet  that  is  precisely  the  actual  condition  of 
our  educational  army.  It  is  true  that  in  1899  an  attempt  was  made  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  a  central  authority,  but,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  much  of  the 
work  has  yet  to  be  done  if  order  is  to  be  evolved  out  of  chaos.  But  locally 
the  jumble  of  authorities  and  schools  is  far  greater.  Here  the  various  educational 
agencies  are  either  isolated  from  one  another  or  else  under  authorities  which  are 
often  at  loggerheads.  School  boards  wage  an  unremitting  warfare  with  the  vol¬ 
untary  schools  and  attempt  to  establish  a  permanent  foothold  in  the  area  of 
secondary  education.  Secondary  schools  squabble  with  technical,  and  the  com¬ 
mittees  at  the  head  of  the  latter  attempt  to  oust  the  school  boards  from  their 
higher  work,  whether  in  day  or  evening  schools.  As  for  the  private  schools,  no 
effort  is  made  to  encourage  the  efficient  or  suppress  the  incapable.  Educationally 
in  England,  as  far  as  unity  and  organization  are  concerned,  we  are  about  on  a  par 
with  the  heptarchy.  In  a  good  many  places  there  are  friction  and  overlapping, 
but  in  many  more  this  is  fully  compensated  for  by  a  woeful  lack  of  even  a  bare 
minimum  of  educational  supply.  In  this  hurly-burly  of  wrangling  authorities 
and  competing  schools  few  have  time  to  raise  themselves  above  the  din  of  party 
and  sectarian  strife,  and,  looking  at  education  from  the  national  point  of  view, 
realize  that  it  is  one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  State  to  provide  adequate  types  of 
instruction  for  future  citizens,  according  to  the  condition  of  life  to  which  they 
are  called;  while  the  democratic  ideal  of  an  educational  ladder  from  the  gutter  to 
the  university  naturally  suffers  from  the  want  of  cooperation  among  authorities 
and  coordination  in  schools.  The  matter  is  not  a  mere  question  of  money.  We 
spend  no  less  than  twenty  millions  a  year  out  of  rates,  taxes,  and  endowments  to 
maintain  this  “  hotchpotch  ”  of  educational  service.  To  go  on  spending  further 
sums  to  patch  up  the  existing  defects  can  do  but  little  good.  What  we  want  is  a 
system,  in  which  nothing  shall  be  crushed  out  and  everything  have  a  chance  of 
development,  or,  in  other  words,  some  sorb  of  organization  in  which  there  shall  be 
a  place  for  every  type  of  education,  and  every  type  shall  be  kept  in  its  place. 

The  Cockerton  judgment  of  last  December  has  brought  the  present  confusion  to 
a  maximum.  If  it  is  upheld  by  the  House  of  Lords,  school  boards  will  be  alto¬ 
gether  debarred  from  the  province  of  secondary  education.  For  the  nonce,  how¬ 
ever,  the  Government  have  decided  to  do  nothing  as  regards  the  school  boards,  but 
they  have  expressed  their  determination  to  proceed  with  their  plan  of  creating 
local  authorities  for  secondary  education.  If  the  measure  is  to  be  carried  out  on 
national  lines— that  is,  if  it  is  to  unify  and  consolidate  the  education  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  it  is  clear  the  Government  will  have  to  decide  against  any  idea  of  a  condomin¬ 
ium,  and  plump  for  one  paramount  authority,  whether  school  board,  county  coun¬ 
cil,2  or  some  new  body.  For  the  same  reasons  the  body  on  which  they  decide 
will  subsequently  have  to  be  made  the  authority  for  all  grades  of  education.4 


1  The  -universities  are  in  some  cases  already  in  the  pay  of  the  State,  and  therefore  subject  to 
its  control;  while  the  others  -probably  with  the  increasing  need  of  expenditure  on  research- 
will  in  the  long  run  be  obliged  to  come  to  Parliament.  But  in  the  present  article  subordinate 
questions  and  details  must  necessarily  be  sacrifiea. 

2  See  Fabian  Tract  No.  106,  “The  educational  muddle  and  the  way  out,”  a  masterly  contri¬ 
bution  to  the  present  imbroglio  which  all  should  read. 

3  The  term  county  council  includes,  of  coxirse,  also  county  borough  council. 

4  Cf.  the  resolution  “in  favor  of  one  local  authority  for  education  within  a  given  area,”  car¬ 
ried  unanimously  at  the  recent  conference  of  the  N.  O.  T. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


1003 


Otherwise,  the  jumble  described  above  will  only  be  intensified  and  perpetuated. 
In  this  article,  then,  we  shall  consider  the  problem  in  its  complete  form — that  is, 
the  creation  of  a  single  local  authority  for  not  only  secondary,  but  all  other  kinds 
of  education  below  the  universities. 

At  first  sight  it  might  seem  expedient,  in  order  to  create  a  really  comprehensive 
set  of  local  authorities,  to  disfranchise  the  county  councils  of  their  educational 
rights,  disband  the  school  boards,  and  hand  over  their  educational  duties  to  an 
entirely  brand-new  authority.  But  this  suggestion,  though  possessing  all  the 
specious  value  of  symmetry  and  completeness,  would  arouse  the  most  prodigious 
opposition.  The  two  authorities  already  in  the  field  would  fight  it  tooth  and  nail. 
Localities  would  be  up  in  arms,  and  members  of  Parliament  would  voice  their 
opposition  in  Parliament.  All  “placeholders”  and  officials  concerned  in  the 
change,  on  seeing  their  occupation  in  danger  of  being  taken  from  them  under  the 
bill,  would  join  in  the  agitation  against  it.  But  there  is  another  yet  more  formid¬ 
able  obstacle.  Such  a  body  being  elected  solely  for  education,  would  introduce 
into  those  sections  of  education  which  have  hitherto  been  free  from  it  all  the 
miserable  religious  wrangling  which  has  been  such  a  marked  feature  of  the  school- 
board  regime  and  has  proved  such  a  sore  let  and  hindrance  to  the  cause  of  educa¬ 
tion.  But  the  most  fatal  objection  of  all  is  that  such  a  body  would  be  an  ad  hoc 
one.  Now,  the  chief  cause  of  the  fearful  tangle  into  which  our  local  government 
had  got  before  the  reform  of  1885  was  the  indiscriminate  creation  of  ad  hoc  bodies 
whenever  some  fresh  function  of  ccunty  or  municipal  service  made  itself  felt. 
Those  who  believe  that  local  politics  can  only  be  made  real  to  the  ordinary  citizen 
when  they  are  simple  enough  to  be  “understanded”  of  the  people  at  large,  would 
strongly  oppose  the  erection  of  yet  another  obstacle  in  the  path  of  a  reform  which 
has  already  made  considerable  progress. 

A  brand  new  body  is,  therefore,  neither  desirable  nor  possible;  but  when  we 
come  to  choose  between  the  two  existing  bodies,  we  see  that  the  school  board,  as 
one  of  the  principal  ad  hoc  bodies,  falls  under  the  condemnation  of  the  preceding 
argument.  And  even  if  this  reason  were  inadequate — and  the  practical  man  will 
always  be  ready  to  support  an  anomaly  which  has  proved  its  inherent  usefulness — ■ 
there  are  further  facts  which  effectively  preclude  school  boards  from  being  chosen 
as  the  local  authority.  To  put  the  case  in  a  nutshell,  there  are  still  some  large 
towns  in  which  the  system  has  not  been  set  up,  more  than  one-third  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  England  are  not  in  school-board  areas  at  all,  and  more  than  half  the 
children  are  in  voluntary  schools,  which  are  more  or  less  avowedly  maintained  to 
keep  out  school  boards.  On  the  practical  grounds  of  imperfect  jurisdiction  and  of 
the  undesirability  of  perpetrating,  and  even  intensifying,  religious  squabbles,  it 
would  seem  impossible  to  make  school  boards  the  educational  authority. 

There  remains  then  only  the  county  councils  to  act  as  the  new  authority.  And 
here  it  is  not  merely  a  case  of  Hobson’s  choice.  The  councils  themselves  have 
much  to  commend  them.  They  cover  the  entire  country;  their  areas  are  suffi¬ 
ciently  large  to  exclude  the  faddist,  and  secure  a  certain  degree  of  ability  and 
large  mindedness  in  their  representatives.  They  have  already  acquired  adminis¬ 
trative  experience  in  dealing  with  secondary  and  especially  technical  education, 
and  after  a  certain  amount  of  wastefulness  inseparable  from  the  winning  of  their 
experience,  they  are  now  expending  the  funds  at  their  disposal  with  good  results. 

But  if  the  county  councils  are  to  be  the  universal  authority,  it  is  probable  that 
the  school  boards  will  have  to  have  taken  from  them  even  that  which  they  have. 
This  question  is  best  dealt  with  by  regarding  the  cases  of  the  counties  and  county 
boroughs  apart.  As  regards  the  counties,  there  would  be  little  opposition  to  dis¬ 
establishing  the  small  local  boards,  whose  confined  areas  have  generally  been 
against  successful  administration.  The  disestablished  boards  should  not,  how¬ 
ever,  be  dissolved.  Evicted  as  autonomous  directors  they  might  be  reinstated  as 
managers  under  the  county  council,  with  power  to  co-opt  future  members  from 
the  parish  council  or  outside.  The  valuable  experience  of  the  members  would 
therefore  be  retained  and  fortified  at  the  same  time  by  the  light  from  above  of  the 
county  council,  or  rather  its  educational  committee.  The  latter  would  probably 
be  modeled  on  the  same  lines  as  the  present  statutory  technical  committee,  which 
would  form  its  nucleus.  To  render  it  really  representative  of  all  educational 
interests,  while  remaining  fully  under  popular  control,  a  minority  of  experts  from 
the  various  grades  of  education  should  either  be  co-opted  or  nominated  by  the 
school  groups  themselves;  in  the  latter  case  the  nomination  should  rather  be  made 
by  managers  or  governors  than  by  the  teachers  themselves.  In  any  case  no  com¬ 
mittee  would  be  complete  without  representatives  from  the  secondary,  technical, 
board,  and  voluntary  schools,  and  even  representatives  of  the  private  schools,  to 
take  a  leaf  out  of  French  experience,  might  be  allowed  to  be  present  when  matters 
affecting  their  interest  were  discussed.  Women,  of  course,  should  he  among  the 
co-opted  members. 


1004 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  work  to  be  done  is  so  extensive  the  county  council  would  necessarily  have 
to  delegate  large  powers  to  any  important  noncounty  borough  within  its  area. 
The  apparent  difficulty  between  these  two  sets  of  bodies,  which  is  largely  one  of 
devolution,  will  probably  right  itself  once  the  province  of  the  county  council  has 
been  clearly  understood.  In  the  same  way,  though  in  a  less  degree,  powers  should 
be  delegated  to  the  district  councils;  these  in  their  turn  would  allow  a  certain 
liberty  of  action  and  initiative  to  the  bodies  of  governors  or  managers  of  the 
schools  within  their  area  and  under  their  control.  But  the  delegation  of  powers 
must  not  stop  here,  for  it  is  only  under  such  a  system  that  freedom  and  its  correla¬ 
tive  responsibility  can  exist,  and  freedom  rightly  understood  is  quite  as  vital  to 
good  teaching  as  to  good  administration.  Too  much  red  tape  in  the  school  is  sure 
to  produce  mechanicalness  and  routine.  To  strictly  define  the  duties  of  all  is  to 
split  up  the  school  into  water-tight  compartments.  Such  a  measure  ruins  the 
unity  of  the  school,  which  can  only  be  secured  when  the  authority  in  educational 
matters  is  vested  in  the  head  master.  This  has  been  deeply  felt  in  the  French 
secondary  schools,  and  one  of  the  chief  proposals  of  M.  Ribot’s  commission  is  to 
give  more  authority  to  the  heads  of  the  lycees  and  colleges.  In  our  secondary 
schools  we  have  recognized  this,  and  have  given  our  head  masters  at  least  a  com¬ 
manding  voice  in  the  selection  of  the  staff.  The  same  privilege  ought  to  be 
extended  to  the  head  teachers  in  our  primary  schools.  They  ought  to  be  the  best 
judges  of  what  type  of  assistant  is  best  for  their  schools.  This  does  not  imply 
putting  the  assistant  teacher  more  under  the  thumb  of  authority.  On  the  con¬ 
trary,  his  position  in  matters  of  tenure  must  be  safeguarded,  his  right  to  a 
pension — whether  engaged  in  primary  or  secondary  teaching — recognized  and 
secured,  and,  above  all,  he  must  be  accorded  a  large  liberty  in  his  teaching 
methods.  Unless  he,  too,  has  his  sphere  of  liberty  to  turn  round  in,  his  teaching 
will  become  mechanical.  There  must  be  “play  ”  and  elasticity  in  the  educational 
machine  from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  Otherwise  we  shall  be  merely  creating  a 
hierarchy  of  taskmasters. 

The  county  council  would  naturally  possess  in  the  counties  all  the  rights  of  the 
school  boards  to  levy  rates,  or  rather  the  whole  area  should  be  rendered  liable  to 
the  education  rate,  and  the  latter  be  merged  in  the  county  rate.  Being  the  authority 
for  all  forms  of  education,  they  would  naturalty,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
private  schools,  have  the  right  to  inspect  not  only  the  board  schools,  but  also  those 
of  the  voluntary  schools  who  desired  to  come  under  their  regime  in  order  to  qualify 
as  efficient.  This  idea  of  subsidizing  the  voluntary  schools  seems  a  bitter  pill  to 
some  people.  But  assuming  that,  as  they  allege,  the  voluntary  schools  are  ineffi¬ 
cient,  have  we  a  moral  right,  from  the  national  point  of  view,  to  allow  more  than 
half  our  children  to  suffer  under  permanent  educational  disadvantages  until  the 
voluntary  schools  are  starved  out  in  the  distant  future?  Besides,  are  not  the  rights 
of  conscience  of  the  sectarian  equally  respectable  as  those  of  the  secularist  in  the 
eyes  of  the  State?  We  have  spent  thirty  years  in  trying  to  ignore  the  religious 
question.  The  effect  has  been  far  frcm  a  success.  We  have  not  yet  attracted  half 
the  children  of  the  country  into  the  State  primary  schools.  Let  us  see  if  we  can 
do  better  by  recognizing  it  and  making  allowance  for  it.  Those  voluntary  schools 
which  accept  the  aid  of  the  country  will  naturally  submit  to  the  county  council 
regulations  in  so  far  as  they  do  not  touch  on  the  teaching  of  religion,  which  can 
be  relegated  to  the  first  hour  of  the  day. 

They  will  also  accept  the  principle  of  public  control  by  admitting  to  their  board 
of  managers  representatives  of  the  county  council.  Such  a  proceeding  will  greatly 
add  to  the  security  of  teachers’  tenure  at  these  schools,  and  likewise  effectually 
protect  any  small  minority  in  the  district  from  persecution.  If  the  special-aid 
grant  were  further  paid  through  the  county  council  committee,  the  mere  threat 
of  the  withdrawal  of  this  and  other  aids  would  bring  the  most  recalcitrant  body 
of  managers  to  their  senses.  The  same  grants  might  be  withheld  from  those  sec¬ 
tarian  schools  which,  while  declining  to  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county 
council,  an  action  which  would  be  quite  within  their  rights,  were  also  proved  by 
G  overnment  inspectors  to  be  below  the  normal  standard  of  efficiency.  In  this  case 
the  central  authority  might  close  the  offending  school,  or  at  least  allow  the  county 
council  to  open  an  efficient  one  alongside.  As  regards  the  secondary  schools,  they 
could  participate  as  usual  in  the  distribution  of  the  whisky  money,  and  the  tech¬ 
nical  rate  (henceforth  called  secondary  and  technical),  would  be  raised  at  least  to 
2  pence.  And  lastly,  as  regards  the  private  schools,  our  supply  of  secondary  edu¬ 
cation  is  still  so  insufficient  it  would  probably  pay  the  county  councils  to  allow 
their  scholarships  to  be  held  in  such  private  schools  as  pass  the  test  of  efficiency, 
if  they  did  not  go  further  in  giving  aid  to  such  schools  and  h  taking  into  account 


1  See  Memorial  of  tlie  College  of  Preceptors  to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  in  the  Educational 
Times  for  March,  1901. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


1005 


their  presence  in  questions  relating  to  the  adequacy  of  local  supply  of  secondary 
education.  Apart  from  any  claim  that  “  private  venture”  may  have  on  the  com¬ 
munity,  it  is  a  very  moot  point  whether  the  State  itself  does  not  suffer  a  grievous 
loss  by  crushing  out  private  enterprise  and  substituting  everywhere  its  own 
schools.  These  schools  are  essentially  centers  of  experiment,  and  by  their  compe¬ 
tition  they  form  a  safeguard  against  routine  and  lethargy  in  public  schools.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  the  Ribot  Commission  on  secondary  education  in  France  strongly 
advocated  their  establishment  and  encouragement  in  districts  where  the  State  sup¬ 
ply  was  inadequate. 

The  advantages  attached  to  the  adoption  of  the  county  council  as  the  paramount 
educational  authority  are  well-nigh  incalculable.  It  would  abate  the  religious 
difficulty,  if  it  did  not  eliminate  it.  It  wouid  abolish  the  petty  tyranny  that  some¬ 
times  disfigures  small  school  boards  and  voluntary  managers,  protect  teachers, 
and  safeguard  the  rights  of  minorities;  for  the  county  council,  being  composed  of 
men  of  a  certain  caliber  and '  attainment,  would  never  tolerate  such  excesses. 
Above  all,  it  would  improve  the  financial  condition  of  the  voluntary  schools,  and, 
by  subjecting  their  managers  to  public  control,  induce  them  to  take  a  wider  view 
of  things,  while  by  merging  the  education  rate  in  the  general  county  or  district 
rate,  it  wouid  render  the  expenditure  on  education  less  unpopular.  Again,  in 
taking  secondary  education  under  its  control,  it  would  at  once  bring  home  to  people 
the  truth  that  secondary  education  is  quite  as  much  a  matter  of  national  and  local 
concern  as  elementary.  This  unification  of  local  authorities  would  lead  directly  to 
the  local  unification  of  our  school  supply. 

The  county  council,  as  patron  of  all  schools  within  its  area,  would  not  be  tempted 
to  allow  its  attention  to  be  monopolized  by  any  special  type.  It  would  frame  its 
budget  with  a  view  to  the  lawful  exigencies  of  all.  It  would  quickly  discover 
and  correct  overlapping,  and  where  there  was  a  lack  in  the  supply  it  would  do  its 
best  to  supplement  it,  and  thus  in  the  long  run  we  should  have  an  educational 
system  as  intelligible  as  that  of  France  and  Switzerland,  though  by  no  means 
identical.  And  this  is  an  all-important  matter.  Democracy,  if  it  is  to  succeed, 
must  take  a  deeper  interest  in  its  schools.  And  to  enable  it  to  take  such  an  inter¬ 
est,  we  must  make  the  aims  of  the  different  types  so  intelligible  that  the  very  man 
in  the  street  may  comprehend  what  they  stand  for  and  their  value  to  the  service 
of  the  State.  Nor  is  the  man  in  the  street  the  only  person  affected  in  the  matter. 
Much  of  the  Philistine  attitude  of  the  middle  classes  toward  learning  is  derived 
at  bottom  from  their  very  natural  inability  to  comprehend  what  the  school  really 
stands  for.  People  will  be  far  more  ready  to  make  sacrifices  for  education  when 
they  understand  what  it  really  means  and  aims  at.  And,  finally,  the  ladder  from 
the  gutter  to  the  university,  by  which  we  alone  can  hope  to  organize  the  selection 
of  talent  and  thereby  reorganize  and  recruit  society,  can  never  be  really  complete 
as  long  as  there  are  rival  authorities  in  the  field,  each  with  a  rival  set  of  ascen- 
seurs. 

In  the  towns  the  propriety  of  transferring  the  school  boards  to  the  municipal 
authorities  may  seem  at  first  sight  a  more  debatable  step.  They  have  done,  on 
the  whole,  excellent  work;  they  have  acquired  an  experience  which  can  not  be 
gained  in  a  day,  and  built  up  an  administration  that  represents  the  expenditure 
of  much  care  and  thought.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  precisely  in  the  towns  that 
the  overlapping  is  at  its  worst,  and  a  determined  attempt  has  been  made  to  crush 
out  not  only  private  enterprise,  but  also  the  lowTer  secondary  schools.  Thus  in 
London  during  the  last  ten  years  the  number  of  boys  in  the  secondary  schools 
has  decreased  one-half  per  cent,  though  the  population  shows  a  rise  of  8  per  cent. 
It  seems  that  the  fault  of  this  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  aggressive  policy  of  the 
school  board.  According  to  evidence 1  collected  on  the  subjects  the  clever  pupils 
are  either  retained  in  the  primary  schools  beyond  the  age  at  which  their  transfer  to 
the  secondary  is  profitable,  or  they  are  unduly  “  hustled  through  ”  the  lower  stand¬ 
ards,  to  the  detriment  of  their  waiting  and  arithmetic,  in  order  to  enter  the  higher 
grade,  toward  which  they  are  directed,  to  the  detriment  of  the  secondary  schools. 
One  does  not  know  what  the  reply  of  the  school  board  is  to  this  serious  charge  of 
exercising  pressure  to  prevent  clever  children  from  following  the  normal  course 
of  being  passed  on  to  the  secondary  schools  in  due  season,  and  thereby  impairing 
the  utility  of  the  educational  ladder.'2  If  the  secondary  schools  are  not  doing 
their  work  as  they  ought,  let  the  new  authority  be  created  as  soon  as  possible  to 
make  them.  But  the  rate  payer  has  a  right  to  protest  against  the  rates  being  used 


1  Cf.  “Notes  on  evidence  of  tlie  effect  on  London  secondary  schools  of  the  attempt  to  develop 
secondary  teaching  in  higher  elementary  schools.”  By  Rev.  R.  S.  de  C.  Laffan. 

2  Of  course  the  higher  grade  school,  in  as  far  as  it  acts  as  the  crown  of  primary  education,  as 
in  France,  is  a  natural  and  necessary  outgrowth  of  the  elementary  school,  possessing,  as  such, 
unimpeachable  claims  on  the  community,  and,  if  illegal,  should  be  recognized  as  soon  as  possible 
by  statute. 


1006 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  found  new  schools  to  compete  with  existing  institutions  which,  if  they  do  not 
do  their  duty,  ought  to  he  made  to  do  so,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  do; 
otherwise  the  technical  education  board  would  not  allow  its  scholarships  to  be 
held  at  these  schools. 

The  plain  question,  therefore,  is  this:  Are  we  then  going  to  permanently  allow 
two  sorts  of  secondary  education  to  grow  up,  both  more  or  less  professing  to  do 
the  same  work,  but  one  financed  if  not  run  by  the  county  council,  and  the  other 
promoted  by  the  school  boards?  From  the  national  point  of  view  is  there  any 
gain  whatever  from  such  a  clumsy  and  expensive  duplication?  Does  it  not  mean 
the  perpetuation  of  friction  and  overlapping,  an  educational  schism — in  fact,  the 
scission  of  the  nation  itself  into  two  parties?  Whereas,  with  one  authority  at  the 
head,  the  problem  would  at  once  be  simplified.  Given  a  certain  area,  what  is 
the  supply  of  education  on  the  ground?  If  there  is  redundancy,  correct  it;  if 
there  is  scarcity,  supplement  it.  Is  the  question  one  of  popular  control?  Can  the 
school  board,  elected  on  a  cumulative  franchise,  be  called  a  really  democratic 
body?  Does  not  the  low  percentage  of  votes  polled  at  its  elections— a  bare  one- 
fifth  at  the  last  London  election— show,  by  the  rough  test  of  experience,  that  how¬ 
ever  much  it  may  profess  to  bedemocratic,  it  only  interests  a  fraction  of  democracy, 
whereas  the  county  councils  are,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  democratic  and  pop¬ 
ular?  We  shall  never  have  order,  coordination,  or  popular  interest  in  education 
till  we-have  a  single  authority  which  is  really  representative  of  the  people.  There 
is,  then,  only  one  remedy.  The  school  boards  must  be  taken  over  by  the  borough 
councils,  but  it  would  be  probably  wise  to  give  a  term  during  which  they  might 
be  taken  over.  There  should,  in  fact,  be  no  forced  liquidation,  but  they  should 
be  acquired  as  going  concerns  by  the  borough  councils,  who  would  thus  have 
time  to  look  round  and  see  how  they  could  be  gradually  taken  over  with  the  least 
amount  of  educational  and  administrative  disturbance.  The  best  members  of  the 
school  board  would  at  once  be  co-opted  onto  the  municipal  education  committees, 
in  order  that  the  loss  of  experience  and  administrative  ability  might  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum. 

London  itself  would  form  a  problem  apart.  The  school-board  system  as  a  whole 
would  be  placed  under  the  technical,  or,  as  it  would  then  be  called,  the  education 
board.  But  the  work  in  this  case  would  be  too  gigantic  for  a  single  committee, 
even  with  subcommittees  to  aid  it.  While  the  education  committee  would  exer¬ 
cise  a  general  oversight  and  see  that  a  minimum  standard  was  everywhere 
observed,  large  powers  would  be  delegated  to  the  new  municipal  bodies,  who 
would  exercise  a  limited  control  over  their  own  schools,  and  thus  be  able  to  take 
an  interest  in  them.  The  voluntary  schools  would  naturally  be  allowed,  as  above, 
to  submit  themselves  to  the  inspection  of  the  board  and  participate  in  its  grants, 
and  what  has  been  said  under  the  headings  of  co-optation,  finance,  etc.,  as  regards 
the  country,  would,  mutatis  mutandis,  apply  to  the  big  towns  and  London. 

As  regards  the  central  authority,  a  preliminary  effort  has  been  made  under  the 
board  of  education  act  to  unify  the  chief  departments  concerned  with  education. 
The  education  department  and  the  science  and  art  department  have  been  united, 
and  certain  powers  have  been  taken  over  from  the  charity  commission — to  an 
insufficient  extent  according  to  the  headmasters’  conference.  The  office  has  been 
divided  up  into  elementary  and  secondary,  with  technological.  The  exigencies  of 
offic  al  administration  will  probably  make  the  division  between  secondary  and 
technological  as  distinct  as  between  it  and  elementary.  But,  apart  from  internal 
reorganization,  what  the  office  wants  at  the  present  time  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
facts  with  which  it  has  to  deal.1  Hitherto,  owing  to  the  system  of  payment  by 
results,  it  has  been  overwhelmed  by  questions  of  detail  and  audit.  Perhaps  the 
establishment  of  the  Block  grant  may  set  it  free  to  study  the  admirable  collection 
of  reports  which  nave  been  amassed  by  its  special-inquiries  section.  It  must 
utilize  this  knowledge  to  formulate  principles  which  it  should  be  ready  to  apply 
if  necessary.  To  assist  in  this  delicate  task  it  should  make  full  use  of  the  con¬ 
sultative  committee,  who  are  the  natural  “go-between”  between  the  schools  and 
the  universities.  A  capable  secondary  inspectorate  is  also  a  sine  qua  non,  not 
only  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the  department,  but  as  its  eyes  and  ears,  for  a  depart¬ 
ment  without  an  adequate  inspectorate  is  like  those  lay  figures  of  whom  it  has 
been  said  “they  have  eyes  and  see  not,  ears  have  they  and  hear  not.” 

And,  lastly,  there  must  be  a  wide  measure  of  devolution  to  the  local  authorities. 
The  id  al  education  office  is  not  a  clearing  house  through  which  every  scrap  of 
the  education  of  the  country  should  pass,  but  a  central  office  for  giving  unity  and 
direction  to  the  work  of  the  authorities  beneath  it.  All  that  has  been  said  about 


1  See  R.  P.  Scott:  “Secondary  education.  Legislation  with  special  reference  to  problems 
awaiting  solution,”  in  Education  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Edited  by  R.  D.  Roberts.  Cam¬ 
bridge,  University  Press,  1901. 


EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BKITAIN  AND  IRELAND.  1007 


the  advantage  of  unity  and  clearly  defined  organization  applies  with  added  force 
to  the  central  authority.  In  many  cases  the  localities  will  require  the  assistance 
of  Parliament  to  help  them  to  render  their  supply  of  education  adequate.  Their 
demands,  clearly  formulated,  will  enable  the  office,  through  its  spokesman,  the 
minister,  to  insist  not  only  on  these  local  needs,  but  to  show  how  they  are  only 
part  and  parcel  of  the  larger  question  of  improving  our  third  line  of  defense, 
which  education  represents,  and  for  preparing  for  the  new  Armageddon — not  that 
dreamt  of  by  theologians — which  awaits  us  in  the  near  future. 

The  education  question  is  really  only  an  outcrop  of  the  fundamental  problem 
of  national  life  and  welfare.  It  is  from  the  national,  or  rather  international, 
standpoint  alone  that  we  can  realize  the  supreme  need  of  unification  and  consoli¬ 
dation  at  the  present  juncture.  During  the  last  fifty  years  the  political  policy  of 
the  States  that  make  up  the  civilized  world  have  profoundly  changed.  It  seems 
hardly  likely  that  we,  who  form  an  integral  part  of  that  world,  can  remain  unaf¬ 
fected  by  these  alterations,  although,  from  a  false  sense  of  security,  we  may  for 
the  moment  prefer  to  ignore  them  and  refuse  to  shape  our  policy  to  suit  the  new 
outlook.  Speaking  broadly,  however,  it  will  probably  not  be  contested  by  thought¬ 
ful  men  that  we  have  been  passing  through  and  are  now  passing  out  of  a  period 
of  laissez  faire,  and  are  willy-nilly,  being  forced  once  more  into  a  cycle  of  state 
control.  It  seems  strange  that  in  many  ways  the  old-fashioned  Liberal  and  Rad¬ 
ical  party,  who  represented  the  laissez  faire  doctrine  at  home,  should  have  been 
the  chief  means  of  precipitating  this  change  abroad.  By  their  deep  loyal  and 
unwavering  sympathy  for  oppressed  peoples,  whom  they  regarded  rather  as  mere 
aggregates  of  individuals,  they  have  given  an  enormous  impetus  to  the  growth  of 
nationalities.  While  they  thought  they  were  helping  to  emancipate  downtrodden 
sections  of  humanity,  they  were  really  assisting  in  the  birth  or  development  of 
states  and  empires  which  must  henceforth  be  reckoned  with  in  the  struggle  for 
our  own  national  existence.  To  take  only  a  few  instances.  Had  Great  Britain 
withheld  her  aid  from.  Greece,  her  sympathy  from  Italy,  thrown  herself  on  the 
side  of  the  Southern  States  against  the  Northern,  backed  France  in  1870  and 
retarded  thereby  the  consolidation  of  the  German  Empire,  it  is  very  probable  that 
the  period  of  laissez  faire  might  have  been  prolonged  in  this  country.  More 
organized  than  many  of  our  neighbors,  though  loosely  organized,  we  should  not 
have  felt  so  shrewdly  the  need  of  further  organization. 

But  when  Germany,  in  1870,  suddenly  stepped  into  the  front  rank  of  nations, 
laissez  faire  was  doomed.  The  power  which  had  largely  built  up  its  unity  through 
its  commercial  policy  of  the  Zollverein  was  little  likely  to  rest  content  with  this 
internal  victory.  Having  set  its  house  in  order,  it  had  every  right  to  dream  of  a 
Weltpolitik,  and  this  it  has  henceforth  pursued  with  that  sheer,  dogged,  deter¬ 
mined  diplomacy  which  only  retires  in  order  to  advance  in  better  order,  and  which 
surmounts  or  circumvents  the  most  formidable  obstacles  by  its  unfailing  consist¬ 
ency.  It  was  not  long  before  the  new  force  began  to  make  itself  felt  in  neutral 
markets.  And  since  commerce  represents  one  of  the  main  items  in  our  national 
livelihood,  this  new  form  of  competition  caused  much  ado  in  England.  The  United 
States  have  pursued  a  similar  policy.  Its  great  capitalists  have  forced  on  the 
country  a  protective  tariff,  and  what  is  more  serious,  believing  that  Providence  is 
on  the  side  of  the  big  battalions,  have  combined  among  themselves  instead  of  prac¬ 
ticing  the  cut-throat  competition  a  ou trance  dreamed  of  by  the  old  economists, 
whose  morality  is  summed  up  by  the  phrase  homo  homini  lupus.  The  battles  of 
commerce  are  often  decided  by  the  last  “sou,”  for  it  will  pay  any  trading  corpo¬ 
ration  to  run  a  thing  for  a  time  at  a  loss  if  it  implies  the  ultimate  ruin  or  squeez¬ 
ing  out  of  their  competitors.  How  are  the  richest  firms  and  companies  in  England 
to  stand  up  for  long  against  trusts  which,  in  some  cases,  represent  an  entire  indus¬ 
try  in  America,  financed  by  syndicates  with  illimitable  wealth,  drawing  enormous 
profits  from  the  home  markets  that  they  can  afford  to  employ  in  underselling 
abroad,  and  backed  up  as  well,  as  they  probably  will  be  in  the  near  future,  by 
State  bounties  or  subsidies  for  American  shipping  lines? 

But  it  must  not  be  for  a  moment  supposed  that  the  commercial  warfare  that 
neither  slumbers  nor  sleeps  is  a  mere  matter  of  protective  tariffs  or  subsidies. 
The  nation  which  merely  goes  as  far  as  this  resembles  the  rich  man  who  thinks  he 
has  done  all  that  is  necessary  to  do  for  charity  by  sitting  down  and  writing  out  a 
handsome  check.  A  tariff  is  only  a  fortification  for  those  who,  like  the  Ameri¬ 
cans  or  Germans,  know  how  to  fight  behind  it.  A  subsidy  is  only  a  grant-in-aid 
to  those  who  know  how  to  use  it.  And  so  the  State  which  succeeds  is  not  that 
which  hedges  itself  round  with  a  Chinese  wall  of  tariffs  and  fancies  it  can  then  go 
to  sleep.  No  Chinese  or  Roman  wall  ever  kept  the  invader  ouc  by  itself;  but  the 
nation  which,  behind  the  wall,  taking  for  its  motto  Wentworth’s  “Thorough, 
thorough,  thorough,”  both  individually  and  nationally,  does  its  best  in  attempting 


1008 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


to  build  up,  reconstruct,  or  improve  its  internal  organization,  to  help  it,  as  it  were, 
to  make  the  core  yet  harder  than  the  rind.  Hence,  to  confine  ourselves  to  Ger¬ 
many,  the  appearance  of  State  activity  in  every  quarter.  First  and  foremost  in 
education,  then  in  questions  of  hygiene,  State  insurance  and  old-age  pensions. 
Call  it  paternal  if  you  will,  but  it  is  never  grandmotherly,  for  it  is  the  result  of 
the  experience  of  a  civil  service  which  for  trained  intelligence  is  the  ripest  in  the 
world. 

•  We  could  not,  if  we  would,  servilely  copy  German  methods.  As  Sir  John  Gorst 
put  it  the  other  day,  we  can  not  wear  each  other's  clothes.  They  will  always  be 
a  startling  misfit  for  the  other  party.  But  we  can  make  a  suit  for  ourselves.  The 
political  reforms  of  the  century  in  this  country  have  been  mainly  directed  toward 
placing  the  tools  of  power  in  the  hands  of  the  democracy.  It  has  been  a  great 
and  a  bloodless  revolution.  But  the  millenium  that  early  reformers  dreamed  of 
has  not  been  the  necessary  corollary.  The  ruling  class,  and  rightly,  is  still  the 
ruling  class.  But  it  must  learn  to  march  with  the  times.  We  want,  in  these 
days  of  international  competition,  something  more  than  a  strong  army  or  navy  to 
make  the  nation  strong.  Such  things  are  essential,  but  they  are  only  a  means  of 
insurance  against  loss.  They  represent  the  nation’s  “land  and  water  ”  police,  but 
those  who  hold  that  the  State  should  not  only  be  the  protector  but  the  promoter  of 
public  welfare  can  not  be  content  with  this  alone.  If  evolution  has  one  lesson 
for  us,  it  is  that  by  taking  thought  we  may  improve  the  race.  The  cry  for  improve¬ 
ment  is  growing.  On  all  sides  and  in  all  quarters  we  hear  more  and  more  imper¬ 
ative  demands  for  reforms,  whether  for  better  commercial  or  secondary  education, 
housing,  licensing  reform,  or  old-age  pensions.  All  these  and  many  more  are 
symptoms  of  the  national  malaise.  What  the  nation  wants  is  coordinating  and 
leveling  up  all  round.  Here  is  the  statesman’s  chance,  not  to  propose  an  unwieldly 
Newcastle  programme  of  isolated  reforms,  much  less  to  attempt  to  stave  off  the 
crisis  by  niggling  measures  of  concession;  but,  seeing  the  question  as  a  whole  in 
all  its  diverse  manifestations,  to  bring  in  a  series  of  measures  that  interlock  and 
are  inter-related,  that  represent,  so  to  say,  a  veritable  code,  for  all  these  problems 
are  closely,  at  bottom,  akin  to  one  another,  and  their  correct  solution  depends  on 
these  relations  being  rightly  understood  in  reference  to  each  other  and  in  reference 
to  our  attitude  toward  the  attitude  of  other  nations.  Otherwise  we  shall  go  on 
being  beaten  “in  detail”  till  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

But  the  belated  protest  may  be  made  that  we,  as  a  nation,  are  refractory  to  the 
notion  of  State  control.  Such  a  statement  is  made  by  people  with  little  historical 
knowledge.  It  was  the  State  control  of  the  Conqueror  that  made  England,  of 
Edward  I  that  consolidated  it,  while  that  of  Elizabeth  not  only  resettled  the  coun¬ 
try  but  laid  the  foundations  of  Greater  Britain  and  gave  her  children  the  chance 
of  going  out  to  seek  their  fortune  beyond  the  narrow  seas.  The  last  reign  is  par¬ 
ticularly  to  the  point.  Beginning  in  difficulties  and  weakness,  it  ended  in  glory 
and  power.  And  why?  Because  the  statesmen  of  the  day.  finding  the  country 
weak,  poor,  disunited,  first  inquired  into  the  many  evils  under  which  it  was  suf¬ 
fering,  and  then,  by  no  piece-work  and  patch-work  measures,  but  by  a  comprehen¬ 
sive  system  of  legislation,  whose  success  was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
clearly  saw  how  the  solution  of  one  social  problem  depended  on  that  of  another, 
they  set  the  country  once  more  on  its  feet;  and  this  social  legislation  was  only 
destroyed  by  the  revolution  of  1048,  which  was  the  true  beginning  of  laissez  faire. 

Yet  none  the  less  we  must  not  forget  that  this  laissez  faire  was  historically 
necessary.  It  insisted  upon  the  emancipation  of  the  individual,  it  upheld  his  claim 
to  think  for  himself,  it  vindicated  his  rights  of  conscience.  For  these  hard-won 
rights  we  can  never  be  sufficiently  grateful.  The  society  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
except  for  the  church,  was  a  static  one;  the  principle  of  laissez  faire  introduced, 
or  rather  embodied,  the  “dynamic”  element  in  society.  Through  this  door  came 
the  idea  of  progress  for  the  race  and  the  career  open  to  talent  for  the  individual. 
The  bad  side  of  laissez  faire  has  been  its  neglect  of,  and  contempt  for,  the  State, 
of  which  the  weak  have  even  more  need  than  the  strong,  for  without  its  protection 
the  stronger  soon  weary  of  fighting  among  themselves  and  combine  against  the 
weak,  so  that  the  latter,  who  in  mediaeval  times  had  always  a  place  in  society, 
have  now  sometimes  no  definite  place  at  all. 

But  all  progress  largely  depends  on  taking  and  combining  the  best  in  two  rival 
systems,  and  so  if  we  are  to  have  Sta:e  control  in  this  country  we  must  attempt  to 
preserve  at  the  same  time  all  that  is  best  in  the  laissez  faire  doctrine.  And  the 
same  is  true  of  educational  roform.  Unification  of  education  must  come,  but 
State  control  should  not  be  established  at  the  expense  of  losing  all  our  freedom, 
elasticity,  and  variety,  otherwise  the  solution  will  not  even  be  a  temporary  modus 
vivendi,  but  rather  a  cause  of  national  decay. 


Cloudesley  Brereton. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH.1 

By  Charles  W.  Dabney,  Ph.  D., 

President ,  University  of  Tennessee. 


The  South  waiting  for  education. — Everything  in  the  South  waits  upon  the  gen¬ 
eral  education  of  the  people.  Industrial  development  waits  for  more  captains  of 
industry,  superintendents  of  factories,  and  skilled  workmen.  The  natural  resources 
of  the  Southern  States  are  great  and  varied;  capital  in  abundance  is  ready  for 
investment  in  them;  only  men  are  wanted  who  can  plan,  organize,  and  direct. 
This  is  true  of  all  our  industries,  even  of  our  agriculture.  A  director  of  an  Agri¬ 
cultural  Experiment  Station  says:  “We  can  do  little  more  to  improve  the  agricul¬ 
tural  methods  of  the  farmers  until  a  new  generation  is  educated,  who  can  read 
our  bulletins,  apply  scientific  methods,  and  keep  simple  farm  accounts.” 

The  colleges  for  liberal,  and  institutions  for  scientific  and  technical  education  as 
well,  wait  for  preparatory  schools  and  high  schools.  With  the  same  population 
there  were  during  1899  in  all  collegiate  and  graduate  courses  in  liberal  arts  only 
16,351  students  in  the  Southern  States  against  30,741  in  the  North  Central  States, 
where  they  have  public  high  schools.  A  system  of  public  education  is  a  pyramid; 
the  primary  schools  are  the  foundation;  the  secondary  schools  and  high  schools, 
the  normal  schools,  the  technical  schools,  and  the  colleges  carry  up  the  structure 
step  by  step,  and  the  university  is  the  capstone.  Our  old  system  of  education  in 
the  South,  so  far  as  we  had  any,  was  a  Greek  column;  the  university  was  a  beauti¬ 
ful  carved  capital  of  classic  design,  supported  by  a  slender  column  of  literary  col¬ 
leges  and  academies,  which  stood  upon  a  narrow  and  unsubstantial  base  of  private 
schools. 

The  effects  of  war  and  reconstruction. — Good  government  in  town  and  State  and 
intelligent  action  in  national  affairs  are  impossible  without  educated  voters.  Pet¬ 
tifogging  politicians,  selfish  demagogues,  and  corrupt  lobbyists  will  continue  to 
control  our  legislative  and  county  governments  until  a  majority  of  the  voters 
can  read  and  think  for  themselves.  The  Republic  must  have  an  educated  citizen¬ 
ship  or  go  down.  The  question  of  educating  all  the  people  is  more  critically 
important  to  the  South  than  it  is  to  the  remainder  of  the  nation.  We  must  edu¬ 
cate  all  our  people,  blacks  as  well  as  whites,  or  the  South  will  become  a  dependent 

1  Address  delivered  at  the  Fourth  Conference  for  Education  in  the  South,  held  at  Winston- 
Salem,  FT.  C.,  April  18-20,  1901. 

Appended  to  this  address  is  a  statement,  by  Hamilton  W.  Mabie,  showing  the  character  and 
aims  of  the  Southern  Conference,  and  giving  some  general  idea  of  the  great  educational  move¬ 
ment  it  has  inaugurated  in  the  South;  also  brief  accounts,  by  Robert  C.  Ogden  and  Walter  H. 
Page,  of  the  two  boards  which  have  been  formed  by  the  conference  and  are  the  outgrowth  of  it, 
as  it  were;  namely,  (1)  the  Southern  Education  Board,  an  investigating  and  “preaching  ”  board 
for  carrying  on  a  propaganda  of  education,  and  (2)  the  Board  of  the  General  Education  Fund, 
composed  of  business  men,  to  provide  funds  and  to  follow  up  and  give  effect  to  the  work  of 
the  propagandists.  A  bill  is  before  Congress  to  incorporate  the  latter  organization  under  the 
name  of  the  General  Education  Board. 

ED  1901 - 64 


1009 


1010 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900=1901. 


province  instead  of  a  coordinate  portion  of  the  nation.  What,  for  example,  is  the 
cause  of  the  present  complete  isolation,  of  the  almost  entire  exclusion  from  the 
councils  of  the  nation,  of  a  dozen  States  which  for  a  long  time  supplied  a  majority 
of  the  statesmen  who  directed  the  affairs  of  this  country,  unless  it  is  the  political 
ignorance  of  their  successors,  illustrated  persistently  by  the  pursuit  of  absurd 
financial  theories  and  antiquated  political  hobbies?  The  only  remedy  for  the 
political  situation  in  the  South  is  to  be  found  in  public  education. 

Even  religion  waits  upon  general  education.  How  else  can  we  interpret  the 
action  of  our  enlightened  and  progressive  churches,  many  of  which  are  now  actively 
at  work  raising  their  twentieth  century  educational  funds?  Evidently  they  think 
that  the  further  extension,  purification,  and  strengthening  of  religion  in  the  South 
depends  also  on  general  education. 

This  study  was  undertaken  out  of  a  desire  to  get  a  true  conception  of  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  public  schools  in  the  South,  which  might  be  the  starting  point  for 
efforts  at  improving  them.  The  writer  sincerely  hopes  that  no  one  will  think, 
because  he  has  tried  to  tell  the  truth  as  he  sees  it,  that  he  takes  a  pessimistic  or 
despairing  view  of  the  situation.  In  most  aspects  the  situation  of  the  public 
schools  in  the  South  is  indeed  a  sad  one.  It  is  not  proposed  to  discuss  at  length 
here  the  origin  or  the  causes  of  this  state  of  things,  for  everyone  who  knows  our 
history  understands  them  already.  The  South  emerged  from  the  civil  war  thirty- 
six  years  ago,  having  lost  one-tenth  of  all  her  white  males  and  three  billions  of 
property,  which  was  nearly  all  her  accumulated  capital.  Reconstruction  was 
even  more  desolating  than  war.  The  spoiler  not  only  stole  everything  that  war 
had  left,  but,  as  Judge  Jeremiah  S.  Black  has  said,  “by  their  devilish  ingenuity 
they  succeeded  in  running  their  felonious  fingers  into  the  pockets  of  posterity.’’ 
They  not  only  looted  the  treasuries,  squandered  the  school  funds,  and  raised  the 
taxes  so  high  that  a  general  system  of  confiscation  ensued,  but  in  their  insatiable 
lust  placed  bonded  debts  upon  the  Southern  States  aggregating  over  §300,000,000. 
A  debt  was  piled  upon  the  State  of  North  Carolina,  for  example,  of  about 
$38,000,000,  which  was  nearly  one-third  as  much  as  the  total  valuation  of  all  its 
property;  upon  Alabama  they  put  a  debt  amounting  to  over  $18,000,000;  upon 
Tennessee  one  of  over  $14,000,000.  They  squandered  $140,000,000  for  Louisiana 
and  increased  her  debt  $40,000,000! 

But  why  do  I  recount  these  awful  things?  Simply  to  explain  once  for  all  at  the 
opening  of  this  paper  why  Southern  people  have  not  actually  done  more  for  pub¬ 
lic  schools,  and  especially  why  they  hate  all  taxgatherers  and  distrust  all  schemes 
for  the  “  public  welfare,”  which  they  understand  to  mean  for  the  private  gain  of 
the  schemers.  This  experience  explains  our  present  narrow  constitutions,  which 
render  it  almost  impossible  to  have  efficient  schools.  It  explains  the  intense  devo¬ 
tion  of  Southerners  to  the  laissez  faire  theory  of  politics,  and  their  radical  appli¬ 
cations  of  the  principle  of  local  self-government.  It  throws  light  as  well  upon 
much  of  the  opposition  in  early  times  to  our  public  schools,  which  seemed  to  the 
Southern  settlers  to  be  somewhat  inconsistent  with  their  theory  of  individualism. 

But  the  Southern  people  are  too  brave  and  energetic  a  race  to  live  forevei  in  the 
shadow  of  a  great  sorrow  and  under  the  burden  of  a  great  wrong.  The  restora¬ 
tion  and  recuperation  have  been  rapid;  there  never  was  anything  like  it.  The 
census  of  1880  showed  that  the  South  had  gained  nearly  $5,000,000,000  in  the  assess¬ 
ment  of  property;  in  the  next  ten  years  she  gained  50  per  cent  more,  against  22 
per  cent  in  New  England  and  in  the  Middle  States.  Since  1880  the  production  of 
cotton  has  doubled  and  the  manufactures  of  all  kinds  have  been  more  than  quad¬ 
rupled.  The  capital  invested  in  cotton  manufacturing  has  increased  twelvefold 
in  ten  years.  Thirty  thousand  miles  of  railroads  have  been  built  in  fifteen  years 
and  over  $1,000,000,000  expended  upon  them.  The  coal  products  have  increased 
fivefold  and  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  this  section  has  increased  from  400,000 
tons  to  over  2,000,000  tons.  These  figures  are  only  pointers;  the  progress  has 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH.  1011 

been  equally  great  along  all  other  lines.  The  people  of  the  entire  South  are  now 
able  to  have  better  schools. 

Believing  that  the  Southern  people  have  at  last  overcome  most  of  the  financial 
and  political  results  of  war  and  reconstruction,  I  hold  that  the  time  has  come  when 
we  must  begin  seriously  upon  the  work  of  reconstructing  Southern  society  in  all 
its  departments,  and  that  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  establish  schools  for  all  the  peo¬ 
ple.  God  knows  we  remember  the  past,  even  those  of  us  who  were  nothing  but 
children  remember  it,  and  we  would  not  forget  or  have  our  children  forget  any  of 
the  lessons  of  those  days,  and  least  of  all  the  inspiring  examples  of  their  heroic 
grandfathers;  but  our  faces  are  toward  the  future,  and  in  preparation  for  the 
work  of  rebuilding  our  institutions  it  is  our  duty  to  study  the  facts  as  they  are, 
blinking  nothing  of  the  truth,  however  unpleasant.  Some  politicians  find  it  desir¬ 
able  to  flatter  the  people  and  try  to  make  them  feel  as  comfortable  as  possible  in 
their  present  position,  but  all  thinking  Southerners  know  that  our  public  schools 
are  a  disgrace  and  such  persons  demand  the  truth,  and  will  be  glad  to  learn  how 
to  make  them  better. 

The  country  schools. — The  South  is  an  agricultural  section.  Its  people  live  in  the 
country  and  work  in  the  country;  they  must,  therefore,  be  educated  in  the  coun¬ 
try.  Inmost  respects  this  is  a  happy  condition,  but  in  order  to  realize  all  the 
blessings  of  rural  life  we  must  have  good  schools  in  the  country.  My  investiga¬ 
tion  and  discussion  will  therefore  be  chiefly  confined  to  the  country  schools,  the 
free  schools  for  the  masses  of  the  people. 

In  the  old  South  the  better  country  neighborhoods  had  many  excellent  private 
schools,  which  educated  the  children  of  the  wealthier  families  in  classics  and  lit¬ 
erature  and  trained  a  race  of  men  and  women  who  have  not  been  surpassed  in 
any  age  or  land.  But  these  schools,  which  were  never  general,  have  now  disap¬ 
peared  almost  entirely,  and  at  present  in  the  country  districts  of  the  South  we 
have  just  enough  public  schools  to  destroy  completely  the  private  schools. 

Let  us  seek  first  to  get  a  general  view  of  these  country  schools  and  to  learn 
what  progress,  if  any,  has  been  made  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  Table  I 
contains  a  statement,  compiled  from  data  supplied  by  the  Commissioner  of  Edu¬ 
cation,  showing  the  condition  of  the  public  schools  in  the  former  slave  States, 
from  Delaware  to  Texas,  and  including  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  in  the  years  1875, 
1885,  1895,  and  1900.  Between  1875  and  1900  the  population  increased  from 
16,000,000  to  27,000,000.  Teachers  are  twice  as  numerous  as  in  1875,  females  hav¬ 
ing  increased  far  more  rapidly  than  males.  There  are  also  nearly  twice  as  many 
schoolhouses  in  1900  as  there  were  in  1875.  The  value  of  school  property  has  been 
nearly  quadrupled.  The  average  value  of  property  per  school  has  been  nearly 
doubled.  Here  is  some  progress,  but  we  should  remember  that  it  is  progress  from 
a  condition  in  1875  of  almost  nothing.  The  average  number  of  days  the  schools 
are  kept  has  increased  but  little— from  93  to  109.6.  The  average  annual  pay  of 
teachers  has  decreased  from  $175  in  1875  to  $158.75  in  1900.  The  total  expendi¬ 
tures  have  been  doubled,  but  the  amount  expended  per  capita,  which  was  81  cents 
in  1875,  is  only  $1.34  in  1900,  and  the  amount  expended  per  pupil  enrolled  has 
increased  only  12  per  cent  in  twenty-five  years— $8.56  to  $9.72. 

We  find  thus  that  while  the  schools  and  the  school-teachers  have  multiplied,  it 
has  not  been  in  proportion  to  the  enrollment.  Much  money  has  been  invested  in 
school  property,  but  the  compensation  of  teachers  has  diminished,  and  the  amount 
expended  per  capitals  still  pitifully  low.  Worst  of  all,  the  schools  are  still  open, 
upon  the  average,  only  five  months  in  the  year.  Should  not  the  people  of  the 
South  ask  themselves  seriously  whether  they  have  made  the  same  progress  with 
the  schools  that  they  have  in  other  respects?  Have  they  done  all  they  could  for 
the  schools? 

Compared  with  North  Central  States. — Compare  with  this  the  situation  in  the 
North  Central  States  (Ohio  to  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  South  and  North  Dakota) 


1012 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


in  1900,  These  States  contain  a  million  fewer  people,  but  had  the  same  number 
of  children  enrolled  in  the  schools.  The  percentage  of  the  school  population  in 
average  daily  attendance  is  52.50  in  the  North  Central  States  as  against  40.32  in 
the  Southern  States;  the  total  number  of  teachers  is  181,916  against  127,577;  the 
number  of  schoolhouses  is  105,118  to  96,849;  but  the  value  of  school  property  is 
$230,391,589  to  $67,473,856.  The  average  number  of  days  schools  are  taught  is 
155.6  in  the  North  Central  States  to  109.6  in  the  Southern  States;  the  average  sal¬ 
ary  of  teachers  per  month  is  $43  to  $31.75;  the  total  expenditures  in  the  North 
Central  States  are  $84,802,319  to  $36,280,166  in  the  Southern  States,  which  is  $3.23 
per  capita  of  the  population,  or  $20.85  per  pupil  in  attendance  in  the  North  Cen¬ 
tral  States  against  $1.34  per  capita  of  population  and  $9.72  per  pupil  in  attendance 
in  the  Southern  States.  V/e  should  remember  that  the  Southern  States  include  a 
population  of  over  7,000,000  negroes,  and  were  devastated  thirty-six  years  ago  by 
a  terrible  war.  The  comiiarison  is  not  perfectly  fair— few  comparisons  are— but 
it  shows  what  this  population  can  do  and  what  the  results  in  wealth  productions 
are,  and  sets  a  standard  toward  which  the  Southern  States  should  strive  to  build. 

Conditions  in  typical  States. — Table  I  does  not,  however,  give  us  a  correct  view 
of  the  situation  in  that  portion  of  the  South  in  which  we  are  particularly  inter¬ 
ested,  namely,  the  Central  Southern  and  Gulf  States.  In  this  table  are  included 
statistics  for  the  border  States  of  Delaware,  the  District  of  Columbia,  Maryland, 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  in  which  the  conditions  are  much  better  than 
in  the  other  Southern  States.  These  States  bring  up  the  averages  very  much. 
For  this  reason  I  have  prepared,  after  the  same  plan,  a  second  table,  based  upon 
the  latest  information  obtainable  from  the  State  superintendents’ reports  of  North 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Tennessee,  which  are  typical  Southern  States. 
The  reader  is  invited  to  examine  it  very  carefully.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
schoolman  the  situation  is  sad  beyond  expression.  In  North  Carolina  only  30  per 
cent  of  the  children  are  in  daily  attendance  upon  the  schools;  less  than  60  percent 
are  enrolled  in  them,  and  the  annual  school  term  is  less  than  seventy-one  days. 
There  are  in  North  Carolina  on  the  average  65  enrolled  pupils  to  each  school  and 
54  to  each  teacher.  The  schoolhouse  which  is  supposed  to  shelter  the  children  is 
valued  at  $179.60,  and  the  teacher  who  has  charge  of  them  receives  $23.36  a  month 
for  seventy  and  eight-tenths  days,  or  about  $77  for  the  term.  The  amount 
expended  per  year  per  pupil  in  attendance  is  but  $4.34,  which  is  only  51  cents  per 
capita.  In  Tennessee  less  than  half  of  the  children  between  5  and  18  years  of  age 
are  in  daily  attendance;  only  70  per  cent  are  enrolled  in  the  schools;  the  school 
term  is  only  ninety-six  days,  and  the  enrolled  pupils  attend  an  average  of  only 
sixty- three  days  in  the  year.  In  Tennessee  they  are  taught  in  a  schoolhouse  which 
cost  $426,  by  teachers  who  receive  an  annual  salary  of  $134.  The  total  expense 
per  pupil  is  $5.17  a  year,  which  is  only  87  cents  per  capita. 

Tennessee  and  Iowa  compared. — In  Table  II,  by  the  side  of  the  figures  for  Ten¬ 
nessee,  I  have  placed  the  figures  for  Iowa  in  1899.  The  comparison  is  not  per¬ 
fectly  fair,  but  it  will  be  well  to  see  what  another  younger  State  of  about  the  same 
population  is  doing  for  its  schools.  This  State  contains  a  slightly  larger  popula¬ 
tion  than  Tennessee,  but  somewhat  fewer  children.  The  enrollment  in  the  schools 
in  Iowa  is  87.5  per  cent  of  the  school  population,  against  70.1  per  cent  in  Tennes¬ 
see,  In  Iowa  57.3  per  cent  of  the  school  population  are  in  daily  attendance, 
against  49  per  cent  in  Tennessee.  Teachers  number  28,694  in  Iowa  to  9,195  in 
Tennessee;  the  schoolhouses  are  13,836  to  7,185;  the  value  of  school  property  is 
$16,908,076  to  $3,063,568.  The  average  value  of  school  property  is  $1,222  in  Iowa 
to  $426  in  Tennessee.  The  average  number  of  days  the  schools  are  kept  is  one 
hundred  and  fifty-eight  in  Iowa  to  ninety-six  in  Tennessee.  The  average  teacher’s 
salary  is  $45  in  Iowa  to  $31  in  Tennessee,  and  there  are  three  times  as  many  teachers 
in  Iowa.  The  total  expenditures  are  $7,978,060  in  Iowa  and  $1,751,047  in  Tennes¬ 
see.  This  is  $3.80  per  capita  of  population  or  $21.89  per  pupil  in  attendance  in 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1013 


Iowa,  against  87  cents  per  capita  of  population  or  $5.17  per  pupil  in  Tennesseea 
The  total  real  and  personal  property  per  capita,  according  to  the  census  of  1890, 
was  $1,196  in  Iowa  and  $502  in  Tennessee.  Can  we  not  quite  fairly  say  that  this 
is  due  in  great  part  to  the  difference  in  the  public  schools? 

The  penalty  of  poverty. — The  stranger  is  astounded  at  this  statement  of  factse 
Why  is  it  that  a  good,  brave  people  tolerate  such  a  condition  of  things?  The 
explanation  is  found  in  the  figures  at  the  bottom  of  the  table.  The  Southern 
States  are  only  sparsely  settled  after  all;  in  1900,  North  Carolina  had  only  89, 
Georgia  37.5,  Alabama  85.4,  and  Tennessee  about  48.4  persons  to  the  square  mile. 
The  roads  are  poor,  with  the  result  that  in  many  sections  the  children  can  not  get 
to  schools.  But  this  is  not  the  true  explanation;  the  poverty  of  the  people  is  th© 
immediate  cause  why  the  schools  are  so  poor.  The  total  real  and  personal  prop- 
perty  per  capita  returned  to  the  census  of  1890  was  $361  in  North  Carolina,  $464 
in  Georgia,  $412  in  Alabama,  and  $502  in  Tennessee:  and  this  is  far  in  excess  of 
the  taxable  values.  In  Tennessee,  for  example,  the  taxable  values  in  1900  amounted 
to  only  $266.66  per  capita.  Tennessee  is  properly  considered  one  of  the  richest 
Southern  States,  but  the  total  valuation  of  all  her  real  and  personal  property  for 
the  purposes  of  taxation  in  1900  was  only  $472,000,000,  or,  deducting  railroads, 
telegraphs,  telephones,  and  such  property,  only  $260,000,000.  The  total  State  tax 
on  real  property  yielded  in  1900,  net  of  expenses,  only  $1,000,000;  the  total  receipts 
from  all  sources  were  only  $8,120,000.  The  total  indebtedness  of  Tennessee  is 
nearly  $17,000,000,  and  the  interest  about  $700,009  per  annum.  No  wonder  that 
its  total  expenditures  for  public  schools  were  only  $1,751,047. 

Education  and  crime. — Our  Southern  States  have  still  to  learn  that  education  is 
the  highest  concern  of  a  people,  and  that  the  first  duty  of  the  State  is  to  provide 
schools  for  all  its  children.  The  business  man  on  scanning  the  ledgers  of  these 
States  would,  however,  be  bound  to  declare  that  their  chief  concern  is  not  educa- 
tion  but  criminal  prosecutions.  In  the  year  1895,  for  example,  the  county  of 
Knox,  in  Tennessee,  paid  $37,000  to  prosecute  2,668  mostly  petty  criminal  cases; 
and  in  addition  to  this  the  State  paid  $17,000  toward  the  same  prosecutions,  mak¬ 
ing  a  total  of  $54,000,  or  $20.35  a  case.  This  was  simply  the  cost  of  prosecution; 
it  did  not  include  the  cost  of  supporting  the  convicted  criminals  in  prisons. 
There  were  2,668  prosecutions  in  a  population  of  74,000,  or  about  1  in  24!  Among 
the  people  in  our  jails  are  8  illiterates  to  1  who  can  read  and  write.  In  our  pen¬ 
itentiaries  there  are  6  illiterates  to  1  who  can  read  and  write.  Now,  one-half  of 
the  people  prosecuted  in  Knox  County  were  of  school  age.  One-half  the  cost  of 
prosecuting  these  cases  would  have  sent  nearly  10,000  children  to  school  for  the 
full  annual  Tennessee  term.  Can  we  doubt  that  if  this  money  had  been  expended 
for  the  education  of  the  people  we  would  not  have  had  to  send  them  to  jails  and 
penitentiaries?  Since  certain  reforms  in  the  methods  of  criminal  prosecutions  and 
the  establishment  of  an  industrial  school  matters  are  much  better  in  this  county. 

The  wastes  of  ignorance. — The  Southern  people  are  poor,  many  of  them  extremely 
poor.  Their  schools  are  poor  because  they  are  poor;  but  the  converse  is  equally 
true— the  people  are  poor  because  the  schools  are  poor.  The  relations  between  the 
opportunities  for  education  and  the  production  of  wealth  are  now  so  well  under¬ 
stood  that  we  can  measure  the  wealth-earning  power  of  a  people  by  the  school 
privileges  which  they  enjoy.  Statistics  show  that  the  power  of  a  people  to  earn 
money  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  period  the  average  citizen  has 
attended  school.  To  paraphrase  Dr.  Curry,  the  secretary  of  the  Peabody  board, 
a  people’s  poverty  is  the  most  unanswerable  argument  for  the  expenditure  of  any 
amount  of  money  necessary  to  give  them  good  schools,  for  the  right  kind  of 
schools  are  the  only  remedy  for  poverty  as  well  as  crime.  The  Southern  people 
are  too  poor  to  afford  the  wastes  of  ignorance.  If  they  spent  more  money  for 
education,  they  would  not  only  save  much  in  criminal  prosecutions,  but  would 
increase  enormously  their  earning  power. 


1014 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


What  the  schools  are  now  doing. — So  far  we  have  considered  only  the  general 
conditions  of  the  Southern  schools.  Figures  expressing  totals  and  averages  can 
not,  however,  tell  the  whole  story.  They  are  like  the  numbers  standing  for  the 
pulse  beat,  the  respiration,  and  the  proportion  of  red  corpuscles  in  the  patient's 
blood;  they  give  only  a  general  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  sick  man.  Before  we 
can  diagnose  the  disease  we  must  study  his  nature  carefully  and  observe  his 
symptoms  closely.  Let  us  therefore  seek  next  to  ascertain  what  the  public  schools 
of  the  South  actually  are  and  what  they  are  really  accomplishing.  I  will  use  the 
schools  in  Tennessee  to  illustrate  the  results  of  their  work. 

In  1900  there  were  in  Tennessee  7,185  public  schools,  with  9,195  teachers  and 
485,854  pupils  enrolled.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  different  grades  was  as  fol¬ 
lows:  First  grade,  119,000;  second  grade,  78,000;  third  grade,  70,000;  fourth  grade, 
67,000;  fifth  grade,  49,000;  sixth  grade,  17,000;  seventh  grade,  11,000,  and  eighth 
grade,  7,000.  The  large  dropping  off  after  the  fifth  grade  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  ordinary  primary  schools  have  only  five  grades,  and  the  three  additional  ones 
have  to  be  provided  by  special  local  taxation,  which  is  optional.  As  a  result  only 
1  school  in  10  has  the  three  additional  grades.  There  appears  to  be  no  way  of 
finding  out  how  many  pupils  complete  the  course.  Engraved  certificates  are 
issued  to  pupils  who  complete  the  fifth  and  to  those  who  complete  the  eighth 
grades.  These  are  sent  out  from  the  State  superintendent's  office  gratis  upon 
request,  bub  his  records  show  that  during  the  year  1900  only  1,959  diplomas  were 
issued  for  the  fifth  grade  and  679  for  the  eighth  grade.  More  pupils  doubtless 
completed  these  grades,  but  there  is  no  record  of  it.  In  any  case  we  know  that 
only  one-tenth  of  the  enrolled  pupils  ever  reach  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  grade, 
and  only  1  in  70  reaches  the  eighth  grade. 

How  ice  are  educating  a  citizen. — Enrollments  are  also  reported  by  subjects. 
Taking  elementary  algebra  as  a  test  subject,  we  find  that  only  16,000  were  enrolled 
in  that;  in  “higher  English,”  a  sixth  to  eighth  grade  study,  only  11,400  were 
enrolled.  The  facts  all  go  to  show  that  the  children  do  not  stay  in  the  schools.  An 
easy  calculation  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  average  citizen  of  Tennessee 
gets  less  than  three  years  of  this  kind  of  schooling  in  his  entire  life.  In  a  similar 
manner  it  may  be  shown  that  the  average  citizen  of  North  Carolina  gets  only 
about  two  and  six-tenth  years,  and  of  Alabama  two  and  four- tenth  years  of  public 
training.  This  is  the  way  we  are  educating  the  citizens  of  the  Republic — the  vot¬ 
ers  who  are  to  help  to  determine  the  destinies,  not  only  of  this  people,  but  of  millions 
of  others  beyond  the  seas.  Have  we  not  missionary  work  enough  to  do  here  at  our 
own  doors  without  going  to  Cuba,  Porlo  Rico,  or  the  Philippines  to  find  it? 

Compulsory  attendance. — According  to  the  latest  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education,  32  States  and  Territories,  containing  64  per  cent  of  the  population  of 
the  country,  have  laws  requiring  school  attendance  for  from  eight  weeks  to  the 
full  term  for  an  average  period  of  eight  years.  England,  Scotland,  Canada,  and 
nearly  all  the  British  colonies;  France,  Austria-Hungary,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and 
Germany  all  require  from  four  to  ten  months  each  year  for  a  like  period.  So  far  no 
Southern  States  except  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia  have  compulsory  attendance 
laws.  Some  interest  is,  however,  arising  in  the  question  in  other  States.  The  sub¬ 
ject  is  being  discussed  in  North  Carolina  and  in  Tennessee,  and  the  general  assem¬ 
blies  of  three  States  have  been  requested  to  enact  compulsory  attendance  laws.  In 
North  Carolina,  out  of  700  farmers,  manufacturers,  and  laborers  who  replied  to 
an  inquiry  sent  out  by  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  564  favored  such  a  law.  One 
thing  is  certain,  ninety  days'  school  with  an  average  attendance  of  only  30  to  40 
per  cent  of  the  school  population  will  never  educate  the  people. 

The  laws  designed  to  disfranchise  illiterate  whites  and  blacks  are  likely  to  have 
a  beneficent  influence  upon  the  educational  situation  in  the  South.  Such  laws,  if 
impartially  drawn  and  fairly  carried  out,  wili  do  almost  as  much  good  in  promot¬ 
ing  the  elementary  education,  of  males  at  least,  as  compulsory  laws.  The  unedu- 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1015 


cated  people  of  the  Southern  States,  both  whites  and  blacks,  esteem  their  ballot  to 
a  degree  that  is  almost  ridiculous.  In  States  like  North  Carolina,  where  the  edu¬ 
cational  qualification  has  been  applied,  the  colored  people  are  already  showing  an 
earnest  desire  to  get  the  little  education  required  to  qualify  as  voters.  But  these 
laws,  even  at  best,  touch  only  one-half  the  population.  The  only  perfect  solu¬ 
tion  of  the  problem  is  a  compulsory  attendance  law  carefully  designed  to  reach 
every  healthy  child.  W e  must  put  all  the  children  in  school,  but  before  we  do 
this  we  must  have  the  schools  and  the  teachers. 

The  secondary  schools. — Many  of  the  cities  and  towns  have  good  high  schools, 
but  there  are  no  public  secondary  schools,  properly  speaking,  in  the  country  dis¬ 
tricts  of  the  South.  Two  years  ago  in  Tennessee  a  law  was  passed  allowing  coun¬ 
ties  to  levy  a  special  tax  for  high  schools.  So  far  as  I  know,  however,  not  a  single 
one  has  been  organized.  Mississippi  is  more  fortunate.  As  the  result  of  an  act 
passed  in  1899  one  high  school  has  been  organized  in  Jefferson  and  funds  amount¬ 
ing  to  $G,000  have  been  provided,  in  part  by  the  State  and  in  part  by  county 
taxation.  There  are  eight  teachers:  the  principal’s  salary  is  $1,200;  the  other 
teachers  average  $450.  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  there  were  170  pupils. 
The  school  prepares  its  students  for  the  State  university.  Here  is  a  successful 
experiment  worthy  of  imitation  by  all  rural  communities  in  which  there  is  popula¬ 
tion  and  wealth  sufficient  to  support  a  high  school. 

Teachers  and  their  pay. — There  is,  of  course,  small  opportunity  in  the  country 
for  the  professional  teacher  or  even  the  habitual  teacher.  Who  is  going  to  prepare 
himself  to  teach  for  the  pitiful  salary  of  from  $23  to  $31  a  month  for  five  months 
only  in  the  year;  or  who  that  can  do  anything  else  is  going  to  continue  at  this 
very  long?  Of  what  use  are  normal  schools  until  teachers  are  paid  living  salaries? 
The  result  is  that  the  country  schools  have  to  employ  “  makeshift  ”  teachers,  the 
majority  of  them  inexperienced  young  people  who  have  had  no  training  beyond 
what  these  schools  themselves  give  and  who  use  the  school  only  as  a  stepping- 
stone  to  something  better.  The  young  man  wants  to  earn  a  little  money  to  pay 
his  way  at  a  business  college;  the  girl  to  earn  something  to  support  her  in  a  semi¬ 
nary  for  a  few  months.  Too  often  the  teacher  is  some  director’s  dependent  sister- 
in-law  or  aunt,  or  some  male  ne’er-do-well  who  must  be  kept  out  of  the  poor- 
house.  The  best  teachers  are  the  farmers’  boys  and  girls  who  teach  during  the 
fall  and  winter  and  work  during  the  spring  and  summer.  There  is,  of  course, 
no  prospect  of  improving  this  condition  until  better  salaries  are  provided. 

The  courses  of  study. — Extensive  courses  of  study  are  proposed  for  the  schools 
in  the  laws  of  all  the  States.  Here  is  the  Tennessee  course:  “There  shall  be  two 
classes  of  district  schools,  designated  respectively  primary  schools  and  secondary 
schools”  (the  primary  schools  cover  five,  the  secondary  schools  three,  years). 
“  In  every  primary  school  shall  be  taught  orthography,  reading,  writing,  arith¬ 
metic,  grammar,  geography,  history  of  Tennessee,  history  of  the  United" States, 
including  the  Constitution;  vocal  music  and  elocution  may  be  taught;  and  no 
other  branches  shall  be  introduced,  except  physiology  and  hygiene  with  special 
reference  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics  and  cigarette  smoking. 
The  directors  of  each  school  district  may  establish  therein  one  or  more  secondary 
schools,  in  which  shall  be  taught  the  following  branches:  Orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  history  of  Tennessee,  history  of  the 
United  States,  including  the  Constitution,  and  the  elementary  sciences  of  geology 
and  agriculture,  and  elements  of  algebra,  plane  geometry,  natural  philosophy, 
bookkeeping,  physiology,  and  hygiene,  civil  government,  and  rhetoric.  Practice 
shall  be  given  in  elocution.  Vocal  music  may  be  taught.”  This  is  a  fair  sample 
of  what  is  undertaken  in  the  country  schools  of  the  South.  All  this  is  proposed 
to  be  done  in  eight  short  years  of  four  to  five  months  each,  by  a  teacher  who 
received  $31  a  month  and  at  a  total  annual  expenditure  of  $5.17  per  pupik  Of 
course,  it  is  not  done;  it  can  not  be  done.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  teachers  usually 


1016 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


teach  whatever  they  choose  or  whatever  they  fancy  themselves  best  fitted  to 
teach.  In  the  almost  total  absence  of  expert  supervision  they  do  what  they  please. 
Perhaps  half  do  the  best  they  can;  the  other  half  “keep  school.”  Thus  it  is  the 
courses  of  study  are  chaos. 

The  schools  are  very  imperfectly  graded,  if  they  are  graded  at  all,  and  the  most 
antiquated  methods  are  in  general  use.  The  traditions  throughout  this  section 
are  those  of  the  old-fashioned  literary  teacher,  with  the  result  that  the  idolatry 
of  books  is  the  bane  of  all  the  schools.  Twenty  millions  of  people  engaged  chiefly 
in  rearing  plants  and  animals,  and  almost  nothing  taught  in  our  rural  schools  in 
regard  to  plant  and  animal  life!  Several  of  the  States  require  that  “scientific 
agriculture  ”  shall  be  taught,  but  for  the  want  of  competent  teachers  very  little 
is  done  with  either  nature  study  or  science. 

One  hears  a  great  deal  in  the  South  about  its  natural  resources  and  their  develop¬ 
ment.  Shall  we  not  realize  that  our  great  resources — our  soils,  minerals,  and 
timbers — are  useless  in  the  hands  of  an  .untrained  people?  We  should  recognize 
that  our  children  are  our  greatest  resource  and  that  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
train  them  in  natural  science  and  the  industrial  arts,  so  that  they  may  utilize 
these  resources.  Nearly  all  the  arts  and  industries  were  represented  upon  the 
old-time  Southern  plantation.  The  tannery  and  the  shoe  shop,  the  corn  and  flour 
mills,  the  spinning  and  weaving  houses,  the  cooper  and  the  blacksmith  shops, 
were  the  technical  schools  of  the  people  in  those  days.  In  these  home  factories 
both  the  white  and  the  colored  youth  learned  many  of  the  arts.  Now  the  manu¬ 
factures  are  all  concentrated  in  the  cities,  with  the  result  that  the  young  grow  up 
ignorant  of  all  industrial  arts  except  the  cruder  processes  of  carpentering  and 
agriculture.  Y/emust  make  money  before  we  can  even  have  schools,  and  the 
very  first  thing  is  to  train  our  people  to  produce.  The  book  education  we  give 
them  leads  too  many  away  from  the  industries  in  which  they  must  make  their 
living  into  professions  already  crowded.  Moreover,  if  we  do  not  educate  our  own 
people  to  use  these  resources  intelligently,  the  skilled  men  of  other  States  will 
come  in  and  do  so,  and  make  our  native  population  the  “hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  ”  in  their  industries.  We  shall  then  be  reduced  to  an  industrial 
dependency  even  worse  than  our  present  political  and  commercial  dependency. 

The  improvement  of  the  public  schools  of  the  South  will  come  through  indus¬ 
trial  development.  Of  all  peoples  in  the  world,  therefore,  we  need  industrial  edu¬ 
cation;  but  before  we  can  have  it  there  must  be  a  complete  revolution  in  methods. 
Book  teaching  must  be  replaced  in  large  part  by  nature  study,  and  simple  indus¬ 
trial  arts  must  be  introduced  in  all  public  schools.  It  will  be  exceedingly  difficult, 
however,  to  do  this.  The  people  are  by  nature  very  conservative.  The  normal 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities  are  still  devoted  chiefly  to  literary  work,  and 
turn  out  few  teachers  of  science  and  none  of  manual  training.  The  revolution 
must  begin,  therefore,  in  the  higher  institutions— in  the  normal  schools  and  col¬ 
leges.  They  must  be  largely  remodeled  before  we  can  even  begin  to  educate  the 
kind  of  public-school  teachers  we  need  to  make  the  new  schools. 

Expert  supervision  needed  for  the  country  districts. — Expert  supervision  is  almost 
wholly  wanting  in  the  country  districts;  and  this  trouble  seems,  unfortunately, 
to  be  inherent  in  our  system  of  government.  In  the  Southern  States  either  the 
county  or  the  district  is  a  unit  of  school  government.  The  county  is  the  unit  in 
North  Carolina.  The  district  is  the  unit  in  Tennessee.  The  trouble  is  the  same 
in  both  cases:  The  intelligent,  educated  people  are  rarely  permitted  to  direct  the 
schools.  The  school  directors  are  elected  either  by  the  x)eople  or  by  the  county 
commissioners.  In  very  few  of  the  States  have  the  State  boards  or  State  or  county 
superintendents  any  adequate  authority  over  the  school  directors  or  county  super¬ 
visors.  Elected  usually  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  appointment  of  certain 
persons  to  be  teachers,  to  award  a  contract  to  build  a  schoolhouse,  or  for  some 
other  selfish  purpose,  the  school  directors  are  rarely  the  best  men  for  these  posi- 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH.  10 1 7 


tions.  The  laws  make  no  requirements  as  to  their  qualifications  beyond  reading 
and  writing,  and  frequently  they  are  entirely  incompetent.  Too  often  they  are 
elected  for  political  reasons  and  seek  to  use  their  positions  to  further  the  interest 
of  some  county  clique.  To  illustrate:  A  certain  school  director  closed  a  school 
suddenly  in  the  middle  of  a  term  to  punish  an  assistant  teacher  for  voting  against 
his  faction.  The  teachers  sued  the  directors  personally  for  the  balance  of  their 
salaries  and  won  their  case  in  the  courts,  but  all  the  directors  proved  insolvent 
and  the  recoveries  had  to  be  made  out  of  the  school  fund.  A  serious  abuse  is  the 
division  of  the  districts  and  the  multiplication  of  small  schools.  The  motive  for 
this  is  to  meet  the  convenience  of  influential  people,  to  make  new  salaries,  or  some¬ 
times  to  sell  a  lot  and  build  a  new  schoolhouse.  In  some  States  the  investments 
in  school  property  are  out  of  proportion  to  the  funds  expended  for  the  other  pur¬ 
poses  of  the  schools.  In  Tennessee,  for  example,  there  are  8,084  school  districts 
with  7,813  schools,  or  an  average  of  2}  schools  to  each  district.  In  these  7,813 
schools  there  are  only  9,195  teachers,  or  34  enrolled  pupils  to  each  teacher.  This 
division  of  money  and  forces  where  so  little  is  provided  is  worse  than  folly.  It  is 
a  crime.  In  the  more  intelligent  communities  a  reaction  has  already  begun,  with 
the  result  that  the  people  are  asking  to  have  the  schools  consolidated.  With  the 
establishment  of  good  roads  it  will  be  possible  to  convey  children  to  school  at 
public  expense  and  to  consolidate  them  still  further. 

The  county  superintendent.— The  county  superintendent  is  elected  either  by  the 
people  of  the  county,  the  county  supervisors  (in  North  Carolina),  or  the  county 
court  (in  Tennessee).  The  county  court,  made  up  of  magistrates  elected  from 
the  different  districts,  is  a  miniature  legislature,  and  is  usually  made  up  of  local 
politicians.  This  court  divides  the  county  into  school  districts  and  levies  and 
distributes  the  local  tax,  and  is  thus  responsible  for  the  success  or  failure  of  the 
schools.  They  are  generally  treated  as  of  minor  interest,  the  most  important 
things  being  the  court-house  offices,  the  “pickings”  in  the  magistrates’  courts, 
and  the  jobs  in  public  works — bridges,  roads,  etc. 

The  trouble  about  the  county  superintendent  is  threefold.  The  first  trouble  is 
the  method  of  his  election.  The  Tennessee  law  says  he  must  be  a  “person  of 
literary  and  scientific  attainments,  and  when  practicable  of  skill  and  experience 
in  the  art  of  teaching,”  and  provides  for  his  examination  by  a  committee  of  citi¬ 
zens;  but  as  the  county  court  elects  him  no  way  has  been  found  to  enforce  even 
these  limited  requirements,  with  the  result  that  the  place  usually  goes  to  some 
political  striker,  briefless  young  lawyer,  broken-down  preacher,  or  other  person 
incompetent  to  earn  in  any  other  way  the  average  Tennessee  superintendent’s 
salary  of  $298  a  year.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions.  A  few  counties  pay  bet¬ 
ter  salaries  and  command  the  services  of  better  men. 

The  second  trouble  is  that  the  tenure  of  office  is  short  and  uncertain.  If  we 
once  get  a  capable  and  faithful  officer  it  is  almost  certain  that  just  when  he 
begins  to  develop  some  efficiency  he  is  compelled  to  abandon  the  management  to 
one  to  whom  the  whole  business  is  entirely  new.  The  rule  “he  has  served  his  two 
terms”  usually  applies  here  as  to  other  county  offices.  If  the  superintendent  is 
an  honest  and  independent  man  and  insists  on  weeding  out  the  incompetent  teach¬ 
ers,  he  is  almost  certain  to  make  himself  unpopular  and  to  lose  his  position  to  a 
more  complacent  competitor. 

The  third  difficulty  is  the  small  salary.  In  South  Carolina  the  average  superin¬ 
tendent’s  salary  is  $423;  in  Tennessee  it  is  $296.  One  thousand  dollars  is  about 
the  largest  salary  paid  in  any  county  not  containing  a  large  town.  These  are 
the  men  who  hold  examinations  and  issue  certificates  to  teachers.  One  may  judge 
how  people  regard  their  schools  when  salaries  like  these  are  paid  to  the  men  who 
should  be  responsible  for  them. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. — The  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  elected  by  the  people  or  the  legislature  or  appointed  by  the  gov- 


1018 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ernor.  In  nearly  all  cases  he  is  more  or  less  involved  in  politics.  A  few  States  have 
State  hoards  of  education,  but  they  can  do  very  little  under  this  system  of  local 
government.  A  State  superintendent  appointed  by  the  governor  is  apt  to  be  a 
politician,  and  his  chief  energies  to  be  devoted  to  advancing  the  interests  of  his 
party.  Election  by  the  people  has  given  us  some  of  our  best  superintendents,  and 
is  the  plan  to  be  preferred  until  we  have  properly  constituted  State  boards  of  edu¬ 
cation  to  elect  them. 

The  people  of  the  South  have  still  to  reach  a  just  conception  of  the  importance 
of  this  office.  It  is  usually  treated  as  if  it  were  one  of  the  least  important  offices 
in  the  State  and  has  attached  to  it  one  of  the  smallest  salaries.  A  State  educa¬ 
tional  system  is  or  should  be  a  great  business,  and  the  State  superintendency  calls 
for  a  skillful  business  man  as  well  as  a  learned  educator.  The  man  who  fills  this 
office  should  be  competent  to  direct  county  superintendents,  principals  of  city 
schools,  local  boards  of  education,  and  school  directors;  advise  the  legislature 
about  school  taxation  and  legislation,  and  secure  and  distribute  adequate  appro¬ 
priations;  he  should,  in  short,  be  to  the  State  system  what  a  president  is  to  a  great 
university  or  a  bishop  to  a  diocese  of  the  church. 

The  curse  of  politics. — The  great  curse  of  cur  public  educational  system,  as  of 
most  things  in  our  States,  is  politics.  From  the  school  directors  up  to  the  State 
superintendent  politics  is  the  blight  of  our  school  administration.  Listen  to  these 
words  from  a  former  superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  North  Carolina. 
Speaking  of  the  county  superintendents,  he  says:  “Why  have  not  the  men  best 
qualified  to  fill  these  positions  been  elected  in  every  county  in  North  Carolina?  I 
am  sorry  to  tell  you  why,  should  you  not  already  know,  but  I  will  do  it.  Poli¬ 
tics  was  the  cause  and  is  the  cause  to-day.”  He  continues:  “The  public  schools 
have  been  in  the  galling  grasp  of  the  court-house  politicians  for  twenty  years. 
The  county  supervisor  owes  his  election  both  directly  and  indirectly  to  the  county 
officers.  They  are  the  men  he  is  supposed  to  serve;  they  are  the  men  to  whom  he 
must  render  an  account  of  his  stewardship.  Away  with  such!  Let  us  break  away 
from  this  court-house  ring  business. ”  Brave  man!  Would  there  were  more  like 
him. 

At  the  bottom  of  it  all  is  the  want  of  serious  interest  in  the  public  schools  among 
the  body  of  the  voters.  When  the  people  realize  their  value  they  will  be  ready  to 
give  money  to  support  them  and  to  see  to  it  that  they  are  administered  by  compe¬ 
tent  and  faithful  men. 

Signs  of  an  awakening. — Are  there  no  signs  of  an  awakening?  I  am  glad  to  say 
that  there  are  many.  Some  of  the  States  still  seem  dead  in  politics  and  ignorance, 
but  in  others  the  people  are  awakening  to  a  realization  of  the  inadequacy  of  exist¬ 
ing  schools  for  the  work  that  belongs  to  them.  The  private  schools  and  the  city 
schools  have  taught  the  people  what  might  be  done.  Ministers  and  professional 
men,  and  especially  the  teachers  educated  in  the  colleges  arid  the  normal  schools, 
are  preaching  the  gospel  of  public  education,  with  the  result  that  there  is  a  per¬ 
vading  sense  of  discontent  with  the  present  conditions.  It  is  true  that  this  dis¬ 
content  is  still  vague;  that  the  discussions  of  this  subject  are  often  unintelligent, 
and  the  efforts  at  improvement  crude  and  ineffective.  But  the  hopeful  sign  is 
that  the  interest  of  the  people  has  been  aroused.  Even  where  they  are  still  under 
the  dark  cloud  of  ignorance  we  hear  subdued  mutterings  which  indicate  an  early 
breaking  away  from  the  old  ways.  Some  of  our  State  superintendents  are  striv¬ 
ing  faithfully  to  awaken  the  legislatures  to  their  duty.  The  reports  of  Supt.  C.  H. 
Mebane,  of  North  Carolina  (1896  to  1898) ,  and  those  of  Commissioner  G.  B.  Glenn, 
of  Georgia,  and  also  that  of  Supt.  John  J.  McMahan,  of  South  Carolina  (1899  and 
1900) ,  contain  forcible  statements  of  facts  and  eloquent  pleas  for  better  schools. 
Some  of  our  public  men  are  taking  up  the  school  question  as  the  chief  issue. 
Hear,  for  example,  these  brave  words  from  the  inaugural  address  of  the  governor 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1019 


of  North  Carolina.  Speaking  of  his  promise  to  the  people  in  the  campaign,  Gov¬ 
ernor  Aycock  said: 

“I  promised  the  illiterate  poor  man,  bound  to  a  life  of  toil  and  struggle  and 
poverty,  that  life  should  be  brighter  for  his  boy  and  girl  than  it  had  been  for  him 
and  the  partner  of  his  sorrows  and  joys.  I  pledged  the  wealth  of  the  State  to  the 
education  of  his  children.  Men  of  wealth,  representatives  of  great  corporations, 
applauded  eagerly  my  declaration.  I  have  found  no  man  who  is  unwilling  to 
make  the  State  stronger  and  better  by  liberal  aid  to  the  ceruse  of  education.  Gen¬ 
tlemen  of  the  general  assembly,  you  will  not  have  aught  to  fear  when  you  make 
ample  provision  for  the  education  of  the  whole  people.  Rich  and  poor  alike  are 
bound  by  promise  and  necessity  to  approve  your  utmost  efforts  in  this  direction. 
The  platforms  of  all  the  parties  declare  in  favor  of  a  liberal  policy  toward  the 
education  of  the  masses.”  And  concluding,  he  says:  “Th.6  problems  before  us 
are  of  the  gravest  nature,  but  among  them  all  there  is  none  that  can  approach  in 
importance  the  necessity  for  making  ample  provision  for  the  education  of  the 
whole  people.” 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  improvement. — The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the 
improvement  of  the  public  schools  are  that  deadening  indifference  which  grows 
out  of  ignorance  and  that  pitiful  poverty  which  always  accompanies  it.  The 
Southern  people  who  commenced  thirty  years  ago  by  opposing,  or  at  least  doubt¬ 
ing  free  public  schools,  have  generally  come  to  recognize  their  necessity,  but  they 
do  not  yet  know  how  to  organize  them ,  nor  have  they  the  means  to  support  them. 
They  still  need  to  be  educated  about  the  benefits,  especially  the  economic  and 
moral  results,  of  public  education. 

There  are  many  constitutional  and  legal  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  anything  like  a  thorough  system  of  public  schools  in  most  of  the  Southern 
States.  As  pointed  out  above,  the  government  and  direction  of  the  schools  is  left 
in  the  majority  of  our  States  entirely  to  either  the  school  directors,  the  county 
superintendent,  or  the  county  supervisors,  without  any  efficient  supervision  what¬ 
ever  and  very  little  assistance  of  any  kind.  Better  supervision  is  absolutely  nec¬ 
essary,  but  unfortunately  can  not  be  provided  under  the  constitution  of  many  of 
the  States.  For  example,  it  has  been  decided  by  the  courts  in  Tennessee  that  the 
county  superintendent  must  be  elected  either  by  the  people  of  the  county  or  by*the 
magistrates  without  let  or  hindrance  from  any  State  authority. 

In  the  second  place,  we  leave  it  to  the  people  of  the  rural  districts  and  counties 
to  raise  nearly  all  of  the  school  money.  In  a  majority  of  the  States  the  counties 
are  required  to  levy  a  certain  per  cent  upon  real  and  personal  property;  but  where 
they  have  very  little  property  the  fund  produced  is  exceedingly  small.  In  some 
cases  the  people  are  allowed  to  make  an  additional  levy  if  they  choose  to  do  so,  the 
total  taxes  not  to  exceed  a  fixed  amount.  In  South  Carolina,  for  example,  the 
constitution  authorizes  a  3-mill  tax  on  property.  But  what  good  does  this  do 
where  the  people  have  no  property?  In  one  district  of  Aiken  County  the  superin¬ 
tendent  tells  us  the  3-mill  tax  raised  only  $18,  and  in  a  district  in  Dorchester 
County  it  produced  only  $32,  while  in  a  district  in  Denmark  County,  a  fairly 
wealthy  one,  the  same  tax  produced  $1,195.  A  majority  of  the  States  levy  no  gen¬ 
eral  State  tax,  or  a  very  small  one,  for  public  schools.  In  Tennessee,  for  example, 
the  total  State  fund  distributed  to  the  counties  for  public  schools  amounted  last 
year  to  only  $129,000.  Such  governments  excuse  themselves  from  making  ade¬ 
quate  State  levies  for  the  schools  on  the  ground  that  if  the  people  want  the  schools 
they  can  provide  them  by  local  taxation.  So  it  is  that  we  leave  ignorance  to  direct 
the  schools  and  poverty  to  tax  itself  to  support  them.  The  States  supply  neither 
adequate  funds  nor  direction  for  the  schools.  Where  education  is  most  needed  is 
just  where  the  people  do  not  appreciate  it  and  will  not  exert  themselves  to  pro¬ 
vide  it.  It  can  not  be  expected  that  a  poor  people  will  tax  themselves  for  schools 
or  that  an  ignorant  people  will  know  how  to  organize  and  direct  them.  We  have 


1020 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


yet  to  learn  in  the  South  that  the  State  is  the  unit  of  education  and  must  provide 
for  its  weakest  members.  The  wealth  of  the  country  must  educate  its  poor;  the 
intelligence  of  the  State  must  direct  the  schools. 

The  icay  to  improvement. — Our  system  of  school  legislation  and  management 
and  our  methods  of  school  taxation  must  be  completely  turned  round  before  we 
can  have  anything  like  a  system  of  efficient  public  schools.  The  school  money 
must  be  raised  to  a  larger  extent  from  the  State  as  a  whole  and  be  distributed 
more  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  people.  School  management  and  super¬ 
vision  must  be  centralized  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  hands  of  representative 
and  skilled  experts.  There  should  be  a  State  board  of  education  composed  of  the 
ablest  educational  authorities  to  be  found,  who  should  be  responsible  for  all  the 
public  schools  and  should  elect  a  State  superintendent  who  should  in  turn  have 
the  fullest  authority  with  regard  to  the  organization  of  schools,  examination  of 
teachers,  courses  of  study,  and  the  distribution  of  funds,  and  have  the  general 
direction  of  county  and  city  superintendents.  The  schools  of  the  counties  and  the 
towns  should  be  in  the  hands  of  boards  of  like  powers  working  under  the  general 
direction  of  the  State  board  and  its  superintendent.  Who  would  think  of  carry¬ 
ing  on  any  great  business  reaching  every  part  of  the  State  by  the  worthless 
methods,  or  no  methods,  which  prevail  in  the  South  in  regard  to  our  schools? 
We  must  have  a  thoroughgoing  reform  in  these  things  before  we  can  even  begin 
to  build  good  schools. 

What  the  leaders  can  do  to  help. — The  immediate  need  of  our  people  is  informa¬ 
tion  and  guidance.  They  need  leaders  to  show  them  the  way.  We  need  a  central 
propaganda  or  agency  which  shall  conduct  a  campaign  of  education  for  free  public 
education  and  which,  while  it  edifies  the  people  on  this  subject,  shall  use  every 
opportunity  to  instruct  them  as  to  the  best  forms  of  legislation  for  their  condi¬ 
tions  and  the  best  methods  of  organization  for  their  schools.  This  is,  then,  the 
definite  proposal  that  I  would  make  to  this  conference:  Shall  we  not  at  this  meet¬ 
ing  take  steps  to  establish  such  a  propaganda  for  free  public  schools  in  the  South? 

The  negro  in  the  schools. — The  end  of  this  paper  has  been  reached  and  I  have 
said  nothing  about  the  negro  in  the  schools.  W e  should  consider  the  negro  as  a 
man  to  be  educated  for  work,  independence,  and  citizenship  like  other  men. 
Everything  I  have  said  applies  to  him,  therefore,  just  as  it  does  to  the  white 
man.  The  negro  is  in  the  South  to  stay — he  is  a  necessity  for  Southern  indus¬ 
tries — and  the  Southern  people  must  educate  and  so  elevate  him  or  he  will  drag 
them  down.  The  human  race  is  an  organism,  all  its  members  being  bound 
together  by  natural  affinities  and  ministering  to  each  other  by  natural  law.  If 
history,  philosophy,  and  revelation  teach  us  anything  it  is  the  solidarity  of  all 
mankind,  that  “no  man  liveth  to  himself”  and  “no  man  dieth  to  himself,”  but 
that  we  are  each  “his  brothers  keeper.” 

I  plead  for  justice  and  common  sense  in  the  education  of  the  negro.  The  most 
encouraging  thing  about  public  education  in  the  South  is  the  noble,  self-sacrific¬ 
ing  way  in  which  the  Southern  people  have  given  of  their  limited  resources  for 
the  education  of  their  recent  slaves.  That  they  will  continue  to  do  for  the  black 
man  all  that  their  means  will  permit,  I  firmly  believe.  These  attacks  upon  the 
negro  school  fund,  these  proposals  to  give  him  for  his  schools  only  what  he  pays 
in  himself,  come  from  short-sighted  people  who  fail  to  recognize  the  basal  princi¬ 
ple  underlying  all  public  education,  namely,  the  duty  of  all  the  people  to  educate 
all  the  people.  They  do  not  represent  the  opinion  of  the  best  people  of  the  South 
and  their  proposals  will  not  prevail.  The  people  of  the  South  realize  already  that 
this  proposal  is  not  primarily  an  assault  upon  the  black  man,  but  a  movement  to 
undermine  the  foundation  of  the  country’s  prosperity,  progress,  and  peace.  We 
can  not  longer  take  the  risks  of  multitudes  of  ignorant  voters  controlled  by  a  few 
wicked  dem  agogues. 

But  we  must  use  common  sense  in  the  education  of  the  negro.  We  must  recog- 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1021 


nize  in  all  its  relations  that  momentous  fact  that  the  negro  is  a  child  race,  at 
least  two  thousand  years  behind  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  its  development,  and  that 
like  all  other  races  it  must  -work  out  its  own  salvation  by  practicing  the  industrial 
arts,  and  becoming  independent  and  self-supporting.  Nothing  is  more  ridiculous 
than  the  programme  of  the  good  religious  people  from  the  North  who  insist  upon 
teaching  Latin,  Greek,  and  philosophy  to  the  negro  boys  who  come  to  their 
schools.  Many  of  our  Southern  States  make  a  similar  mistake  in  trying  to  enforce 
in  the  schools  of  the  black  districts  courses  of  study  laid  down  for  whites.  A 
Philadelphia  lady  at  work  in  the  South  entered  her  protest  recently  against 
requiring  the  negro  children  of  the  sea  islands  of  South  Carolina,  one  of  the  most 
backward  populations  in  the  South,  to  study  Coleridge  and  Shakespeare,  physiol¬ 
ogy  and  hygiene,  when  they  scarcely  knew  how  to  read.  She  reports  that  in  this 
county,  where  efficient  negro  teachers  can  not  be  found  to  teach  reading,  arith¬ 
metic,  elementary  history,  and  geography,  willing  persons  are  denied  license 
because  they  can  not  pass  the  State  examination  in  “technical  grammar”  and  the 
“history  of  South  Carolina.”  She  is  right.  Let  us  adapt  our  instruction  to  the 
needs  of  the  people,  and,  above  all  things,  let  us  give  them  that  industrial  train¬ 
ing  which  will  prepare  them  to  be  self-supporting  citizens.  General  Arm¬ 
strong,  of  Hampton,  and  Principal  Washington,  of  Tuskegee,  have  worked  out  a 
sensible  plan  for  the  education  of  the  negro.  Our  State  schools  for  this  race 
should  be  modeled  after  their  plan.  The  only  solution  of  the  Southern  problem 
is  free  public  schools  for  all  the  people,  blacks  and  whites  alike,  and  compulsory- 
attendance  laws. 


Table  I. — Progress  of  twenty-five  years  of  public,  schools  in  the  South ,  comprising 
the  States  of  Delaware,  Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  West 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina ,  Georgia,  Florida,  Kentucky,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi ,  Louisiana,  Texas ,  Arkansas,  and  Missouri , 


1875. 

1885. 

1895. 

1900. 

North 
Central 
States  in 
1900. a 

Total  population . 

School  population  (5  to  18  years) . 

16,143,900 

30,458,665 

34,371,400 

37,076,059 

26, 262, 408 

5,343,300 

6,838,570 

8,397,160 

9, 214, 700 

7, 692, 680 

Pupils  enrolled  in  the  schools . 

Per  cent  of  the  school  population  en¬ 

3,439,843 

3,991,333 

5, 386, 696 

5, 806, 598 

5,823, 019 

rolled  . 

45.67 

58. 45 

63.73 

63.01 

75. 68 

Average  daily  attendance . . 

1,531,171 

3,554, 788 

3,369,714 

3, 733, 579 

4, 066, 169 

Per  cent  of  enrollment . 

63.34 

64.00 

63. 77 

64. 28 

69.84 

Male  teachers . 

39,315 

53, 758 

56, 308 

55, 765 

53,715 

Female  teachers . . . 

30, 456 

37,416 

60,049 

71,812 

129,201 

Whole  number  of  teachers . 

59, 671 

SO, 174 

116,357 

137,577 

181,916 

Schoolhouses  .. . 

49, 447 

76,361 

91,388 

96, 849 

105, 118 

Value  of  all  school  property . 

$17,393,033 

$37,884,143 

$365 

$56,808,049 

$67,473,856 

$230,391,589 

Average  value  of  a  school  property _ 

Average  number  of  days  school  kept 

$330 

$633 

$697 

$2, 193 

in  the  year . . . 

Expenditure  for  superintendents  and 
teachers’  salaries _ _ 

93 

93 

106 

109.6 

155.6 

$10, 459, 446 

$15, 340, 916 

$33, 195, 150 

$26, 599, 5S9 
$31.75(1899) 
$36, 280, 165 

$55, 126,025 
$43. 00 
$84,802,319 

Average  salary  of  teacher  per  month.. 
Total  expenditures . 

$41. 60 
$13,031,514 

$19,353,874 

$39,373,990 

Expended  per  capita  of  population _ 

$0. 81 

$0. 94 

$1.21 

$1.34 

S3. 23 

Expended  per  pupil  in  attendance . 

$8. 56 

$7.54 

$8.73 

$9.  72 

$20. 85 

a  Compare  “1900”  column  with  that  of  the  North  Central  States  (Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and 
Kansas). 


1022 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

Table  II. — Statistics  of  public  schools  in  1900. 


North  Car¬ 
olina. 

Compare — 

Georgia. 

Alabama. 

, 

Tennessee. 

Iowa,  in 
1899. 

Total  population  (census  1900) _ 

1,893,810 

2, 216, 331 

1,828,697 

2, 020, 616 

2,231,853 

School  population  (5  to  18  years) . 

669, 530 

786,920 

652,930 

691, 570 

633, 900 

Pupils  enrolled  in  schools  . . . 

400, 152 

482,673 

376, 423 

485,354 

5o4, 992 

Per  cent  of  school  population  enrolled. 

59.8 

61.3 

57. 65 

70.1 

87.5 

Average  daily  attendance . . 

206,918 

298,237 

297, 805 

338, 566 

364,409 

Per  cent  of  enrollment . 

51.6 

61.8 

79.1 

69.7 

65.6 

Male  teachers . - . 

3, 650 

4, 453 

1,977 

4,960 

5,855 

Female  teachers. . . . 

3,737 

5,687 

4,601 

4,235 

22, 839 

Whole  number  of  teachers  .  . . . 

7,387 

10, 120 

6,578 

9, 195 

28,694 

Schoolhouses  . . 

6,111 

6,306 

7,058 

7, 185 

13,836 

Value  of  school  property  . . . 

$1,097,564 

$3, 298, 552 

$1,500,000 

$3,063,568 

$16,908,076 

Average  value  of  a  school  property - 

Average  number  of  days  school  kept 

$179. 60 

$523.08 

$212.52 

$426.38 

$1,222 

in  the  year . . . . . 

Expenditures  for  superintendents  and 
teachers’  salaries. . 

70.8 

112 

78.3 

96 

158 

$761, 772 

$1,813,151 

$923,464 

$1,403,848 

$5, 417, 663 

Average  salary  of  teachers  per  month. 

$23. 36 

$27 

$27. 56 

$31. 16 

$45 

Total  expenditures . . . 

$931, 143 

$1,980,016 

$923,464 

$1,751,047 

$7,978,060 

Expended  per  capita  of  population . 

$0. 51 

$0.89 

$0. 50 

$0. 87 

$3. 80 

Expended  per  pupil  in  attendance . 

Average  number  persons  per  square 

$4.34 

$6.64 

$3.10 

$5.17 

$21. 89 

mile  in  1900  . . 

Real  and  personal  property  per  capita 

39 

07  R 
Ol  .  O 

35. 4 

48.4 

41 

(census  1890) .  . 

•  $361 

$464 

$412 

$502 

$1,196 

APPENDIX. 


The  Conference  foe  Education  in  the  South. 

Fifth  meeting  (1902),  at  Athens,  Ga. 

[The  following  statement,  showing  the  character  and  aims  of  the  Southern  Conference,  is 
taken  from  an  editorial  account  of  the  fifth  conference  by  Hamilton  W.  Mabie,  in  The  Outlook 
for  May  3,  1902.] 

The  attendance  of  the  delegates  was  much  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  con¬ 
ference,  every  Southern  State  being  represented,  and  almost  every  Southern  insti¬ 
tution  of  note  and  prominence,  from  the  oldest  university  to  the  most  recently 
organized  public  schools. 

It  was  impossible  to  look  into  the  faces  of  the  delegates,  to  talk  with  them,  and 
to  hear  their  addresses,  without  being  impressed  by  the  fact  that  there  has  been 
born  in  the  South  a  great  new  movement  for  education  along  democratic  lines,  a 
propaganda  for  the  uplifting  of  the  masses  by  the  diffusion  of  educational  oppor¬ 
tunity  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

The  conference  was  organized  only  four  years  ago  at  Capon  Springs  in  West 
Virginia,  where  a  number  of  gentlemen  from  the  North  and  the  South  met  for 
informal  discussion  of  Southern  educational  needs  and  conditions.  The  time  was 
auspicious,  for  scattered  throughout  the  South  were  able  and  aspiring  men  in  the 
colleges,  normal  schools,  and  public  schools,  who  felt  that  the  hour  had  come  for 
a  new  educational  movement,  a  fresh  definition  of  educational  aims,  and  the 
union  of  educational  effort  for  an  educational  advance  along  the  whole  line. 

These  men  were  *  *  *  drawn  together  by  a  common  purpose,  and  they 
felt  the  need  of  companionship  for  definiteness  of  aim,  for  the  encouragement 
which  comes  from  the  consciousness  that  one  is  working,  not  in  isolation,  but 
with  the  sympathy  and  fellowship  of  a  multitude.  It  would  be  impossible  to  col¬ 
lect  a  mere  robust,  wholesome,  attractive  group  of  men  than  the  Southern  teach¬ 
ers  who  sat  in  the  conference  at  Athens;  men  who  showed  not  only  the  impress  of 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1023 


their  training,  but,  in  their  responsiveness  and  the  grasp  of  their  hands,  that  high 
capacity  for  enthusiasm  which  is  essential  to  all  great  popular  movements. 

Many  of  them  had  come  out  of  great  tribulation.  They  had  been  working  for 
years  in  communities  in  which,  by  reason  of  adverse  conditions,  there  was  small 
knowledge  of  educational  matters  and  still  smaller  interest  in  them.  They  had 
fought  their  way  alone,  slowly  explaining  their  aim  and  convincing  the  people 
with  whom  they  had  to  deal  of  the  need  of  new  facilities  and  of  a  broader  idea 
of  the  place  of  the  school  in  a  democratic  community.  In  that  struggle  many  of 
them  have  become  leaders;  men  like  Dr.  Alderman;  Dr.  Dabney,  of  the  University 
of  Tennessee;  Dr.  Mclver,  of  the  Normal  College  at  Greensboro,  N.  C. ;  Mr.  E.  C. 
Branson,  principal  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Athens — to  select  a  little  group 
of  representative  names  from  many  which  ought  to  be  enumerated.  These  men 
are  not  only  experts  in  modern  educational  methods,  but  they  are  familiar  with 
local  conditions,  with  the  needs  of  their  communities,  and  with  the  measures  that 
must  be  taken  to  meet  those  needs.  They  have  not  only  been  teachers  of  pupils, 
but  they  have  been  teachers  of  parents,  of  legislatures,  of  officials  of  the  State, 
and  they  will  become  the  teachers  of  the  whole  section,  with  a  message  to  the 
nation  at  large. 

Many  topics  were  discussed  at  the  several  sessions  of  the  conference,  but  every 
topic  was  vitally  related  to  the  two  great  objects  of  the  Southern  board  and  of  the 
conference — the  awakening  of  the  public  interest  throughout  the  South,  and  the 
advancement  and  extension  of  public-school  opportunities,  until  education  is 
within  reach  of  every  boy  and  girl  in  the  South,  without  reference  to  color.  The 
Hon.  Hoke  Smith  struck  one  of  the  keynotes  of  the  conference  in  the  title  of  his 
address,  “ Popular  education  as  the  primary  policy  of  the  South.”  Governor 
:  Aycock,  of  North  Carolina,  one  of  the  most  interesting  men  in  the  public  life  of 
the  country,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  New  South,  struck  another  keynote  in 
his  very  effective  plea  for  a  generous  support  of  popular  education  by  the  tax¬ 
payers;  Dr.  Mclver,  of  the  North  Carolina  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  new  movement;  Dr.  Alderman,  President  Dabney,  the 
Hon.  H.  St.  G.  Tucker,  of  Virginia;  Dr.  Albert  Shaw,  of  New  York;  Professor 
Farnam,  of  Yale;  Dr.  Felix  Adler,  Mr.  William  H.  Baldwin,  jr.,  of  New  York; 
the  Hon.  H.  Hugh  Hanna,  of  Indianapolis,  and  Mr.  Hamilton  W.  Mabie,  were 
heard  at  different  sessions  on  different  aspects  of  the  single  problem  of  the  edu¬ 
cation  of  Americans  as  a  national  need  for  the  sake  of  higher  citizenship. 

It  was  significant  that  not  a  single  note  of  retrogression  was  heard  in  any 
speech,  and  that  all  the  notes  of  progress  were  emphatically  applauded.  Every 
Southern  speaker  dwelt  on  the  necessity  of  the  broadest  educational  oppor¬ 
tunities  for  both  races,  and  this  sentiment  never  failed  to  meet  with  instant 
response.  *  *  * 

The  movement  which  found  expression  in  the  sessions  of  the  Southern  Educa¬ 
tional  Conference  is  national  in  its  character.  It  has  taken  hold  of  the  South  as 
nothing  has  taken  hold  of  it  since  the  war;  it  is  destined,  in  the  judgment  of  those 
who  have  watched  it  most  closely,  to  become  a  movement  of  tidal  breadth  and 
depth.  It  is  a  movement  not  only  for  the  betterment  of  a  great  section,  but  for 
the  knitting  of  closer  ties  between  all  sections. 


1024 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  Southern  Conference  and  the  Boards  Associated  with  It. 

[ Robert  C.  Ogden ,  in  the  Educational  Review,  May ,  1002.] 

It  came  about  that,  by  the  suggestion  of  Rev.  Dr.  Abbott  of  your  city,  a  confer¬ 
ence  was  formed  for  the  discussion  of  education  in  the  South.  It  met  for  three 
years  at  Capon  Springs.  It  was  by  the  kindly  invitation  of  the  proprietor  of  the 
hotel  at  Capon  Springs  that  the  conference  came  into  existence.  But  that  organi¬ 
zation  took  on  a  larger  life,  and  last  spring  met  at  Winston-Salem,  N.  C.,  a  place 
that  was  better  suited  for  a  large  assembly.  The  meetings,  lasting  through  three 
days,  were  well  attended  and  enthusiastic.  Much  was  said  and  done,  and  in  the 
papers  that  were  presented  there  was  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information.  At 
that  conference  I  chanced  to  be  the  presiding  officer,  and  was  directed  to  form  a 
board  for  a  propaganda  of  education.  That  board  was  formed  last  winter,  and, 
most  happily,  there  has  come  together  in  it  a  splendid  group  of  men.  There  is  Dr. 
Alderman,  president  of  Tulane  University,  at  New  Orleans.  He  is  a  man  whom 
it  is  fortunate  to  know,  and  the  portions  of  the  country  that  do  not  know  him  will 
yet  know  him,  and  the  country  will  be  richer  just  in  proportion  as  he  is  widely 
known.  There  are  Dr.  Mclver,  who  has  led  the  crusade  for  the  education  of 
women  in  North  Carolina,  and  Dr.  Frissell,  president  of  Hampton  Institute. 
These  three  men  are  field  directors.  It  is  their  business  to  carry  on  a  campaign 
of  education.  Our  Southern  friends  say  that  their  people  will  not  read  very  much, 
but  they  will  listen  to  any  amount  of  talk.  So  we  are  taking  for  our  motto  the 
exact  words  of  Jefferson  in  which  he  says,  “Preach  a  crusade  for  education.” 
Dr.  Dickerman,  of  New  Haven,  Dr.  Booker  Washington,  of  Alabama,  Harry 
St,  George  Tucker,  of  Washington  and  Lee  University,  Dr.  Frazier,  of  Richmond, 
have  come  into  this  work,  and  these  men  are  simply  carrying  on  the  propaganda. 
They  will  talk  by  the  wayside  or  will  address  legislatures.  It  is  said,  and  I  think 
I  am  correctly  informed,  that  an  address  of  Dr.  Alderman  to  the  legislature  of 
Mississippi — and  Mississippi  is  the  most  progressive  State  in  Southern  education — 
has  resulted  in  an  addition  to  the  appropriation  of  half  a  million  dollars  for  the 
next  year.  In  addition  to  these  men  who  are  in  the  field  comes  Dr.  Charles  W. 
Dabney,  president  of  the  University  of  Tennessee,  who  has  a  liberal  appropria¬ 
tion  at  his  command  and  has,  in  association  with  Dr.  Claxton  and  Dr.  Eggleston, 
formed  a  strong  organization  for  collecting  and  publishing  information  of  every 
sort  concerning  all  educational  questions  between  the  Potomac  and  the  Rio 
Grande.  That  bureau  is  going  on  vigorously.  The  maps  that  have  been  pre¬ 
pared,  with  little  signs  upon  them  indicating  literacy  and  illiteracy  of  both  races, 
are  wonderful,  where  you  see  at  a  glance,  as  an  object  lesson,  just  the  conditions 
in  each  State  and  each  county  of  each  State.  And  then,  too,  as  consulting  engineer 
or  supervising  director,  there  is  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curry.  Associated  with  these  men 
are  a  few  Northern  men  who  stand  back  of  them,  and  there  has  been  gathered 
together  a  fund  of  $40,000  a  year  for  two  years— $80,000 — which  is  simply  to  carry 
on  this  campaign  of  education  for  education. 

Now  parallel  to  this  board  of  the  propaganda  is  a  board  for  money  that  is  com¬ 
posed  simply  of  business  men,  and  perhaps  you  may  have  noticed  in  your  papers 
this  morning  the  first  public  announcement  of  that  board.  It  has  been  formed 
with  an  alumnus  from  Harvard  at  its  head,  Mr.  AY.  H.  Baldwin,  jr.,  and  has 
already  at  its  beginning  something  over  $1,000,000  in  its  hands  to  expend  in  fol¬ 
lowing  up  the  work  that  the  preachers  of  the  Southern  Education  Board  may  do. 

The  idea  is  this:  Go  into  a  locality,  just  as  the  Slater  board,  and  the  Peabody 
board  have  done,  and  get  the  people  to  tax  themselves.  If  there  is  not  money 
enough  to  build  a  proper  schoolhouse,  costing  say  $1,000,  put  $500  with  what  the 
people  will  raise  and  build  it;  then  supplement  what  they  will  pay  for  teachers, 
get  better  teachers  by  paying  more.  Give  the  people  of  a  locality  these  facilities 


THE  PUBLIC!  SCHOOL  PROBLEM  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


1025 


for  three  years  or  four  years,  and  when  they  have  had  educational  advantages  for 
that  period  then  you  may  withdraw  your  support;  they  will  take  care  of  it  them¬ 
selves  after  that.  But  a  million  dollars  for  that  purpose!  Why,  it  is  a  mere  trifle. 
A  hundred  millions  could  be  used,  and  a  hundred  millions  will  be  used  before  the 
work  is  thoroughly  done. 

It  is  planned,  with  the  association  of  these  two  boards,  for  the  promotion  of  the 
idea  of  education  and  for  the  handling  of  money,  to  create  a  community  of  interest, 
a  clearing  house — the  work  of  the  Peabody  board,  the  work  of  the  Slater  board, 
the  work  of  the  Southern  Education  Board,  and  the  work  of  the  last  board,  which 
is-  called  the  board  of  the  General  Education  Fund — and  thus  to  concentrate  the 
highest  intelligence,  the  result  of  the  best  experience,  and  all  economies  in  such  a 
way  as  to  prevent  duplication  of  this  work  and  to  insure  the  best  application  of 
money. 

[Walter  H.  Page,1  in  The  Independent,  May  15,  1902.] 

The  Athens  conference  showed  two  or  three  facts  that  are  of  revolutionary 
importance. 

(1)  Northern  men  who  are  earnestly  engaged  in  furthering  popular  education 
and  Southern  men  who  are  also  actively  engaged,  as  soon  as  they  meet  in  a  friendly 
earnestness  of  purpose  discover  that  they  agree  absolutely,  both  with  regard  to 
aim  and  with  regard  to  method.  They  stand  on  identically  the  same  platform  as 
to  the  education  of  the  races,  and  the  platform  is  this — that  both  races  should  be 
treated  alike.  There  is  a  body  of  Southern  opinion — a  decreasing  body — that  still 
looks  askance  at  negro  education.  But  the  Southern  men  who  are  engaged  in  edu¬ 
cational  work  stand  squarely  for  the  same  training  for  the  blacks  as  for  the  whites. 
The  governors  of  most  of  the  Southern  States — but  not  quite  all — stand  firmly  on 
the  same  iflatform.  This  battle  has  been  won  once  for  all. 

(2)  There  was  a  unanimous  agreement  that  only  by  a  public-school  system, 
generously  maintained  by  taxation,  can  the  problem  of  rural  education  in  the 
South  be  solved,  and  the  conference  committed  itself  to  schools  that  train  the  hand 
as  well  as  the  mind.  Several  model  schools  have  been  established  in  rural  dis¬ 
tricts  in  Georgia  where  such  teaching  is  done  and  plans  have  been  made  for  estab¬ 
lishing  more.  They  are  enthusiastically  approved  by  the  people. 

(3)  Most  important  of  all,  perhaps,  was  the  fostering  of  what  may  be  called  a 
national  feeling  in  education  by  such  a  meeting  of  men  from  different  sections. 
The  Southern  people  showed  even  more  than  their  traditional  hospitality  to  vis¬ 
itors  from  the  North.  Anywhere  they  were  taken  into  their  homes,  and  perma¬ 
nent,  intimate  friendships  came  from  such  associations.  Brought  into  such  a 
relation,  what  were  supposed  to  be  differences  of  opinion  and  methods  turned  out 
to  be  agreements.  The  old  clash  of  purposes  and  the  old  suspicions  utterly  disap¬ 
peared.  The  well-informed  and  earnest  North  now  works  in  perfect  accord  with 
the  earnest  and  enlightened  South.  Those  that  find  differences  and  provoke  con¬ 
troversies  are  either  not  informed  or  they  are  not  representative  of  the  dominant 
feeling. 

The  work  of  the  Southern  Education  Board  and  these  conferences  led  to  the 
organization  a  few  months  ago  of  another  board  which  is  called  the  General  Edu¬ 
cation  Board.  As  the  Southern  board  is  a  clearing  house  for  facts  about  Southern 
education  and  a  means  of  propaganda,  so  the  general  board  is  an  organization  for 
practical  financial  help  to  education  anywhere,  but  for  the  present  in  the  South, 
because  help  is  most  needed  there.  The  general  board  has  been  incorporated  by  a 
special  act  of  Congress.  It,  too,  is  made  up  of  both  Northern  and  Southern  men, 
and  its  chairman  is  Mr.  William  H.  Baldwin,  jr.,  of  New  York,  and  its  secretary 
is  Dr.  Wallace  Buttrick.  This  board  has  among  its  members  men  who  are  also 


1  Editor  of  The  World’s  Work  and  member  of  the  Southern  Education  Board. 

ED  1901 - 65 


1026 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


members  of  the  Peabody  and  Slater  and  Southern  boards.  These  four  bodies, 
therefore,  work  together,  each  taking  advantage  of  the  knowledge  and  experience 
gained  by  the  others. 

The  General  Education  Board  has  a  fund  of  somewhat  more  than  a  million  dol¬ 
lars,  which  it  is  spending  thus  far  chiefly  for  the  building  up  of  rural  schools  in 
the  South  and  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  these  schools.  The  distribution  of 
its  money  is  made  through  the  local  machinery  for  educational  administration, 
■with  proper  safeguards  and  guaranties  that  it  is  rightly  applied;  and  it  is  given 
for  the  furthering  of  education  without  regard  to  sex  or  color.  The  board  has 
been  so  organized  and  is  so  managed  that  its  help  is  not  suggestive  of  charity,  for 
it  works  in  hearty  cooperation  with  the  enlightened  agencies  of  Southern  educa¬ 
tion.  Its  aim  is  simply  to  help  remove  the  heavy  burden  that  long  past  events — 
for  which  this  generation  is  in  no  way  responsible — placed  on  Southern  life,  and 
this  it  regards  as  the  foremost  patriotic  duty  of  our  time. 

The  General  Education  Board  hopes  to  be  the  channel  for  the  wise  distribution 
of  many  millions  of  dollars  for  this  patriotic  purpose.  It  is  an  organization  of 
business  men,  wTho  do  the  work  on  strict  business  methods. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 

Contents.— (1)  “  Is  there  too  much  temperance  matter  in  the  school  physiologies?  ”  by  Mary 
H.  Hunt.— (2)  Report  of  a  committee  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence.— (3)  “  Temper, 
ance  teaching  and  recent  legislation  in  Connecticut,”  by  Supt.  W.  B.  Ferguson,  of  Middle- 
town,  Conn. — (4)  Temperance  instruction  in  Nebraska. — (5)  “  The  modern  subjection  of 
science  and  education  to  a  propaganda,”  by  Prof.  Wm.  T.  Sedgwick,  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology.— (6)  “The  will  of  the  people,  not  of  an  oligarchy,”  by  Mary  H. 
Hunt. — (7)  Alcoholic  physiology  in  school. — (8)  Enforced  temperance  among  railway 
employees.— (9)  Report  of  a  committee  of  the  New  York  State  Science  Teachers’  Associa¬ 
tion. 


IS  THERE  TOO  MUCH  TEMPERANCE  MATTER  IN  THE  SCHOOL 
PHYSIOLOGIES?1 

By  Mary  H.  Hunt, 

World's  and  National  Superintendent  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  of 
the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 

Tlie  statement  is  sometimes  made  that  the  indorsed  school  physiologies  give  too 
much  space  to  the  temperance  matter.  If  this  is  true,  is  there  any  topic  under 
which  the  temperance  matter  can  be  left  out;  can  all  temperance  matter  be 
massed  in  one  chapter  and  omitted  from  the  rest  of  the  book;  or  can  the  present 
space  devoted  to  alcohol  and  narcotics  be  condensed?  Let  us  consider  these  three 
propositions  in  turn. 

Shall  the  Temperance  Matter  be  Left  Out  of  any  Topic? 

THE  BONY  FRAMEWORK. 

Reputable  scientific  authorities  testify  that  alcohol  and  tobacco  used  during  the 
period  of  growth  tend  to  dwarf  the  human  stature,  or,  used  later  in  life,  to  weaken 
the  recuperative  powers  of  the  bony  system,  thus  retarding  or  even  preventing 
the  formation  of  new  bony  material  in  cases  of  broken  or  shattered  bones.  Every 
child  desires  a  well-formed  body.  Shall  we  omit  these  facts  from  the  books  and 
thus  leave  the  child  in  the  midst  of  temptations  to  drink  and  smoke,  unwarned  of 
the  natural  consequences  to  his  future  growth’ 

THE  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM  AND  WORKING  ABILITY. 

Take  the  muscular  system.  It  has  been  proved  experimentally  in  scientific 
laboratories,  and  on  a  large  scale  with  armies  and  companies  of  laboring  men,  that 
tobacco  and  alcoholic  drinks  weaken  the  strength  and  endurance  of  the  muscles. 
But  these  facts  are  not  universally  known.  Moreover,  the  opposite  erroneous 
opinion,  that  alcoholic  drinks  strengthen  one  and  better  enable  him  to  endure 
hardships,  is  very  prevalent.  Only  a  few  years  ago  a  college  professor  (Lombard) 


1From  the  School  Physiology  Journal,  December,  1901. 


1027 


1028 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


who  was  making  some  experiments  on  the  strength  and  endurance  of  the  muscles, 
was  greatly  surprised  to  find  a  remarkable  decrease  of  ability  after  he  began  to 
smoke  a  cigar.  He  had  previously  supposed  that  he  could  work  better  while 
smoking.1  Shall  we  erase  these  facts  from  the  pages  of  our  school  text-books  and 
confine  them  to  the  archives  of  medical  libraries,  where  the  people  would  never 
find  them?  It  has  been  stated  recently  by  the  dean  of  one  of  our  industrial  col¬ 
leges,  who  has  been  studying  the  industrial  problem  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
that  one  factor  in  the  present  commercial  supremacy  of  this  country  is  “the 
American  tendency  to  apply  knowledge  as  soon  as  acquired.”  The  indorsed  school 
physiologies  are  now  carrying  to  millions  of  children  all  over  this  country  the 
facts  concerning  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  tobacco  on  muscular  working 
ability  which  have  been  wrought  out  by  scientific  experiment,  largely  within  the 
past  decade,  and  which,  but  for  this  practical  application,  would  be  reposing  in 
dust-covered  volumes  on  the  shelves  of  medical  libraries.  Furthermore,  it  is  the 
testimony  of  expert  students  of  the  causes  of  our  present  industrial  leadership 
that  the  greater  sobriety  of  the  American  w orkman  is  a  very  large  factor  in  his 
greater  efficiency  over  the  European  workman.  The  reason  for  this  is  seen  in  the 
dissemination  through  the  schools,  and  the  immediate  application  in  the  indus¬ 
tries  of  the  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  narcotics  upon  working  ability. 

Shall  we  now  reverse  the  policy  which  has  brought  such  telling  results,  elimi¬ 
nate  these  truths  from  our  physiologies,  and  let  the  coming  American  generation 
grow  up  uninformed,  or  misinformed,  as  chance  may  decide? 

FOOD. 

One  of  the  most  important  chapters  in  the  school  physiologies  is  that  devoted  to 
food,  which  is  the  source  of  energy  for  mental  and  muscular  work.  The  most 
perfect  engine  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  engineer  who  knew  nothing  of  the  nature 
of  fuels  would  be  as  little  likely  to  attain  the  limit  of  its  possibility  as  the  best 
human  machine  subjected  to  an  ignorant  caterer.  The  indorsed  physiologies  teach 
with  the  greatest  possible  exactness  the  true  nature  of  the  materials  which  men 
commonly  use  as  foods,  and  point  out  definitely  and  in  accordance  with  the  most 
decisive  proofs  of  exact  modern  science  the  qualities  that  are  lacking  in  certain 
other  substances  which  have  been  supposed  to  be  foods,  but  are  not. 

“One  of  the  most  fatal  errors  of  science,”  says  Professor  Kassowitz,  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Vienna,  “is  the  idea  that  alcohol  is  a  food.”  That  idea  i3  common 
among  the  people.  Step  by  step  for  nearly  half  a  century  science  has  slowly  but 
surely  divested  alcohol  of  every  last  claim  and  every  shadow  of  a  claim  to  a  food 
value. 

Recently  some  who  have  not  kept  fully  acquainted  with  this  literature  have 
charged  falsely  that  the  question  is  not  yet  settled,  and  that  therefore  the  subject 
should  be  kept  out  of  the  school  physiologies.  But  meanwhile  the  disproved  errors 
of  the  earlier  experimenters  are  being  promulgated  through  the  newspapers  and 
popular  magazines.  Shall  the  evidence  which  corrects  these  errors  be  allowed  to 
lie  on  the  shelves  of  the  medical  libraries,  or  shall  it  be  given  to  the  children,  with 
full  references  to  the  authorities,  which  anyone  who  doubts  may  go  and  consult? 
As  long  as  human  belief  influences  human  action  and  knowledge  decides  belief, 
whoever  advocates  the  withholding  of  the  established  facts  in  this  matter  from  the 
young  is  as  much  a  traitor  to  his  country  as  was  Benedict  Arnold. 

DIGESTION. 

Next  to  the  subject  of  food  comes  digestion.  It  has  long  been  held  and  is  still 
taught  by  some  belated  or  prejudiced  physicians  that  alcoholic  drinks  are  an  aid 
to  digestion.  This  notion  has  been  disproved  by  the  most  careful  exact  experi- 


Journal  of  Physiology,  vol.  13, 1892. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1029 


mentation.  Shall  we  leave  this  evidence  out  of  our  physiologies  and  allow  our 
future  generations  to  become  easy  victims  to  the  alcohol  habit  through  the  popu¬ 
lar  erroneous  notion  that  it  aids  digestion? 

Following  the  digestion  of  food  comes  its  conversion  into  blood  and  the  trans¬ 
portation  of  the  blood  to  every  part  of  the  organism.  The  heart  is  the  propelling 
engine.  Medical  literature  contains  constantly  accumulating  evidence  of  the 
injurious  influence  of  tobacco  and  alcoholic  drinks  upon  the  heart.  “Tobacco 
heart  ”  rules  many  applicants  out  of  the  naval  and  military  service  of  their  coun¬ 
try  and  unfits  them  for  many  other  promising  careers.  Shall  we  omit  these  facts 
from  the  school  literature  and  leave  our  youth  to  learn  from  the  school  of  experi¬ 
ence,  when  too  late,  what  they  might  have  been? 

RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 

Energy  for  warmth  and  work  is  derived  from  the  oxidation  or  burning  of  food 
materials  in  the  tissues.  The  oxygen  necessary  for  this  burning  is  carried  into 
the  body  by  the  respiratory  organs.  Careful  study  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs 
during  the  last  few  years  has  revealed  such  a  close  connection  between  consump¬ 
tion  and  alcoholic  habits  that  “  alcoholism  ”  and  “tuberculosis”  frequently  stand 
together  in  the  title  of  articles  in  medical  literature.  Only  a  few  years  ago  alcohol 
was  advocated  by  superficial  observers  in  the  medical  profession  as  a  cure  for  con¬ 
sumption.  It  is  now  a  common  lay  prescription  for  a  cold.  Shall  the  evidence 
that  alcohol  predisposes  the  membranes  of  the  respiratory  organs  to  attacks  of 
cold,  makes  them  more  susceptible  to  the  germs  of  consumption,  and  weakens 
the  powers  of  resistance  against  the  disease  be  withheld  from  the  children  who 
study  the  school  physiologies? 

ORGANS  OF  EXCRETION. 

However  well  the  engineer  may  feed  his  engine  with  fuel,  if  he  allows  it  to 
become  clogged  with  ashes  its  power  will  diminish  accordingly.  The  human  body 
affords  a  parallel.  Alcohol  often  causes  diseases  of  the  kidneys  or  of  other  organs 
concerned  in  the  elimination  of  waste  which  quickly  derange  the  human  engine. 
Shall  we  leave  out  of  our  physiologies  the  evidence  science  has  accumulated  in 
this  subject? 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

The  human  nervous  system  differentiates  man  from  the  bruts  creation,  covers 
the  surface  of  the  earth  with  the  products  of  his  constructive  power,  harnesses 
the  forces  of  nature  to  the  car  of  liis  audacious  purposes,  and  even  aspires  to  think 
God’s  thoughts  after  Him.  This,  the  almost  divine  part  of  the  human  system,  the 
last  attainment  in  the  railleniums  of  evolution,  is  the  most  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics.  Here  the  evidence  of  their  action  in 
small  amounts  is  first  detected  by  the  weakening  of  that  self-control  through  which 
man  becomes  the  master  of  circumstances.  Here  lies  the  secret  of  that  power 
gained  by  the  alcoholic  appetite  which  has  caused  the  fall  of  some  of  the  noblest 
specimens  of  the  human  race. 

The  injurious  effects  of  large  quantities  have  long  been  recognized.  They  have 
furnished  the  text  for  exhortations  to  moderation  since  the  days  of  Noah.  But 
evidence  of  injurious  effects  of  small  quantities,  beyond  the  fact  that  they  tended 
to  the  formation  of  the  alcoholic  appetite,  has  been  obtained  almost  entirely  during 
the  last  ten  years.  It  has  been  secured  through  the  most  exhaustive,  exact,  and 
careful  observation  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  higher  mental  operations,  con¬ 
ducted  by  trained  specialists  in  the  psychological  laboratories  of  renowned  univer¬ 
sities.  Shall  the  results  of  these  investigations  be  withheld  from  the  young  whose 
tastes,  opinions,  and  habits  are  now  in  process  of  formation?  Shall  this  knowledge 
be  erased  from  our  school  physiologies? 


1030 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901, 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. 

A  part  of  the  effects  of  narcotics  upon  the  nervous  system  is  their  effects  on  the 
organs  of  special  sense,  the  media  through  which  the  mind  is  made  acquainted 
with  its  environment.  Shall  we  withhold  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  these  organs 
may  be  made  less  efficient  by  the  use  of  alcohol  and  other  narcotics? 

But  there  is  still  another  line  of  truths  needed  to  correct  popular  misconceptions 
which  encourage  the  formation  of  the  drink  habit. 

FERMENTATION. 

Fruits  are  healthful,  a  necessary  part  of  man’s  diet.  He  has  a  natural  appetite 
for  them  which  has  natural  limits.  Why  is  not  the  juice  of  these  fruits  when 
extracted  and  allowed  to  ferment  equally  healthful?  To  answer  this  question  cor¬ 
rectly  one  must  understand  the  changes  that  take  place  during  the  process  of 
alcoholic  fermentation,  the  natural  causes  producing  them,  the  nature  of  the 
resulting  substances — the  popular  alcoholic  drinks.  One  must  know  also  the 
nature  of  the  alcohol  which  makes  these  liquors  injurious  to  the  human  system 
when  used  as  beverages.  This  knowledge  exists  in  the  archives  of  science.  Shall 
we  not,  according  to  our  American  tendency,  continue  to  give  in  our  school  physi¬ 
ologies  practical  application  of  this  knowledge  to  one  of  the  most  vital  questions 
of  individual  and  social  welfare,  rather  than  meekly  to  forsake  our  evident  duty 
because  some  who  have  given  little  or  no  constructive  thought  to  this  great  prob¬ 
lem  meet  us  with  the  vague  objection  that  we  are  giving  too  much  space  to  the 
temperance  matter? 

Science,  logic,  and  experience  all  unite  in  demonstrating  that  established  facts 
concerning  the  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics,  together  with  their 
effects  upon  the  human  system,  have  a  rightful  place  in  all  physiologies  to  be 
studied  by  the  young,  and  that,  too,  in  connection  with  each  phase  of  the  subject. 
To  omit  such  facts  from  a  single  topic  is  by  so  much  to  rob  the  child  of  knowledge 
which  is  his  due  and  which  might  prove  his  stay  in  time  of  temptation. 

Shall  the  Temperance  Matter  re  Massed  in  One  Chapter? 

The  plea  is  made  that  all  temperance  matter  should  be  massed  in  one  chapter. 
If  we  yield  to  this  suggestion  we  sacrifice  logical  sequence  and  often  the  temper¬ 
ance  matter  itself.  When  the  child  is  studying  the  structure  and  function  of  his 
muscles  and  his  interest  and  enthusiasm  are  already  kindled  at  the  thought  of 
what  he  can  do  with  these  organs,  then  is  the  time  to  study  the  hygiene  of  the 
same,  to  learn  how  the  muscles  are  to  be  cared  for  and  trained,  and  what  may 
impair  their  usefulness.  The  influence  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  is  thus  a  logical 
part  of  hygiene.  There  is  no  sound  reason  for  divorcing  them  and  putting  the 
temperance  matter  into  a  separate  chapter,  where  it  can  be  conveniently  omitted; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  every  reason  for  retaining  it  in  connection  with  each 
topic. 

Furthermore,  if  all  temperance  matter  is  massed  in  a  single  chapter  at  the  end 
of  the  book  there  is  every  probability  that  it  will  be  hurried  over  perfunctorily  or 
neglected  altogether.  In  any  case,  the  golden  moment  of  the  child’s  interest  has 
passed,  and  it  has  passed  unimproved. 

Shall  Less  Space  be  Given  to  the  Temperance  Matter. 

But  can  not  all  necessary  temperance  matter  be  given  in  less  comparative  space? 
To  answer  this  question  one  must  first  compute  the  amount  of  physiology  that  is 
needed  in  each  successive  grade  of  the  school  course,  and  then  compute  the  pro¬ 
portion  required  for  clear  statement  of  the  facts  of  the  temperance  matter  that  are 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1031 


appropriate  to  the  same  respective  grades.  The  best  efforts  of  experience,  trained 
shill,  and  conscientious  scruple  concerning  the  omission  of  necessary  truths  have 
found  that  about  one-fifth  of  the  text  of  the  systematically  arranged  and  carefully 
graded  school  physiology  is  required  for  such  a  presentation  of  this  topic. 

Greater  condensation  would  sacrifice  the  illustrations  and  development  that 
are  necessary  to  clear  understanding  and  forcible  impression.  In  such  case  the 
teaching  becomes  dogmatic  assertion  instead  of  the  logical  presentation  of  reasons 
for  the  truth  asserted.  Such  a  systematic  arrangement  as  is  followed  in  the 
indorsed  books  avoids  the  wearisome  and  unwarranted  repetition  of  a  few  truths 
and  the  omission  of  others  which  result  from  unsystematic,  haphazard  teaching, 
the  kind  of  teaching  which  necessarily  brings  the  subject  into  disrepute  wherever 
it  is  practiced. 

The  conservative  study  of  the  sociological  side  of  the  alcohol  question  has  found 
the  beverage  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  a  first  cause  in  the  81  per  cent  of  the  crime 
represented  in  prisons  and  reformatories,  excluding  all  minor  penal  institutions 
and  criminal  courts;  a  direct  cause  of  87  per  cent  of  the  poverty  found  in  alms¬ 
houses,  excluding  the  incalculable  amount  of  poverty  which  escapes  these  institu¬ 
tions,  and.  a  direct  cause  of  4G  per  cent  of  the  deserted  children.  Such,  facts  speak 
for  themselves  and  show  that,  in  view  of  the  far-reaching  effects  of  the  use  of  alco¬ 
holic  drinks  and  other  narcotics,  one-fifth  of  the  space  in  our  school  physiologies 
is  not  too  much  to  devote  to  the  subject. 

In  the  face  of  these  facts  we  dare  not  lower  our  standard  by  omitting  or  further 
condensing  the  temperance  matter  in  the  text-books.  To  do  so  would  be  to  pave 
the  way  for  many  a  child  to  join  the  ranks  of  drink  victims  and  to  shut  out  the 
strength  of  his  young  manhood  from  the  support  of  his  country  and  her  institu¬ 
tions. 


REPORT  OF  A  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERIN¬ 
TENDENCE. 

[At  the  meeting,  of  the  department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  Educa¬ 
tional  Association  held  at  Chicago  February  28,  1901,  District  Superintendent 
A.  G.  Lane,  Chicago,  chairman  of  the  committee  on  physiology  in  schools  appointed 
at  the  meeting  of  the  department  in  1900,  presented  the  following  report.] 

The  undersigned  committee  of  the  department  of  superintendence  was  appointed 
under  the  following  resolution: 

Resolved,  That  the  chair  appoint  a  committee  of  seven,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to 
report  upon  the  teaching,  of  physiology  in  the  schools,  especially  with  regard  to 
the  condition  and  progress  of  scientific  inquiry  as  to  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the 
human  system,  and  to  recommend  what  action,,  if  any,  by  this  department  is 
justified  by  the  results  of  these  inquiries. 

Your  committee  recommends  the  adoption  of  the  following  report: 

The  department  of  superintendence  agrees  cordially  with  the  special  advocates 
of  the  temperance  cause  in  holding  that  everything  which  public  instruction  can 
do  in  the  battle  against  intemperance  ought  to  be  done,  and  that  both  physiology 
and  hygiene  should  be  so  taught  as  to  leave  in  the  minds  of  children  and  youth  an 
adequate  and  proper  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  stimulants 
and  of  narcotics  on  the  human  system. 

Since  the  last  meeting  of  this  department  there  has  been  considerable  discussion 
of  the  question  as  to  whether  alcohol  under  any  conditions  is  properly  to  be  defined 
as  an  article  of  food.  Medical  authorities  are  quoted  in  support  of  both  sides  of 
this  question;  but  no  authority  has  been  found  to  maintain  that  alcohol  is;  a  food 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that  term.  The  question  of  the  supposed  food  value  of 
alcohol  is  a  technical  one  for  medical  experts  to  determine,  and  not  one  which 


]  032 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


need  concern  the  men  and  women  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion  of  children  and  youth.  For  them  it  is  enough  to  know  that  its  use  as  a 
beverage  is  injurious,  and  that  all  authorities  agree  in  deprecating  the  formation 
of  the  drinking  habit  and  in  commending  all  practicable  efforts,  through  public 
instruction,  to  promote  the  cause  of  temperance. 

The  questions  of  highest  importance  for  teachers  and  superintendents  of  schools 
to  consider  are  those  which  relate  to  the  methods  by  which  temperance  instruction 
shall  be  imparted,  the  extent  to  which  it  shall  be  carried,  and  the  subject-matter 
to  be  presented. 

The  educational  side  of  this  subject  is  vitally  important  and  demands  thorough 
and  systematic  study. 

We  therefore  recommend  that  a  body  of  educational  doctrine  be  formulated 
which  may  guide  temperance  instruction  in  the  schools  throughout  the  country, 
and  we  further  recommend  that  the  scope  of  the  investigation  be  so  enlarged  as  to 
cover  not  only  the  topics  already  suggested,  but  also  the  whole  field  of  personal 
hygiene,  so  far  as  this  is  a  practicable  matter  for  school  instruction. 

We  also  recommend  that  this  investigation  be  conducted  under  the  direction  of 
the  National  Council  of  Education,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the 
National  Educational  Association. 

Albert  G-.  Lane. 

O.  T.  Corson. 

F.  Louis  Soldan. 

E.  O.  Lyte. 

Edwin  P.  Seaver. 

James  H.  Van  Sickle. 

Edwin  A.  Alderman. 

Upon  motion  of  Mr.  Lane,  seconded  by  Henry  Sabin,  of  Iowa,  the  report  was 
adopted  without  debate. 


TEMPERANCE  TEACHING  AND  RECENT  LEGISLATION  IN  CON¬ 
NECTICUT.1 

By  W.  B.  Ferguson, 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Middletown ,  Conn. 


The  act  of  the  Connecticut  legislature,  at  its  last  session,  in  radically  modifying 
the  temperance  education  law  of  the  State,  at  the  request  of  the  teachers  and  tem¬ 
perance  leaders,  probably  marked  the  beginning  of  a  reaction  in  legislation  affect¬ 
ing  one  of  the  most  remarkable  temperance  movements  of  modern  times. 

The  Connecticut  statute  of  1893  resembled,  in  its  general  features,  the  statutes 
of  several  other  States.  It  was  less  stringent  than  the  law  of  New  York,  Illinois, 
or  New  Jersey,  but  more  exacting  than  that  of  Massachusetts  or  Pennsylvania. 
It  was  as  follows: 

Section  1.  The  nature  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics,  and  special  instruction 
as  to  their  effects  upon  the  human  system,  in  connection  with  the  several  divi¬ 
sions  of  the  subject  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  shall  be  included  in  the  branches 
of  study  taught  in  the  common  or  public  schools,  and  shall  be  studied  and  taught 
as  other  like  required  branches,  by  the  use  of  graded  text-books  in  the  hands  of 
pupils  where  other  branches  are  thus  studied,  and  orally  in  the  case  of  pupils 
unable  to  read,  and  by  all  pupils  in  all  schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by 
public  money. 

Sec.  2.  The  text-books  used  for  the  instruction  required  by  the  preceding  sec¬ 
tion  for  intermediate  and  primary  pupils  shall  give  at  least  one- fifth  of  their  space 


1  Reprinted  from  the  Educational  Review,  March,  1902. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1033 


to  the  consideration  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinhs  and  narcotics, 
and  the  hooks  used  in  the  highest  grade  of  graded  schools  shall  contain  at  least 
twenty  pages  of  matter  relating  to  this  subject;  but  when  this  subject  is  massed 
wholly  or  in  part  in  a  chapter  or  chapters  at  the  end  of  a  book,  such  book  shall 
not  be  considered  as  meeting  the.  requirements  of  this  law. 

Sec.  3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  school  visitors  to  report  to  the  comptroller  if 
the  provisions  of  this  act  have  not  been  complied  with,  as  specified  in  the  preced¬ 
ing  sections;  and  any  failure  thus  reported,  or  otherwise  satisfactorily  proven, 
shall  be  deemed  sufficient  cause  for  withholding  the  amount  of  school  dividend 
which  such  district  or  districts  are  otherwise  entitled  to  receive. 

Sec.  4.  No  certificate  shall  hereafter  be  granted  to  any  person  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  Connecticut  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in 
physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  i  o  the  effects  and  nature  of  alcoholic 
drinks  and  other  narcotics  upon  the  human  system. 

This  statute  had  been  in  force  eight  years.  In  some  schools  an  honest  and 
earnest  effort  had  been  made  to  obey  both  its  letter  and  spirit.  In  other  schools 
temperance  teaching  had  doubtless  been  slighted,  but  everywhere  throughout  the 
State  superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers  were,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  year,  practically  unanimous  in  condemning  certain  provisions  of  the  law 
and  in  demanding  their  repeal. 

Before  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  the  recent  legislation  in  Connecticut,  let 
us  trace  briefly  this  remarkable  temperance  movement  from  its  beginning.  What 
were  its  cause  and  origin?  What  are  its  aims,  methods,  and  results?  *  *  * 

Alexander  von  Humboldt  declared  in  the  last  century  that  whatever  virtue  men 
would  have  appear  in  society  must  be  taught  in  the  schools.  An  organization  of 
women  was  to  apply  that  philosophy  to  the  temperance  problem.  The  Woman’s 
Christian  Tenrperance  Union  was  organized  in  1874.  Its-  plan  was  to  form  State, 
county,  and  local  branches  throughout  the  country,  and  its  membership  soon 
extended  into  every  State  and  Territory  of  the  Union.  In  1879  a  prominent  mem¬ 
ber  of  that  organization  submitted  to  it  a  proposition,  which  she  called  “  my  con¬ 
cern.  ”  It  provided  for  “  a  thorough,  systematic  study  of  scientific  or  physiological 
temperance  for  all  pupils  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States.”  In  1880  a 
department  of  scientific  temperance  instruction  was  organized  to  put  that  plan 
into  execution,  and  a  superintendent  was  appointed  “to  originate,  devise,  and 
direct  plans  of  work  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  objects  of  the  department.” 
This  superintendent  had,  she  herself  says,  “  an  earnest,  enthusiastic  clientage  of 
active,  loyal  Christian  women  in  every  part  of  the  country,  ready  quickly  and 
intelligently  to  carry  out  the  plans  transmitted  to  them,  a  great  army  of  battalions 
in  every  State  and  Territory,  regiments  and  companies  with  pickets  at  every  out¬ 
post,  and  all  under  the  guidance  of  one  head.  ” 

The  hope  entertained  by  the  members  of  this  organisation  of  effecting  a  thorough 
temperance  reform  in  society  by  teaching  the  children  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the 
human  body  rests  upon  the  old  Socratic  philosophy  that  knowledge  of  evil  insures 
the  avoidance  of  evil;  that  people  do  wrong  from  ignorance  only.  It  was  said,1 
“  The  cause  of  temperance  will  ever  be  a  fluctuating  reform  until  it  is  based  upon 
the  education  of  the  people  as  to  the  proven  facts  about  the  nature  and  consequent 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks.  When  these  facts  become  a  part  of  public  knowledge, 
dating  from  early  childhood,  the  saloon  problem  will  be  solved.” 

This  instruction  was  to  be  given  in  connection  with  physiology  and  hygiene,  but 
temperance  was  to  be  made  the  “chief  topic.”  It  was  proclaimed,  “This  is  not  a 
physiological  but  a  temperance  movement. 5,1  This  teaching  was  also  to  be  required 
by  law,  not  only  in  the  schools  of  every  State,  but  in  all  schools  and  colleges  under 
the  control  of  the  National  Government. 

Many  things  contributed  to  make  legislation  to  this  end  possible.  The  object 
was  a  noble  one,  and  history  has  repeatedly  shown  that  the  nobility  of  the  object 

1  An  Epoch  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  by  Mary  H.  Hunt. 


1034 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

often  blinds  good  people  to  tbe  futility,  if  not  to  the  immorality,  of  the  means. 
Again,  all  attempts  to  reform  adult  society  had  failed,  and  the  only  hope  of 
redeeming  the  world  from  the  curse  of  strong  drink  seemed  to  be  in  saving  the 
children  from  intemperance  by  a  process  of  education.  Still  again,  the  Woman’s 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  with  its  loyal  branches  in  every  city,  town,  and 
village,  with  its  leader  of  high  moral  purpose  and  consecration  to  a  good  cause, 
of  consummate  ability  as  a  general,  and  of  great  eloquence  as  an  advocate,  was 
able  to  wield  a  political  influence  second  to  few,  if  any,  organizations  in  the 
country. 

Let  us  briefly  notice  the  means  used  by  that  organization  to  secure  desired  leg¬ 
islation.  It  will  be  a  study  of  the  most  astute  and  successful  political  methods. 
Regarding  the  campaign  in  New  York,  in  1884,  for  a  temperance  educational  law, 
the  leader  in  that  campaign  says:  “The  campaign  was  systematically  planned 
and  executed.  Earnest  appeals  from  platform,  press,  and  prayer  meeting  among 
the  constituencies  back  of  every  vote  created  a  sentiment  that  echoed  in  the 
final  ‘aye,’  ‘aye,’  that  enacted  the  law  of  1884.  *  *  *  More  than  a  million 

pages  of  matter  in  print  and  letter  form  went  out  during  that  campaign  to  the 
people  of  that  State.”1  According  to  the  same  authority  similar  methods  were 
employed  in  Pennsylvania  in  1885.  *  *  * 

The  people  were  appealed  to  in  the  name  of  temperance;  their  sons  and  daughters 
were  in  danger  of  suffering;  why  not  fortify  them  against  temptation  by  pointing 
out  to  them  the  true  nature  of  alcohol  and  tobacco,  and  thus  enable  them  to  with¬ 
stand  in  the  evil  hour?  A  strong  public  sentiment  having  been  thus  created  in 
each  locality  “  was  gathered  up  and  focalized  on  each  member  of  the  committee 
to  whom  the  bill  would  be  referred  in  both  branches  of  Congress  ”  and  the  legis¬ 
latures,  and,  before  the  vote  was  taken  on  the  final  passage  of  the  bill,  Senators 
and  Representatives  were  deluged  with  letters  and  petitions.  Presumably,  some 
hesitated  to  oppose  such  temperance  measures  lest  they  be  classed  among  the 
friends  of  the  saloon,  the  enemies  of  the  children  and  good  morals,  and  be  threat¬ 
ened  with  political  annihilation.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  a  temperance 
education  law,  usually  of  a  mild  nature,  was  soon  passed  by  nearly  every  State 
and  by  the  National  Congress. 

But,  as  has  been  said,  temperance  was  to  be  taught  in  connection  with  physi¬ 
ology  and  hygiene,  and  there  were  no  text-books  of  physiology  which  devoted 
much  space  to  alcohol  and  other  narcotics.  The  next  step,  therefore,  was  to  induce 
or  compel  publishers  to  revise  their  physiologies  and  to  incorporate  in  them  chap¬ 
ters  on  narcotics. 

It  was  just  here  that  these  temperance  leaders  made  their  first  great  mistake. 
Only  praise  can  be  bestowed  upon  their  ultimate  object.  It  is  a  truly  noble  and 
patriotic  one.  Nor  can  severe  criticism  be  pronounced  upon  the  means  employed 
to  secure  legislation.  They  -were  simply  the  means  often  used  by  the  better  class 
of  politicians.  But,  in  revising  the  physiologies,  the  greatest  care  should  have 
been  exercised  not  to  include  in  them  any  statements  concerning  alcohol  and  other 
narcotics  which  do  notsquare  with  scientific  truth.  These  books,  however,  instead 
of  being. scientifically  accurate,  contain  statements  that  contradict  both  science 
and  the  everyday  observations  "of  men.  True,  they  are  said  by  those  who  are 
styled  “eminent  scientists,”  “best  scientific  authorities, ’’and  the  “  world’s  experts,” 
to  contain  “  no  errors,”  to  be  “substantially  correct,”  “  completely  in  accordance 
with  the  facts  determined  through  scientific  experimentation  and  observation,” 
“  accurate,”  etc.  But  let  us  briefly  examine  some  of  these  volumes  and  ascertain 
whether  they  are  wholly  accurate  and,  therefore,  in  accord  with  the  highest 
scientific  authority. 

In  the  latest  and  quite  recent  editions  of  these  books  we  find  the  following  state- 


1An  Epoch  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1035 


ments,  made  either  by  the  authors  of  the  books  or  quoted  from  those  who  are 
called  “eminent  writers,”  “gifted  authors,”  and  “men  of  high  standing  and 
acknowledged  ability.” 

“  The  majority  of  beer  drinkers  die  from  dropsy.” 1 

That  the  long-continued  and  excessive  use  of  beer  tends  to  affect  injuriously  the 
liver  and  kidneys — and  all  organs  of  the  body  for  that  matter — is  undoubtedly 
true,  but  if  it  be  true  that  the  majority  of  those  who  drink  beer  die  from  dropsy, 
it  is  difficult  to  understand  why  American  life-insurance  companies  are  so  desirous 
of  doing  business  among  such  a  dropsical  people  as  the  Germans  must  be. 

“Alcohol  is  a  virulent  poison,  and  should  be  classed  with  arsenic  and  mercury.”2  j 

Druggists  do  not  seem  to  know  this,  for  they  never  put  the  “  poison  ”  label  on  a 
bottle  of  alcohol,  though  they  seldom  forget  to  do  so  in  the  case  of  arsenic  and 
mercury.  Instead  of  being  a  “  virulent  ”  or  “  powerful  ”  poison,  alcohol  is  one  of 
the  weakest  and  slowest  of  poisons.  Moreover,  if  is  a  subject  of  discussion  among 
leading  scientists  whether  alcohol  acts  at  ail  like  a  poison  when  taken  in  small 
doses.  But  whether  it  should  or  should  not  be  classed  scientifically  as  a  poison, 
certainly  in  the  sense  in  which  the  child  understands  the  word  “poison  ”  alcohol 
is  not  a  poison,  and  this  is  sufficient  reason  why  it  should  not  be  so  called  in  teach¬ 
ing  children. 

Another 3 4  of  these  “indorsed  ”  physiologies  conveys  the  impression  that  alcohol 
passes  through  the  different  organs  of  the  body  unoxidized  and  merely  “mixed 
with  ”  the  blood,  thus  conveying  the  impression  that  it  can  not  in  any  sense  or 
measure  serve  the  purpose  of  a  food.  This  is  a  surprising  position  for  a  book 
published  in  1899  to  take,  in  view  of  the  results  of  scientific  research  conducted 
in  the  laboratories  of  Europe  and  America  during  the  last  twenty  years,  but  more 
especially  during  the  last  three  or  four  years.  Alcohol  is  certainly  not  a  food  in 
the  sense  in  which  children  understand  that  term,  and  this  consideration  forbids 
calling  it  a  food  in  teaching  children,  but  to  affirm  specifically  or  to  teach  by  impli¬ 
cation  that  alcohol  is  not  oxidized  in  the  body,  but  always  passes  through  it 
unchanged,  is  to  teach  untruth. 

Alcohol  can  not  build  tissue  nor  increase  muscular  strength,  but  taken  in  small 
quantities  it  is  oxidized  and  yields  energy.  This  fact,  however,  furnishes  no  good 
reason  for  using  alcohol  liquor  as  a  beverage,  nor  does  it  help  to  solve  any  one  of 
the  many  problems  that  have  their  source  in  the  liquor  traffic. 

The  subject  of  alcohol  as  a  food  or  poison  is  a  purely  academic  one,  and  should 
have  no  place  in  the  teaching  of  the  public  schools,  at  least  in  the  lower  grades, 

“  Tobacco  has  done  more  to  cause  insanity  than  spirituous  liquors.’-4 

The  records  of  the  Connecticut  Hospital  for  the  Insane  show  1,002  cases  of  insan¬ 
ity  caused  by  spirituous  liquors  and  only  13  cases  caused  in  part  by  tobacco. 

“  Tobacco  is  doing  more  harm  in  the  world  than  rum.”5 

This  statement  was  taken  from  a  newspaper  report  of  an  address  by  Dr.  Willard 
Parker.  Those  who  knew  Dr.  Parker  can  best  judge  as  to  whether  he  would  be 
guilty  of  making  such  a  ridiculous  statement.  But  is  that  the  kind  of  temperance 
teaching  we  want  our  boys  to  receive?  W~ould  not  the  inference  that  it  is  less 
harmful  to  drink  beer  or  whisky  than  to  smoke  or  chew  tobacco  be  natural  to  boys 
who  are  told  that  “  tobacco  is  doing  more  harm  in  the  world  than  rum?  ” 

Dr.  J.  W.  Seaver,  of  Yale  University,  is  made  to  say.  “No  young  man  can  use 
tobacco  without  injuring  himself  seriously .”6  (The  italics  are  mine.)  In  reply 
to  a  letter  from  me  Dr.  Seaver  says:  “  I  would  never  think  of  making  such  a  state- 

1  Smith-Willard  Standard  School  Physiology,  p.  157. 

2  Oral  Lesson  Book,  New  Century  Series,  p.  56. 

3  Baldwin’s  Advanced  Lessons  in  Physiology,  pp.  237-228. 

4  Stowell’s  Essentials  of  Health,  1896  edition,  p.  242. 

5  Pathfinder,  No.  2,  p.  60. 

6  Stowell’s  Essentials  of  Health,  p.  238. 


108(5 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ment;  the  facts  are  all  against  such  a  statement.  *  *  *  It  is  a  bugaboo.”  And 
yet  Dr.  Seaver  is  one  of  the  strongest  advocates  of  total  abstinence  from  tobacco. 
The  author  of  the  book  is  said  to  have  recently  acknowledged  that  he  took  the 
statement  from  a  newspaper. 

“  None  are  more  likely  to  deceive  unscrupulously  than  these  who  use  the  weed. 

“  Tobacco  demoralizes;  it  makes  a  man  careless  about  his  hair;  he  lets  his  nails 
go  unclean;  his  clothes  or  soiled,  and  he  is  generally  untidy.”1 

These  are  merely  illustrations  of  the  kind  of  temperance  instruction  which  too 
many  of  these  books  offer  to  the  boys  and  girls  in  our  public  schools. 

Of  course  these  books  were  not  satisfactory  to  teachers,  who  knew  that  such 
statements  were  in  direct  conflict  with  the  results  of  their  own  observations  and 
who  soon  learned  from  scientists  that  such  teaching  was  also  in  direct  conflict 
with  the  consensus  of  scientific  opinion.  Indeed,  nothing  in  the  education  of  our 
time  has  met  with  so  general  and  so  earnest  disapproval  from  the  most  intelligent 
teachers  as  have  these  “indorsed  ”  physiologies.  This  has  been  due,  however, not 
so  much  to  specific  statements  of  a  misleading  nature  as  to  the  spirit  of  exaggera¬ 
tion  that  pervades  the  books,  to  the  large  amount  and  unwise  distribution  of  the 
temperance  matter,  to  the  emphasis  placed  upon  facts — or  assumed  facts — that 
appeal  to  fear  and  to  the  disregard  of  facts  that  appeal  to  manliness  and  the  moral 
nature,  to  negative  teaching  chiefly,  and  to  the  omission  of  much  that  should  be 
given  to  emphasize  the  beauty,  nobility,  and  strength  of  a  temperate  life. 

Let  us  briefly  notice  the  proportion  of  space  which  these  “  indorsed  ”  books  give 
to  narcotics.  One  of  them,2  which  contains  approximately  90  pages  (not  includ¬ 
ing  preface,  contents,  index,  or  space  occupied  by  cuts  and  questions  on  the  text), 
devotes  38  pages  to  anatomy  and  physiology,  about  35  pages  to  narcotics,  and 
only  17  pages  to  all  other  topics  of  hygiene.  It  devotes  1  page  to  the  “Care  of 
the  brain  and  nerves,”  but  4  pages  to  the  effects  of  narcotics  on  the  nervous  sys¬ 
tem;  4  pages  to  the  important  subject  of  “Foods,”  but  16  pages  to  the  sources  and 
nature  of  alcohol;  7  lines  to  show  why  people  who  are  not  growing  need  food,  but 
an  indefinite  number  of  pages  to  show  why  these  same  people  do  not  need  alcohol. 
Five  lines  are  thought  sufficient  for  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  important  sub¬ 
ject  of  “Exercise,”  but  nearly  three  pages  are  devoted  to  a  consideration  of 
“Cider.”  Another  volume  of  this  series3  devotes  approximately  75  pages,  or  two- 
fifths  of  the  entire  space  (not  including  space  occupied  by  cuts  and  questions),  to 
narcotics.  These  books,  I  think,  represent  about  the  proportion  of  space  given  by 
other  “indorsed  ”  physiologies  of  the  same  grade  to  narcotics. 

This  proportion  is  much  too  great.  Too  much  of  even  the  best  food  soon  cloys 
the  appetite,  causes  indigestion  and  nausea,  and  does  physical  harm.  So  too  large 
or  too  frequent  doses  of  temperance  instruction  are  sure  to  kill  all  interest  in  the 
subject,  cause  disgust,  and  do  moral  injury.  Moreover,  all  the  facts  that  are  pre¬ 
sented  in  the  35  pages  of  the  one  book  or  the  75  pages  of  the  other  could  be  ade¬ 
quately  and  impressively  presented  in  10  pages  or  even  less. 

As  has  already  been  shown,  these  books  appeal  chiefly  to  fear.  The  trembling 
hand,  the  thick  speech,  the  dull  senses,  the  poisoned  blood,  the  overwrought 
heart,  the  disordered  liver  and  stomach,  the  weakened  nerves,  the  confused  brain, 
the  foul  mouth,  the  offensive  breath,  the  poverty,  crime,  and  misery  of  the  drunk¬ 
ard  are  hysterically  held  up  to  the  gaze  of  the  children;  but  the  steady  hand,  the 
distinct  speech,  the  quick  senses,  the  healthy  body,  the  clear  brain,  the  success, 
and  happiness  of  the  temperate  man  are  scarcely  mentioned. 

Says  Prof.  S.  T.  Dutton,  of  Columbia  University:  “  We  do  not  teach  hygiene  by 
the  study  of  disease,  cleanliness  by  the  observation  of  filth,  nor  purity  by  the  con¬ 
templation  of  vice.” 

We  teach  truth,  kindness,  generosity  by  pointing  to  men  and  women  who 


1  Stowell’s  Essentials  of  Health,  p.  245. 


2  Pathfinder,  No.  1. 


3  Pathfinder,  No.  2. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1037 


exemplify  those  virtues.  “It  is  by  studying  the  Christ-life  that  we  become 
Christ-like,”  says  a  Connecticut  school  superintendent,  a  member  of  the  Women’s 
Christian  Temperance  Union.  “Too  often  we  try  to  lead  the  children  into 
temperate  lives  by  holding  up  intemperance  only,  into  lives  of  all  self-control  by 
careful  observation  of  those  who  are  only  examples  of  self-indulgence.  We  believe 
that  these  lessons  can  be  most  effectively  taught  by  persistently  placing  before 
the  child,  in  every  way  and  at  every  opportunity,  the  virtues  we  would  have  him 
incorporate  into  his  own  life.” 

“Education,”  says  Superintendent  Soldan,  “is  that  process  by  which  the  germs 
of  good  that  lie  as  possibilities  in  every  child  are  drawn  forth  and  developed.” 
How  can  that  object  be  better  accomplished  than  by  keeping  the  thoughts  and 
affections  on  the  good,  the  pure,  the  beautiful,  and  away  from  the  evil,  the  impure, 
and  the  ugly?  Froebel’s  injunction  was  so  “to  fill  the  mind  with  the  beautiful 
that  there  will  be  no  room  for  the  ugly.”  Our  ministers  learned  long  ago  that 
Christian  character  can  be  more  easily  cultivated  by  helping  people  to  catch 
glimpses  of  heaven  than  by  holding  up  to  their  gaze  the  torments  of  hell.  If  this 
be  true  in  the  case  of  older  people,  it  is  doubly  true  in  the  case  of  children. 

We  do  not  contend  that  the  evil  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  should  never  be 
pointed  out  to  children.  They  should  be,  but  chiefly  in  order  that  by  contrast  the 
nobility,  strength,  and  success  of  the  temperate  life  may  be  made  more  impressive. 

The  distribution  of  the  temperance  matter  in  these  books  is  very  objectionable. 
Instead  of  concentrating  it  into  three  or  four  chapters,  it  is  distributed  in  many 
places,  and,  in  too  many  cases,  the  trend  of  the  chapter  is  toward  a  climax  in  the 
discussion  of  narcotics;  that  is,  the  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  seems 
to  be  intended  merely  as  a  preparation  for  the  temperance  teaching  that  frequently 
closes  the  chapter.  In  this  way  temperance  is  made  the  “chief  topic,”  and  the 
proclamation  that  “This  is  not  a  physiological,  but  a  temperance  movement”  is 
enforced. 

But  to  return  to  the  history  of  this  temperance  movement.  After  physiologies 
of  the  nature  just  described  had  been  secured,  a  demand  was  made  for  more 
stringent  laws — laws  which  required  the  use  of  text-books  that  devote  at  least  one- 
fifth  of  their  space  to  narcotics,  and  which  specified  that  temperance  instruction 
should  be  given  to  all  children,  from  the  lowest  primary  classes  to  the  young  men 
and  women  in  the  high  school. 

It  is  not  generally  understood,  I  think,  with  what  consummate  shrewdness  and 
skill  the  political  influence  of  the  Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union  on  legis¬ 
lators  and  the  personal  influence  of  officers  and  members  of  that  organization  on 
publishers  and  school  committees  have  been  made  to  contribute  to  the  accomplish¬ 
ment  of  the  one  purpose,  viz,  the  adoption  and  use  of  the  “indorsed ”  physiologies. 
By  plans  carefully  laid  and  skillfully  executed,  this>  object  was,  in  some  States, 
quickly  secured.  Through  the  personal  influence  of  branches  of  the  Woman's 
Christian  Temperance  Union  in  each  locality  public  sentiment  was  first  aroused 
in  favor  of  temperance  instruction.  This  sentiment  was  then  brought  to  bear 
upon  legislators  in  favor  of  temperance  education  laws,  at  first  of  a  liberal  char¬ 
acter.  Publishers  were  then  compelled  to  revise  their  books  and  to  incorporate  in 
them  chapters  on  narcotics  in  order  to  secure  sales,  for  the  influence  of  the  local 
Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union  forced  school  committees  to  demand  tem¬ 
perance  books.  It  was,  then,  not  a  difficult  matter  to  secure  such  modifications 
in  the  law  as  practically  to  require  the  use  of  the  “indorsed”  books  or  of  books 
made  with  a  view  of  securing  indorsement,  and  therefore  differing  little  from  the 
“  approved  ”  books. 

No  claim  is  here  made  that,  in  the  steps  taken  to  secure  this  legislation,  methods 
of  a  dishonest  character  were  employed.  There  is  admiration  rather  for  the  per¬ 
fect  organization  of  forces,  for  the  marshaling  of  “companies,  battalions,  pickets, 
and  outposts,”  for  the  carefully  laid  and  skillfully  executed  plans,  for  the  facility 


1038  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

with  which  legislators  were  made  as  clay  in  the  hands  of  the  potter,  and  for  the 
triumphant  success  that  crowned  the  efforts  of  those  who  fought  without  a  ballot. 
I  am  simply  endeavoring  to  show  how  it  has  happened  that  laws  which  do  violence 
to  modern  pedagogy,  which  force  upon  the  schools  “  devitalized  and  machine-like 
methods,”  and  a  kind  of  teaching  which  is  a  “travesty  on  modern  education,” 
have  been  secured  by  the  Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  teachers  and  school  superintendents,  in  spite  of  State  officers  of  edu¬ 
cation,  college  professors,  and  college  presidents,  in  spite  of  prominent  physicians, 
clergymen,  the  public  press,  and  even  the  legislators  themselves. 

In  demanding  these  more  stringent  laws,  however,  the  temperance  people  made 
their  second  great  mistake.  Had  school  superintendents,  principals,  or  teachers 
been  consulted  and  their  advice  followed,  such  laws  would  not  have  been 
demanded.  There  are  many  reasons,  well  understood  by  practical  school  people, 
why  the  smallest  children  should  not  receive  instruction  concerning  the  effects  of 
narcotics  on  the  human  body.  Moreover,  that  stringent  laws  do  not  insure  effec¬ 
tive  teaching,  but  that  liberal  laws  are  more  likely  to  accomplish  that  object,  is 
clearly  shown  by  the  results  in  different  States.  The  experience  in  Pennsylvania 
is  to  the  point.  The  teaching  in  that  State  is  said  by  temperance  leaders  to  be 
especially  satisfactory,  and  yet  the  law  of  that  State  specifies  nothing  as  to  what, 
how  much,  or  how  temperance  shall  be  taught,  nor  is  it  specified  that  text-books 
shall  be  used  in  any  grade. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  situation  in  Connecticut. 

What  had  been  the  results  of  temperance  teaching  under  the  exacting  statute  of 
1893?  The  following  replies  of  the  ten  teachers  in  one  of  the  grammar  schools  of 
the  State  undoubtedly  represent  the  opinions  of  teachers  throughout  the  Common¬ 
wealth.  The  questions  were  submitted  before  the  movement  to  secure  modifica¬ 
tions  in  the  law  was  begun,  and  only  one  teacher  knew  the  superintendent’s  opinion 
of  the  text-books  in  use  or  of  the  results  of  temperance  teaching  in  his  schools. 

“  Do  your  children  understand  what  the  text-book  states  about  the  physiological 
effects  of  alcohol  on  the  liver,  kidneys,  heart,  and  other  organs  of  the  body?”  Ail 
answer  “No.” 

“  Do  you  accept  as  true  all  the  statements  of  your  text-book  of  physiology?” 
All  answer  “No.” 

“  Do  you  think  that  temperance  instruction,  as  presented  in  your  book,  will  save 
some  of  your  boys  from  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors  and  other  narcotics?” 
Four  answer  “Possibly;”  six  answer  “  No.” 

“  Do  you  think  that  temperance  instruction  should  relate  chiefly  to  the  effects 
of  alcohol  and  other  narcotics  on  the  human  body,  or  to  their  effects  on  character, 
happiness,  and  success  in  life?”  All  answer  “  The  latter.” 

All  of  these  ten  teachers  had  earnestly  endeavored  to  obey  both  the  letter  and 
the  spirit  of  the  law.  Can  it  be  reasonably  doubted  that  similar  replies  would  be 
made  to  these  questions  by  the  teachers  of  New  York,  Illinois,  and  other  States, 
upon  whose  schools  a  kind  of  temperance  instruction  is  forced  which  is  baneful  to 
both  teacher  and  pupil? 

And  so  this  temperance  education  law  had  been  tried  in  Connecticut  eight  years 
with  results  that. were  unsatisfactory  to  both  teachers  and  temperance  leaders, 
when,  suddenly,  the  widespread  opposition  to  the  law  that  had  been  gathering 
force  among  the  educators  became  manifest  and  made  itself  felt  in  favor  of  radi¬ 
cal  modifications. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Connecticut  council  of  education,  held  in  New  Haven  early 
in  the  present  year,  the  subject  of  “  Temperance  Teaching  in  Public  Schools” 
was  discussed  by  Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater,  members  of  the  council,  and  officers  of 
temperance  organizations  of  the  State,  who  had  been  invited  to  be  present  and  to 
take  part  in  the  discussion.  So  great  was  the  opposition  manifested  by  the  school 
superintendents  and  principals  to  the  law  that  the  Rev,  J.  H.  James,  secretary  of 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1039 


the  Connecticut  Temperance  Union,  suggested  that  the  school  people  and  temper¬ 
ance  people  get  together  and  see  if  they  could  not  agree  upon  modifications  of  the 
statutes  if  modifications  should  seem  desirable.  The  suggestion  was  acted  upon, 
and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  confer  with  the  officers  of  the  temperance 
organizations  of  the  State.  A  conference  was  held;  a  bill  was  at  length  agreed 
upon  and  accepted  by  the  school  people  and  temperance  people.  Superintendents 
and  principals,  representing  a  majority  of  the  teachers  and  pupils  of  the  State, 
signed  a  petition  to  the  legislature  urging  its  passage.  Every  superintendent, 
principal,  and  teacher  in  the  State,  so  far  as  I  know,  favored  the  bill.  It  was 
indorsed  by  President  Hadley,  of  Yale;  President  Raymond,  of  Wesleyan,  and 
other  prominent  citizens  of  the  State.  It  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  national 
superintendent  of  scientific  temperance  instruction  and  members  of  her  advisory 
board,  but  it  passed  both  house  and  senate  without  a  word  of  opposition.  *  *  * 

Great  honor  is  due  the  temperance  people  of  Connecticut,  especially  the  Woman’s 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  for  manifesting  a  broad-mindedness  and  a  spirit  of 
conciliation  which  made  agreement  with  the  teachers  possible.  They  placed  duty 
before  policy,  good  teaching  before  any  desire  for  a  “  perfect  ”  law,  and  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  the  children  before  the  fear  or  pleasure  of  anybody.  The  future  will  show, 
we  believe,  that  in  winning  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  teachers  by  uniting 
with  them  in  support  of  a  more  reasonable  temperance  education  law  they  “builded 
better  than  they  knew.’’ 

The  provisions  of  the  new  law  are  as  follows: 

Section  1.  The  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  health,  and  especially  on 
character,  shall  be  taught  in  connection  with  hygiene  as  a  regular  branch  of  study 
to  all  pupils  above  the  third  grade  in  all  graded  public  schools  except  public  high 
schools. 

Sec.  2.  Suitable  text-books  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  which  explain  the  effects 
of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system,  shall  be  used  in  "grades  above  the 
fifth  in  all  graded  public  schools  except  public  high  schools. 

Sec.  3.  The  provisions  of  sections  1  and  2  of  this  act  shall  apply,  in  ungraded 
public  schools,  to  classes  corresponding  to  the  grades  designated  in  said  sections. 

Sec.  4.  All  normal  schools  and  teachers'  training  schools  shall  give  instruction 
in  the  subjects  prescribed  in  sections  1  and  2  of  this  act  and  in  the  best  methods 
of  teaching  such  subjects. 

Sec.  5.  No  certificate  to  teach  in  grades  above  the  third  shall  he  granted  to  any 
person  who  has  not  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  subjects  prescribed  in 
section  1  of  this  act. 

Sec.  6,  If  it  shall  be  satisfactorily  proven  to  the  comptroller  that  any  town  or 
district,  having  pupils  above  the  third  grade,  has  failed  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  this  act,  such  failure  shall  be  deemed  sufficient  cause  for  withholding,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  school  dividends  which  such  town  or  district  would  otherwise  be 
entitled  to  receive. 

If  this  statute  be  compared  with  that  of  1893,  the  following  chief  differences 
will  appear:  The  present  law  does  not  require  temperance  instruction  below  the 
fourth  grade  nor  in  the  high  school;  it  does  not  require  the  use  of  text-books 
below  the  sixth  grade  nor  the  use  in  any  grade  of  books  that  devote  any  definite 
portion  of  space  to  narcotics.  Neither  does  it  require  the  use  of  text-books  by 
pupils.  All  these  requirements  were  definitely  specified  in  the  statute  of  1893. 
The  increased  demand  on  the  normal  schools  is  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the 
old  statute  required  those  schools  to  provide  temperance  instruction  by  its  general 
provisions  relating  to  the  teaching  of  temperance  “in  all  schools  supported  wholly 
or  in  part  by  public  money.  ” 

Tbe  present  statute  was  a  compromise  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  It  was 
not  entirely  satisfactory  to  either  party,  but  it  was  more  satisfactory  to  the  teach¬ 
ers  than  the  old  law,  and  to  the  temperance  people  than  no  law  at  all.  A  fight 
between  the  teachers  and  the  temperance  people  might  have  resulted  in  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  bill  which  had  been  introduced  early  in  the  session,  and  which  provided 
for  the  repeal  of  the  then  existing  statute,  but  neither  party  desired  to  enter  upon 
such  a  fierce  contest  as  would  surely  follow. 


1040 


EDUCATION  EEPGKT,  1900-1901. 


The  teachers  of  Connecticut  are  in  favor  of  giving  to  their  pupils  a  reasonable 
amount  of  temperance  instruction,  but  they  wish  to  practice  temperance  in  their 
temperance  teaching.  They  believe,  with  the  National  Association  of  Superin¬ 
tendence,  that  “the  question  of  highest  interest  for  teachers  and  superintendents 
of  schools  to  consider  is  the  methods  by  which  temperance  instruction  shall  be 
imparted,  the  extent  to  which  it  shall  be  carried,  and  the  subject-matter  to  be  pre¬ 
sented.”  They  believe  that  all  these  matters  should  be  determined  by  practical 
educators  and  not  by  visionary  enthusiasts.  They  know  that  many  a  course  of 
study,  conceived  in  the  fertile  bra'n  of  one  of  no  experience  in  teaching,  has 
found  its  Waterloo  in  the  practical  test  of  the  schoolroom. 

But  what  is  to  be  the  outcome  of  this  temperance  movement? 

The  answer  to  that  question  depends  largely  upon  the  wisdom  shown  by  educa¬ 
tors  and  temperance  leaders.  If  they  act  as  becomes  those  who  seek  the  same 
ultimate  object,  some  good  should  result;  but  these  temperance  people  are  doomed 
to  certain  disappointment  in  the  amount  of  good  which  they  hope  will  be  accom¬ 
plished.  Their  theory  and  hopes  rest  upon  an  assumption  that  is  not  founded  on 
the  truth.  Knowledge  of  evil  does  not  insure  the  avoidance  of  evil.  People  do 
not  do  wrong  from  ignorance  only. 

Educators  and  temperance  leaders  should  cooperate,  and  cooperation  will  be 
promoted  if  good  sense,  consideration,  and  forbearance  are  shown  by  both  parties. 

Educators  should  remember  that  they  are  public  servants  and  are  not  in  a  posi¬ 
tion  to  dictate  in  matters  of  public  policy;  that  more  can  be  gained  by  patience 
and  discussion  than  by  impatience  and  unkind  remarks;  that  the  temperance 
people  who  have  been  instrumental  in  securing  existing  legislation  are  honest, 
high-minded,  true  to  their  convictions  of  duty,  desiring  only  to  subserve  the  high¬ 
est  interests  of  the  children,  of  society,  and  their  country;  that  they  can  not  be 
driven  from  their 'course,  but  that  the  great  majority  of  them  can  be  led  from  it 
by  showing  them  a  better  way;  and  that,  when  aroused  by  a  sense  of  duty,  they 
can  wield  a  political  influence  which  educators  would  find  difficult  to  overcome. 

On  the  other  hand,  temperance  leaders  should  remember  that  most  teachers  are 
also  temperance  people  by  precept  and  example;  that  they  are  honest,  high- 
minded,  and  conscientious  ;  that  they  are  second  only  to  parents  in  the  interest 
they  feel  in  the  moral  welfare  of  their  pupils ;  that  they  have  had  professional 
training  and  know  best  what  subjects  are  suited  to  the  different  stages  of  mental 
and  moral  development ;  that  teachers  can  not  be  forced  to  teach  what  they  believe 
to  be  false;  that  the  most  intelligent  teachers  will  rely  for  their  scientific  facts 
upon  men  of  science  and  not  upon  the  compiler,  the  tyro,  or  the  |)artisan  ;  that 
no  temperance  education  law,  however  “  perfect,”  can  accomplish  much  unless  it 
has  the  support  of  educators  ;  that  their  support  can  not  be  secured  by  abuse,  by 
charging  them  with  being  in  sympathy  with  the  liquor  interests  and  always 
opposed  to  progress ;  that  no  temperance  education  law  or  course  of  temperance 
instruction  which  is  conceived  in  the  brain  of  anyone,  however  brilliant,  who  has 
had  no  educational  training  or  experience  In  the  modern  schoolroom  will  proba¬ 
bly  be  sufficiently  sane  and  sensible  to  deserve  the  support  of  anybody.  And, 
furthermore,  temperance  leaders  will  do  well  to  understand  that  the  people  are 
beginning  to  know  the  facts  about  this  temperance  movement,  to  question  its  effi¬ 
cacy  as  at  present  conducted,  and  that,  in  a  contest  between  teachers  and  the 
promulgators  of  this  movement,  the  people  will  support  the  teachers  as  they  have 
never  done  before. 

Liberty  to  teach  the  truth,  as  the  teacher  understands  it,  and  to  teach  it  in  the 
way  in  which  he  can  make  it  most  effective,  must  be  maintained  at  all  cost.  For 
educators  to  yield  this  right  would  be  to  sacrifice  self-respect  and  the  highest 
interests  of  the  children.  All  who  are  interested  in  sound  education  and  good 
morals  should  see  to  it  that  this  right  is  preserved  to  the  teachers  of  American 
youth. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1041 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION  IN  NEBRASKA. 

The  instruction  in  this  subject  is  often  unwisely  distributed  throughout  the 
course,  and  any  change  of  sentiment  or  opinion  against  the  use  of  alcohol  seems 
entirely  disproportionate  to  the  outlay  of  time  and  effort  that  has  been  made. 
There  is  frequent  and  unnecessary  repetition,  and  diminished  interest  and  dislike 
of  the  subject  are  prevalent.  Text-book  instruction  could,  with  profit  to  the 
cause  and  to  the  school,  be  limited  to  the  higher  grammar  grades.  The  use  of 
charts  in  common  schools  showing  morbid  physiological  conditions  is  generally 
condemned. — Official  decisions  oftheState  superintendent  of  Nebraska  {1881-1902) , 
p-  46. 


THE  MODERN  SUBJECTION  OF  SCIENCE  AND  EDUCATION  TO 

PROPAGANDA. 1 

When,  in  1842,  Horace  Mann  published  his  still  excellent  essay  on  The  Study  of 
Physiology  in  Schools,  he  seems,  judged  by  recent  school  statutes  of  the  several 
United  States,  to  have  made  one  serious  omission,  for  he  nowhere  mentions  or 
even  foreshado'ws  that  remarkable  creation  of  our  own  times,  “temperance  phys¬ 
iology,”  and  very  likely,  with  some  old-fashioned  people  of  to-day,  he  regarded 
“temperance”  as  chiefiy  a  moral  question. 

The  inbvement  is  variously  called  “scientific  temperance  instruction,”  “tem¬ 
perance  physiology”  or  “physiological  temperance,”  and  it  has  now  grown  to 
such  proportions  and  has  gained  such  power  as  to  dominate,  almost  absolutely, 
all  instruction  in  elementary  physiology  and  hygiene  in  America.  It  is  of  course 
right  and  proper  that  pupils  in  all  grades  of  the  public  schools  should  be  taught 
the  dangers  of  alcoholic  beverages  as  fully  and  as  earnestly  as  other  dangers  lurk¬ 
ing  in  food  or  drink.  We  may  even  grant  that  more  stress  should  be  laid  upon 
this  subject  than  upon  some  others.  But  an  examination  of  the  present  status  of 
elementary  education  in  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  United  States  shows  that 
in  many  cases  the  instruction  demanded  by  this  propaganda,  and  given  according 
to  law,  in  reference  to  alcohol  goes  much  further.  It  even  appears  that  all 
instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools  has  passed  to  a  great 
and  unjustifiable  extent  into  the  virtual  control  and  under  the  subjection  of  the 
“temperance  physiology  ”  propaganda. 

Authoritative  sources  of  information  for  testing  these  statements  are  easily 
accessible  to  all.  They  consist  of  the  statutes  of  the  several  States  requiring 
instruction,  often  of  prescribed  and  peculiar  kinds,  regarding  alcohol;  of  the  text¬ 
books  on  elementary  physiology  and  hygiene  actually  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils; 
of  the  teachers — many  of  whom  groan  in  spirit  even  when  they  do  not  dare  to 
complain  openly;  and  last,  but  not  least,  of  the  histories  of  the  propaganda  pub¬ 
lished,  one  in  1891  (or  earlier)  and  the  other  in  1897. 2 

From  these  latter  it  appears  that  statutes  now  exist  in  nearly  every  one  of  the 
United  States  requiring  instruction  in  physiology  and  hygiene  with  special  refer- 

1  Abridgment  of  an  address  delivered  at  the  Chicago  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of 
Naturalists,  December  80,  1901,  by  Prof.  Wm.  T.  Sedgwick,  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  president  of  the  society. 

2 1.  A  History  of  the  First  Decade  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  Instruction  in  Schools  and 
Colleges  of  the  Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union.  By  Mary  H.  Hunt,  superintendent  for 
the  United  States  and  the  World’s  Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union.  Second  Edition. 
Boston,  1891. 

2.  An  Epoch  of  the  Nineteenth  Century-  An  Outline  of  the  Work  for  Scientific  Temperance 
Education  in  the  Public  Schools  of  the  United  States.  By  Mary  H.  Hunt,  national  and  interna¬ 
tional  superintendent  of  the  department  of  scientific  temperance  instruction,  and  life  director 
of  the  National  Educational  Association.  Boston,  1897. 


ed  1901 - 66 


1042 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ence  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks;  that  in  some  States  a  penalty 
clause  is  attached  for  nonenforcement;  that  in  some  the  amount  of  space  to  be 
given  in  text-books  is  prescribed,  and  in  the  same  or  in  others  the  time  to  be 
devoted  to  the  subject.  In  some  States  it  is  also  required  that  the  subject  shall 
not  be  treated  in  an  appendix  or  in  a  separate  chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

The  Illinois  law  requires  that  all  pupils  “below  the  second  year  of  the  high 
school  and  above  the  third  year  of  school  work,”  counting  from  the  lowest  pri¬ 
mary,  “  shall  be  taught  and  shall  study  this  subject  every  year,  from  suitable  text¬ 
books  in  the  hands  of  all  pupils,  for  not  less  than  four  lessons  a  week,  for  ten  or 
more  weeks  of  each  year.”  For  students  below  the  high  school  “  such  text-books 
shall  give  at  least  one-fifth  their  space,”  and  for  high-school  students  “not  less 
than  twenty  pages,  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  nar¬ 
cotics.  The  pages  on  this  subject  in  a  separate  chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book 
shall  not  be  counted  in  determining  the  minimum.”  The  New  York  law  of  1896 
is  very  lengthy  and  likewise  contains  an  important  provision  that  “this  subject 
must  be  treated  in  the  text-books  in  connection  with  the  various  divisions  of 
physiology  and  hygiene,  and  pages  on  this  subject  in  a  separate  chapter  at  the 
end  of  the  book  shall  not  be  counted  in  determining  the  minimum.  ” 

The  effect  of  these  peculiar  laws  closely  defining  instruction  in  physiology  and 
hygiene  has  been  to  create  a  correspondingly  peculiar  class  of  text-books.  Some 
of  these  have  been  prepared  by  competent  writers,  but  most  of  them  are  inferior 
and  some  are  distinctly  bad.  One  chapter  in  Mrs.  Hunt's  history  is  entitled  The 
Text-Book  War.  It  is  not  agreeable  reading,  either  for  scientific  men  or  for  edu¬ 
cators.  In  a  so-called  Great  Petition  to  Publishers,  which  reads  more  like  a  threat 
than  a  petition,  it  is  stated:  “  This  is  not  a  physiological,  but  a  temperance,  move¬ 
ment.  In  all  grades  below  the  high  school  this  instruction  should  contain  only 
physiology  enough  to  make  the  hygiene  of  temperance  and  other  laws  of  health 
intelligible.  Temperance  should  be  the  chief  and  not  the  subordinate  topic,  and 
should  occupy  at  least  one-fourth  the  space  in  text-books  for  these  grades.  ”  In 
the  same  Great  Petition  to  Publishers  we  find  it  also  stated  that  “  Those  text¬ 
books  that  are  largely  physiology  with  a  minimum  of  temperance  matter  *  *  * 
do  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the  law,  and  do  not  satisfy  those  who  secured  its 
enactment  and  are  determined  to  secure  its  enforcement.”  Further  on,  publish¬ 
ers  are  told  exactly  what  is  wanted  in  great  detail  and  in  no  uncertain  tone's. 

Text-books  conforming  with  these  requirements  of  the  propaganda  may  be 
officially  “indorsed”  by  a  “committee  of  the  advisory  board”  sitting  in  council 
for  the  purpose.  In  another  chapter,  entitled  the  Text-Book  War  Over,  it  is 
stated  that  “  in  response  to  the  Great  Petition  most  of  the  publishers  have  ex¬ 
pressed  the  desire  to  have  their  books  revised,  on  condition  that  the  national 
superintendent  of  the  scientific  department  of  the  Woman’s  Christian  Temperance 
Union  would  revise  them  or  supervise  their  proposed  revision.”  That  is  to  say, 
many  publishers  were  naturally  eager  to  have  their  books  “indorsed,”  doubtless 
hoping  thereby  to  increase  their  sale. 

No  wise  educator  who  has  given  any  attention  to  the  subject  can  deny  that  the 
influence  of  this  powerful  propaganda  has  been  in  most  respects  injurious  to  the 
proper  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  lower  schools.  Teachers,  princi¬ 
pals,  superintendents,  and  even  school  committees,  are  seldom  able  to  speak  with 
perfect  frankness  on  the  subject,  from  fear  of  the  influences  which  may  be  brought 
to  bear  against  them  or  of  the  intemperate  criticism  to  which  they  may  be  exposed; 
and  in  my  opinion  it  is  time  for  a  body  of  scientific  men  like  the  American  Society 
of  Naturalists  or  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  to  put 
on  record  its  opinion  that  the  subjection  under  which  science  and  education  are 
to-day  suffering  from  the  “temperance  physiology”  propaganda  has  become 
intolerable. 

I  lately  examined  with  some  care  a  good  text-book  of  elementary  physiology  and 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1043 


was  shocked  on  opening  it  to  find  at  the  very  beginning,  and  in  a  most  prominent 
place,  an  entire  page  devoted  to  an  “indorsement’’  of  the  book  by  the  self-consti¬ 
tuted  oligarchy  which  has  the  assurance  to  “  approve”  or  not,  as  it  sees  fit,  text¬ 
books  on  physiology  and  hygiene  for  use  in  secondary  and  lower  schools.  In  the 
case  I  mention,  this  committee  did  not  even  confine  their  “  approval  ”  to  the  alco¬ 
holic  and  narcotic  portions  of  the  book  but  “  indorsed  ”  also  its  “  amount  of  matter 
on  general  hygiene,”  as  well  as  the  “presentation  of  matter  with  regard  to  its 
adaptability  to  the  class  of  students  for  which  it  is  designed;”  or,  in  other  words, 
passed  upon  its  scientific  and  pedagogical  merit,  as  well  as  upon  its  alcoholic  value. 
If,  as  would  sometimes  seem  to  be  the  case,  it  has  actually  come  to  pass,  at  the 
beginning  of  this  twentieth  century,  that  a  writer  who  desires  to  publish  an  ele¬ 
mentary  text- book  on  physiology  and  hygiene,  before  he  can  obtain  a  publisher  or 
a  market,  may  have  to  secure  the  “indorsement”  of  the  world’s  and  national  super¬ 
intendent  of  scientific  temperance  instruction  of  the  Woman’s  Christian  Temper¬ 
ance  Union,  of  the  vice-president  of  the  Massachusetts  Total  Abstinence  Society, 
and  the  rest  of  this  self-constituted  committee,  it  is  high  time  that  cognizance 
should  be  taken  of  the  fact  by  scientific  men  and  educators  and  a  protest  entered. 

On  further  examining  the  book  to  which  I  have  just  referred,  I  was  even  more 
disturbed  to  find  that  this  author,  like  some  other  recent  writers  on  elementary 
physiology  and  hygiene,  doubtless  with  the  New  York  law  before  his  eyes  (which 
requires  that  “this  subject  must  be  treated  in  the  text-books  in  connection  with 
the  various  divisions  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  pages  on  this  subject  in  a 
separate  chapter  at  the  end  of  the  book  shall  not  be  counted  ”)  had  actually  felt 
bound  to  weave  in  a  lesson  on  alcohol  with  his  discussion  of  the  physiology  of 
muscle,  of  nerve,  of  digestion,  of  vision,  and  each  of  several  other  sections  of  the 
subject,  so  that  all  his  work  seemed  literally  tainted  with  alcohol. 

What  I  have  said  thus  far  of  this  subject  applies  mainly  to  elementary  educa¬ 
tion;  but  those  who  have  witnessed  the  virulent  attacks  upon  a  conscientious 
chemist  and  physiologist,  who  has  recently  made  important  physiological  experi¬ 
ments  upon  the  oxidation  of  alcohol  within  the  human  body,  because  his  experi¬ 
ments  have  seemed  to  confirm  the  earlier  statements  that  alcohol  in  minute 
quantities  is  more  like  a  food  than  a  poison,  do  not  need  to  be  told  that  this  same 
propaganda  is  quite  as  eager  to  bring  science,  as  it  has  already  brought  education, 
under 'its  powerful  dominion.  Signs  are  not  wanting,  however,  which  indicate 
that  its  control  has  already  reached  its  climax,  and  even  begun  to  decline. 

An  attempt  in  1899  to  make  the  Massachusetts  law  conform  more  closely  to  the 
ideas  of  those  interested  in  “scientific  temperance”  was  stoutly  resisted  by  the 
Massachusetts  Medical  Society,  as  well  as  by  various  scientific  men  and  educators, 
with  the  result  that  the  statute  of  1885  remains  unchanged.  This  prescribes  that 
“  physiology  and  hygiene,  which  in  *both  divisions  of  the  subject  shall  include 
special  instruction  as  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  narcotics 
on  the  human  system,  shall  be  taught  as  a  regular  branch  of  study  to  all  pupils  in 
all  schools  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public  money,  except  special  schools 
maintained  solely  for  instruction  in  particular  branches,  such  as  drawing,  mechan¬ 
ics,  art,  and  like  studies.”  With  the  exception  of  the  clause  “  to  all  pupils  ”  this 
statute  is  not  unreasonable,  for,  as  I  have  said  above,  it  is  right  and  proper  that 
the  youth  of  the  land  should  be  taught,  plainly  and  thoroughly,  the  dangers  which 
lurk  in  alcoholic  drinks,  in  narcotics,  etc.  What  is  unnecessary  and  objectiona¬ 
ble  is  that  the  exact  amount  of  such  teaching  should  be  prescribed  by  lav/;  and 
that  the  method  of  teaching  (by  text- books  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils) ,  the  space 
devoted  to  it,  and  its  treatment,  in  text-books,  should  be  legally  regulated.  That, 
in  addition,  the  particular  text-books  used  should  be  largely  determined  by  a  self- 
constituted  and  unofficial  oligarchy,  leaders  of  a  propaganda,  which,  in  any  right 
use  of  the  terms,  is  neither  educational  nor  scientific,  is  both  odious  and  intol¬ 
erable. 


1044 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


In  Connecticut,  in  1901,  a  statute  of  the  objectionable  sort  referred  to  above 
was  repealed,  and  one  to  which  but  little  exception  can  be  taken  was  enacted  in 
its  place.  It  is  gratifying  to  note,  also,  that  the  department  of  superintendence 
of  the  National  Educational  Association,  at  a  meeting  in  Chicago  in  the  early  part 
of  the  same  year,  adopted  a  report  containing  the  following  significant,  if  guarded, 
paragraphs: 

The  questions  of  highest  importance  for  teachers  and  superintendents  of  schools 
to  consider  [concerning  “  temperance  physiology”]  are  those  which  relate  to  the 
methods  by  which  temperance  instruction  shall  be  imparted,  the  extent  to  which 
it  shall  be  carried  and  the  subject-matter  to  be  presented. 

The  educational  side  of  this  question  is  vitally  important,  and  demands  thor¬ 
ough  and  systematic  study. 

This  action  is  timely  and  welcome  in  view  of  the  existence  of  an  opinion  like 
the  following,  expressed  in  a  letter  to  me  by  a  representative  of  a  prominent  pub¬ 
lishing  house:  “  I  feel  that  we  can  not  be  too  emphatic  in  expressing  sympathy 
with  your  movement  and  in  denouncing  the  intimidation  of  teachers  and  other 
educators  which  has  gone  on  for  some  years.” 


THE  Yf  ILL  OF  THE  PEOPLE,  NOT  OF  AN  OLIGARCHY.1 

*  *  .  *  Professor  Sedgwick  is  now  objecting,  not  to  this  study,  he  says,  but  to 
the  legal  specifications  which  have  made  it  a  success.  First,  he  objects  to  its  being 
taught  “to  all  pupils.”  He  does  not  tell  when  or  by  what  class  of  pupils  he  would 
have  it  omitted.  In  our  country  “all  pupils”  of  to-day  are  destined  to  be  the 
sovereign  people  of  to-morrow.  Hence,  looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of  the  State, 
it  can  not  afford  that  one  single  pupil  should  not  receive  the  utmost  instruction  on 
this  subject  needed  to  fit  that  pupil  for  a  future  sovereignty  of  intelligent  sobriety. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  individual,  we  ask,  from  whose  child  shall  this  edu¬ 
cational  method  for  the  prevention  of  intemperance  be  withheld?  Shall  it  be  from 
the  children  of  the  poor,  the  rich,  the  foreign  born,  or  the  home  born?  We  are 
answered  by  the  command  of  the  greatest  of  all  Teachers  that  the  supreme  mes¬ 
sage  for  the  prevention  of  evil  and  the  establishment  of  right  should  be  given  “  to 
every  creature  ”  in  “all  the  world.”  That  inclusive  demand  and  precedent  not 
only  justifies  all  pupils  getting  this  education,  but  implies  neglect  of  duty  if  it  is 
excluded  from  any. 

If  Professor  Sedgwick's  objecion  is  to  the  requirement  of  the  study  through 
specified  grades,  as  his  reference  to  the  Illinois  law  implies,  we  answer:  The  forma¬ 
tion  of  right  habits  is  the  object  sought.  The  child’s  habits  are  rapidly  formed, 
new  ones  each  year  as  it  proceeds  through  th£  first  primary  to  the  high  school.  It 
is  therefore  self-evident  progressive  instruction  which  will  guide  in  the  formation 
of  right  habits  should  be  given,  especially  during  the  primary,  grammar,  and  first 
year  of  the  high  school,  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  and  guide  the  child's  develop¬ 
ment.  The  boy  or  girl  who  leaves  school  at  any  point  in  the  school  course  with  as 
much  knowledge  as  he  can  comprehend  of  the  laws  of  health,  including  those 
which  warn  against  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  other  narcotics,  has  thereby  a 
most  valuable  equipment  for  the  battle  of  life. 

The  diffusion  of  this  knowledge  in  our  country  is  now  as  universal  as  the  schools. 
It  does  not,  we  grant,  add  to  the  value  of  brewing  stocks,  but  evidence  is  not  lack¬ 
ing  that  it  is  proving  of  great  value  to  the  human  stock  in  the  increase  of  health 
due  to  better  knowledge  of  sanitary  laws,  consequent  lengthening  of  life,  increased 
sobriety  of  the  American  workman,  which  sobriety  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  cause 
of  the  commercial  supremacy  of  this  country  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  etc. 

1From  a  communication  in  reply  to  Professor  Sedgwick’s  address,  by  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt, 
published  in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association  (Chicago),  March  22,1902. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1045 


Professor  Sedgwick  says  he  was  ‘ £  shocked — much  disturbed  to  find  that  an 
author  had  actually  felt  bound  to  weave  in  a  lesson  on  alcohol  with  his  discussion 
of  the  physiology  of  muscle,  of  nerve,  of  digestion,  of  vision,  and  each  of  several 
other  sections  of  the  subject.” 

Vfhy  should  not  the  deleterious  effects  of  alcohol  on  muscles  be  taught  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  study  of  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of  the  muscles?  Prof.  E. 
Destree,  University  of  Brussels,  by  actual  experimentation,  proved  that  the  “  total 
work  product  obtained  (from  the  muscles)  with  the  use  of  alcohol  is  less  than  that 
obtained  without  it.”  Our  boys  and  girls  need  to  know  that  fact.  Why  should 
not  the  fallacy  of  the  idea  that  alcohol  is  an  aid  to  digestion  be  pointed  out  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  hygiene  of  digestion,  when  Professor  Chittenden  distinctly  says 
of  his  experiments:  “  The  results  obtained  suggest  a  tendency  toward  prolonga¬ 
tion  of  the  period  during  which  the  meat  remains  in  the  stomach  when  alcohol 
fluids  are  present?”  Why  is  not  the  treatment  of  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of 
the  nerves  the  proper  place  for  pointing  out  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  them  when 
H.  J.  Berkeley,  M.  D.,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  reported  as  a  result  of  the 
experiments  he  performed  for  the  Committee  of  Fifty  that  alcohol  ‘  ‘  possesses  the 
quality  of  destroying  the  protoplasm  of  the  nerve  cells  and  annulling  its  func¬ 
tions.”  Why  not  in  teaching  the  care  of  the  eyes  mention  the  danger  from  the  use 
of  alcohol  when  the  senior  surgeon  of  the  New  York  Ophthalmic  Hospital  says: 
“  The  respectable  moderate  drinker  who  never  takes  too  much  or  oversteps  the 
boundary  line  of  decency  but  goes  round  half  full  all  the  time  exposes  himself  to 
the  risk  of  losing  his  eyesight,  which  in  this  case  is  incurable.” 

To  Professor  Sedgwick’s  complaint  that  some  laws  require  text-books  on  this 
subject  for  pupils’  use  and  specify  the  amount  of  temperance  matter  they  shall 
contain,  etc.,  we  reply:  The  tendency  of  careless,  unsympathetic  school  boards  to 
fail  in  providing  well-graded  text-books  on  this  subject,  books  that  contain  the 
matter  the  law  requires  taught  as  one  source  of  information  for  pupils  sufficiently 
advanced  to  use  text-books  on  other  subjects,  induced  the  National  Congress  and 
many  States  to  legally  require  that  such  text-books  shall  be  provided.  This 
requirement  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  a  valuable  school  literature  by  men  of 
acknowledged  scientific  standing  and  to  the  revision  of  nearly  all  the  imperfect 
books.  Why  should  Professor  Sedgwick  complain?  No  one  has  proved  there 
books  inaccurate,  nor  that  their  use  in  the  schools  has  not  contributed  to  indi¬ 
vidual  and  public  good.  The  old,  unrevised,  ungraded,  and  therefore  unindorsed 
books  contain  such  teaching  as  the  following  for  children  in  primary  grades:  “The 
tendon  of  Achilles  is  the  tendon  of  the  gastrocnemius  and  soleus  muscle,”  a  state¬ 
ment  as  clear  as  mud  to  the  primary  child.  The  people  want  better  books  for 
their  children  and  hence  have  so  legislated  that  better  books  are  produced.  *  *  * 

Professor  Sedgwick  appears  to  have  some  fears  that  a  writer  who  desires  to  pub¬ 
lish  an  elementary  text- book  on  physiology  and  hygiene,  before  he  can  obtain  a 
publisher  or  a  market,  may  have  to  secure  the  indorsement  of  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt, 
etc.  Anybody  can  write  a  text-book  on  this  subject  as  far  as  the  scientific  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Y/oman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union  is  concerned,  but  the  mothers 
in  any  community  have  a  perfect  right  to  oppose  their  children  studying  that 
book,  if,  in  their  judgment,  it  fails  to  teach  the  whole  truth  against  the  most 
destructive  of  human  habits.  They  have  a  right  through  organisation  to  secure 
and  protect  this  form  of  education  for  their  children  and  to  appoint  one  of  their 
number  to  act  with  them  in  searching  for  truth,  and,  aided  by  men  of  science,  to 
refuse  indorsement  to  books  that  do  not  contain  the  truth.  I  make  no  apology 
for  its  being  my  fortune  to  have  been  thus  officially  appointed.  *  *  * 

As  to  the  publisher's  part  in  this  connection,  I  would  say:  The  publisher  is  a 
business  man  who  knows  that  his  success  depends  upon  his  supplies  meeting  the 
demands  of  the  market.  If  the  condition  prevails  which  Professor  Sedgwick 
describes,  it  is  good  evidence  that  publishers  have  found  that  the  American  peo- 


1046 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


pie  do  not  want  their  children  to  study  what  the  publishers  themselves  call  “  rum 
books,”  and  that  the  indorsement  of  this  department  is  a  guaranty  to  the  public 
that  the  books  bearing  that  indorsement  are  not  of  that  character,  but,  instead, 
contain  the  truths  the  people  want  taught  their  children.  Therefore,  the  writer 
who  wishes  to  put  a  “  rum  book  ”  on  the  market  must  find  publishers  who  will 
ignore  the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  or  he  must  persuade  the  people  to  allow 
their  children  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  Moloch  of  intemperance  either  for  his  per¬ 
sonal  gain  or  to  avoid  shocking  the  sensibilities  of  scientific  gentlemen  who  see 
no  place  in  physiology  and  hygiene  for  warning  against  that  disobedience  of 
hygienic  law  which  causes,  as  Gladstone  said,  more  havoc  to  the  human  race  than 
war,  pestilence,  and  famine.  *  *  * 

The  superintendent  and  advisory  board  of  the  department  of  scientific  temper¬ 
ance  instruction  in  schools  and  colleges  are  elected  by  the  world's  and  national 
Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union  to  take  charge  of  the  work  of  that  society 
for  the  study  of  temperance  physiology  in  schools.  Thus  this  department  has  for 
its  constituency  the  largest  organization  of  women  in  the  world,  who  are  banded 
together  to  secure  as  one  of  their  objects  the  protection  of  this  special  education 
for  their  children.  Hence,  to  call  the  work  of  this  department  that  of  a  “  self- 
constituted  oligarchy,”  as  Professor  Sedgwick  does,  shows  utter  misapprehension 
of  facts.  “A  self-constituted  oligarchy  ” — i.  e.,  “  power  exercised  by  a  few  ”  who 
are  self-appointed,  could  not  write  its  ideas  embodied  in  law  on  the  Federal 
statute  books  and  those  of  all  the  States  of  this  great  Republic.  The  laws  requir¬ 
ing  this  study  and  whatever  is  necessary  to  its  being  taught  representthe  75,000,000 
American  people  who  have  decided  that  their  children  shall  have  this  special  edu¬ 
cation.  It  is  simply  futile  to  try  to  belittle  this  movement  by  efforts  to  make  it 
appear  as  anything  less  than  a  national  one  which  is  rapidly  becoming  world- wide. 

Mary  H.  Hunt, 

World  and  National  Superintendent  of  the  Department 
of  Scientific  Temperance  Instruction  of  the 
Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union. 


ALCOHOLIC  PHYSIOLOGY  IN  SCHOOL.1 

Perhaps  it  is  well  to  teach  children  something  about  their  little  insides, 
enough  to  keep  them  from  eating  green  apples,  for  example,  but  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  go  too  far  with  infantile  instruction  in  physiology.  No  doubt  it  would 
be  sad  to  find  the  children  of  the  grammar  schools  indulging  a  premature  appetite 
for  alcohol  and  tobacco,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  necessary  to  teach  them  what 
is  not  true  in  order  to  prevent  the  spectacle  of  inebriated  babe3.  There  is  room  to 
suspect  that  the  calling  of  youthful  attention  to  the  real  or  imaginary  effects  of 
alcohol,  tobacco,  opium,  and  the  like  is  calculated  to  arouse  an  unholy  curiosity 
in  their  immature  minds  and  lead  them  to  give  more  interest  to  the  subject  than 
it  would  naturally  receive  from  them.  If  the  idea  be  to  fortify  the  children  with 
real  or  imaginary  knowledge  as  to  the  appalling  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  stomach, 
nervous  system,  liver,  kidneys,  etc.,  in  order  to  scare  them  into  refusing  drink  in 
later  years,  it  is  a  mistake.  It  is  not  from  any  ignorance  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 
that  men  drink,  whether  moderately  or  excessively.  They  have  had  ample  warn¬ 
ings  as  to  the  breaking  down  of  various  organs  from  the  immoderate  and  long- 
continued  use  of  liquor,  and  hardly  a  day  passes  but  they  see  somebody  in  a 
disgraceful  state  of  helplessness  from  drink  and  foresee  for  him  a  hideous  end 
unless  he  shall  cease  his  abuse  of  alcoholic  beverages.  It  is  affirmed  by  a  New 
England  alienist,  who  is  the  head  of  a  sanitarium  where  men  of  wrecked  nervous 
systems  abide,  that  a  fearful  percentage  of  physicians  are  the  incurable  victims  of 


1  From  the  Philadelphia  Record,  January  6, 1902. 


TEMPERANCE  INSTRUCTION. 


1047 


the  morphia  or  cocaine  habit.  Surely  no  men  know  better  the  insidious  growth 
of  such  habits  and  the  effect  on  the  brain.  Clearly,  then,  a  knowledge  of  the 
physiological  action  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  does  not  deter  persons  from 
abusing  them. 

The  particular  objection  which  is  raised  by  scientific  men  against  alcoholic 
physiology  in  the  public  schools  is  that  the  instruction  is  false  and  misleading. 
Prof.  W.  N.  Rice,  of  Wesleyan  University,  recently  attacked  the  instruction  in 
Connecticut  as  extravagant  and  in  some  instances  absurd.  In  one  text-book  pre¬ 
scribed  by  law  he  finds  such  contradictory  statements  as  that  “  one-half  the  com¬ 
mitments  to  insane  asylums  are  due  to  overindulgence  in  alcohol,”  and  that  “  more 
persons  became  insane  through  the  use  of  tobacco  than  alcohol.”  Neither  state¬ 
ment  is  true.  The  extreme  abstainers  who  construct  the  text-books  seem  to  think 
that  in  the  war  pn  whisky  and  tobacco  any  degree  of  misrepresentation  is  war¬ 
ranted.  Most  men  smoke  and  a  great  many  use  alcoholic  liquors  in  moderation. 
They  naturally  object  to  having  their  children  shocked  by  the  information  that 
their  fathers  are  heading  straight  for  the  lunatic  asylum.  Prof.  W.  T.  Sedgwick, 
president  of  the  American  Association  of  Naturalists,  has  just  entered  his  protest 
against  the  time  which  is  devoted  to  th.9  study  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco 
in  the  public  schools,  the  teaching  on  which  subjects,  he  maintains,  “  has  passed, 
to  a  great  and  unjustifiable  extent,  into  the  hands  and  under  the  subjection -of  the 
temperance  physiology  propaganda;  ”  that  is  to  say,  into  the  hands  of  well-meaning 
people,  who  are  said  by  the  Rev,  Dr.  Rainsford,  of  New  York,  to  be  “  doing  the 
devil's  work.”  Most  scientists  agree  with  the  opinion  expressed  by  a  prominent 
Philadelphia  physician,  that  some  of  the  text-books  on  these  subjects  “  contain 
senseless  and  unscientific  twaddle.  ” 

It  is  enough  lo  condemn  the  whole  system  of  instruction  in  alcoholic  physiology 
that  the  first  and  supreme  purpose  is  not  to  teach  what  is  exactly  and  undeniably 
true,  but  to  teach  only  what  is  calculated  to  scare  the  pupil  from  the  use  of  alcohol 
and  tobacco.  That  is  not  a  legitimate  function  of  a  scientific  text- book. 


ENFORCED  TEMPERANCE  AMONG  RAILWAY  EMPLOYEES.1 

One  of  the  greatest  armies  of  temperance  reformers  in  the  world  preaches  its 
doctrine  daily  in  our  midst  by  action,  and  not  by  precept  or  sermon;  but  few  of 
the  thousands  who  travel  up  and  down  the  railroads  of  our  country  ever  stop  to 
consider  this  silent  force  which  has  become  stronger  in  its  example  and  power  for 
good  than  all  the  temperance  organizations.  There  are  several  million  men 
employed  in  various  capacities  on  the  railroads  of  the  United  States,  and  of  this 
considerable  army  fully  50  per  cent  occupy  responsible  positions  which  render 
their  work  of  a  peculiarly  public  character.  The  engineers,  firemen,  switchmen, 
and  train  dispatchers  are  daily  responsible  for  the  lives  and  property  of  great 
numbers,  and  to  prevent  mistakes,  which  might  cause  great  disasters,  every  pos¬ 
sible  precaution  is  taken  to  eliminate  errors. 

The  discipline  of  the  railroad  employees  of  the  country  is  probably  stricter  and 
better  enforced  than  in  any  other  line  of  work.  A  number  of  years  ago  temper¬ 
ance  was  not  strictly  enforced  on  train  men,  but  the  engineers  were  compelled  to 
report  for  business  in  a  perfectly  sober  condition.  There  were  some  lax  rules  in 
regard  to  the  train  men,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  to  see  many  of  them  drinking 
at  the  public  houses  along  the  route  when  their  train  was  waiting  for  orders.  But 
to-day  not  only  temperance,  but  almost  teetotalism,  is  enforced  on  onr  leading 
railroads,  especially  among  engineers,  firemen,  switchmen,  and  train  dispatchers 
and  conductors.  The  managers  of  the  railroads  found  that  many  of  the  accidents 


1  From  Harper’s  Weekly,  January  4,  1902. 


1048 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


were  due  to  drink  among  the  employees,  and  after  considering  the  problem  for  a 
few  years  the  man  who  could  not  get  along  without  drinking  was  gradually  forced 
from  the  ranks  of  the  railroad  employees.  To-day  these  workmen  represent  the 
largest  and  strongest  army  of  upright,  sober,  industrious  men  in  the  world. 

Dismissals  are  common  on  the  railroads  to-day  for  drunkenness,  and  they  must 
continue  so  long  as  human  temptations  are  in  existence;  but  it  is  becoming  more 
difficult  every  year  for  a  drinking  man  to  secure  any  responsible  position  in  the 
railroad  companies.  A  drinking  engineer  would  no  more  be  tolerated  on  a  railroad 
than  a  wild  Indian.  Such  a  man  might  cause  more  damage  and  loss  to  the  road 
than  his  wages  would  amount  to  in  a  century.  The  man  who  has  a  disposition  to 
drink  must  be  content  to  seek  employment  in  other  lines  than  on  the  railroads. 
The  engineers  are  as  a  body  strictly  sober  and  temperate  men.  Their  calling  has 
made  them  so.  They  realize  the  dangers  which  they  must  daily  meet,  and  their 
responsibilities  sober  them.  It  is  rarely  that  an  active  railroad  engineer  ever 
touches  liquor  on  or  off  duty.  Habit  makes  him  dislike  to  introduce  any  risk  in 
his  work.  He  knows  that  liquor  might  tend  to  befog  his  mind  some  day,  and  an 
accident  that  resulted  therefrom  would  mean  his  eternal  ruin.  An  engineer  dis¬ 
charged  for  drinking  could  never  hope  to  find  a  position  on  another  railroad. 

Dismissal  for  drinking  is  the  worst  possible  thing  that  could  happen  to  a  railroad 
man  in  any  position.  If  he  applies  to  another  road  he  must  furnish  reference  or 
tell  where  he  was  last  employed.  His  record  is  then  looked  up,  and  each  road 
furnishes  another  with  the  correct  data  required.  If  the  dismissal  has  been  for 
drinking,  the  applicant  is  very  naturally  turned  down. 

Yet  allowances  are  made  for  human  weakness,  and  if  an  otherwise  good  employee 
falls  once,  unless  he  is  an  engineer  or  train  dispatcher,  he  may  receive  a  reprimand 
and  warning.  He  is  then  placed  on  trial,  and  if  he  does  not  repeat  his  offense  he 
may  be  retained  indefinitely.  Indeed,  many  men  have  been  reformed  from  drink 
in  this  very  way.  Realizing  that  their  positions  depended  upon  their  sobriety, 
they  have  steadily  refused  to  touch  liquor  at  all.  In  this  effort  to  reform  they  are 
mightily  helped  by  their  associates.  These  are  all  railroad  men  who  are  placed  in 
the  same  position;  they  must  live  a  sober  life.  Consequently  the  weak  man  in  the 
number  is  encouraged  rather  than  tempted,  and  his  battle  is  rendered  much 
easier. 

Next  to  the  engineers  the  train  dispatchers  are  probably  the  most  important 
employees  who  must  observe  the  strict  rule  of  sobriety.  The  task  of  the  dispatcher 
is  so  difficult  that  nothing  except  a  perfectly  clear,  intelligent  mind  can  do  the 
work  without  endangering  the  lives  and  property  of  others.  A  train  dispatcher 
who  reported  for  duty  with  the  smell  of  whisky  about  him  would  instantly  be 
reported  to  the  general  superintendent.  He  would  receive  a  -warning  delivered  in 
no  unmistakable  words,  and  a  second  offense  would  be  followed  by  instant  dis¬ 
missal.  Usually,  however,  there  is  little  trouble  with  this  class,  for  the  train  dis¬ 
patchers  are  men  of  unusual  ability  and  ambition,  and  they  have  themselves  under 
perfect  control. 

The  switchmen  and  yard  men  have  the  greatest  temptation  to  drink  of  any 
employee,  and  even  wThen  on  duty  it  is  easy  for  them  to  gratify  their  thirst.  Con¬ 
sequently  there  are  more  dismissals  of  these  workmen  than  of  any  other  grade. 
This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  their  work  is  very  important  and  critical,  and 
yet,  comparatively  speaking,  it  is  not  paid  well  for,  and  is  of  a  lower  grade  than 
that  of  the  train  dispatcher  or  engineer.  It  does  not  require  talent  or  a  high  grade 
of  skill  to  be  a  yard  man  or  switchman,  but  the  work  does  demand  clear  minds 
and  steady  nerves.  The  switchman  who  drinks  becomes  a  menace  to  the  whole 
railroad  system. 

So  many  accidents  have  happened  through  the  negligence  of  switchmen  that  the 
railroads  are  growing  stricter  every  year  with  this  class  of  employees.  Some  roads 
have  promulgated  orders  which  absolutely  rule  out  of  their  service  any  man  who 


TEMPER AN CE  INSTRUCTION. 


1049 


drinks  at  all,  and  switchmen  in  particular  have  to  give  their  pledge  that  they  do 
not  touch  liquor  in  any  form.  In  the  opinion  of  the  railroad  managers  this  seems 
to  be  the  only  absolute  way  of  obtaining  the  services  of  men  who  can  be  depended 
upon  to  bring  a  clear  mind  to  their  work  daily.  Meanwhile  the  grade  and  pay  of 
the  men  are  being  raised,  and  better  workmen  are  attracted  to  the  positions. 

Railroad  managers  are  pooling  their  interests  in  respect  to  the  drink  question, 
so  that  these  great  corporations  are  gradually  eliminating  the  drunkard  or  the 
drinking  man  from  the  railway  service.  Every  competent  railroad  man  under¬ 
stands  this,  and  he  will  advise  a  beginner  ambitious  to  work  up  in  the  service  to 
give  up  absolutely  the  habit  of  tippling  or  drinking  at  home  or  in  public.  No 
man,  however  bright,  can  expect  to  make  a  success  in  railroading  who  is  not  will¬ 
ing  to  yield  to  this  inexorable  rule  of  the  road.  Thus,  from  the  highest  down  to 
the  lowest,  the  railroad  men  are  invariably  temperate  and  sober,  and  if  they  ever 
had  the  habit  of  drinking  they  have  bravely  overcome  it.  Consequently  the  force 
of  example  set  by  this  great  body  of  workmen  is  far  more  powerful  in  its  effects 
than  any  preaching  or  open  advocacy  of  temperance  from  a  moral  point  of  view. 
The  railroads  demand  the  strictest  sobriety,  and  by  rigidly  enforcing  the  rule  vol¬ 
untary  teetotalism  is  spreading  throughout  the  thousands  and  millions  of  their 
employees. 


REPORT  OF  A  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  STATE  SCIENCE 
TEACHERS’  ASSOCIATION. 

In  1898  a  committee  of  five  was  appointed 1  by  the  New  York  State  Science  Teach¬ 
ers’ Association  “  to  ascertain  and  report  what  is  definitely  known  regarding  the 
effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  the  human  body  and  to  recommend  suitable 
methods  for  teaching  the  same  in  the  schools  of  the  State.  ” 

Three  separate  inquiries  were  conducted  in  the  course  of  the  investigation,  and 
numerous  letters  of  inquiry  sent  out  to  teachers  in  New  York  State  and  New 
England. 

In  the  preliminary  report  of  this  committee,  which  was  published  in  the  Edu¬ 
cational  Review  (New  York)  of  June,  1902,  the  committee  summed  up  its  con¬ 
clusions  as  follows: 

1.  Physiology  is  the  only  subject  in  the  curriculum  that  is  dominated  by  legis¬ 
lative  enactment.  The  result  seems  to  be  that  instruction  is  commonly  given  in 
a  perfunctory  way,  or  that  the  provisions  of  the  law  regarding  temperance  instruc¬ 
tion  are  disregarded.  It  should  be  remembered  that  no  law,  however  stringent, 
can  bring  about  effective  teaching  when  the  statements  presented  to  the  pupils 
are  questioned  or  disbelieved  by  the  teacher. 

2.  The  teaching  of  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  under  the  present  sys¬ 
tem  has  not  produced  any  marked  change  of  sentiment  in  the  young  either  for  or 
against  their  use.  If  any  change  exists,  it  is  entirely  disproportionate  to  the  out¬ 
lay  of  time  and  effort  which  has  been  made. 

8.  Whether  the  matter  taught  is  or  is  not  excessive  in  amount,  it  is  unwisely 
distributed  through  the  course,  and  there  is  frequent  and  unnecessary  repetition. 

4.  As  the  result,  diminished  interest  and  dislike  of  the  subject  prevail. 

5.  The  preponderance  of  opinion  expressed  indicates  that  instruction  could 
profitably  be  limited  to  fewer  grades;  those  between  the  fifth  and  eighth  being 
preferred. 

6.  The  use  of  text-books  should  not  be  made  compulsory  earlier  than  the  sixth 
grade,  if  at  all. 

7.  Although  the  text-book  may  not  always  be  satisfactory,  the  teachers  do  not 
regard  this  fact  as  a  marked  impediment  to  their  work. 

8.  Charts  showing  morbid  physiological  conditions  are  generally  condemned. 

9.  The  evils  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  can  be  presented  most  effectively  from  thQ 
moral  and  economic  point  of  view. 


1  Membership  of  the  committee:  Irving  P.  Bishop,  chairman,  State  Normal  School,  Buffalo; 
Burt  G.  Wilder,  Cornell  University;  Gaylord  P.  Clarke,  Syracuse  University;  Eli  H.  Long, Uni¬ 
versity  of  Buffalo;  James  E.  Peabody,  Peter  Cooper  High  School,  New  York. 


1050 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1903. 


The  committee  made  the  following  recommendations: 

1.  The  New  York  State  Science  Teachers’  Association  should  urge  that  the 
present  law  he  modified  in  such  a  way  that  teachers  of  physiology  he  given  more 
freedom  to  decide  as  to  the  character  and  content  of  their  teaching,  and  writers 
of  text-hooks  more  freedom  as  to  the  space  devoted  to  the  subject  and  its  location 
in  the  volume. 

2.  We  are  interested  in  the  recent  changes  effected  in  the  law  in  the  State  of 
Connecticut,  and  look  with  favor  upon  its  present  provisions.  But  before  rec¬ 
ommending  similar  specific  changes  in  our  law  we  deem  it  wise  to  allow  a  reason¬ 
able  time  to  elapse  for  observation  of  the  working  and  results  of  that  law. 

3.  So  long  as  the  existing  statute  remains  in  force,  if  truthful  instruction  is  to 
be  given  in  the  subject  the  possible  benefits  of  alcohol,  when  prescribed  by  physi¬ 
cians,  should  be  conceded.  The  difference  in  the  effects  on  the  human  body  of 
fermented  beverages  (beer  and  light  wines)  and  distilled  liquors  should  also  be 
noted.  Emphasis  should  be  laid,  too,  on  the  greater  susceptibility  of  young  per¬ 
sons  both  to  direct  injury  from  the  use  of  alcohol  in  any  form  and  to  the  danger 
of  forming  undesirable  habits.  Pupils  should  be  allowed  also  to  know  that  there 
is  wide  disagreement  among  authorities  as  to  the  physiological  effects  of  a  strictly 
moderate  use  of  liquors  by  adults.  On  the  other  hand,  attention  should  be  called 
to  the  fact  that  the  moderate  use  of  alcohol  very  commonly  leads  to  excess,  and 
the  teacher  should  emphasize  the  fact  that  an  immoderate  use  of  liquors  weakens 
the  tissues,  so  that  they  are  made  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

4.  Finally,  if  the  teacher  wishes  to  present  the  strongest  arguments  in  favor  of 
either  total  abstinence  or  strict  temperance,  and  thereby  fulfill  the  spirit  rather 
than  the  letter  of  the  law,  your  committee  recommends  that  comparatively  little 
time  be  spent  in  trying  to  teach  the  physiological  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco. 
Let  us  frankly  admit  that  we  ar8  discussing  not  so  much  a  question  of  physiology 
as  one  of  morals  and  economics,  and  let  us  devote  the  larger  part  of  the  time 
required  by  law  to  a  treatment  of  the  question  from  the  moral  and  economic 
standpoint. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  TO  HIGHER 
EDUCATION  AND  RESEARCH.1 

By  Charles  D.  Walcott, 

Director  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

When  one  considers  the  relations  of  the  General  Government  to  higher  educa¬ 
tion  and  research,  probably  the  first  question  to  arise  is,  What,  within  the  limita¬ 
tions  imposed  by  the  Constitution,  can  the  Government  do?  Other  pertinent 
inquiries  are:  What  has  been  done?  What  is  the  present  policy  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment?  How  are  its  educational  resources  being  utilized?  What  can  be  done  that 
is  not  already  being  well  done  by  our  universities,  colleges,  and  technical 
institutions? 

Many  of  our  wisest  and  best  statesmen  and  jurists  believe  that  the  General  Gov¬ 
ernment  has  no  power,  under  the  Constitution,  to  appropriate  money  for  educa¬ 
tional  purposes,  that  important  function  having  been  left  to  the  States.  A  glance 
backward  over  the  history  of  colonial  and  national  discussion  and  legislation  is 
interesting  and  instructive. 

HISTORY  OF  COLONIAL  AND  NATIONAL  DISCUSSION. 

In  colonial  times  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Edinburgh  were  to  American  youth 
the  centers  of  learning  and  higher  education.  These  famous  universities  fur¬ 
nished  all  that  was  needed  by  the  well-to-do  student,  and  local  colleges  were  given 
little  attention  and  scant  support.  The  founders  of  our  college  system  were 
obliged  to  meet  adverse  conditions  which  developed  the  same  qualities  that  led 
their  compatriots  to  the  conquest  of  the  continent. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  (1619)  the  Virginia  Company  granted  10,000 
acres  of  land  “for  the  foundation  of  a  seminary  of  learning  for  the  English  in  Vir¬ 
ginia.  ”  At  the  suggestion  of  the  King,  the  bishops  of  England,  in  the  same  year, 
raised  £1,500  to  aid  in  the  education  of  the  Indians  in  connection  with  the  pro¬ 
posed  grant  of  land  for  the  seminary.  A  portion  of  the  land  was  occupied  and 
the  seminary  was  started  under  the  direction  of  George  Thorpe,  a  man  of  high 
standing  in  England.  But  the  institution  was  short-lived.  It,  with  its  inmates 
and  founder,  perished  in  the  Indian  massacre  of  1622. 

In  1624  an  island  in  the  Susquehanna  River  was  granted  for  the  founding  and 
maintenance  of  a  university,  but  the  undertaking  lapsed  with  the  death  of  its  pro¬ 
jector  and  of  James  I,  and  the  fall  of  the  Virginia  Company. 

For  a  time  the  movement  of  higher  education  was  delayed,  but  in  1636  Harvard 
was  founded;  then  William  and  Mary,  in  1660;  Yale,  in  1701;  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  in  1746;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1751;  Columbia,  in  1754;  Brown, 
in  1764;  Dartmouth,  in  1769;  the  University  of  Maryland,  in  1784;  the  University 
of  North  Carolina,  in  1789-1795;  the  University  of  Vermont,  in  1791;  and  Bowdoin, 
in  1794. 

The  university  spirit  was  well  developed  when  the  Constitutional  Convention 

1  Substance  of  address  before  the  University  of  Chicago,  delivered  June  17, 1901.  Reprinted 
from  Science,  N.  S.  Vol.  XIII,  No.  339,  pp.  1001-1015,  June  28,  1901. 


1051 


1052 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


met  in  1787.  Madison,  who  was  a  member  of  the  convention,  acting  in  harmony 
with  the  known  wishes  of  Washington,  proposed  to  give  the  National  Legislature 
power— 

To  establish  a  university. 

To  encourage,  by  premiums  and  provisions,  the  advancement  of  useful  lmowl- 
ledge  and  the  discussion  of  science. 

Charles  Pinckney  also  earnestly  advocated  a  plan  for  the  establishment  of  a 
national  university,  and  Mr.  Wilson  supported  the  motion;  but  the  matter  was 
dropped,  on  the  ground  that  Congress  already  had  sufficient  power  to  enact  laws 
for  the  support  of  national  education. 

John  Adams,  who  agreed  with  Washington  in  believing  that  “scientific  insti¬ 
tutions  are  the  best  lasting  protection  of  a  popular  government,”  was  always  a 
strong  advocate  of  the  promotion  of  intelligence  among  the  people.  He  secured 
the  insertion  in  the  constitution  of  Massachusetts  of  a  provision  recognizing  the 
obligation  of  a  State  to  pursue  a  higher  and  broader  policy  than  the  mere  protec¬ 
tion  of  the  temporal  interests  and  political  rights  of  the  individual.  This  pro¬ 
vision  read  as  follows: 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  legislatures  and  magistrates  in  all  future  periods  of  this 
Commonwealth,  to  cherish  the  interests  of  literature  and  the  sciences  *  *  *  to 

encourage  private  societies  and  public  institutions,  rewards  and  immunities  for 
the  promotion  of  agriculture,  arts,  sciences,  commerce,  trades,  manufactures,  and 
the  natural  history  of  the  country.1 

<  W ashington  sought  to  impress  on  Congress  and  the  people  his  earnest  convic¬ 
tion  that  the  Government  should  establish  and  support  a  great  national  university. 
To  this  end  he  made  a  bequest  in  his  will,  and  if  Congress  had  treated  it  as  the 
Legislature  of  Virginia  treated  his  bequest  for  the  endowment  of  Washington  Col¬ 
lege,  there  would  be  to-day  a  fund  sufficient  to  give  adequate  support  to  a  great 
institution  for  investigation  and  original  research  in  the  capital  city.  In  his  will 
Washington  expressed  the  fears  he  entertained  as  to  the  effect  of  foreign  educa¬ 
tion  on  the  youth  of  America,  and  the  desirability  of  having  an  American  univer¬ 
sity.  His  language  was  as  follows: 

That  as  it  has  always  been  a  source  of  serious  regret  with  me  to  see  the  youth  of 
these  United  States  sent  to  foreign  countries  for  the  x>urpose  of  education,  often 
before  their  mind3  are  formed,  or  they  have  imbibed  any  adequate  ideas  of  the 
happiness  of  their  own,  contracting  too  frequently  not  only  habits  of  dissipation 
and  extravagance,  but  principles  unfriendly  to  republican  government,  and  to  the 
true  and  genuine  liberties  of  mankind,  which  thereafter  are  rarely  overcome.  For 
these  reasons  it  has  been  my  ardent  wish  to  see  a  plan  devised  on  a  liberal  scale 
which  would  have  a  tendency  to  spread  systematic  ideas  through  all  parts  of  this 
rising  empire,  thereby  to  do  away  with  local  attachments  and  State  prejudices,  as 
far  as  the  nature  of  things  would,  or  indeed,  ought  to  admit,  from  our  national 
councils.  Looking  anxiously  forward  to  the  accomplishment  of  so  desirable  an 
object  as  this  is  (in  my  estimation),  my  mind  has  not  been  able  to  contemplate 
any  plan  more  likely  to  effect  the  measure  than  the  establishment  of  a  university 
in  a  central  part  of  the  United  States,  to  which  the  youth  of  fortune  and  talents 
from  all  parts  thereof  might  be  sent  for  the  completion  of  their  education  in  all 
the  branches  of  polite  literature,  in  arts,  and  sciences,  in  acquiring  knowledge  in 
the  principles  of  politics  and  good  government,  and  (as  a  matter  of  infinite 
importance,  in  my  judgment) ,  by  associating  with  each  other,  and  forming  friend¬ 
ships  in  juvenile  years,  be  enabled  to  free  themselves  in  a  proper  degree  from  those 
local  prejudices  and  habitual  jealousies  which  have  just  been  mentioned,  and 
which  when  carried  to  excess  are  never-failing  sources  of  disquietude  to  the  public 
mind,  and  pregnant  of  mischievous  consequences  to  this  country. 

Madison,  though  defeated  in  his  effort  to  secure  the  approval  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tional  Convention  in  respect  to  the  establishment  of  a  national  university,  did  not 
fail,  when  President,  to  call  the  attention  of  Congress  to  the  subject.  In  his  sec¬ 
ond  annual  message  he  said: 

I  can  not  presume  it  to  be  unreasonable  to  invite  your  attention  to  the  advan- 


1  Massachusetts  Public  Statutes,  1882,  p.  34. 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  RESEARCH.  1053 


tages  of  superadding  to  the  means  of  education  provided  by  the  several  States  a 
seminary  of  learning  instituted  by  the  National  Legislature,  within  the  limits  of 
their  exclusive  jurisdiction,  the  expense  of  which  might  be  defrayed  or  reim¬ 
bursed  out  of  the  vacant  grounds  which  have  accrued  to  the  Nation  within  those 
limits.  (Annals  of  Congress,  1810,  1811,  1818. )l 2 

Various  other  attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  establish  a 
national  university.  Blsfckmar  says: 

In  1796  a  proposition  was  before  Congress  in  the  form  of  a  memorial  praying 
for  the  foundation  of  a  university.  (Ex.  Doc.,  Fourth  Cong.,  second  sess.) 

Again,  in  1811,  a  committee  was  appointed  by  Congress  to  report  on  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  establishment  of  a  seminary  of  learning  by  the  National  Legislature. 
The  committee  reported  unfavorably,  deeming  it  unconstitutional  for  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  to  found,  endow,  and  control  the  proposed  seminary.  (Ex.  Doc., 
Eleventh  Cong. ,  third  sess. ) 

In  1816  another  committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the  same  subject,  and 
again  the  scheme  failed.  (Ex.  Doc.,  Fourteenth  Cong.,  second  sess.)- 

When  the  disposition  of  the  Smithson  fund  was  under  consideration  (1838- 
1846),  the  subject  of  founding  a  national  university  was  fully  and  freely  dis¬ 
cussed,  and  the  plan  was  rejected  by  Congress. 

Again,  in  1873,  the  matter  was  revived  by  the  Hon.  J.  W.  Hoyt,  who  from  that 
time  onward  never  ceased  to  labor  diligently  for  a  national  university.  Largely 
owing  to  his  zeal  and  activity,  a  committee  of  100  was  formed,  various  bills  were 
introduced  in  Congress,  and  a  Senate  committee  was  created  to  establish  a 
national  university.  But  Congress  always  looked  on  the  scheme  with  suspicion, 
and  not  one  of  the  various  bills  ottered  was  ever  acted  upon  by  the  Senate  or 
House  of  Representatives. 

The  trend  of  opinion  has  been  and  is  that  the  Government  should  not  found  a 
national  university  in  the  sense  suggested  by  Washington  and  his  followers.  The 
Congress  has.  however,  generously  aided  technical  and  higher  education  by 
grants  of  land  to  States  and  Territories  for  educational  purposes. 

The  policy  was  inaugurated  under  the  general  authority  of  the  famous  ordi¬ 
nance  of  July  13,  1787.  Conformably  thereto  a  contract  was  entered  into 
between  the  Ohio  Company  and  the  board  of  treasury  of  the  United  States  on 
the  27th  of  July,  1787,  whereby  lot  16  in  every  township  was  given  for  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  public  schools,  and  not  more  than  two  complete  townships  were  given 
perpetually  for  the  purpose  of  a  university,  the  land  to  be  applied  to  the  purpose 
by  the  legislature  of  the  State.3 

The  most  important  act,  after  that  of  1787,  was  that  of  1882,  granting  land  for 
the  endowment  of  colleges  for  teaching  agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts.  It 
is  to  he  noted  that  by  this  act  the  responsibility  was  thrown  entirely  upon  the 
States,  and  that,  so  far  as  the  administration  of  the  fund  was  concerned,  it  was 
State,  not  national,  education. 

The  total  grants  of  lands  aggregate  about  18,000,000  acres,  or  20,000  square 
miles.  Of  this  2,500,000  acres,  or  4,000  square  miles,  were  for  the  establishment 
of  higher  institutions  of  learning.  This  land,  divided  among  80  States  and  Terri¬ 
tories,  gives  an  average  of  a  little  more  than  80,000  acres,  or  about  130  square 
miles.  For  technical  schools,  called  “  colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and 
the  mechanical  arts,5’  Congress  has  granted  to  45  States  10,500,000  acres,  or 
about  16,000  square  miles.  This  is  an  average  of  280,000  acres,  or  about  360 
square  miles.  Congress  now  grants  annually  to  each  of  the  45  States  $25,000, 4  a 

1  The  History  of  Federal  and  State  Aid  to  Higher  Education  in  the  United  States,  by  Frank 
W.  Blackmar,  Ph.  D.;  Bureau  of  Education,  Contributions  to  American  Educational  History, 
edited  by  Herbert  B.  Adams,  No.  9, 1290,  p.  S3. 

2  Op.  cit.,  pp.  39,  40. 

3Bancroft,  History  of  the  Constitution,  N.  Y.,  1883,  Yol.  II,  pp.  435,  436.  Also  George  B. 
Germann,  National  Legislation  Concerning  Education,  New  York,  1899,  pp.  19,  20. 

4  Act  approved  August  30, 1890.  Statutes  at  Large,  vol.  26,  p.  417. 


1054  EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

total  of  more  than  $1,000,000,  all  of  which  is  expended  under  the  direction  of 
State  boards. 

The  Government  maintains,  and  has  maintained  since  1802,  an  academy  for 
training  its  army  officers;  also,  since  1845,  an  academy  for  training  its  naval 
officers.  The  Government  does  not  maintain,  and  never  has  maintained,  any 
institution  for  training  its  civil  officers. 

The  policy  of  the  Government,  as  gathered  from  its  acts,  has  been  to  relegate 
the  direct  control  of  education  to  the  States,  aiding  them  in  this  work  by  grants 
of  land  and,  in  the  case  of  technical  education,  by  grants  of  money  also. 

PRESENT  POLICY  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT. 

.  Turning,  now,  to  the  question,  What  is  the  present  policy  of  the  Government? 
we  have  just  seen  that  aid  is  given  by  grants  of  land  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
experiment  stations,  by  grants  of  money.  As  to  the  use  of  its  literary  and  scien¬ 
tific  collections  by  students,  its  policy  was  defined  by  a  public  resolution  of  Con¬ 
gress,  approved  April  12,  1892,  which  reads  as  follows: 

Whereas  large  collections  illustrative  of  the  various  arts  and  sciences  and 
facilitating  literary  and  scientific  research  have  been  accumulated  by  the  action 
of  Congress  through  a  series  of  years  at  the  National  Capital;  and 

Whereas  it  was  the  original  purpose  of  the  Government  thereby  to  promote 
research  and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  it  is  now  the  settled  policy  and 
present  practice  of  those  charged  with  the  care  of  these  collections  specially  to 
encourage  students  who  devote  their  time  to  the  investigation  and  study  of  any 
branch  of  knowledge  by  allowing  to  them  all  proper  use  thereof;  and 
i  Whereas  it  is  represented  that  the  enumeration  of  these  facilities  and  the  for¬ 
mal  statement  of  this  policy  will  encourage  the  establishment  and  endowment  of 
institutions  of  learning  at  the  seat  of  Government,  and  promote  the  work  of  edu¬ 
cation  by  attracting  students  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  aforesaid 
under  the  direction  of  competent  instructors:  Therefore, 

Resolved ,  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  tlie  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  facilities  for  research  and  illustration 
in  the  following  and  any  other  Governmental  collections  now  existing  or  here¬ 
after  to  be  established  in  the  city  of  Washington  for  the  promotion  of  knowledge 
shall  be  accessible,  under  such  rules  and  restrictions  as  the  officers  in  charge  of 
each  collection  may  prescribe,  subject  to  such  authority  as  is  now  or  may  here¬ 
after  be  permitted  by  law,  to  the  scientific  investigators  and  to  students  of  any 
institution  of  higher  education  now  incorporated  or  hereafter  to  be  incorporated 
under  the  laws  of  Congress  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  to  wit: 

One.  Of  the  Library  of  Congress. 

Two.  Of  the  National  Museum. 

Three.  Of  the  Patent  Office. 

Four.  Of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Five.  Of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 

Six.  Of  the  Army  Medical  Museum. 

Seven.  Of  the  Department  of  Agricultura. 

Eight.  Of  the  Fish  Commission. 

Nine.  Of  the  Botanic  Gardens. 

Ten.  Of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 

Eleven.  Of  the  Geological  Survey. 

Twelve.  Of  the  Naval  Observatory. 

The  privileges  of  this  act,  it  will  be  noted,  are  limited  to  scientific  investigators 
and  students  of  institutions  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  Congress  or  the 
District  of  Columbia.  This  limitation  was  removed  by  an  act  approved  March 
3,  1901,  which  reads  as  follows: 

JOINT  RESOLUTION  to  facilitate  tlae  utilization  of  the  Government  Departments  for  the  pur¬ 
poses  of  research,  in  extension  of  the  policy  enunciated  by  Congress  in  the  joint  resolution 

approved  April  12, 1892. 

Whereas  *  *  * 

Resolved ,  That  facilities  for  study  and  research  in  the  Government  Depart¬ 
ments,  the  Library  of  Congress,  the  National  Museum,  the  Zoological  Park,  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  the  Fish  Commission,  the  Botanic  Gardens,  and  similar 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  RESEARCH.  1055 


institutions  hereafter  established  shall  be  afforded  to  scientific  investigators  and 
to  duly  qualified  individual  students  and  graduates  of  institutions  of  learning  in 
the  several  States  and  Territories,  as  well  as  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  under  such 
rules  and  restrictions  as  the  heads  of  the  Departments  and  Bureaus  mentioned 
may  prescribe. 


DISCUSSION  AND  ACTION  IN  RECENT  YEARS. 

Mr.  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  in  1897,  summarized  the  situation  in  relation  to  the 
establishment  of  a  national  university  as  follows :l 

First.  There  is  a  strong  desire,  not  only  among  the  residents  of  the  Federal  city, 
but  among  the  lovers  and  promoters  of  learning  throughout  the  country,  that  the 
libraries,  collections,  instruments,  and  apparatus  belonging  to  the  Government 
should  be  opened  to  students,  not  as  a  favor,  nor  by  exception,  nor  as  a  passing 
entertainment,  but  for  study  and  experiment,  according  to  suitable  regulations, 
and  especially  under  the  guidance  of  such  able  teachers  as  may  be  already  engaged 
in  the  service  of  the  Government  or  may  be  enlisted  hereafter  for  the  particular 
offices  of  education.  So  far  as  this  there  would  be  a  unanimous,  or  nearly  unani¬ 
mous,  assent. 

Second.  The  universities  existing  in  Washington  and  near  to  it,  including  those 
of  New  England,  wonld  regard  with  disfavor,  and  probably  with  distrust,  an  effort 
to  establish,  by  Congressional  action,  the  University  of  the  United  States.  In  some 
places  there  wonld  be  positive  opposition.  *  *  * 

Third.  Outside  of  academic  circles,  as  well  as  inside,  there  is  a  great  distrust  of 
the  principle  that  Congress  should  provide  for  and  direct  university  education. 
The  fears  may  be  foolish.  It  is  easy  to  laugh  at  them.  Apprehensions  may  be 
pronounced  groundless.  Nevertheless  it  will  be  difficult  to  get  rid  of  them.  There 
will  be  an  ever-present  expectation  of  political  interference,  first  in  the  governing 
body,  then  in  the  faculty,  and  finally  in  the  subjects  and  methods  of  instruction. 
It  is  true  that  partisan  entanglement  may  be  avoided,  but  it  will  be  difficult  indeed 
to  escape  the  thraldom. 

In  the  same  article  it  is  suggested  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  take  charge, 
so  that — 

The  literary  and  scientific  institutions  of  Washington  may  be  associated  and 
correlated  so  far,  and  so  far  only,  as  relates  to  the  instruction  and  assistance,  under 
proper  restrictions,  of  qualified  students.  *  *  *  Such  a  learned  society  may  be 
developed  more  readily  around  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  with  less  friction,  less 
expense,  less  peril,  and  with  the  prospect  of  more  permanent  and  widespread 
advantages  to  the  country,  than  by  a  dozen  denominational  seminaries  or  one 
colossal  University  of  the  United  States. 

In  February,  1899,  Dr.  William  H.  Dali,  of  the  Geological  Survey,  outlined  very 
clearly  the  conditions  and  possibilities  for  post-graduate  work  in  Washington  and 
urged  that  if  any  organization  was  attempted  it  should  be  free  from  Government 
control.2 

Little,  if  any,  advantage  was  taken  of  the  Congressional  resolution  of  1892,  which 
restricted  opportunities  for  study  and  research  to  the  educational  organizations  of 
the  District  of  Columbia;  but  with  the  recent  rapid  growth  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  a  considerable  number  of  students  have  been  given  opportunity  for 
study  and  practical  training.  Secretary  Wilson  has  taken  the  lead  in  actually 
bringing  qualified  students  into  the  laboratories  of  a  Government  department  and 
setting  them  to  work.  He  has  inaugurated  a  new  class,  called  “student  assistants,” 
and  has  demonstrated  its  practical  value.  In  his  report  for  1898  he  says: 3 

George  Washington,  by  his  will,  left  property  to  be  devoted  to  university  educa¬ 
tion  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  There  is  no  university  in  the  land  where  the 
young  farmer  may  pursue  post-graduate  studies  in  all  the  sciences  relating  to  pro¬ 
duction.  The  scientific  divisions  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  can  to  some 
extent  provide  post-graduate  facilities.  Our  chiefs  of  division  are  very  proficient 
in  their  lines;  our  apparatus  the  best  obtainable;  our  libraries  the  most  complete 
of  any  in  the  nation.  We  can  direct  the  studies  of  a  few  bright  young  people  in 


1  Century  Magazine,  IT ovember,  1897. 

2  American  Naturalist,  Vol.  33,  pp.  97-107. 

s  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  1898,  pp.  18, 19. 


1056 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


each  division,  and  when  the  Department  requires  help,  as  it  often  does,  these  young 
scientists  will  be  obtainable. 

They  should  be  graduates  of  agricultural  colleges  and  come  to  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  through  a  system  of  examination  that  would  bring  the  best  and  be 
fair  to  all  applicants.  The  capacity  of  the  Department  is  limited,  but  something 
can  be  done  that  will  indicate  to  Congress  the  value  of  the  plan.  The  Depart¬ 
ment  often  needs  assistants  to  take  the  place  of  those  who  are  tempted  to  accept 
higher  salaries  in  State  institutions.  The  opening  of  our  laboratories  to  post¬ 
graduate  work  would  provide  an  eligible  list  from  which  to  fill  vacancies  as  they 
occur,  supply  temporary  agents,  and  be  a  source  from  which  State  institutions 
might  get  assistance  in  scientific  lines. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  naturally  turns  to  the  professedly  agricultural 
colleges  for  its  student  assistants,  but  if  other  institutions  gave  their  students 
such  instruction  as  would  qualify  them  for  the  work  of  that  Department  there 
seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  they  should  be  discriminated  against. 

As  the  development  of  the  work  progressed  in  the  scientific  bureaus  it  became 
impossible  to  find  men  qualified  for  the  permanent  positions  open  to  them.  Grad¬ 
uate  students  were  obtainable,  but  they  were  without  practical  training  for  the 
work.  The  Civil  Service  Commission  was  called  on,  but  it  had  no  eligibles  on  its 
lists.  The  only  way  out  of  the  difficulty  seemed  to  be  for  the  heads  of  the  scien¬ 
tific  bureaus  to  select  bright,  well-educated  young  men  and  train  them.  This 
they  have  been  doing  for  several  years.  In  the  Geological  Survey  graduate  stu¬ 
dents,  being  the  best  men  available  for  temporary  field  assistants  in  both  geologic 
and  topographic  work,  are  given  preference.  The  Survey  cooperates  with  such 
institutions  of  learning  as  are  willing  to  give  the  advanced  instruction  necessary 
to  fit  students  to  engage  in  the  several  special  lines  of  investigation.  This  coopera¬ 
tion  consists  mainly  in  the  employment  of  graduate  students  and  instructors.  A 
high  standard  is  maintained  by  the  character  of  the  examinations  held  for  selecting 
temporary  employees.  For  example,  in  the  examination  for  temporary  geologic 
assistants  held  April  23  and  24,  1901,  the  applicants  were  obliged  to  meet  the  fol¬ 
lowing  requirements: 

First.  To  write  an  essay  of  more  than  a  thousand  words,  setting  forth  either  the 
course  and  results  of  an  original  geologic  investigation  by  the  applicant  or  the 
main  features  of  the  geology  of  some  State. 

Second.  To  answer  satisfactorily  seven  questions,  so  selected  as  to  test  the  appli¬ 
cant’s  knowledge  of  the  science  of  geology  in  general. 

Third.  To  select  one  of  the  five  specialties,  stratigraphy,  petrography,  paleon¬ 
tology,  physiography,  and  glaciology,  and  make  clear  the  possession  of  an  adequate 
knowledge  thereof. 


The  weight  given  to  the  various  subjects  was  as  follows: 

Geological  essay,  including  composition  and  drawing _  30  per  cent. 

General  geology _ _  15  per  cent. 

Special  geology _ _ _ _ _ 25  per  cent. 

Education  and  experience _ _ _  _ _  30  per  cent. 


Fifty-two  persons  took  this  examination,  and  of  these  48  made  an  average  of 
more  than  70  per  cent.  The  successful  applicants  have  received  degrees  for  aca¬ 
demic  and  graduate  study  from  the  following  institutions  of  learning: 


Harvard  University . 13 

Johns  Hopkins  University .  6 

University  of  Chicago.. .  6 

Yale  University . .  5 

Cornell  University .  4 

University  of  Wisconsin .  2 

University  of  California .  2 

University  of  Kansas . 2 

Stanford  University . 2 

Iowa  State  College  . . 2 

Amherst  College  . 2 

Munich .  2 


Alfred  University . 1 

Beloit  College . 1 

Columbia  University . 1 

Columbian  University .  1 

Cornell  College,  Iowa .  1 

Denison  University . 1 

Gates  College . . .  1 

German  Wallace  College .  1 

Hamilton  College  . . 1 

Heidelberg  College,  Ohio . 1 

Heidelberg,  Germany . 1 

Indiana  State  University . - .  1 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  RESEARCH.  1057 


Lafayette  College . . 1 

Lawrence  Scientific  School . . . 1 

Moores  Hill  College . 1 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University. . 1 

University  of  Illinois . 1 

University  of  Minnesota . . . .  1 


University  of  Missouri . . . . . _  _  1 

U niver sity  of  Ne br aska _ * . .  1 

University  of  the  City  of  New  York . . 1 

University  of  Oregon  . . . . . . 1 

University  of  South  Carolina _ _ _  1 

Williams  College . . . . 1 


The  total  of  46  successful  applicants  divides  by  State  residence  as  follows: 


Massachusetts . 

Illinois . . 

New  York . 

Iowa . 

Connecticut-... 

Indiana . 

Missouri . 

Pennsylvania . . 
South  Carolina 
California---... 


q 

7 

7 

3 

o 


Colorado . . . 

Kansas _ 

Kentucky... 
New  Jersey. 

Ohio . . 

Oregon . . 

Tennessee  .. 
Wisconsin  . . 
Wyoming ... 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


Of  those  who  passed,  40  have  received  appointments  to  temporary  positions.  It 
is  probable  that  50  per  cent  of  the  number  will  become  permanent  members  of  the 
Survey;  38  per  cent  already  hold  or  will  obtain  positions  as  instructors  in  educa¬ 
tional  institutions,  and  the  others  will  enter  State  surveys  and  private  employment. 

Of  the  temporary  geologic  force  of  the  Survey  other  than  those  mentioned,  and 
who  receive  pay  only  when  actually  employed,  the  majority  are  connected  with 
institutions  of  learning,  as  follows: 


Harvard  University  . . 4 

University  of  Chicago . 4 

University  of  Wisconsin . . . 3 

Columbia  University .  3 

Stanford  University  . . 3 

Yale  University . .  3 

Amherst  College . 1 

Clark  U  niver  sity . . 1 

Colby  University . 1 


Johns  Hopkins  University. . 1 

Ohio  State  University  . . . . . .  I 

University  of  Michigan  . .  1 

University  of  California . . . .  1 

University  of  Virginia . 1 

University  of  West  Virginia  . .  1 

University  of  South  Dakota .  1 

Vanderbilt  University . . .  1 

Williams  College . . 1 


The  preceding  statements  illustrate  the  intimate  relation  existing  between  one- 
division  of  one  bureau  of  one  department  of  the  Government  and  the  higher  edu¬ 
cational  interests  of  the  country.  A  close  analysis  of  the  personnel  of  other  bureaus 
will  doubtless  show  that  the  Government  is  thus  indirectly  doing  a  great  work  in 
fostering  higher  education  and  research,  and  it  will  at  the  same  time  be  seen  that- 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  country  are  training  men  and  women  for  th© 
highest  scientific  and  technical  positions  in  the  Government  service. 

The  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  several  years- 
ago  realized  the  importance  of  giving  its  students  the  training  which  would  enable 
them  to  meet  the  conditions  prevailing  in  Washington.  A  committee  of  graduate 
study  in  Washington  was  appointed  in  July,  1897. 1  In  the  following  April  this- 


1  Eesolvecl,  That  a  committee  of  five  be  appointed  by  the  President  to  investigate,  consider, 
and,  if  practicable,  devise  a  plan  whereby  graduate  students  of  the  land-grant  and  other  col¬ 
leges  may  have  access  to  and  the  use  of  the  Congressional  Library  and  the  coiled  ions  in  the- 
Smithsonian  Institution,  the  National  Museum,  and  the  scientific  bureaus  of  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  at  Washington  of  the  United  States  Government  for  the  purposes  of  study  and  research*, 
said  plan  to  include  suggestions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  such  work  may  be  organized,  coordi¬ 
nated,  and  directed  to  the  best  advantage;  the  composition  and  organization  of  such  a  staff  as- 
may  be  necessary  to  properly  coordinate  and  direct  such  work,  and  also  an  outline  of  such  legis¬ 
lation  as  may  be  necessary  to  effect  the  general  purposes  of  this  resolution.  (Proceedings  of 
Twelfth  Annual  Convention  of  the  Association  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experi¬ 
ment  Stations,  held  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  November  15-17, 1898,  being  Bulletin  65,  Department, 
of  Agriculture,  p.  58.) 


ED  1901- 


•67 


1058 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-19G1. 


committee  met  in  Washington  to  study  the  conditions  under  which  work  might 
he  undertaken.  In  a  report  made  in  November,  1898,  the  committee  said  in  part: 

After  long  deliberation  and  full  discussion  your  committee  are  unanimously  of 
the  opinion  that  the  time  is  ripe  for  expeditious  action. 

The  inquiries  and  investigations  so  far  made  lead  the  committee  to  the  conclu¬ 
sion  that  it  is  entirely  practicable  to  provide  for  the  use  of  the  Library  of  Congress 
and  the  collections  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  National  Museum,  and  of 
the  various  scientific  and  other  bureaus  in  the  several  departments  of  the  General 
Government,  by  graduate  students  of  the  land-grant  and  other  colleges,  for  study 
and  research,  and  that  it  is  also  practicable  to  organize,  coordinate,  and  direct 
such  work  so  as  to  make  it  eminently  effective. 

The  committee  has  been  greatly  desirous  that  some  existing  agency  be  found  to 
undertake  such  work  of  organization,  coordination,  and  direction,  and  have  natu¬ 
rally  turned  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  as  the  one  best  fitted  for  the  purpose. 

The  committee  is  unable,  at  the  present  time,  to  present  a  complete  outline  of 
the  legislation  necessary  to  effect  the  general  purposes  of  the  resolution.  It  sub¬ 
mits  tentatively,  however,  that  Congress  might  be  asked  to  provide  for  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  an  administrative  office  in  Washington,  preferably  in  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  in  which  graduate  students  of  the  institutions  we  represent,  and  others 
as  well,  might  be  enrolled  and  directed  to  the  appropriate  departments  (Bull.  65, 
Dept.  Agr.,  pp.  61,  62). 

In  a  report  by  the  subcommittee  of  the  committee  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  on  the  establishment  of  a  national  university,  we  find  that  the  active 
cooperation  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is  contemplated  in  the  conduct  of  the 
proposed  school  or  bureau,  but  that  the  committee  of  the  Regents  of  the  Smithso¬ 
nian  Institution  feel  that  the  powers  of  the  institution,  as  at  present  organized,  are 
insufficient  to  embrace  the  work  proposed.1 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Smithsonian  Regents  held  on  January  24,  1900,  Dr.  Alexan¬ 
der  Graham  Bell  introduced  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  Congress  be  asked  to 
provide  for  an  assistant  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  charge  of 
research  in  the  Government  departments,  etc.  The  resolution  was  referred  to  a 
committee,  which,  on  January  23,  1901,  reported  a  modified  form  of  the  original 
resolution.  This  modified  form  was  adopted  by  the  Board  of  Regents.  It  reads  as 
follows: 


In  order  to  facilitate  the  utilization  of  the  Government  departments  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  research,  in  extension  of  the  policy  enunciated  by  Congress  in  the  joint 
resolution  approved  April  12,  1892: 

Resolved ,  That  it  is  the  sense  of  the  board  that  it  is  desirable  that  Congress  extend 
this  resolution  so  as  to  afford  facilities  for  study  to  all  properly  qualified  students 
or  graduates  of  universities,  other  than  those  mentioned  in  the  resolution,  and  pro¬ 
vide  for  the  appointment  of  an  officer  whoso  duty  it  shall  be  to  ascertain  and  make 
known  what  facilities  for  research  exist  in  the  Government  departments,  and 
arrange  with  the  heads  of  the  departments  and  with  the  officers  in  charge  of  the 
Government  collections,  on  terms  satisfactory  to  them,  rules  and  regulations  under 
which  suitably  qualified  persons  might  have  access  to  these  collections  for  the 
purpose  of  research  "with  due  regard  to  the  needs  and  requirements  of  the  work  of 
the  Government;  and  that  it  should  also  be  his  duty  to  direct,  in  a  manner  satis¬ 
factory  to  the  heads  of  such  departments  and  officers  in  charge,  the  researches  of 
such  persons  into  lines  which  will  promote  the  interests  of  the. Government  and 
the  development  of  the  natural  resources,  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce 
of  the  country,  and  (generally)  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  the  useful  arts, 
and  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men. 

This  resolution  referred  the  matter  to  Congress.  Many  members  of  both  Houses 
doubt  whether  Congress  has  power  under  the  Constitution  to  appropriate  money 
raised  by  taxation  for  purposes  of  education,  and  nothing  was  done  by  Congress, 
as  the  resolution  was  not  officially  brought  before  it. 


1  Science,  N.  S.,  Yol.  XI,  March  16,  1900,  pp.  410-414. 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  RESEARCH.  1059 


ORGANIZATION  ON  THE  WASHINGTON  MEMORIAL  INSTITUTION. 

At  this  point  the  'Washington  Academy  of  Sciences  undertook  to  give  the  propo¬ 
sition  to  utilize  the  resources  of  the  Government  for  higher  education  and  research 
a  practical  form,  independent  of  direct  Government  support  or  control.  For  sev¬ 
eral  months  the  academy  had  been  conferring  with  the  George  W ashtngton  Memo¬ 
rial  Association  relative  to  erecting  in  Washington  a  memorial  building  to  be 
dedicated  to  science,  literature,  and  the  liberal  arts.  The  president  of  the  academy 
suggested  to  the  memorial  association  that  it  should  so  amend  its  act  of  incorpora¬ 
tion  that  it  could  cooperate  with  the  academy  in  carrying  out  the  objects  common 
to  both  organizations.  The  suggested  amendments  were  made,  and  an  agreement 
was  entered  into  substantially  as  follows: 

The  objects  of  the  George  Washington  Memorial  Association  are,  first,  as  implied 
in  its  name,  the  creation  of  a  memorial  to  George  Washington ;  and  second,  as 
stated  in  its  amended  act  of  incorporation,  the  increase  in  the  city  of  Washington 
of  opportunities  and  facilities  for  higher  education,  as  recommended  by  George 
Washington  in  his  various  annual  messages  to  Congress,  notably  the  first — i.  e., 
“ the  promotion  of  science  and  literature,”  substantially  as  set  forth  in  his  last 
will,  and  by  and  through  such  other  plans  and  methods  as  may  be  necessary  or 
suitable.  The  object  of  the  Washington  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  federated  head 
of  the  scientific  societies  of  W ashington,  is  the  promotion  of  science,  the  term 
“ science”  being  used  in  Its  general  sense — “knowledge,  comprehension  of  facts 
and  principles.  ” 

The  two  organizations  agreed,  first,  that,  although  American  universities  have 
so  developed  since  George  Washington’s  time  that  they  fulfill  many  of  the  objects 
of  the  national  university  outlined  by  him  as  desirable  for  the  youth  of  the  United 
States,  there  is  still  need  of  an  organization  in  the  city  of  Washington  which  shall 
facilitate  the  utilization  of  the  various  scientific  and  other  resources  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  for  purposes  of  research,  thus  cooperating  with  ail  universities,  colleges, 
and  individuals  in  giving  to  men  and  women  the  practical  post-graduate  training 
which  can  not  be  obtained  elsewhere  in  the  United  States  and  which  is  now  avail¬ 
able  only  to  a  limited  degTe©  in  the  city  of  W ashington ;  and,  second ,  that  the  best 
method  of  securing  the  objects  for  which  both  organizations  stand  is  the  establish¬ 
ment,  within  the  district  selected  by  Washington  as  a  site  for  the  permanent  seat 
of  Government  of  the  United  States,  of  an  institution  whose  object  shall  be  the 
realization  of  Washington’s  repeatedly  expressed  wish  and  recommendation  that 
provision  be  made  for  the  promotion  of  science  and  literature. 

The  membership  of  the  academy  includes  most  of  the  le?„ding  scientific  men  of 
Washington  and  the  country  at  large.  The  academy,  familiar  with  conditions  in 
Washington  and  with  the  efforts  of  the  committees  of  the  Association  of  Agricul¬ 
tural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  and  the  National  Educational  Association, 
and  knowing  that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  would  not,  under  its  limitations, 
take  an  active  part,  realized  that  the  time  was  opportune  for  a  new  organization. 
Its  committee  drafted  and  secured  the  passage  of  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
March  3,  1901.  The  committee  next  drafted  a  plan  of  organization,  which  was 
accepted  by  the  academy  and  memorial  association.  The  plan  was,  in  brief,  as 
follows: 

1.  Organization. — A  private  foundation  independent  of  Government  support  or 
-control. 

2.  Objects. — (a)  To  facilitate  the  use  of  the  scientific  or  other  resources  of  the 
Government  for  research. 

(b)  To  cooperate  with  universities,  colleges,  and  individuals  in  securing  to  prop¬ 
erly  qualified  persons  opportunities  for  advanced  study  and  research. 

3.  Government. — The  policy,  control,  and  management  to  vest  in  a  hoard  of 
fifteen  trustees,  and  in  addition  there  shall  be  an  advisory  board  composed  chiefly 
of  heads  of  Executive  Departments.  Bureaus,  etc. 


1060 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900*1901. 


Articles  of  incorporation  were  then  drawn  up  and  executed,  and  were  filed  on 
May  20,  1801.  They  read  as  follows: 


Articles  of  incorporation ,  Washington  Memorial  Institution. 


We,  the  undersigned,  persons  of  full  age  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and 
a  majority  of  whom  are  citizens  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  being  desirous  to 
establish  and  maintain,  in  the  city  of  Washingtonian  institution  in  memory  of 
George  Washington,  for  promoting  science  and  literature,  do  hereby  associate 
ourselves  as  a  body  corporate,  for  said  purpose,  under  the  general  incorporation 
acts  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  enacted  for  the  District  of  Columbia;  and 
we  do  hereby  certify  in  pursuance  of  said  act  as  follows: 

First.  The  name  or  title  by  which  such  institution  shall  be  known  in  law  is  the 
Washington  Memorial  Institution. 

Second.  The  term  for  which  said  institution  is  organized  is  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  years. 

Third.  The  particular  business  and  objects  of  the  institution  are  to  create  a 
memorial  to  George  Washington,  to  promote  science  and  literature,  to  provide 
opportunities  and  facilities  for  higher  learning,  and  to  facilitate  the  utilization  of 
the  scientific  and  other  resources  of  the  Government  for  pmrposes  of  research  and 
higher  education. 

Fourth.  The  number  of  its  trustees  for  the  first  year  of  its  existence  shall  be 
fifteen. 

In  testimony  whereof  we  have  hereto  set  our  names  and  affixed  our  seals,  at  the 
city  of  Washington,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  the  16th  day  of  May,  1901: 


Daniel  C.  Gilman. 

Charlotte  Everett  Hopkins. 
C.  Hart  Merriam. 

George  M. Sterneerg. 

Chas.  D.  Walcott. 

Carroll  D.  Wright. 


seal. 

SEAL. 

SEAL. 

SEAL. 

SEAL. 

"seal. 


District  of  Columbia,  ss: 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  16th  day  of  May,  A.  D.  1901 ,  before  the  subscriber 
personally  appeared  the  above-named  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Charlotte  Everett  Hop¬ 
kins,  C.  Hart  Merriam,  George  M.  Sternberg,  Charles  D.  Walcott,  and  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  to  me  personally  known  and  known  to  me  to  be  the  persons  whose  names 
are  subscribed  to  the  foregoing  instrument  of  writing,  and  severally  and  person¬ 
ally  acknowledged  the  same  to  be  their  act  and  deed  for  the  uses  and  purposes 
therein  set  forth. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  official  seal  the  day  and  year  above  written. 

[seal.]  Herbert  W.  Gill,  Notary  Public. 


On  May  27  fifteen  trustees  were  elected,  and  on  June  3  the  officers  for  the  first 
year  were  chosen.  Lists  of  these  are  given  herewith: 


Board  of  trustees ,  Washington  Memorial  Institution. 

1,  Dr.  Edwin  A.  Alderman,  president  Tulane  University;  2,  Dr.  A..  Graham  Bell, 
regent  Smithsonian  Institution;  8,  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  professor  of  phi¬ 
losophy  and  education,  Columbia  University;  4,  Dr.  C.  W.  Dabney,  president  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Tennessee;  5,  Dr.  D.  C.  Gilman,  president  Johns  Hopkins  University; 
6,  Dr.  A.  T.  Hadley,  president  Yale  University;  7,  Dr.  William  R.  Harper,  presi¬ 
dent  University  of  Chicago;  8,  Mrs.  Phoebe  A.  Hearst.  regent  University  of  Cali¬ 
fornia;  9,  Mrs.  Archibald  Hopkins/president  George  Washington  Memorial  Asso¬ 
ciation;  10,  Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  chief  United  States  Biological  Survey:  11,  Dr. 
Cyrus  Northrop,  president  University  of  Minnesota;  12,  Dr.  H.  S.  Pritchett, 
president  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology;  13,  Dr.  George  M.  Sternberg, 
Surgeon -General  United  States  Army;  14,  Hon.  Charles  D.  Walcott,  president 
Washington  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Director  United  States  Geological  Survey; 
15,  Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Commissioner  of  Labor, 

Officers  of  Washington  Memorial  Institution. 

Daniel  C.  Gilman,  director:  Charles  D.  Walcott,  president  board  of  trustees; 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  secretary  board  of  trustees;  C.  J.  Bell,  treasurer. 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  RESEARCH.  1061 


An  advisory  board  also  was  selected,  as  follows: 

President  of  the  United  States,  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  Secretary  of 
State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Interior,  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Postmaster- General,  Attorney- 
General,  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Commissioner  of  Education, 
Librarian  of  Congress,  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fish¬ 
eries,  president  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission,  president  of  the  National  Acad¬ 
emy  of  Sciences,  president  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  president  of 
the  Association  of  American  Universities,  president  of  the  Association  of  Agricul¬ 
tural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  and  Dr.  Charles  W.  Eliot. 

The  duties  of  the  director,  as  defined  in  the  by-laws,  are  as  follows: 

The  director  shall  be  the  chief  executive  of  the  institution,  and,  under  the  guid¬ 
ance  and  control  of  the  executive  committee,  shall  conduct  its  affairs.  He  shall 
make  all  arrangements  for  cooperation  between  the  institution  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  Government,  universities,  colleges,  learned  societies,  and  individuals  on 
the  other,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  executive  committee. 

EXISTING  FACILITIES  FOR  STUDY  AND  RESEARCH. 


The  policy  of  the  Government  as  expressed  is  to  aid  in  higher  education  and 
research  by  granting  the  use  of  such  facilities  as  are  at  its  command  in  the  Dis¬ 
trict  of  Columbia.  The  direct  control  of  higher  education  has  been  relegated  to 
the  States,  the  Government  aiding  by  grants  of  land,  and  in  the  case  of  technical 
education  at  agricultural  experiment  stations  by  grants  of  money. 

The  Government  has  carried  on  original  research  for  its  own  purposes  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  through  grants  of  money  to  its  various  scientific  and  tech¬ 
nical  bureaus,  notably  those  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey,  the  Geological  Survey,  the  National  Museum,  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology,  the  Fish  Commission,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the  Library  of  Con¬ 
gress,  etc. 

Of  the  total  sum  appropriated  for  the  fiscal  year  1901,  at  least  25  per  cent,  or 
$2,020,000,  may  be  regarded  as  expendable  for  scientific  and  research  work  and  in 
the  interest  of  higher  education.  The  appropriations  for  the  year  are  as  follows: 


Department  of  Agriculture: 

Weather  Bureau . . 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry . 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry . 

Bureau  of  Forestry . . . - . . 

Bureau  of  Chemistry . . . . 

Bureau  of  Soils . . 

Division  of  Entomology  . . . . 

Division  of  Biological  Survey. . . . 

Agricultural  experiment  stations . 

Miscellaneous . . . 

War  Department,  Army  Medical  Museum  and  Library  . . 
Navy  Department: 

Hydrographic  Office. . . 

Naval  Observatory . . . 

Nautical  Almanac  . . . . . . . 

Interior  Department: 

Geological  Survey. . . . 

Bureau  of  Education . . . 

Treasury  Department: 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey . . . 

Bureau  of  Standards . . . . . . . 

Marine  Hospital . 

Smithsonian  Institution : 

National  Museum... . . . . 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnology . . . 

National  Zoological  Park . . 

Astrophysical  Observatory . 

International  exchanges . 

Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  . . . . . . 

Botanic  Gardens . 

Library  of  Congress. . 


$1,168,320. 00 
1, 151,030.00 
204, 680.00 
185, 410.00 
35,800.00 
109,140.00 
36,200.00 
32,800.00 
789, 000. 0G 
222, 000. 00 

- $3,937,410.00 

.  25, 000. 00 

136, 518. 00 
226,461.08 
15, 900. 00 

-  378,879.08 

1,023,423. 11 
59,370. 00 

- r-  1,082,793.11 

830,345.00 

167,140.00 

71,100.00 

-  1,068,585.00 

289,400. 00 
50, 000. 00 
80, 000. 00 
12,000.00 
24,000. CO 

- — -  455,400.00 

.  543,120.00 

.  24.393.75 

.  565,345.00 


Total . . 

This  is  about  10  cents  per  capita  for  the  entire  population. 


8,080,925,94 


1062 


EDUCATION  KEPOBT,  1900-1901. 


Great  collections  of  books,  specimens,  statuary-,  paintings,  instruments,  appa¬ 
ratus,  etc.  ,  have  been  assembled  in  Washington. 

Libraries, — Statistics  of  the  principal  libraries  reveal  the  presence  of  a  large 
number  of  books,  maps,  and  pamphlets,  many  collections  of  which  are  exception¬ 
ally  complete  in  special  lines  of  research ,  notably  those  of  the  Departments  of 
State  and  Agriculture,  the  Geological  Survey,  the  Naval  Observatory,  the  Sur¬ 
geon-General’s  Office,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the  Museum  of  Hygiene,  the  Pat¬ 
ent  Office,  the  N  ational  Museum ,  and  special  collections  in  the  Library  of  Congress. 
The  principal  libraries  are  here  listed: 


Library  ol — 

Books. 

Pam¬ 

phlets. 

Maps. 

1 1,000,000 
2250.000 

2  80, 000 
135, 058 
68,000 
81,872 
74, 140 
63,000 
47,600 
25,000 
16, 405 
18,000 
11,969 
3,000 
12,000 
6,000 
30, 000 
7, 051 
2, 500 
22,000 
49,000 
33,635 
15,000 
12, 000 
5,000 
2,000 
20,000 
2,200 

Q 

P 

Smithsonian  Institution  - _ _ _ - 

United  States  Supreme  Court 

Army  Medical  Museum  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

229, 546 

Department  of  Agriculture  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Bureau  of  Education  _ _ _ _ 

140, 004 

Patent  Office  ..  . . . . . 

Department  of  State _  _ * _ 

2,500 
77. 027 
30, 000 
6,178 
5,000 

Geological  Survey . . . . . . _  _ . 

29,185 

National  Museum  •_  _ _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey _ _ _ _ _ _ 

25,000 

Weather  Bureau 

Museum  of  Hvgiene  .  -  -  _  _ _  .  _  _ 

Hydrographic  Office  -  _ _ _ ’ _ 

Bureau  of  Ethnology . . . . . . . 

Bureau  of  Statistics . . . . . . 1 

Department  of  J ustiee _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

ss 

oo 

Department  of  Labor.  ..  _ _  .  _ _  _  _ 

4, 454 

Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art . . . . . . . . 

* 

Treasury  Department _ _ 

3,000 

2,000 

War  Department 

Navy  Department  _  . . _  -  -  .  _  __  _ 

Interior  Department _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Post-Office  Department . . . . . . . . 

Light-House  Board _ _ _ _ 

War  Records  Office . . . . . . _ 

Naval  Observatory . . . . . . . 

4,000 
2, 500 

Nautical  Almanac  Office  _ _ _ _ 

Total . . . 

2, 092, 430 

515, 209 

109, 885 

1  Books  and  pamphlets. 

2  These  figures  are  included  in  the  1,000,000  assigned  to  the  Library  of  Congress. 


Other  libraries  in  the  District  bring  the  grand  total  to  more  than  2,500,000  vol¬ 
umes,  570,000  pamphlets,  and  110,000  maps,  assembled  in  large  part  by  specialists 
in  every  field.  All  the  libraries  are  accessible,  and  are  maintained  at  a  high 
standard  of  efficiency. 

Collections. — The  collections  of  the  National  Museum,  though  inadequately 
housed,  and  with  insufficient  laboratories  for  the  work  of  the  regular  museum 
force,  are  nevertheless  of  such'  character  and  are  so  arranged  for  exhibition  and 
study  that  they  will  be  of  great  service  to  all  who  may  wish  to  use  them.  Under 
the  present  organization  of  the  Museum  there  are  three  departments — anthro¬ 
pology,  biology,  and  geology.  All  the  exhibits  are  systematically  classified  and 
placed  in  immediate  charge  of  specialists  acquainted  with  the  results  of  man's 
activity  in  almost  every  form  in  which  such  results  admit  of  study  and  represent¬ 
ative  exhibition.  As  provided  by  statute,  the  collections  made  by  the  Geological 
and  other  surveys  are  deposited  in  the  National  Museum  after  they  have  been 
used  by  the  organization  which  collected  them.  This  has  resulted  in  an  immense 
accumulation  of  material,  much  of  which  has  not  yet  been  fully  studied,  and  upon 
which,  when  sufficient  laboratory  space  is  provided,  students  can  be  employed 
under  the  oversight  of  the  specialists  in  charge. 

The  collections  of  the  Army  Medical  Museum  have  a  world- wide  reputation  and 
contain  a  great  quantity  of  unique  and  valuable  material.  There  are  lai’ge 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOWEENMENT  TO  RESEARCH. 


1063 


collections  of  living  animals  at  the  Zoological  Park,  and’  there  is  a  fine  series, 
illustrating  fish  culture,  at  the  Fish  Commission  branding.  The  museum  of  the 
Agricultural  Department  contains  valuable  material,  especially  the  working  col¬ 
lections  of  the  different  divisions,  and  the  Botanic  Gardens  are  capable  of  great 
development  under  scientific  direction.  To  the  student  interested  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  American  inventive  genius  and  the  industries  .represented  by  patents, 
the  collection  of  models  and  drawings  in  the  Patent  Office  offers  exceptional 
opportunities.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  collections  of  apparatus  of 
various  kinds  in  Government  laboratories,  and  of  the  illustrations  of  the  evolu¬ 
tion  of  apparatus  in  the  National  Museum  and  Smithsonian  Institution. 

In  art,  while  the  collections  are  not  so  large  as  in  other  lines,  yet  there  is  a  col¬ 
lection  of  excellent  quality  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  which  maintains  a 
free  school.  In  this  school  day  and  night  classes  are  taught  the  arts  of  drawing 
and  painting,  free  of  tuition  fees  or  charge  of  any  kind.  Up  to  the  close  of  1899, 
844  pupils  had  received  instruction  in  the  day  -school  and  1,488  in  the  night  school. 

The  Naval  Observatory  has  a  good  equipment,  including  a  chart  and  a  chro¬ 
nometer  depot,  an  extensive  collection  of  instruments  used  in  taking  astronomic 
photographs,  a  fine  telescope  and  transit  instruments,  used  in  carrying  on  its  rou¬ 
tine  work. 

The  newly  created  National  Bureau  of  Standards  is  to  have  buildings  and  a  fine 
equipment  of  all  necessary  apparatus.  When  fully  developed  it  will  be  second  to 
none  in  the  character  and  value  of  its  scientific  and  practical  work.  The  functions 
of  this  bureau  are  defined  in  the  organic  act  as  follows: 

The  functions  of  the  bureau  shall  consist  in  the  custody  of  the  standards:  the 
comparison  of  the  standards  used  in  scientific  investigations,  engineering,  manu¬ 
facturing,  commerce,  and  educational  institutions  with  the  standards  adopted  or 
recognized  by  the  Government;  the  construction,  when  necessary,  of  standards, 
their  multiples  and  subdivisions;  the  testing  and  calibration  of  standard  measur¬ 
ing  apparatus;  the  solutions  of  problems  which  arise  in  connection  with  stand¬ 
ards:  the  determination  of  physical  constants  and  the  properties  of  materials, 
when  such  data  are  of  great  importance  to  scientific  or  manufacturing  interests 
and  are  not  to  be  obtained  of  sufficient  accuracy  elsewhere. 

Lavj  and  diplomacy . — The  Stats  Department  has  accumulated  a  valuable  library 
relating  to  international  law.  The  law  library  of  Congress  contains  more  than 
50,000  volumes  exclusively  legal  in  character,  and  accommodations  are  provided 
for  students  who  wish  to  use  it.  The  school  of  diplomacy  of  Columbian  Uni¬ 
versity  is  one  of  the  unique  features  of  the  educational  organizations  of  Washing¬ 
ton.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  and  the  Court  of  Claims  bring 
together  the  foremost  American  lawyers.  There  is  also  the  supreme  court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  which  has  the  common-law,  equity,  and  probate  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  State  courts,  besides  that  of  the  circuit  and  district  courts  of  the  United 
States. 

There  are,  of  course,  unequalled  opportunities  for  studying  the  development  of 
legislation  and  for  meeting  the  leading  statesmen  and  public  men  of  the  country. 

Medicine. — -The  Army  Medical  Museum  has  one -of  the  finest  collections  in  exist¬ 
ence  of  recent  pathologic  specimens.  These,  taken  with  the  library -of  the  Surgeon- 
General's  Office,  in  the  same  building,  afford  a  rare  opportunity  for  the  medical 
student.  In  the  adjoining  National  Museum  there  is  a  most  complete  collection 
illustrating  the  materia  medica  of  the  United  States  and  of  foreign  countries. 
There  are  also  several  hospitals,  at  each  of  which  clinical  instruction  is  given. 

Congress  has  enacted  that  these  vast  collections  and  resources  shall  be  available 
for  higher  education  and  research,  but  it  has  not  provided  the  machinery  for  mak¬ 
ing  them  practically  available.  As  in  the  case  of  the  grants  of  land  to  colleges, 
Congress  provides  facilities  and  indirectly  the  means,  but  it  leaves  to  other  agen¬ 
cies  the  task  of  devising  ways  and  means  to  make  them  practically  useful. 


1064 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  Government  is ‘obliged  to  train  most  of  its  specialists.  Opportunities  for 
post-graduate  study  and  research  exist  at  a  few  of  tlie  strongest  universities,  col¬ 
leges,  and  technical  schools  of  the  country,  but  at  best  the  training  given,  except 
in  a  few  branches,  is  of  a  preparatory  character.  Most  American  youth  who  are 
ambitious  to  pursue  higher  stud}7  and  research  have  little  opportunity,  owing 
largely  to  the  fact  that  the  instructor's  duties  leave  him  scarcely  any  time  for 
research  and  practical  work  with  the  student.  Post-graduate  students  seek 
instructors  distinguished  for  research,  even  to  the  extent  of  undergoing  many 
privations  and  leaving  their  country.  In  the  city  of  Washington  the  Government 
has  assembled  the  largest  body  of  original  investigators  to  be  found  in  any  one 
place  in  the  world.  Most  of  these  investigators  are  willing  to  train  suitably  qual¬ 
ified  students,  because  of  the  assistance  the  students  can  give  them  in  the  work 
they  have  in  charge,  the  method  being  to  have  the  students  do  actual,  practical 
work,  and  not  to  instruct  them  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  An  unofficial 
inquiry  indicates  the  following  as  a  possible  number  of  instructors  and  students 
in  the  various  departments  and  bureaus  at  Washington: 


Instruct¬ 

ors. 


Stu¬ 

dents. 


History  and  diplomacy . . 

Historical  research  . . . . 

Library  administration  and  methods . 

Statistics . . . 

Magnetism  . . . . 

Meteorology . . . . . 

Tides  . . . 

National  Standards,  Bureau  of . 

Astronomy _ _ _ 

Physics  ...  . . . . 

Hydrography  . . . . . . 

Cartography,  etc . . . 

Topography. . . 

Chemistry . . . . . . . . 

Mineral  resources . . . . . 

Geology  . . . . 

Paleontology . . 

Animal  industry . . . 

Anthropology  and  ethnology . 

Zoology . . . 

Botany . . 

Forestry. . 


1 

5 

5 

10 

5 

15 

o 

5 

1 

o 

5 

15 

1 

2 

3 

8 

2 

3 

5 

10 

o 

5 

10 

20 

6 

10 

1 

5 

10 

17 

5 

7 

10 

25 

4 

13 

34 

50 

11 

25 

10 

20 

Total 


133 


272 


With  the  development  of  a  well-considered  plan,  just  alike  to  the  student  and 
to  the  officers  of  the  Government,  the  number  of  students— or,  more  strictly  speak¬ 
ing,  student  assistants— would  increase  from  year  to  year.  Most  of  the  students 
would  naturally  come  from  institutions  of  learning;  in  all  such  cases  the  student 
should  be  certified  to  the  director  of  the  Washington  Memorial  Institution,  and 
finally  certified  back  to  the  parent  institution  after  completing  his  work,  such  cer¬ 
tificate  to  be  based  on  the  work  done  and  the  proficiency  made.  In  the  case  of 
individual  students  not  connected  with  any  institution,  let  each  prove  his  capac¬ 
ity  to  profit  by  the  opportunities,  and  then  accredit  him  to  the  special  officer  who 
has  charge  of  the  field  of  work  in  which  he  may  wish  to  study.  On  satisfactory 
completion  of  the  work  undertaken,  the  certificate  of  the  Vfashington  Memorial 
Institution  might  be  addressed  “  To  whomsoever  it  may  concern/’  Students 
working  in  Government  laboratories,  museums,  and  libraries  would  be  subject  to 
the  rules  obtaining  therein. 

It  is  the  belief  of  many  acquainted  with  the  educational  system  of  the  country 
that  the  policy  above  outlined  will  result  in  a  body  of  trained  students,  ready  for 
expert  work,  many  of  whom  will  undoubtedly  enter  the  Government  service, 
while  others  will  become  instructors  in  institutions  of  learning  or  be  engaged  as 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  TO  RESEARCH. 


1065 


experts  in  private  capacity.  This  will  avoid  competition  with  other  institutions, 
will  give  most  valuable  training  and  practical  experience  to  students,  and  will  be 
especially  helpful  to  instructors  in  educational  institutions,  who  might  wisely  be 
sent  for  six  months  or  a  year  to  Washington,  as  at  present  some  are  sent  abroad. 
There  should  be  no  thought  of  providing  a  general  or  liberal  course  of  education. 
Coming  as  student  assistants,  there  should  be  opportunities  and  encouragement 
only  on  clearly  defined  lines  of  study  and  investigation.  There,  are  many  large 
and  small  problems  to  be  worked  out  by  the  officers  of  the  Washington  Memorial 
Institution,  but  with  the  skilled  educator  and  organizer  now  at  its  head  as  director 
their  successful  solution  is  only  a  matter  of  time.  It  is  anticipated  that  the  Wash¬ 
ington  Memorial  Institution  will,  under  the  direction  of  Br.  Gilman,  begin  its 
work  by  November  1,  1801. 

The  Government’s  part  in  the  work,  when  once  under  successful  headway,  will 
be  to  enlarge  the  quarters  of  the  various  bureaus  concerned.  This  will  be  neces¬ 
sary  eventually  even  if  no  student  assistants  are  provided  for.  The  Government 
has  done  its  part  nobly  so  far.  It  is  now  for  the  educational  institutions  of  the 
country  to  come  forv/ard  and  assist  by  setting  a  high  standard  of  scholarship  for 
admission  to  the  privilege  of  becoming  a  student  assistant  in  the  Government 
bureaus.  Only  students  of  the  type  of  those  who  win  fellowships  or  excel  in 
ability  should  be  certified  or  accepted. 

The  V/ashington  Memorial  Institution  should,  and  I  believe  will,  maintain  a 
standard  that  will  meet  the  approval  of  our  colleges  and  universities.  It  should 
occupy  a  most  important  place  in  the  great  educational  work  of  the  country. 
With  the  hearty  cooperation  of  our  collegiate  institutions  and  of  the  officers  of  the 
Government  there  is  little  question  that  it  will  ultimately  become  the  federated 
head  and  clearing  house  of  all  the  higher  educational  interests  of  the  country. 

The  relations  of  the  National  Government  to  higher  education  and  research  are 
intimate  and  complex;  but  the  complexities  are  already  partially  resolved,  the 
present  is  auspicious,  and  the  future  outlook  is  most  jrromising.  Long  ago  the 
nation  recognized  its  obligation  ;‘to  promote  a  higher  and  more  extended  policy 
than  is  embraced  in  the  protection  of  the  temporal  interests  and  political  rights  of 
the  individual.”  The  action  of  Congress  in  the  present  year  in  opening  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  bureaus  at  Washington  for  study  and  research  is  a  long  stride  forward, 
and  if  carried  out  in  good  faith  must  result  in  another  and  higher  standard  for 
American  endeavor. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON,  D.  C., 


WITH  AN  APPENDED  LIST  GE  THE  PRINCIPAL  EDUCATIONAL  BENE¬ 
FACTIONS  OF  ANDREW  CARNEGIE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  A 

STATEMENT  OF  HIS  GIFT  IN  AID  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  IN  SCOT¬ 
LAND. 

Sra-rplas  wealth  is  a  sacred  trust  to  be  admin¬ 
istered  during  life  by  its  possessor  for  the  best 
good  of  his  fellow-men,  and  I  have  ventured  to 
predict  the  coming  of  the  day — the  dawn  of 
which,  indeed,  we  already  begin  to  see — when 
the  man  who  dies  possessed  of  available  mil¬ 
lions  which  were  free,  and  in  his  hands  to  dis¬ 
tribute,  will  die  disgraced. — Andrew -Carnegie. 

[The  foundation  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  marks  a  notable  step  forward  in  the 
development  of  the  instrumentalities  of  higher  education  in  the  United.  States. 
Being  designed  more  particularly  to  promote  and  afford  substantial  aid  to  study 
and  original  research,  it  promises  to  become  an  active  agency  in  effecting  the 
solution  of  many  of  the  problems  which  are  engaging  the  attention  of  students 
and  others,  thereby  enlarging  the  bounds  of  human  knowledge. 

The  following  documents  and  statements  relating  to  the  foundation  and  organi¬ 
zation  of  the  institution  are  reprinted  here  to  show  its  general  character,  objects, 
and  the  methods  to  be  employed,  so  far  as  they  have  yet  been  given  definite  shape.] 

ARTICLES  OF  IN  CO  RPOR A  T  I  ON  (JANUARY  4,  1902). 

We,  the  undersigned,  persons  of  full  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and 
a  majority  of  whom  are  citizens  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  being  desirous  to 
establish  and  maintain  in  the  city  of  Washington,  in  the  spirit  of  Washington,  an 
institution  for  promoting  original  research  in  science,  literature,  and  art,  do 
hereby  associate  ourselves  in  a  body  corporate  for  said  phrpose,  under  an  aet  to 
establish  a  code  of  law  for  the  District  of  Columbia  approved  March  third,  nine¬ 
teen  hundred  and  one,  sections  599  to  604,  inclusive;  and  we  do  hereby  certify  in 
pursuance  of  said  act  as  follows: 

First,  the  name  or  title  by  which  such  institution  shall  be  known  in  lav/  is 
Carnegie  Institution;  second,  the  term  for  which  said  institution  is  organized  is 
perpetual;  third,  the  particular  business  and  objects  of  the  institution  are  the 
promotion  of  study  and  research,  with  power  (a)  to  acquire,  hold,  and  convey 
real  estate  and  other  property  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  the  institution  as 
herein  stated,  and  to  establish  general  aud  special  funds;  (5)  to  conduct,  endow, 
and  assist  investigation  in  any  department  of  science,  literature,  or  art,  and  to 
this  end  to  cooperate  with  governments,  universities,  colleges,  technical  schools, 
learned  societies,  and  individuals;  (c)  to  appoint  committees  of  experts  to  direct 
special  lines  of  research;  (d)  to  publish  and  distribute  documents;  (e)  to  conduct 
lectures;  (/.)  to  hold  meetings;  (g)  to  acquire  and  maintain  a  library;  (h)  and,  in 
general,  to  do  and  perform  all  things  necessary  to  promote  the  objects  of  said 
institution;  fourth,  that  the  affairs,  funds,  and  property  of  the  corporation  shall 
be  in  general  charge  of  a  board  of  trustees,  the  number  of  whose  members  for  the 

1667 


1068 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


first  year  shall  be  twenty-seven  (27),  and  shall  not  thereafter  exceed  thirty  except 
by  a  three-foarths  vote  of  said  board. 

In  testimony  whereof  we  have  hereto  set  our  names  and  affixed  our  seals,  at  the 
city  of  Washington,  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  the  fourth  day  of  January, 
1902. 

John  Hay.  [seal.] 

Edward  D.  White.  [seal.] 

John  S.  Billings.  [seal.] 

Daniel  C.  Gilman.  [seal.] 

Charles  D.  Walcott,  [seal.] 

Carroll  D.  Wright.  [seal.] 

District  of  Columbia,  ss: 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  4th  day  of  January,  A.  D.  1902,  before  the  sub¬ 
scriber  personally  appeared  the  above-named  John  Hay,  Edward  D.  White,  John 
S.  Billings,  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Charles  D.  Walcott,  and  Carroll  D.  Wright,  to  me 
personally  known  and  known  to  me  to  be  the  persons  whose  names  are  subscribed 
to  the  foregoing  instrument  of  writing,  and  severally  and  personally  acknowledged 
the  same  to  be  their  act  and  deed  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  set  forth. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  official  seal  the  day  and  year  above  written. 

[seal.]  William  McN eir,  Notary  Public. 

Received  for  record  Jan.  4,  A.  D.  1902,  11  a.  m.,  and  recorded  in  Liber  No.  9, 
fol.  420  et  seq.,  one  of  the  incorporation  records  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Geo.  F.  Schayer,  Deputy  Recorder. 

BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES  (ORGANIZED  JANUARY  29,  1902). 1 

Ex  officio. — The  President  of  the  United  States,  the  President  of  the  Senate,  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti¬ 
tution,  the  President  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

John  S.  Billings,  New  York;  William  E.  Dodge,  New  York;  William  N.  Frew, 
Pennsylvania;  Lyman  J.  Gage,  Illinois;  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Maryland;  John  Hay, 
District  of  Columbia;  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  New  Jersey;  Henry  L.  Higginson,  Mas¬ 
sachusetts;  Henry  Hitchcock,  Missouri;  Charles  L.  Hutchinson,  Illinois;  V/illiam 
Lindsay,  Kentucky;  Seth  Low,  New  York;  Wayne  MacVeagh,  Pennsylvania; 
D.  O.  Mills,  New  York;  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Pennsylvania;  William  W.  Morrow, 
California;  Elihu  Root,' 'New  York;  JohnC.  Spooner,  Wisconsin;  Andrew  D.  White, 
New  York;  Edward  D.  White.  Louisiana;  Charles  D.  Walcott,  District  of  Colum¬ 
bia;  Carroll  D.  Wright,  District  of  Columbia. 

TRUST  DEED  BY  ANDREW  CARNEGIE  CREATING  A  TRUST  FOR  THE  BENEFIT  OF  THE 
CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

I.  Andrew  Carnegie,  of  New  York,  having  retired  from  active  business,  and 
deeming  it  to  be  my  duty  and  one  of  my  highest  privileges  to  administer  the  wealth 
which  has  come  to  me  as  a  trustee  in  behalf  of  others;  and  entertaining  the  confi¬ 
dent  belief  that  one  of  the  best  means  of  discharging  that  trust  is  by  providing 
funds  for  improving  and  extending  the  opportunities  for  study  and  research  in 
our  country;  and  having  full  confidence  in  the  gentlemen  after  named,  who  have 
at  my  request  signified  their  willingness  to  carry  out  the  trust  which  I  have  con¬ 
fided  to  them,  therefore  I  have  transferred  to  these,  the  trustees  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  ten  millions  of  registered  five  per  cent  bonds  of  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation,  the  names  of  said  trustees  being  as  follows: 

[Here  follow  the  names  of  the  trustees  as  given  above.] 


1  Grover  Cleveland,  former  President  of  the  United  States,  was  chosen  one  of  the  original 
trustees,  but  was  not  able  to  accept  the  appointment. 


THE  CABNEGIE  INSTITUTION". 


1069 


The  said  gift  is  to  be  held  in  trust  for  the  purposes  hereinafter  named  or  referred 
to;  that  is  to  say,  for  the  purpose  of  applying  the  interest  or  annual  income  to  be 
obtained  from  the  said  bonds,  or  from  any  other  securities  which  may  be  substi¬ 
tuted  for  the  same,  for  paying  all  the  expenses  which  may  be  incurred  in  the 
administration  of  the  trust  by  the  trustees,  including  in  said  expenses  the  personal 
expenses  which  the  trustees  may  incur  in  attending  meetings  or  otherwise  in  car¬ 
rying  out  the  business  of  the  trust;  and,  second,  for  paying  the  sums  required  by 
the  said  trustees  to  enable  them  to  carry  out  the  purposes  hereafter  expressed.  I 
hereby  confer  on  the  trustees  all  the  powers  and  immunities  conferred  upon  trus¬ 
tees  under  the  law,  and  without  prejudice  to  this  generality  the  following  powers 
and  immunities,  viz:  Power  to  receive  and  realize  the  said  bonds  and  the  principal 
sums  therein  contained  and  the  interest  thereof;  to  grant  discharges  or  receipts 
therefor;  to  sell  the  said  bonds,  either  by  public  sale  or  private  bargain,  at  such 
prices  and  on  such  terms  as  they  may  deem  reasonable;  to  assign  or  transfer  the 
same;  to  sue  for  payment  of  the  principal  sums  or  interest;  to  invest  the  sums 
which  from  time  to  time  may  be  received  from  the  said  bonds  on  such  securities 
as  trustees  are  authorized  by  the  laws  of  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  or 
Massachusetts,  to  invest  trust  funds;  and  also  on  such  other  securities  as  they  in 
the  exercise  of  their  own  discretion  may  select,  and  to  alter  or  vary  the  invest¬ 
ments  from  time  to  time  as  they  may  think  proper. 

And  I  hereby  expressly  provide  and  declare  that  the  trustees  shall  to  no  extent 
and  in  no  way  he  responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  said  bonds,  or  for  the  sums 
therein  contained,  or  for  the  securities  upon  which  the  proceeds  of  the  said  bonds 
may  be  invested,  or  for  any  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  said  bonds  or  securi¬ 
ties,  or  for  the  honesty  or  solvency  of  those  to  whom  the  same  rnay  be  entrusted, 
relying,  as  I  do,  solely  on  the  belief  that  the  trustees  herein  appointed,  and  their 
successors,  shall  act  honorably. 

And  I  further  hereby  empower  the  trustees  to  administer  any  other  funds  or 
property  which  may  be  donated  or-  bequeathed  to  them  for  the  purposes  of  the 
trust;  and  I  also  empower  them  to  appoint  such  officers  as  they  may  consider 
necessary  for  carrying  on  the  business  of  the  trust,  at  such  salaries  or  for  such 
remuneration  as  they  may  consider  proper,  and  to  make  such  arrangements  and 
lay  down  from  time  to  time  such  rules  as  to  the  signature  of  deeds,  transfers, 
agreements,  cheques,  receipts,  and  other  writings  as  may  secure  the  safe  and  con¬ 
venient  transaction  of  the  financial  business  of  the  trust.  The  committee  shall 
have  the  fullest  power  and  discretion  in  dealing  with  the  income  of  the  trust,  and 
expending  it  in  such  manner  as  they  think  best  fitted  to  promote  the  objects  set 
forth  in  the  following  clauses. 

The  purposes  of  the  trust  are  as  follows,  and  the  revenues  therefrom  are  to  be 
devoted  thereto: 

It  is  proposed  to  found  in  the  city  of  Washington  an  institution  which,  with  the 
cooperation  of  institutions  now  or  hereafter  established  there  or  elsewhere,  shall, 
in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal  manner,  encourage  investigation,  research,  and 
discovery;  show  the  application  of  knowledge  to  the  improvement  of  mankind; 
provide  such  buildings,  laboratories,  books,  and  apparatus  as  may  be  needed,  and 
afford  instruction  of  an  advanced  character  to  students  properly  qualified  to 
profit  thereby. 

Among  its  aims  are  these: 

1.  To  promote  original  research,  paying  great  attention  thereto  as  one  of  the 
most  important  of  all  departments. 

2.  To  discover  the  exceptional  man  in  every  department  of  study  whenever  and 
wherever  found,  inside  or  outside  of  schools,  and  enable  him  to  make  the  work  for 
which  he  seems  specially  designed  his  life  work. 

3.  To  increase  facilities  for  higher  education. 


1070 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


4.  To  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  -universities  and  other  institutions  of  learning 
throughout  the  country  by  utilizing  and  adding  to  their  existing  facilities  and.  aid¬ 
ing  teachers  in  the  various  institutions  for  experimental  and  other  work  in  these 
institutions  as  far  as  advisable, 

5.  To  enable  such  students  as  may  find  Washington  the  best,  point  for  their  spe¬ 
cial  studies  to  enjoy  the  advantages  of  the  museums,  libraries,  laboratories, 
observatory,  meteorological,  piscicultural,  and  forestry  schools,  and  kindred  insti¬ 
tutions  of  the  several  departments  of  the  Government. 

6.  To  ensure  the  prompt  publication  and  distribution  of  the  Tesnlts  of  scientific 
investigation,  a  field  considered  highly  important. 

If  in  any  year  the  full  income  of  the  trust  can  not  be  usefully  expended  or 
devoted  to  the  purposes  herein  enumerated,  the  committee  may  pay  such  sums  as 
they  think  fit  into  a  reserve  fund,  to  be  ultimately  applied  to  those  purposes 
or  to  the  construction  of  such  buildings  as  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  erect  in 
W  ashington. 

The  specific  objects  named  are  considered  most  important  in  our  day,  but  the 
trustees  shall  have  full  power,  by  a  majority  of  two-tbirds  of  their  number,  to 
modify  the  conditions  and  regulations  under  which  the  funds  may  be  dispensed, 
so  as  to  secure  that  these  shall  always  be  applied  in  the  manner  best  adapted  to 
the  changed  conditions  of  the  time;  provided  always  that  any  modifications  shall 
be  in  accordance  with  the  purposes  of  the  donor,  as  expressed  in  the  trust,  and  that 
the  revenues  be  applied  to  objects  kindred  to  those  named,  the  chief  purpose  of 
the  founder  being  to  secure,  if  possible,  for  the  United  States  of  America  leader¬ 
ship  in  the  domain  of  discovery  and  the  utilization  of  new  forces  for  the  benefit 
of  man. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  subscribed  these  presents,  consisting  of  what  is 
printed  or  typewritten  on  this  and  the  preceding  seven  pages,  on  [twenty-eighth] 
day  of  [January],  nineteen  hundred  and  two,  before  these  witnesses. 

Andrew  Carnegie. 

January  28,  1902. 

Witnesses: 

Louise  Whitfield  Carnegie. 

Estelle  Whitfield. 

REMARKS  OF  MR.  CARNEGIE  ON  PRESENTING  HIS  TRUST  DEED. 

Mr.  Chairman  and  members  of  the  board  of  trustees: 

I  beg  first  to  thank  you  for  so  promptly  and  so  cordially  coming  forward  to  aid 
me  in  this  work  by  the  acceptance  of  trusteeship.  The  President  of  the  United 
States  writes  me  in  a  note  of  congratulation,  “I  congratulate  you  especially  upon 
the  character,  the  extraordinarily  high  character,  of  the  trustees.”  Those  are  his 
words.  I  believe  that  that  estimate  has  been  generally  approved  throughout  the 
wide  boundaries  of  our  country. 

May  I  say  to  you  that  my  first  idea  while  I  dwelt  upon  the  subject  during  the 
summer  in  Scotland  was  that  it  might  be  reserved  for  me  to  fulfill  one  of  Wash¬ 
ingtons  dearest  wishes — to  establish  a  university  in  Washington.  I  gave  it  care¬ 
ful  study  when  I  returned  and  was  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  if  he  were  with 
us  here  to-day  his  finely  balanced  judgment  would  decide  that  such,  under  present 
conditions,  would  not  be  the  best  use  of  wealth.  It  was  a  tempting  point  sug¬ 
gested  to  me  by  the  president  of  the  Women's  George  Washington  Memorial 
Association,  that  the  George  Washington  Memorial  University,  founded  by 
Andrew  Carnegie,  would  link  my  name  with  Washington.  Well,  perhaps  that 
might  jusdfy  such  association  with  Washington,  and  perhaps  it  is  reserved  for 
some  other  man  in  the  future  to  win  that  unique  place,  because  if  we  continue  to 
increase  in  population  as  we  have  done  it  is  not  an  improbability  that  it  may 


T33D5  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION- 


1071 


become  a  wise  step  to  fulfill  Washington's  wish.  But  while  that  may  justify  the 
association  of  any  other  name  with  his,  which  is  a  matter  of  doubt,  still  I  am  very 
certain  nothing  else  would.  A  suggestion  that  this  gift  of  mine,  which  has  its  own 
field,  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  university  except  as  an  aid  to  one,  if  it 
is  established,  which  has  a  field  of  its  own,  that  is  entitled  to  the  great  name  of 
Washington,  is  one  which  I  never  for  a  moment  could  consider.  If  the  corning 
university  under  the  control  of  the  nation— as  Washington  suggested  a  national 
institution— is  to  be  established,  as  it  may  be  in  the  future,  I  think  the  name  of 
Washington  should  be  reserved  for  that  and  for  that  alone.  Be  it  our  opportunity 
in  our  day  and  generation  to  do  what  we  can  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  human 
knowledge  by  utilizing  existing  institutions. 

This  is  intended  to  cooperate  with  all  existing  institutions,  because  one  of  the 
objections — the  most  serious  one  which  I  could  not  overcome  when  I  was  desirous 
to  establish  a  university  here  to  carry  out  Washington's  idea— was  this:  That  it 
might  tend  to  weaken  existing  institutions,  while  my  desire  was  to  cooperate  with 
all  kindred  institutions  and  to  establish  what  would  be  a  source  of  strength  to 
all  of  them  and  not  of  weakness,  and  therefore  I  abandoned  the  idea  of  a  Wash¬ 
ington  university  or  anything  of  a  memorial  character. 

Gentlemen,  a  university  worthy  of  Washington,  or  a  memorial  worthy  of 
Washington,  is  not  one  costing  $1,000,000,  or  $10,000,000,  or  ;$20,OOQ,O0O,  but  of 
more.  When  I  contemplated  a  university  in  Washington  in  fulfillment  of  Wash¬ 
ington’s  great  wish,  I  set  aside  a  larger  amount  than  the  largest  of  these.  I  take 
it  for  granted  that  no  one  or  no  association  would  think  of  using  the  revered  name 
of  Washington  except  for  a  university  of  first-class  rank,  something  greater  and 
better,  if  I  may  be  allowed  to  say  so,  than  we  have  in  our  land  to-day — and  you 
all  know  the  sums  which  are  now  used  lor  our  universities. 

Gentlemen,  your  work  now  begins;  your  aims  are  high,  you  seek  to  expand 
known  forces,  to  discover  -and  utilise  unknown  forces  for  the  benefit  of  man. 
Than  this  there  can  scarcely  be  a  greater  work.  I  wish  you  abundant  success, 
and  I  venture  to  prophesy  that  through  your  efforts,  in  cooperation  with  kindred 
societies,  our  country's  contributions  through  research  and  in  the  domain  of  the 
higher  sciences  in  which  we  are  now  so  woefully  deficient,  will  compare  in  the 
near  future  not  unfavorably  with  those  of  any  other  land. 

Again,  gentlemen,  from  my  heart,  I  thank  you,  and  I  will  now,  with  your  per¬ 
mission,  read  the  deed  of  trust  which  has  been  prepared,  I  may  say  that  the 
intended  officers  of  this  institution  have  a  letter  from  my  cashier,  stating  that  the 
transferred  bonds  will  be  sent  you  early  in  February.  They  can  not  be  trans¬ 
ferred  until  the  first  of  the  month.  They  begin  to  bear  interest  on  the  1st  day  of 
February.  Here  is  the  deed  of  trust.  (Printed  on  pages  1088-1070.) 

There  is  nothing  so  important,  I  think,  as  the  last  clause.  This  clause  follows 
the  deed  given  to  the  Scotch  universities,  in  the  main.  When  I  proposed  it  in  com¬ 
mittee  the  chairman  said  he  did  not  know  about  assuming  so  much  responsibility 
as  a  trustee,  and  several  gentlemen  also  suggested  that  it  was  too  liberal,  and 
threw  too  much  responsibility  upon  them.  Mr.  Arthur  Balfour  was  one  of  these, 
and  I  replied  to  him  that  my  experience  was  that  it  is  not  without  the  greatest 
difficulty  we  can  find  men  who  can  legislate  for  their  own  generation,  and  some¬ 
times  we  are  not  quite  successful  even  in  doing  that:  but,  I  asked,  “Have  you 
ever  seen  or  heard  of  a  body  of  men  wise  enough  to  be  able  to  legislate  for  the 
next  generation?”  He  said,  “No,  I  never  have;  and  you  are  quite  right,  and  that 
is  the  wisest  provision  I  have  ever  heard  of  in  a  trust  deed.” 

I  have  nothing  piore  to  say  to  you,  gentlemen,  having  already  expressed  my 
thanks;  but  as  I  began  with  doing  this  I  feel  that  I  should  also  like  to  end  doing 
so,  and,  therefore,  I  thank  you  again. 


1072 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


OFFICERS. 

President  of  the  Carnegie  Institution:  Daniel  C.  Gilman. 

Chairman  of  the  hoard  of  trustees:  Abram  S.  Hewitt. 

Vice-chairman  of  the  board  of  trustees:  John  S.  Billings. 

Secretary  of  the  board  of  trustees:  Charles  D.  Walcott. 

Executive  committee:  John  S.  Billings,  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Abram  S.  Hewitt, 
S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Elihu  Root,  Charles  D.  Walcott,  Carroll  D.  Wright. 

The  office  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  is  in  Washington,  D.  C. ,  at  No.  1439  K 
street,  where  an  assistant  secretary,  Mr.  Marcus  Baker,  is  in  charge. 


Carnegie  Institution, 

1439  K  Street,  Washington ,  D.  C. 

A  LETTER  TO  THE  HEADS  OF  AMERICAN  INSTITUTIONS  AND  TO  OTHERS  INTERESTED 
IN  THE  WORK  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

The  Carnegie  Institution  sends  to  you  herewith  a  copy  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  deed 
of  gift  and  other  information  in  respect  to  the  organization  of  the  new  founda¬ 
tion. 

Some  of  the  ablest  thinkers  and  investigators  in  the  country  have  already  called 
attention  to  important  lines  of  inquiry,  Their  communications  will  be  referred 
to  special  committees  in  different  departments  of  knowledge — astronomical,  physi¬ 
cal,  chemical,  biological,  geological,  archaeological,  philological,  historical,  biblio¬ 
graphical,  economical,  etc.,  and  the  referees  will  be  requested  to  add  their  own 
suggestions  and  to  report  to  the  Carnegie  Institution  such  methods  of  procedure 
and  the  names  of  such  investigators  as  they  deem  likely  to  advance  with  wisdom 
the  great  purpose  of  the  foundation. 

No  large  appropriations  can  be  made  at  present,  as  there  will  be  no  income  from 
the  fund  before  August.  The  summer  will  be  chiefly  devoted  to  a  careful  study 
of  the  problems  of  scientific  investigation  at  home  and  abroad,  and  in  the  autumn 
definite  plans  of  procedure  wiil  be  formulated. 

Any  member  of  the  executive  committee  will  be  glad  to  receive  from  you  at 
any  time  suggestions,  opinions,  and  advice  as  to  fields  that  the  Carnegie  Institu¬ 
tion  ought  to  occupy  and  the  best  methods  for  carrying  forward  its  work  in  those 
fields;  but  in  order  that  important  papers,  designed  for  official  consideration, 
may  be  properly  recorded  and  filed,  they  should  be  addressed  to  the  president  of 
the  Carnegie  Institution,  1439  K  street,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Daniel  C.  Gilman,  Chairman. 
Charles  D.  Walcott,  Secretary. 
John  S.  Billings, 

Abram  S.  Hewitt, 

S.  Weir  Mitchell, 

Elihu  Root, 

Carroll  D.  Wright, 

Executive  Committee. 


THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION. 

AN  AUTHORITATIVE  STATEMENT  BY  PRESIDENT  GILMAN.1 

Not  many  months  ago  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  surprised  the  universities  of  Scot¬ 
land  by  a  gift  of  $10,000,000  for  the  encouragement  of  deserving  students.  He 
has  now  surprised  the  learned  institutions  of  America  by  a  gift  of  the  same 


1  Reprinted  from  the  Century  Magazine,  March,  1902. 


THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION. 


1073 


amount  for  the  advancement  of  knowledge.  As  this  open  letter  is  written,  he 
has  not  formally  made  his  deed  of  gift,  and  the  trustees  whom  he  selected  have 
not  developed  their  plans;  but  enough  is  definitely  known  to  awaken  the  highest 
expectations  of  good,  and  to  call  for  the  enthusiastic  reception  of  his  great  proj¬ 
ect.  His  general  purpose  has  been  clearly  stated  in  a  single  sentence.  He  pur¬ 
poses  to  found,  in  the  city  of  Washington,  in  the  spirit  of  Washington,  an  institu¬ 
tion  which,  with  the  cooperation  of  institutions  now  or  hereafter  established, 
there  or  elsewhere,  shall,  in  the  broadest  and  most  liberal  manner,  encourage 
investigation,  research,  and  discovery;  show  the  application  of  knowledge  to  the 
improvement  of  mankind;  provide  such  buildings,  books,  and  instruments  as 
may  be  needed,  and  afford  instruction  of  an  advanced  character  to  students 
whenever  and  wherever  found,  qualified  to  profit  thereby. 

A  more  complete  announcement  of  Mr.  Carnegie’s  plan  is  given  in  this  informal 
statement: 

Among  its  aims  are  these: 

To  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  universities  and  other  institutions  of  learning 
throughout  the  country  by  seeking  to  utilize  and  add  to  their  existing  facilities, 
and  to  aid  teachers  in  the  various  institutions  for  experimental  and  other  work  in 
these  institutions  as  far  as  practicable. 

To  discover  the  invaluable  and  exceptional  man  in  every  department  of  study, 
whenever  and  wherever  found,  inside  or  outside  of  the  schools,  and  enable  him  by 
financial  aid  to  make  the  work  for  which  he  seems  specially  designed  his  life 
work. 

To  promote  original  research,  paying  great  attention  thereto,  as  being  one  of 
the  chief  purposes  of  this  institution. 

To  increase  facilities  for  higher  education. 

To  make  more  useful,  to  such  students  as  may  find  Washington  the  best  point 
for  their  special  studies,  the  museums,  libraries,  laboratories,  observatory,  mete¬ 
orological,  piscicultural,  and  forestry  schools,  and  kindred  institutions  of  the  sev¬ 
eral  departments  of  the  G-overnment. 

To  insure  the  prompt  publication  and  distribution  of  the  results  of  scientific 
investigation,  a  field  considered  to  be  highly  important. 

These  and  kindred  objects  are  to  be  attained  by  the  employment  of  able  teach¬ 
ers  in  the  various  institutions  in  Washington  or  at  other  points,  and  by  enabling 
men  fitted  for  special  work  to  devote  themselves  to  it,  through  salaried  fellowships 
or  scholarships,  or  through  salaries  carrying  pensions  in  old  age,  or  through  aid 
in  other  forms  to  such  men  as  continue  their  special  work  at  seats  of  learning  or 
who  may  be  discovered  outside  the  schools. 

The  present  moment  is  favorable  for  casting  the  eye  backward  over  the  growth 
of  an  idea,  and  for  tracing  the  various  influences  which  have  contributed  to  its 
evolution.  A  small  amount  of  that  “original  research, ”  which  is  the  dominant 
note  of  the  scientific  world,  will  show  the  relation  of  George  Washington  to  this 
new  movement. 

The  possible  establishment  of  a  national  university  was  brought  up  in  the  Con¬ 
stitutional  Convention,  and  was  seriously  discussed;  but  the  project  was  dropped, 
and  no  mention  of  it  is  found  in  the  fundamental  law  of  the  Union.  When 
Washington  became  President  he  used  this  language  in  his  first  message  to  Con¬ 
gress,  January  8,  1790: 

There  is  nothing  which  can  better  deserve  your  patronage  than  the  promotion 
of  science  and  literature.  *  *  *  Whether  this  desirable  object  will  be  best  pro¬ 
moted  by  affording  aids  to  seminaries  of  learning  already  established,  by  the  insti¬ 
tution  of  a  national  university,  or  by  any  other  expedients,  will  be  well  worthy  of 
a  place  in  the  deliberations  of  the  legislature. 

From  that  time  onward  until  he  drew  up  his  last  will,  a  few  months  before  he 
died,  Washington  frequently  recurs  to  his  wishes.  “The  University  of  the  Fed¬ 
eral  City  ”  is  repeatedly  spoken  of.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1795  he  points 
out  the  advantages  of  the  “Federal  City5’  as  a  site  for  a  university,  and  says  if 
the  plan  is  adopted  he  will  give  to  it  50  shares  of  the  Potomac  River  Company. 


ED  1901 - 68 


1074 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


He  adds,  however,  that  the  design  has  assumed  no  form,  and  that  he  does  not 
know  who  is  promoting  it.  A  little  later  he  addresses  Mr.  Jefferson  on  the  same 
subject,  and  gives  these  reasons  for  preferring  the  Federal  City  for  . his  proposed 
gift:  It  will  be  the  seat  of  government;  it  is  central;  half  the  District  of  Columbia 
is  in  Virginia;  there  will  be  an  advantage  in  governmental  supervision,  and  cer¬ 
tain  studies  in  law  and  politics  can  be  favorably  pursued  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Congress.  He  speaks  also  of  his  own  gift  as  a  part  of  the  endowment.  In  1796  a 
memorial  was  presented  to  Congress  for  the  foundation  of  a  national  university, 
but  nothing  came  of  it.  Finally,  in  the  will  of  Washington  we  have  the  follow¬ 
ing  paragraph,  which,  like  the  famous  paragraphs  that  constitute  the  Monroe 
doctrine,  is  very  short,  and  has  been  the  basis  of  much  discussion  in  later  years: 

*  "  *  as  it  has  always  been  a  source  of  serious  regret  with  me  to  see  the 

youth  of  these  United  States  sent  to  foreign  countries  for  the  purpose  of  educa¬ 
tion,  often  before  their  minds  were  formed,  or  they  had  imbibed  any  adequate 
ideas  of  the  happiness  of  their  own;  contracting  too  frequently  not  only  habits  of 
dissipation  and  extravagance,  but  principles  unfriendly  to  republican  government, 
and  to  the  true  and  genuine  liberties  of  mankind,  which  thereafter  are  rarely 
overcome;  for  these  reasons  it  has  been  my  ardent  wish  to  see  a  plan  devised  on  a 
liberal  scale,  which  would  have  a  tendency  to  spread  systematic  ideas  through  all 
parts  of  this  rising  empire,  thereby  to  do  away  local  attachments  and  State 
prejudices,  as  far  as  the  nature  of  things  would,  or,  indeed,  ought  to  admit,  from 
our  national  councils.  Looking  anxiously  forward  to  the  accomplishment  of  so 
desirable  an  object  as  this  is  (in  my  estimation),  my  mind  has  not  been  able  to 
contemplate  any  plan  more  likely  to  effect  the  measure  than  the  establishment  of 
a  university  in  a  central  part  of  the  United  States,  to  which  the  youths  of  fortune 
and  talents  from  all  parts  thereof  might  be  sent  for  the  completion  of  their  edu¬ 
cation,  in  all  the  branches  of  polite  literature,  in  arts  and  sciences,  in  acquiring 
knowledge  in  the  principles  of  politics  and  good  government,  and  as  a  matter  of 
infinite  importance,  in  my  judgment,  by  associating  with  each  other,  and  form¬ 
ing  friendships  in  juvenile  years,  be  enabled  to  free  themselves  in  a  proper  degree 
from  those  local  prejudices  and  habitual  jealousies  which  have  just  been  men¬ 
tioned,  and  which,  when  carried  to  excess,  are  never-failing  sources  of  disquietude 
to  the  public  mind,  and  pregnant  of  mischievous  consequences  to  this  country. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  source  of  Washington’s  idea,  it  was  not  a  passing 
thought,  for.  his  recorded  commendations  of  it  cover  nearly  ten  years.  But  there 
was  little  public  discussion  of  the  subject  for  nearly  three  quarters  of  a  century f 
although  it  was  repeatedly  mentioned  in  Presidential  messages.  At  length,  in 
1873,  a  member  of  Congress,  the  Hon.  John  W.  Hoyt,  of  Wisconsin,  afterwards 
governor  of  Wyoming,  brought  the  subject  forward,  and  from  that  time  to  this 
he  has  been  the  unselfish,  undaunted,  and  persistent  advocate  of  a  national  uni¬ 
versity  to  be  organized  and  endowed  by  Congress.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  and 
coldness  which  the  project  has  encountered,  he  has  lost  no  opportunity  to  urge  its 
importance;  he  has  never  lost  his  zeal  and  confidence.  Eminent  members  of  the 
National  Legislature  have  introduced  the  appropriate  bills,  and  yet  no  final  action 
has  been  taken  by  Congress:  The  support  of  distinguished  men  in  every  part  of 
the  country  has  been  secured,  and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  strong  objections  have 
been  raised  in  various  quarters.  Many  wise  and  patriotic  persons  have  been 
apprehensive  that  Congress  would  not  be,  as  years  roil  by,  the  best  supporter  of 
advanced  education,  and  others  have  thought  that  the  country  already  had  more 
than  enough  institutions  exercising  the  university  functions. 

Recently  other  influences  have  been  at  work.  Many  persons  who  admire  the 
management  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  have  thought  it  desirable  that  the 
work  of  that  establishment  should  be  so  enlarged  as  to  exercise,  in  part  at  least, 
the  functions  of  a  university;  but  the  authorities  of  the  Smithsonian  have  not 
seen  the  way  clear  to  any  such  expansion.  Many  of  those  who  are  connected 
with  the  scientific  bureaus  of  the  G-pvernment  became  aware  of  the  great 
resources  of  Washington  which  might  be  opened  to  students  properly  qualified 
to  profit  by  them,  and  probably  at  flieir  suggestion  Congress  consented  to  the 


THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION. 


1075 


opening  of  these  resources  to  those  who  might  he  enrolled  in  the  institutions  of 
the  District  of  Columbia.  Five  institutions  in  the  District  are  called  universi¬ 
ties — the  Georgetown  University,  under  the  Jesuit  fathers;  the  Columbian  Uni¬ 
versity,  controlled  by  the  Baptists;  the  Howard  University,  for  the  instruction  of 
Africans;  the  Catholic  University,  chartered  by  the  Pope  and  fostered  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  prelacy;  and  th9  American  University,  projected  by  the  Metho¬ 
dists.  This  simple  enumeration  shows  how  divergent  have  been  the  wishes  and 
aims  of  those  citizens  who  have  agreed  with  Washington  that  the  Federal  City 
offered  exceptional  advantages  for  advanced  instruction. 

Another  factor  has  entered  into  this  complex  problem.  Many-  influential  and 
patriotic  ladies  in  different  parts  of  the  country  have  formed  the  George  Wash¬ 
ington  Memorial  Association,  and,  among  other  objects,  have  undertaken  to  col¬ 
lect  a  fund  which  might  be  applied  to  the  erection  in  Washington  of  a  memorial 
building  in  honor  of  Washington,  to  be  used  as  a  central,  administrative  building 
for  the  national  university,  if  such  an  institution  should  come  into  existence. 

Just  before  adjournment,  in  the  summer  of  1801,  Congress  authorized  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  scientific  bureaus  and  libraries  of  Washington  to  students  from  any 
part  of  the  country.  This  was  an  opportunity  which  was  immediately  seized  by 
the  Washington  Academy  of  Sciences  and  by  the  George  Washington  Memorial 
Association,  just  referred  to,  and  they  united  their  forces  in  the  establishment  of 
an  independent  body  to  be  known  as  the  Yv7 ashington  Memorial  Institution.  This 
movement  received  the  support  of  a  large  number  of  the  presidents  of  colleges 
throughout  the  land,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1901  everything  looked  favorable  for 
the  beginning  of  its  work,  except  the  lack  of  funds.  In  a  private  way  some 
efforts  were  made  to  secure,  if  not  an  endowment,  a  sufficient  income  to  carry  on 
the  work  of  the  new  organization. 

Then  came  a  great  surprise.  Mr.  Carnegie  announced  his  desire  to  found  an 
institution  in  the  city  of  Washington  upon  the  plan  already  indicated  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  letter,  and  those  whom  he  has  selected  for  this  work  are  about  to  pro¬ 
ceed  to  the  unfolding  of  his  purposes. 

The  form  of  organization  is  very  simple.  Under  the  general  law  of  the  District 
of  Columbia  s:x  persons,  namely,  Messrs.  John  H^y,  Edward  D.  White,  John  S. 
Billings,  Charles  D.  Walcott,  Carroll  D.  Wright,  and  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  formed 
an  incorporation  at  Mr.  Carnegie’s  request,  and  subsequently,  on  his  nomination, 
selected  twenty-seven  persons  to  he  the  trustees,  namely:  The  President  of  the 
United  States,  the  President  of  the  United  States  Senate,  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  the  president  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  ex  officiis;  Grover  Cleveland,  John  S.  Billings, 
William  N.  Frew,  Lyman  J.  Gage,  Daniel  C.  Gilman,  John  Hay,  Abram  S.  Hewitt, 
Henry  L.  Higginson,  Henry  Hitchcock,  Charles  L.  Hutchinson,  William  Lindsay, 
Seth  Low,  Wayne  MacYeagh,  D.  O.  Mills,  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  W.  W.  Morrow,  Elihu 
Root,  John  C,  Spooner,  Andrew  D.  White,  Edward  D.  White,  Charles  D.  Walcott, 
and  Carroll  D.  Wright. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  body  like  this,  which  is  made  up  of  men  whose  homes  are  in 
widely  scattered  parts  of  the  country,  and  who  are  evidently  selected  beca/use  of 
the  interest  they  have  shown  in  the  welfare  of  the  country,  can  not  manage  the 
details  of  scientific  investigation.  They  will  doubtless  select  certain  executive 
officers,  but  even  these  will  not  be  qualified,  without  a  great  deal  of  expert  advice, 
to  determine  the  value  of  the  various  methods  of  procedure  which  will  quickly 
he  presented  for  their  consideration.  Accordingly,  the  next  step  forward  will  he 
to  appoint  a  number  of  counselors  or  experts,  to  whom  will  be  referred  important 
questions  of  a  scientific  character,  the  selection  of  competent  helpers,  and  the  best 
methods  of  publishing  results.  It  is  proposed,  in  other  words,  to  select,  in  differ¬ 
ent  departments  of  knowledge,  men  who  by  their  ability  and  experience  have 


1076 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1800-1901. 


shown  themselves  worthy  of  confidence.  They  will  constitute  the  scientific  corps 
of  the  institution,  and  will  be  chosen  because  they  are  qualified  and  willing  to 
cooperate  in  advancing  the  purposes  of  the  institution. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Mr.  Carnegie's  gift  does  not  supersede  any  action  on  the 
part  of  Congress  to  establish  a  university,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that  word, 
where  a  faculty  shall  be  assembled,  laboratories  provided,  and  post-graduate  stu¬ 
dents  admitted.  All  the  plans  thus  far  projected  for  a  national  university  have 
looked  toward  post-graduate  work,  extending  the  opportunities  now  provided  in 
colleges  and  other  institutions  throughout  the  land.  This  form  of  activity  is  for¬ 
eign  to  Mr.  Carnegie’s  purposes,  and  his  purposes  can  be  carried  out  with  or  with¬ 
out  the  establishment  of  a  national  university  by  Congress.  That  question  stands 
now,  as  heretofore,  on  its  own  merits. 

The  friends  of  scientific  research  will  await  the  further  development  of  the 
Carnegie  Institution  with  profound  interest.  Even  those  who  would  prefer  the 
organization  of  a  national  university  supported  by  Congress  must  perceive  upon 
reflection,  if  they  do  not  at  the  outset,  that  Mr.  Carnegie's  plans  are  as  broad  as 
the  field  of  knowledge,  that  the  amount  of  his  gift  surpasses  any  other  endowment 
in  the  world  for  the  specific  purpose  of  extending  science,  and  that  the  spirit  of 
cooperation  wThich  he  enjoins  upon  his  trustees  must  bring  the  new  institution 
into  close  affiliation  with  all  that  is  best  in  the  country.  He  will  deserve  not  only 
the  applause  but  also  the  gratitude  of  mankind. 

Daniel  C.  Gilman. 


OBJECT  AND  PURPOSE  OF  THE  INSTITUTION. 

STATEMENT  BY  PRESIDENT  GILMAN  IN  THE  INDEPENDENT,  MARCH,  20,  1902. 

A  brief  definition  of  the  object  and  purpose  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  is  the 
advancement  of  knowledge.  This  is  its  chief  aim,  and  the  efforts  of  those  who 
have  been  selected  to  frame  its  policy  will  be  directed  accordingly.  It  will  occupy 
a  distinct  position  in  the  field  of  education,  interfering  in  no  way  with  the  plans 
of  other  organizations.  We  trust  that  it  will  prove  a  new  and  powerful  agency 
for  the  promotion  of  science  in  this  country. 

Those  who  have  been  appointed  to  formulate  plans  will  devote  ample  time  to  a 
careful  consideration  of  all  the  possibilities.  If  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  erect  a 
building  or  series  of  buildings,  they  will  be  constructed,  but  the  procedure  is  not 
likely  to  be  immediate.  The  question  of  aiding  students  who  are  deserving  of 
such  assistance  will  be  thoroughly  discussed,  but  if  any  decision  is  reached  in  the 
affirmative  our  plans  will  in  no  way  conflict  with  those  of  the  Washington  Memo¬ 
rial  Institution,  which  has  this  as  one  of  its  principal  purposes.  Our  activity 
may  include  cooperation  with  the  highest  universities  or  with  schools  compara¬ 
tively  obscure.  Not  only  are  the  suggestions  of  eminent  educators  invited,  but 
we  look  for  assistance  from  all  persons  who  have  ideas  of  value.  Diligent  inquiry 
is  to  be  made  respecting  existing  agencies  of  research.  We  know  where  valuable 
data  exist,  but  may  discover  new  sources  as  the  inquiry  progresses. 

As  a  preliminary  study  I  expect  to  visit  various  institutions  in  this  country  so 
as  to  confer  personally  as  far  as  possible  with  those  who  may  be  in  a  position  to 
aid  us.  Later  I  shall  spend  some  time  abroad  with  the  same  object  in  view.  In 
short,  we  intend  to  draw  upon  the  world  at  large  for  counsel  and  suggestions 
which  may  be  of  assistance  in  formulating  a  plan. 

For  the  present,  the  affairs  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  are  in  the  hands  of  an 
executive  committee,  appointed  by  the  board  of  trustees,  consisting  of  Abram  S. 
Hewitt;  Carroll  D.  Wright;  Dr.  John  S.  Billings;  Charles  D.  Walcott;  Elihu  Root, 
Secretary  or'  War;  Dr,  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  and  the  President.  We  have  rented  a 


THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION. 


1077 


dwelling  in  Washington  for  temporary  headquarters.  While  the  board  of  trustees 
are  given  authority  by  the  founder  to  complete  the  organization  and  formulate 
the  policy  to  be  pursued,  I  have  no  doubt  that  if  we  should  call  upon  him  for 
advice  or  other  assistance  it  would  be  gladly  given.  *  *  * 


EDUCATIONAL  BENEFACTIONS  OF  ANDREW  CARNEGIE. 

The  following  is  a  list  (compiled  from  Appleton’s  Annual  Cyclopedias)  of  the 
most  notable  gifts  of  money  by  Andrew  Carnegie  for  libraries  and  other  educa¬ 
tional  purposes  in  the  United  States: 


Object  or  institution. 


Location. 


Amount. 


1895. 

Public  library  and  art  gallery . 

1898. 

Library,  music  hall,  and  clubhouse  (for  employees  of 
Carnegie  Steel  Go.). 

Virginia  Mechanics’  Institute  (to  complete  Ginter  Me¬ 
morial  Building). 


Pittsburg,  Pa 


Richmond,  Va 


Total  for  1898. 


1899, 

Carnegie  Institute  (for  enlarging  building).... 
Cooper  Union  (for  mechanics’  day  art  school) . 

Public  library . . . . . 

Do. . 


Do 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do . 
Do 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do 
Do 


Pennsylvania  State  College  (for  library  building) 


Stevens  Institute  of 
hog). 

Mechanics’  Institute 

Public  library . 

Do . . 


technology  (for  laboratory  build- 


Virginia  Mechanics’  Institute  (for  new  building) 
New  York  Zoological  Society  (for  building  fund) 
Public  library . . . . 


Pittsburg,  Pa . 

New  York, N.Y  . . 

Washington,  D.  C... . 

Atlanta,  Ga_. . . 

Lincoln,  Nebr . 

McKeesport,  Pa _ _ 

Connellsviile,  Pa . 

Steubenville,  Ohio _ 

East  Liverpool,  Ohio . 

Fort  Worth,  Tex  . . 

Emporia,  Kans . . 

Davenport,  Iowa . 

Cheyenne,  Wyo  . . 

Austin,  Tex . . 

San  Diego,  Cal. . 

Duluth,  Minn . . 

State  College,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

Hoboken,  N.  J  . . 


New  York,  N.  Y 
N ewport,  Ky  . . . 

Tucson,  Ariz _ 

Richmond,  Va . . 


Erie,  Pa  . 


Total  for  1899. 


1900. 

Carnegie  Library  and  Institute  (additional)  . 

Polytechnic  Institute . . . 

Public-  librar v  . . . . . . 

Do . - . 

Library . . . . 

Do . . . . . . 

Do.  — . - . . . . . 

Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  ... 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  (additional) . 

Total  for  1900 . 


Pittsburg,  Pa . 

.....do.. . 

East  Orange,  N.  J _ 

York,  Pa _ 

Fort  Dodge,  Iowa  . . 
Leavenworth,  Kans . 

Chiliicothe,  Mo _ 

Tuskegee,  Ala . . 

Hoboken,  N.  J . . 


1901. 


Technical  School1  . . 

Carnegie  Institution . 

Sixty-five  branch  libraries. 
Annuity  fund  for  laborers  . 
.Libraries . 


Carnegie  Institute . 

Library  and  branches . 

Do . . . . . 

Cooper  Union . 

Syracuse  library . 


Pittsburg,  Pa . 

Washington,  D.  C . . 

Greater  New  York,  N.Y. . 

Homestead,  Pa . 

Braddock,  Homestead, 
and  Duquesne,Pa. 

Pittsburg,  Pa . 

Detroit,  Mich . 

San  Francisco,  Cal . 

New  York,  N.Y. . 

Syracuse,  N.Y . 


$1,000,000 


300,000 

10,000 


310,000 


1, 750, 000 
300, 000 
350, 000 
125, 000 
75, 000 
50, 000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
30,000 
50, 000 
50, 000 
50, 000 
50, 000 
50, 000 
100,000 

50,000 

25.000 
20, 000 
25. 000 
10,000 
5, 000 
5, 000 

3, 370, 000 


1,850.000 
3,000,000 
50,000 
50,000 
30, 000 
25, 000 
25, 000 
20, 000 
15, 000 


5,085,000 


2, 000,000 
10,000,000 
5,200,000 
4,000,000 
U,000,000 

1,000,000 
750,000 
750. 000 
300,000 
260,000 


1  Promised  endowment,  $25,000,000. 


2  In  addition  to  previous  gifts. 


1078 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 


Object  or  institution. 

Location. 

1  Amount. 

*  .  1901. 

Fayette,  Iowa .... 

$225,000 
200, 000 
76,000 
50  000 

Seattle,  Wash 

Bellevue  Medical  College. . . ... 

hew  York,  N.  Y  . 

do 

Aurora,  Ill 

50’  000 
50,000 
40,000 
30, 000 
25,000 
20,000 
J20  000 

Knox  College  (library) . . _ . 

Galesburg,  Ill . 

Cornell  College  (library) . . . . . 

Mount  Vernon,  Iowa 

Botanical  Gardens _ _ _ _ 

New  York,  N.Y  . 

Society  of  Mechanics  and  Tradesmen _ _ 

_ _ do . . . 

Alleghenj7,  Pa 

Atlanta,  Ga  .  _ ... 

New  York,  NW _ 

5, 000 

Educational  Alliance  . . . . . . . . 

_ do..... . . . 

2, 500 
15, 000 

Library . . . . . 

Aberdeen,  S.  Dak . 

Do”  . 

Alameda,  Cal _ 

35. 090 
15,000 
50, 000 

Do . . . . . 

Ashtabula,  Ohio . 

Do . . . . . . . . 

Aurora,  Ill . . 

Do  . . . . . 

Austin.  Minn  . . 

12,000 
25,000 
.  50,000 
10. 000 

Do  . . . . . . . 

Beloit,  Wis. . . 

Do . . . . . . 

Burlington,  Vt  .. 

Do  . . . . . . . 

Canandaigua,  N.  Y . 

Do  . . . . . 

Canton,  N.Y  .. 

30,000 

Do  . . . . . . . 

Canton,  Ohio  ... 

50,000 

Do . . . 

Carbondale,  Pa . 

25, 0(X) 

Do . . . . . . 

Carrollton,  Ill . . 

10.000 

Do  . . . . . 

Catskill, N.  Y  .... 

20,000 
75, 000 
15,000 
18, 000 
20, 000 
20, 000 
15,000 
50,  OfX) 

Do  .  . 

Cedar  Rapids,  Towa, 

Do  . . 

Centralia,  Ill. .  _ 

Do  .  . . . . 

Charleston,  Ill  . 

Do  . . . . . 

Charlotte.  N.C  .  . 

Do  . . . . 

Charlottesville,  Va 

Do . . - . . 

Chatham,  N.Y . 

Do  . . . 

Chattanooga,  Tenn . 

Do  . . . . . . 

Clinton,  Mass . 

25,000 
30, 000 

Do . . . . . . . 

Clinton,  Iowa . 

Do  . . . . . 

Cohoes,  N.Y . 

25, 000 
100,000 
75, 000 
25. 000 

Do  . . . . . . . 

Conneaut,  Ohio . 

Do  .  .  ...  . . 

Covington,  Ky  ... 

Do  . 

Crawfordsville,  Ind... 

Do  . . . . . 

Davenport,  Iowa .  _ 

75.000 

Do  . . 

Decatur,  Ill . 

60, 000 
80, 000 

Do . . . . 

Elkhart,  Ind  . 

Do  . 

Elwood.Jnd  .. 

25,000 
20. 000 

Do  . . . 

Fargo,  N.  Dak . 

Do  . . . . . . . . 

Fort  Scott.  Kans . .. . 

iiililili 

iaWs'SR'a* 

Do . . . . . 

Port  Wayne,  Ind _ 

Do . . . . . . . . . 

Freeport.  Ill . 

Do  . . . . . 

Fresno,  Cal . . . 

Do  . . 

Galesburg,  Ill  . . 

Do. . . . . . . 

Gloversville,  N.  Y . .  .. 

Do  . . . . . . 

G  oshen ,  Ind . . : . . . 

Do . . . . . . . . 

Grand  Junction,  Colo . 

Do  . . . 

Great  Falls.  Mont  .. 

30.000 
25, 000 

Do  . . . 

Greenbay,  Wis. _ _ 

Do.  . . . . . . . 

Greenville,  Ohio. . 

25, 000 

r>o. . . . . . . 

Griffins  Corners,  N.Y _ 

Grosdale,  Ill .  _ _  . 

5.000 

Do  . . . . 

35  000 

Do  .  . . . 

£fa warden,  Iowa.. . 

5,000 

25.000 

Do. . . . . . . . 

Hempstead.  L.  Isl.,  N.Y... 
Henderson,  Ky  _ _ _ 

Do  .  . 

25,000 

15,000 

20,000 

bo  . . 

Iron  Mountain,  Mich _ 

Do  . . . . . 

Ishpeming.  Mich _ 

Do  . . . . . . . . 

Islip,  N.  Y  . . 

10. 000 
70. 000 

Do  . 

Jackson,  Mich _ _ _ 

Do  . . . . . . . 

Jackson,  Tenn . . . 

30. 000 
40. 000 

Do  . . . . 

Jacksonville.  Ill . . 

Do 

Janesville,  Wis  _ _ 

30.000 

Do  . 

Johnstown,  N.Y _ 

20.0iXi 

Do  . . . . . 

Joplin.  Mo _ . _ 

40, 000 
75. 000 

Do 

Kansas  City,  Mo  _ 

Do  . 

Kent,  Ohio  _ 

10, 000 

Do  . 

Kewanee,  Ill _ 

50, 000 
25, 000 
100,000 
50, 000 

Do 

Dawrence,  Kans _ 

Do 

Lead  vibe,  Colo _ 

Do  . . . 

Lewiston.  Me.  _ 

Do . . . . 

Lincoln,  Ill _ _ _ _ 

25, 000 

Do 

Los  Gatos.  Cal 

10,000 
20, 000 
20,000 

Do  .  .  . 

McKees  Rocks.  Pa _ 

Do  ..  . . . . . . 

Macon,  Ga  _ _ _ _ 

Do 

Madison,  Ind  _ _ _ 

20,000 

40,000 

Do  .  .  .  . 

Mankato,  Minn _ , 

Do  . 

Marion,  Ind . . 

50, 000 

Do 

Mattoon,  111 _ _ _ ... 

20,00a 

1  In  addition  to  previous 

gifts. 

THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION. 


1079 


Object  or  institution. 

Location. 

Amount. 

1901. 

Miles  City.  Mont . . 

$10,000 

. . 

Moline.  Ill. . . 

37, 000 

Do  . . . 

Montclair,  N.  J . 

30, 000 

Do  _ _ _ - . 

Montgomery,  Ala . . 

50, 000 

Do  . - . - 

Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y . 

35  000 

Do  . - _ _ _ _ 

Muncie.Ind.  . . 

50. 000 

Do  .  ..  ....  . . . . . 

Nashville,  Term . . 

100,000 

Do  . - . . 

Neenah,  Wis.. . . 

10,000 

Do  -  _ 1 . . . 

Newcastle.  Pa . . . . 

30, 000 

Do  _ _ _ _ 

New  Rochelle,  N.  Y _ 

25.  COO 

Do  . - . - . . 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y— . 

50,000 

Do  --  . . . . 

Norfolk,  Va . *. _ 

50, 000 

Do  .  .  ...  . . . 

N  or  walk.  Conn  .  . . . 

20,000 

Oil  City,  Pa.. . 

40, 000 

Do  .  . . . . . 

Paducah,  Ky . . . . 

35, 000 

Do  . . . 

Pekin,  Ill.... . 

10,000 

Do  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Pensacola,  Fla . . . 

15. 000 

Do  .  . . - . . 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J _ .... 

20,000 

Do  -  .  . 

Peru,  In  d . . . 

25.000 

Do  . . . . . 

Portland,  Ind... . . 

•  15,000 

Do  .  . . 

Portsmouth,  Ohio . 

50,000 

Do  . . . . . ... 

Racine,  Wis . . 

50,000 

Do  . . . . 

Revere,  Mass  . . . . 

20,000 

Do  .... 

Richmond,  Va  . . 

■  100,000 

Do  .  . 

Riverside ,  Cal . . 

20, 000 

Do 

Rockford,  Ill . 

GO,  00Q 

Do  . 

St.  Cloud,  Minn  .  . . 

25, 000 

Do  . . . 

San  Jose,  Cal . . . 

50, 000 

Do  . . . 

San  Juan,  P.  R _ _ _ 

100, 000 

Do  . . . 

Sault  Sainte  Marie,  Mich  . 

80, 000 

Do  . . . 

Schenectady,  N.Y _ 

50,000 

Do  . 

Sharon,  Pa . 

25, 000 

Do  . 

Sheboygan,  Wis . . 

25, 000 

Do 

Sioux  Falls,  S.  Dak  .  .. 

25,000 

Do  . . . 

South  Omaha,  N ebr . . 

GO,  COO 

Do  .  .  .... 

South  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

25, 000 

Do  . . . 

Springfield,  Ill. . 

75, 000 

Do  .  .  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Stillwater,  Minn.... . 

25, 000 

Do  . .  . 

Superior,  Wis _ _ 

50,  G€0 

Do . . . . . . 

Tacoma,  Wash . . 

75. 000 

Do  .  . 

Valley  City,  N.  Dak. . . 

J5,0G0 

Do . . . 

Wabash,  Ind .  . . 

20, 000 

Do  . 

Walpole,  Mass . 

15,000 

Do . . . . . . . 

Washington.  Ind . 

20, 0C0 

Do . . . . . 

Waukegan.  Ill 

25, 000 

Do _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Wheeling,  W.  Va  . . . 

75, 000 

Do . . . . 

Y  o  nkers,  N .  Y . . 

50, 000 

Total  for  1901 . . . . . 

30,243,500 

SUMMARY. 


Year. 

Amount. 

Year.* 

Amount. 

1895 . . . 

$1,000,000 
310, 000 
3,370,000 
5,065,000- 

1901 

1$30, 243, 500 

1898 

1899  _ _ _ _ 

Total . 

39,988, 500 

1900  . 

!The  total  value  of  the  m  notable  gifts  and  bequests  for  public  purposes  of  $5,000  and 
upward  made  during  the  yeai  1901,  as  given  in  Appleton’s  Annual  Cyclopedia,  and  including 
the  above  amount  given  by  Mr.  Carnegie,  was  $114,549,789.  This  sum  excludes  ordinary  denom¬ 
inational  contributions  for  education  and  benevolent  purposes,  State  and  municipal  appropria¬ 
tions  to  public  and  sectarian  institutions,  and  the  grants  of  Congress. 


THE  CARNEGIE  GIFT  TO  THE  UNIVERSITIES  OF  SCOTLAND. 

The  following  statement  shows  in  detail  the  character  and  purpose  of  the  recent 
gift  of  Mr.  Carnegie  to  promote  higher  education  in  Scotland: 

The  executive  committee  of  the  newly  constituted  Carnegie  trust  for  university 
education  in  Scotland  held  its  first  meeting  in  Edinburgh  on  Monday,  Lord  Elgin 
presiding.  The  following  letter  from  Mr.  Carnegie  was  read: 

“London,  June  7,  1901. 

“  My  Dear  Lord  Elgin:  It  is  with  the  greatest  satisfaction  I  can  now  announce 
that  I  have  signed  the  deed  of  trust  placing  $10, 000,000  under  the  charge  of  your 


1080 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


lordship  and  other  noblemen  and  gentlemen  who  have  so  kindly  consented  to  act 
as  trustees  in  the  administration  of  the  money  for  the  benefit  of  the  universities  of 
Scotland  and  the  youth  of  that  country  who  desire  the  benefits  of  a  university  edu¬ 
cation.  I  must  express  my  warmest  thanks  to  your  lordship  and  the  other  friends 
who  have,  during  these  past  few  days,  shown  so  much  anxiety  to  adjust  the  deed 
and  the  relative  constitution,  so  as  to  secure  that  the  funds  shall  be  administered 
in  the  most  advantageous  manner.  I  believe  that  these  labors  have  been  completely 
successful,  and  I  anticipate  that  most  excellent  results  will  follow.  I  am  especially 
obliged  to  your  lordship  for  agreeing  to  accept  the  onerous  post  of  chairman,  both 
of  the  trustees  and  of  the  executive  committee,  and  1  shall  trust  to  your  proceeding 
to  put  the  trust  deed  into  execution.  The  ser \  ices  of  Air.  Ross,  my  solicitor,  are  at 
your  disposal  as  interim  secretary,  until  you  have  an  opportunity  of  appointing 
permanent  officials.  1  shall  make  arrangements  whereby  the  fees  of  the  students 
to  he  advantaged  may  be  paid  for  the  ensuing  session,  beginning  in  October  next. 
As  your  lordship  is  aware,  my  desire  throughout  has  been  that  no  capable  student 
should  be  debarred  from  attending  the  university  on  account  of  the  payment  of 
fees.  I  believe  that  the  conditions  of  applications  insure  the  sufficient  standard 
of  merit,  and  I  hope  that  the  honest  pride  for  which  my  countrymen  are  distin¬ 
guished  will  prevent  claims  from  those  who  do  not  require  assistance,  and  that  the 
invidious  task  of  inquiring  into  the  circumstances  of  each  candidate  need  not 
be  imposed  upon  the  trustees.  But,  to  further  mark  my  personal  belief  and  hope 
in  this  matter,  I  have  made  provision  in  the  trust  deed  that  the  trustees  may 
receive  funds  from  others  to  be  administered  along  with  the  funds  placed  by  me. 
I  consider  this  a  valuable  clause,  believing  from  my  own  experience  with  young 
men,  that  some  students  in  after  life  may  value  the  privilege  of  repaying  advances 
received  from  the  trustees.  Although  these  are  free  gifts,  I  hope  the  trustees  will 
gladly  welcome  such  repayments  if  offered,  as  this  will  enable  such  students  as 
prefer  to  do  so  to  consider  the  payments  made  on  their  account  merely  as 
advances  which  they  resolve  to  repay,  if  ever  in  a  position  to  do  so,  and  that  this 
will  protect  and  foster  the  spirit  of  manly  independence  so  dear  to  the  Scot. 

“Very  truly,  yours, 

“Andrew  Carnegie.” 

Mr.  Ross,  solicitor,  of  Dunfermline,  was  appointed  treasurer  to  the  trust  and 
interim  secretary.  It  was  intimated  that  the  transfer  of  the  bonds  constituting 
the  income  of  the  trust  had  been  made,  and  that  the  first  dividend  would  be 
received  in  the  autumn.  Arrangements  were  made  by  the  executive  committee 
for  carrying  out  Mr.  Carnegie’s  wishes  regarding  the  payment  without  delay  of 
students’  fees. — [School  Board  Chronicle,  July  20,  1901,  p.  84.] 


The  Washington  Post  of  May  4,  1902,  published  a  complete  list  of  the  gifts  of 
Andrew  Carnegie,  as  revised  and  approved  by  Mr.  Carnegie  himself;  in  this  list 
were  included  gifts  for  other  than  library  or  educational  purposes.  The  sum¬ 
mary  of  all  the  gifts,  according  to  locality,  was  as  follows: 


Canada . . . . . - . . . .  $876,500 

Cuba . . . . . .  252,000 

England . . . . . .  . .  .  420,000 

Ireland . . . . . . . .  65,500 

Scotland  . . . . . . . . .  13,078,750 

United  States . . . . . . ---------  52, 270, 173 

Miscellaneous  gifts,  Great  Britain . . . . . = . . .  250, 000 


Grand  total ... . . .  . . . . .  67, 212, 923 


CHAPTER  XXIY. 

EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


France,  Republic:  Area,  204,092  square  miles;  population,  33,517,975  (1896).  Civil  divisions  baying 
special  functions  in  educational  administrations,  departments  (90  in  number,  including  3  in 
Algiers);  communes,  cities  or  villages. 

PREVIOUS  ARTICLES. 

The  educational  system  of  France.  (Report,  1888-89,  Yol.  1,  pp.  112-149.) 

Report  of  the  educational  congresses  and  exhibition  held  in  Paris,  1889.  (Report,  1889-90,  Yol.  1, 
pp.  41-186,  by  W.  H.  Widgery.) 

Brief  view  of  the  educational  system,  with  statistics  for  1888-89.  (Report,  1889-90,  Yol.  1,  pp. 
249-261.) 

Elementary  education  in  London  and  Paris.  (Ibid.,  pp.  263-280.) 

Education  in  France:  Statistics,  1890-91;  progress  of  primary  schools  since  Guizot’s  law,  1833; 
higher  primary  and  classical  schools  of  France.  (Report,  1890-91,  Yol.  1,  pp.  95-124.) 

Education  in  France :  Outline  of  the  system,  and  statistics  for  1892;  State  faculties;  proposed 
transformations  and  development  of  teaching  functions.  (Report,  1891-92,  Vol.  1,  pp.  73-95.) 

Civil  service  in  France,  by  W.  F.  and  W.  W.  Willoughby.  (Ibid.,  pp.  369^12.) 

Education  in  France:  Outline  view,  with  current  statistics;  inspection  of  infant  schools;  recent 
changes  in  the  baccalaureate;  reorganization  of  medical  studies  and  of  the  scientific  course 
preparatory  thereto.  (Report,  1892-93,  Yol.  1,  pp.  219-237.) 

Education  in  France:  Statistics  for  1891-1893;  recent  modifications  in  secondary  and  superior 
education;  progress  of  the  system  of  primary  instruction;  schools  for  adults;  movements  for 
the  admission  of  American  students  to  the  universities  of  France.  (Report,  1894-95,  Yol.  1, 
pp.  289-312,) 

Education  in  France:  Statistics  for  1894-95;  summarized  view  of  primary  schools;  proposed 
modifications  of  secondary  institutions;  the  law  of  July  10,  1896,  transforming  the  State  facul¬ 
ties  into  universities;  status  of  medical  students  in  France,  with  special  reference  to  foreigners; 
Dr.  Alcee  Fortier  on  the  French  lycees.  (Report,  1895-96,  Yol.  1,  pp.  611-639.) 

Education  in  France:  Statistics,  current  and  comparative;  opening  of  the  universities  under 
the  law  of  July  10, 1896;  the  new  doctorate  open  to  foreigners;  state  secondary  schools  v.  church 
establishments;  the  law  of  July,  1893,  respecting  salaries  of  teachers  of  primary  schools;  the 
superior  primary  schools,  progress,  organization,  and. scope;  M.  Boutmy  on  the  reform  of  the 
baccalaureate;  M.  Breal  on  the  study  of  Greek.  (Report,  1898-97,  Yol.  1,  pp.  29-70. 

Education  in  France:  Statistics,  1896;  the  decentralizing  movement;  the  reconstruction  of  the 
universities;  efforts  for  strengthening  the  moral  influence  of  the  schools;  temperance  instruc¬ 
tion;  manual  training  and  technical  schools;  report  of  Mr.  Charles  Copland  Perry  on  technical 
education  in  France;  th9  admission  of  American  students  into  French  universities;  review  of 
the  career  of  M.  Yictor  Duruy,  minister  of  public  instruction,  1863-1869,  by  the  Due  de  Broglie; 
review  of  the  work  of  M.  Henri  Marion,  first  professor  of  the  science  of  education  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  by  M.  F.  Buisson.  (Report,  1897-98,  Vol.  1,  pp.  694-788.) 

System  of  public  education  in  France:  Summarized  statistics;  current  record  of  the  universi¬ 
ties  organized  under  the  law  of  1896;  tabular  view,  1887  and  1897;  admission  of  foreign  students 
to  French  universities;  the  university  doctorate  created  under  decree  of  1897;  primary  edu¬ 
cation;  work  of  the  Republic  reviewed;  current  movements;  secondary  education;  congress 
of  professors;  commission  of  inquiry;  scope  and  proceedings.  (Report,  1898-99,  Yol.  1,  pp. 
1086-1138.) 

Education  at  the  Paris  Exposition  (Report,  1899-1900,  Yol.  2,  pp.  1661-1709). 

System  of  education;  outline  and  statistical  survey,  current  and  retrospective;  proposed  re¬ 
form  of  State  secondary  schools;  public  lycees  and  colleges  for  girls;  universities,  reorganiza¬ 
tion  and  recent  development;  the  congress  of  primary  education.  (Report,  1899-1900,  Yol.  1, 
pp.  1711-1732.) 

TOPICAL  OUTLINE. 

Statistical  summary  of  public  and  private  institutions.  Epitome  of  progress  of  State  education 
under  the  Renublic.  Department  of  primary  education;  historic  review  of  public  primary 

1081 


1082 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


education;  detailed  statistics  of  primary  education,  current  and  retrospective;  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  State  teaching  system  (University  of  France)  and  the  inspectorate  for  primary 
schools.  Department  of  secondary  education:  Institutions  included;  statistics  of  enrollment 
in  secondary  schools  for  boys;  proposed  reorganization  of  public  lycees  and  colleges  for  boys; 
law  of  1301  respecting  the  religious  associations  as  affecting  education;  present  organization 
of  the  lycee  classical  course;  weekly  time  tables;  classical  and  modern  courses;  statistics  of 
lycees  and  colleges  for  girls. 

Department  of  higher  education:  Institutions  included  in  the  State  system;  statistics  of  State 
universities;  recent  development,  scholastic  and  material;  admission  of  foreign  students; 
motivesfor;  degrees  open  to  foreigners;  feesfor;  conspectus  of  courses  of  study  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Paris;  degrees  for  foreign  students  offered  by  University  of  Paris.  Miscellaneous: 
Statistics  of  higher  technical  schools  under  other  ministries  than  that  of  public  instruction; 
international  correspondence  of  students. 

The  school  as  a  moral  influence  in  France.  Discussion  of  juvenile  crime.  Simplification  of 
French  syntax. 


Table  I. — Statistical  summary  of  education  in  France . 


Classes  of  institutions. 

Date. 

Enrollment. 

Professors  and 
teachers. 

Total  ex¬ 
penditure. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

Men. 

Wom¬ 

en. 

Total. 

Infant  schools  (ecoles 
mater neiles ) ,  public 
and  private  (ages  2 
to  6> _ : . 

1898-99 

1  752. 240 

1  752, 240 

29,414 

Primary  schools : 

Public _ _ 

| _ 

. 

1898-99 

1 

■0,311,623 
3 162, 572 

■1, 857, 955 
3  907, 149 

34,169,578 

31,369.721 

i 

;  456,376 

1  410,963 

4  49, 398 
4  35, 540 1 

4105. 774 
4  46,503 

4;p43, 803, 050 

Private  _  __ 

Total  primary 
schools . . 

2, 794, 195 

2,765,104 

5,539,299 

4  67, 339 

4  84,938 

4152,277 

Primary  normal  schools 
(ages  18  to  19) _ 

_ . 

1897 

1899 

1893 

1897-98 

1897-98 

3,865 

5  85, 591 
102,007 

27, 911 

3, 871 

6 16, 233 

7,736 

101,824! 

102,007! 

28, 782 
1,407 

7  4, 876, 248 

Secondary  schools: 

Public  (ages  8  to  29) . 
Private  (ages  8  to  20) . 
Universities: 

Public  _  _ _ _ 

871 

3,172,546 

Private . . . 

_ 

1  Report  of  M.  Perreau,  chairman  of  the  Financial  Committee  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
(Budget  for  1901)  session  of  1900,  p.  259.  • 

21693-97. 

3  Perreau,  pp.  266-267. 

4 1890-97.  Expenditure  (column  9)  for  public  primary  and  primary  normal  schools. 

5  Perreau,  pp.  69, 70. 

6  Idem,  p.  85. 

7  State  appropriation  required  for  1901. 

The  statistics  tabulated  above,  present  the  salient  particulars  of  education  in 
France  in  a  form  convenient  for  reference  and  for  comparison  -with  corresponding 
particulars  in  other  countries.  What  they  signify  a3  to  progress  in  France  can  be 
understood  only  by  comparison  with  an  earlier  date.  As  regards  primary  educa¬ 
tion  such  comparison  is  set  forth  in  a  series  of  retrospective  tables,  pp.  1088-1093, 
covering  a  period  of  sixty  years.  Here  are  noted  only  the  more  striking  particulars 
of  the  progress  in  the  public  system  since  the  establishment  of  the  Republic.  The 
policy  of  the  Republic  with  respect  to  primary  education  may  be  said  to  have  be¬ 
gun  in  1878  by  the  passage  of  a  law  imposing  upon  the  communes  (cities  and  rural 
districts)  the  obligation  to  own  their  schoolhouses.  To  aid  in  the  work  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  appropriated  120,000,000  francs  ($24,000,000) ,  to  be  allowed  one-half  in 
appropriations,  one-half  as  loans  to  the  communes.  Between  that  date  and  1897, 
there  were  expended  for  buildings  and  sites  639,000,000  francs  ($137,800,000),  of 
which  $52  ,000,000  were  for  normal  schools.  The  expenditures  of  Paris  and  other 
large  towns  not  included  in  the  above  would  raise  the  grand  total  to  850,000,000 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE* 


1083 


francs.  In  1878  the  communes  owned  41,401  school  buildings;  in  1897,52,879. 
The  difference  (11.478)  scarcely  expresses  the  actual  increase  as  8,0.24  of  the  new 
buildings  are  school  groups,  of  which,  in  1878  there  were  very  few. 

In  1877  there  were  110,709  teachers  in  the  primary  schools  (excluding  infant 
schools);  in  1897  the  number  was  153,505,  an  increase  of  38.6  per  cent  (for  men 
teachers  30.2  per  cent,  for  women  teachers  44  per  cent). 

In  1897  there  were  818,190  more  pupils  enrolled  in  primary  schools  than  in  1877, 
and  during  the  same  time  the  enrollment  in  infant  schools  had  increased  by  197,- 
571.  The  great  increase  in  school  teachers  and  enrollment  has  necessitated  cor¬ 
responding  increase  in  current  expenditure,  which  rose  from  94,897,554  francs 
($18,879,510)  in  1887  to  214,015,250  francs  ($42,803,050)  in  1897,  or  two  and  one- 
third-times  the  earlier  total. 

This  progress  in  essential  conditions  has  been  accompanied  by  a  striking  exten¬ 
sion  in  the  scope  and  influence-  of  the  schools  as  shewn  by  the  development  of 
higher  primary  schools  and  of  evening  continuation  classes  for  youths  and  adults, 
and  by  a  variety  of  social  efforts  (educational,  recreative,  and  philanthropic)  of 
which  the  school  is  the  inspiring  source.  These  developments,  which  belong  to 
the  later  years  of  the  Republic,  will  be  considered  presently  in  detail. 

The  higher  teaching  agencies,  the  classical  schools  and  universities,  have  also 
been  liberally  fostered  by  the  Republic.  In  the  last  twenty  years  the  State  has 
spent  about  67,000,000  francs  ($13,400,000)  in  the  construction  and  restoration  of 
the  lycees  (State  classical  schools),  and  to  this  amount  the  cities  have  added 
20,000,000  francs  ($4,000,000). 

The  public  lycees  and  colleges  for  boys,  which  had  66,931  pupils  in  1876,  enrolled 
85,591  in  1898.  Since  1880,  the  entire  work  of  public  secondary  education  for 
girls  has  been  created. 

For  the  buildings  alone  devoted  to  this  latter  purpose,  the  State  has  advanced 
above  33,000,000  francs  ($6,680,000),  and  bears  annually  about  70  per  cent  of  the 
current  expenses,  which,  in  1898,  amounted  to  3,764,354  francs  ($752,870). 

The  development  of  university  education  under  the  Republic  can  be  hut  faintly 
indicated  by  figures.  The  university  administration  has  been  entirely  reorganized, 
the  material  resources  of  the  universities  greatly  enriched,  and  the  scheme  of 
studies  extended. 

As  regards  students,  the  statistics  show  an  increase  from  17,605  in  the  State  uni¬ 
versities  in  1878  to  28,254  in  1898,  and  as  regards  current  expenditure  an  increase 
from  10,400,000  francs  ($2,080,000)  to  13,860,000  francs  ($2,772,000).  Since  1875 
above  $2,000,000  have  been  expended  by  the  State  and  cities  in  the  construction  of 
new  university  buildings.  The  total  State  appropriation  for  education  (ministry 
of  public  instruction)  rose  in  1901  to  206,986,483  francs  ($41,393,298),  of  which 
$31,428,215  was  for  primary  education. 

For  a  closer  view  of  the  work  of  this  comprehensive  system  of  education  the 
three  divisions  (primary,  secondary,  and  superior)  must  he  considered  separately. 
These  are  centralized  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction  (at 
present  M.  Leygues),  but  separately  administered. 

To  the  department  of  primary  education  (director  in  the  ministry,  M.  Bayet) 
belong  the  infant  schools,  primary  schools,  elementary  and  higher,  and  primary 
normal  schools.  As  shown  in  Table  I,  the  State  shares  this  work  with  private 
agencies  (chiefly  clerical).  The  relation  of  these  two  systems  to  each  other  gives 
peculiar  interest  to  the  educational  history  of  France  and  explains  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  recent  events  of  that  history.  The  Republic  has  been  forced  to  build  itself  in 
and  thror.gh  the  public  schools,  and  hence  the  progress  outlined  above  can  be  fully 
comprehended  only  by  considering  the  measures  which  have  developed  the  national 
as  opposed  to  the  church  system. 


1084 


EDUCATION"  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


As  a  public  service  primary  education  dates  from  Guizot's  law  of  1833,  passed  in 
the  brief  calm  of  Louis  Philippe's  reign.  The  principles  of  public  obligation  and 
necessity  which  the  law  embodied  had  indeed  been  set  forth  with  more  passionate 
ardor  and  much  wider  s:ope  by  the  early  leaders  of  the  French  revolution;  but 
whereas  these  doctrinaire  projects  failed  of  effect,  save  perhaps  that  they  hastened 
the  suppression  of  existing  institutions,  Guizot's  law  was  practically  realized.  It 
struck  to  the  root  of  the  matter  by  localizing  responsibility.  Every  commune  was 
required  to  maintain  a  primary  school  and  every  department  a  normal  school  for 
men.  The  requirement  was  enforced  by  the  imposition  of  a  local  school  tax. 

An  ordinance  of  1835  strengthened  the  work  by  creating  a  special  inspectorate 
for  primary  schools,  and  a  second  ordinance  (1836)  made  provision  for  the  primary 
instruction  of  girls. 

Under  Guizot  s  law  a  communal  school  might  be  denominational,  and  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  church  was  increased  by  giving  the  clergy  excessive  representation  in 
the  local  school  committees.  Like  the  English  school  law  of  1870,  this  earlier 
French  law  indicated  a  serious  intention  of  overcoming  gross  illiteracy.  At  the 
time  of  its  passage  it  was  estimated  that  seven  or  eight  thousand  communes  (about 
one-fourth  of  the  whole  number)  were  totally  destitute  of  schools  and  that  as 
many  more  had  schools  unworthy  of  recognition.  The  effects  of  the  lav/  were 
soon  apparent.  By  reference  to  the  retrospective  table  (II)  it  will  be  seen  that 
school  enrollment  increased  by  nearly  a  third  (31  per  cent)  between  1837  and  1850 — 
two  years  after  the  fall  of  the  restored  monarchy.  Schools  under  the  charge  of 
the  religious  orders  multiplied  even  more  than  public  secular  schools.  Among  the 
former  were  held  in  special  repute  the  schools  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  which 
had  been  favored  by  Napoleon.  The  Emperor  was  indeed  content  to  leave  the 
instruction  of  the  masses  as  it  had  been  left  before  the  revolution — to  the  efforts  of 
priests  and  brotherhoods.  Although  the  petites  ecoles,1  as  primary  schoo's  were 
designated,  were  nominally  included  under  the  Imperial  University,  they  were  dis¬ 
regarded  in  its  practical  administration. 

The  work  that  Guizot  began  and  fostered  while  minister  of  education,  a  position 
which  he  held  at  intervals  from  1832  to  1840,  continued  with  varying  fortune  after 
the  fall  of  the  monarchy.  Carnot,  first  minister  of  public  instruction  in  the 
Republic  of  1848,  framed  a  law  on  broad  lines,  making  primary  education  obliga¬ 
tory  and  free.  Though  practically  a  dead  letter,  it  revived  the  ideals  of  the  first 
Revolution.  Under  the  ministry  of  M.  de  Falloux  was  proposed  the  celebrated 
law  which  bears  his  name,  although  passed  under  his  successor  March  15,  1850. 
It  has  been  called  the  law  establishing  the  liberty  of  teaching.  According  to  M. 
Rambaud,  it  established  “the  monopoly  of  the  religious  orders.”2 

From  the  passage  of  that  law  up  to  1875,  the  enrollment  in  secular  primary 
schools,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to, Table  II,  increased  by  only  24  per  cent, 
while  the  enrollment  in  schools  of  the  religious  orders  increased  by  90  per  cent. 
Moreover,  the  secular  schools  were  imbued  with  the  church  spirit,  as  their  teachers 
were  largely  recruited  from  the  religious  orders.  They  differed  from  the  inde¬ 
pendent  schools  simply  in  deriving  support  from  public  funds  and  being  under 
the  supervision  of  local  committees. 

The  event  of  chief  importance  to  education  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III 
was  the  ministry  of  M.  Duruy.  Although  his  efforts  were  chiefly  directed  to  sec¬ 
ondary  and  higher  education,  he  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  (1867)  which 
strengthened  public  primary  education.  This  law  made  the  maintenance  of  a 
separate  public  school  for  girls  obligatory  upon  every  commune  having  500  or 
more  inhabitants,  improved  the  teachers’  salaries,  created  continuation  classes  for 

1  These  schools  had  been  the  subject  of  royal  decrees  in  1695  and  again  in  1724. 

2  See  article  “  France,”  in  Buisson’s  Dictionary  of  Pedagogics  and  Primary  Instruction,  Vol.  I, 
Part  I. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1085 


adults,  and  x^'ovided  for  the  support  of  hamlet  schools  and  for  special  aid  to 
necessitous  schools. 

In  the  twelve  years  between  the  passage  of  that  law  and  the  year  in  which  the 
Republic  entered,  vigorously  upon  its  school  policy  above  2,000  new  schools  were 
opened— nearly  200  a  year —and  of  the  whole  number  1,580  were  schools  for  girls. 
The  increase  in  the  same  time  in  the  enrollment  of  girls  is  particularly  marked 
(Table  II) ;  for  all  pupils  the  increase  was  7  per  cent;  for  girls,  10  per  cent.  It  is 
worthy  also  of  note  that  a  law  of  1854  (the  third  year  of  the  second  Empire)  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  prefects  of  departments  the  power  in  respect  to  schools  hitherto 
exercised  by  the  rectors  of  academies.  This  measure,  which  Jules  Simon 
denounced  as  a  sacrifice  of  educational  to  political  interests,  laid  the  foundations 
for  the  departmental  administration  of  primary  schools,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
important  features  of  the  present  system. 

The  French  Republic  was  proclaimed  September  3, 1870,  the  day  after  the  defeat 
of  the  French  army  at  Sedan,  and  on  the  4th  of  September  a  cabinet  was  formed 
with  Jules  Simon  as  minister  of  public  instruction. 

The  siege  of  Paris,  the  disorders  of  the  commune,  the  humiliation  and  distrac¬ 
tions  of  the  country,  precluded  for  a  time  any  serious  efforts  in  respect  to  educa¬ 
tion.  Moreover,  and  perhaps  because  of  the  excesses  of  the  commune,  there  was 
a  temporary  strengthening  of  ecclesiastical  influences.  This  was  shown  by  the 
laws  of  March  19,  1873,  reorganizing  the  superior  council  of  education,  and  by  the 
law  of  July  12,  1875,  upon  the  liberty  of  higher  education. 

The  former  law  restored  the  elective  principle  in  the  formation  of  the  council, 
but  gave  excessive  representation  to  the  clericals,  while  the  law  of  1875  operated 
wholly  in  favor  of  “church  faculties.”  It  was  not  until  after  the  elections  of 
1877,  which  gave  a  Republican  majority  to  both  chambers,  that  education  became 
the  absorbing  interest  of  the  Government. 

The  course  of  the  Government  with  respect  to  primary  education  was  foreshad¬ 
owed  by  the  law  of  June  1,  1878,  which,  as  noted  already,  created  a  fund  of 
$24,000,000  for  building  schoolhouses. 

The  year  following  began  the  memorable  ministry  of  Jules  Ferry,  who  is  justly 
called  the  founder  of  the  national  system.  His  views  respecting  education  •were 
already  well  known.  In  1870,  after  his  election  by  a  Paris  district  to  the  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Deputies,  he  had  publicly  vowed  to  give  himself  to  this  cause.  “  ¥/hen  this 
honor  fell  to  me,”  he  said,  “I  made  this  vow:  That  among  all  the  questions,  all 
the  problems,  all  the  necessities  of  the  hour,  I  would  choose  one  to  which  I  would 
consecrate  all  my  abilities,  all  my  mind  and  heart,  all  my  physical  and  moral 
power — this  is  the  problem  of  the  education  of  the  people.” 

It  must  interest  us  to  know  that  he  found  inspiration  for  his  efforts  in  the  work 
of  our  own  country.  He  had  studied  this  work  carefully  in  the  report  of  M. 
Hippeau,  and  drew  from  it  pointed  illustrations  for  the  positions  advanced  in  his 
address  upon  “Equality  in  education.”1  This  address  set  forth  very  clearly  the 
principles  so  effectively  applied  during  his  administration. 

The  first  measure  carried  by  Jules  Ferry  was  the  law  of  August  9,  1879,  which 
imposed  upon  each  department  the  creation  of  a  normal  school  for  women  teachers 
under  the  same  guaranties  as  those  required  by  the  law  of  1833  for  the  normal 
schools  for  men.  This  law,  with  the  foundation  of  three  higher  normal  schools — 
Sevres,  Fontenay-aux-Roses,  and  Saint-Clond — (the  first  intended  for  professors 
of  girls’  lycees,  the  last  two  for  professors  in  the  primary  normals)  completed  the 
measures  necessary  to  assure  a  teaching  force  thoroughly  equipped  and  imbued 
with  patriotic  sentiment. 

The  law  of  February  14,  1880,  reorganizing  the  superior  and  academic  councils 


1See  Discours  surl’egalite  d 'education;  Discours  et  opinions  de  Jules  Ferry,  Vol.  I,  pp.  234-305. 


1086 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


of  public  instruction,  made  a  radical  change  in  the  administrative  service.  These 
councils  were  a  survival  from  the  university  or  State  teaching  monopoly  created 
by  Napoleon.  Under  his  system  the  councils  were  formed  by  appointment,  and 
reflected  simply  his  arbitrary  will.  Their  constitution  had  been  modified  in  the 
years  between  the  fall  of  the  first  Empire  and  the  establishment  of  the  second 
Republic,  but  never  to  the  extent  of  making  them  essentially  professional  councils 
for  the  fostering  of  public  education. 

In  his  expose  of  motives  accompanying  the  measure  of  1880  the  minister  declared 
that  heretofore  the  representatives  of  the  public  interest  had  been  excluded  as  far 
as  possible  from  the  superior  council,  while  its  doors  had  been  opened  wide  to  ihe 
representatives  of  rival  interests.  Independent  schools  could  be  multiplied  with¬ 
out  limit,  but  the  State  could  not  open  a  school,  found  a  college,  or  create  a  uni¬ 
versity  professorship  without  the  sanction  of  the  superior  council,  a  majority  of 
whose  members  had  “  no  connection  with  education  and  were  hostile  to  the  State 
system.”  Briefly  summarized,  the  changes  that  he  proposed  were:  (1)  Exclusion  of 
ecclesiastics  and  of  so-called  representatives  of  social  interests;  (2)  admission  to 
the  council  of  elected  representatives  of  secondary  and  primary  education;  (8) 
predominance  of  the  elective  element  above  the  appointed  or  administrative. 

Professional  competence  was  the  only  qualification  demanded  in  those  eligible 
for  membership.  “We  admit,”  said  the  minister  in  the  discussion  of  the  bill, 
“and  we  have  proposed  to  admit  to  this  council  educators  and  only  educators.” 
Of  the  69  members  that  made  up  the  council,  13  wTere  to  be  appointed — viz,  9  rep¬ 
resenting  the  State  teaching  system  and  4  the  independent  agencies.  Thus  the 
State  authority  wTas  made  supreme.  The  same  principles  of  professional  qualifica¬ 
tion  and  election  were  applied  in  the  reconstitution  of  the  academy  councils,  but 
with  modifications  required  by  their  local  relations. 

This  measure  was  followed  March  18,  1880,  by  the  passage  of  a  law  relative  to 
the  liberty  of  higher  education.  Its  most  important  provisions  were:  (1)  That 
restoring  to  the  State  the  sole  right  to  confer  degrees;  (2)  forbidding  the  use  of 
the  name  university  by  any  independent  body;  (3)  requiring  special  sanction  upon 
proof  of  public  utility  for  the  opening  of  any  private  establishment  for  higher 
education.  This  law,  like  those  of  December  21,  1880,  establishing  public  colleges 
(lyce-es)  for  girls,  and  July  21,  1881,  creating  the  normal  school  for  professors  of 
these  colleges,  had  no  direct  relation  to  primary  education,  hut  they  deserve  men¬ 
tion  here  as  indicating  the  principles  and  completeness  of  the  system  which  Jules 
Ferry  had  in  mind.  He  is  distinguished  as  the  founder  of  French  primary  educa¬ 
tion,  but  he  had  no  thought  of  isolating  primary  education  from  the  higher  grades. 

The  essential  principles  of  administration  being  settled,  the  minister  gave  him¬ 
self  up  to  the  great  work  of  primary  education.  There  followed  in  rapid  succes¬ 
sion  the  laws  which  created  a  national  system.  These  were:  (1)  The  law  of  June 
16,  1881,  requiring  all  teachers,  public  and  private,  to  he  provided  with  State 
diplomas  and  doing  away  with  the  clerical  letters  of  authorization,  which  had 
been  heretofore  accepted  as  sufficient  proof  of  capacity  for  the  work  [teachers 
possessed  of  these  letters  were  obliged  to  submit  to  a  State  examination,  excepting 
those  who  had  reached  the  age  of  35  years  and  had  been  five  years  in  the  service. 
Even  these  could  not  be  promoted  until  they  had  conformed  to  the  law] ;  (2)  the 
law  of  the  same  date  making  public  primary  schools  free  schools;  (3)  the  law  of 
March  28,  1882,  secularizing  the  public  primary  schools  and  making  it  compulsory 
upon  all  parents  to  secure  the  instruction  of  their  children  [the  choice  of 
means,  that  is  of  public  or  private  schools  or  home  instruction,  was  left  to  the 
parents] ;  (4)  the  law  of  October  30,  1886,  “  the  organic  law  of  the  system,”  which 
prescribed  minutely  all  the  details  of  the  administration,  inspection,  and  classifica¬ 
tion  of  primary  schools,  the  requirements  and  gradation  of  the  teaching  force,  the 


EDUCATION'  IN'  FEANCEo 


1087 


school  programmes,  etc.  The  law  also  completed  the  secularization  of  the  schools 
by  a  clause  providing  that  all  teachers  of  public  schools  should  belong  to  the  laity. 

Five  years  were  allowed  for  the  application  of  this  provision  to  schools  for  boys, 
but  no  limit  was  specified  in  respect  to  schools  for  girls.  Naturally,  however,  a 
limit  was  assured,  as  no  more  appointments  of  members  of  religious  orders  were 
permitted.  From  the  intense  excitement  aroused  by  this  clause,  it  overshadowed 
at  the  time  all  other  features  of  the  law.  Its  mention  naturally  carries  the  mind 
forward  to  the  recent  law  respecting  the  religious  associations,  which  is  regarded 
as  the  culmination  of  the  policy  inaugurated  by  M.  Ferry. 

To  the  American  student  of  the  French  system  the  more  important  provisions 
of  the  law  of  1886  relate  to  the  scholastic  policy  and  ideals  which  it  embodied. 

It  secured  to  Republican  France  a  uniform  school  administration,  equally  force¬ 
ful  in  the  humblest  communes  and  the  chief  city;  assured  even  to  the  smallest 
hamlet  the  service  of  an  approved  teacher,  guided  and  inspired  by  professional 
superiors,  secured  to  every  child  the  elements  of  knowledge,  and  by  a  judicious 
flexibility  of  programmes  opened  to  all  a  wide  range  of  specialized  instruction. 

At  the  outset  tjie  ‘school  work  derived  its  impetus  from  a  few  leading  men — from 
M.  Buisson,  for  many  years,  the  director  of  primary  education,  and  from  the  pro¬ 
fessors  of  the  chief  normal  schools,  St.  Cloud  and  Fontenay;  but  as  the  years 
passed  the  centers  of  influence  multiplied,  and  to-day  every  departmental  normal 
school  is  a  power,  while  the  inspectorate  has  become  the  propelling  force  of  pri¬ 
mary  schools.  This  diffusion  or  multiplication  of  forces  is  the  natural  result  of 
the  thorough  organization  provided  by  the  law  of  1886.  The  inspectorate,  which 
is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  organization,  will  be  considered  more  fully  here¬ 
after.  We  proceed  here  with  the  record  of  progress. 

DETAILED  STATISTICS  OF  PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 

The  sources  of  the  following  statistics  are:  Report  on  primary  education  in  the 
principal  countries,  comparative  and  retrospective  (la  statist! que  de  l’enseigne- 
ment  primaire),  presented  by  M.  E.  Levasseur  to  the  International  Institute  of 
Statistics,  1891;  the  official  reports  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction  for  1891-92, 
1896-97,  and  the  reports  of  the  chairman  of  the  financial  committee  of  the  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Deputies  for  the  successive  years  from  1897  to  1901,  inclusive. 

Distribution  of  schools. — Practically  every  commune  in  France  has  complied 
with  the  law  as  regards  the  establishment  of  public  schools,  and  a  very  large  pro¬ 
portion  (97  per  cent)  of  those  having  500  inhabitants,  or  more,  have  met  the 
requirement  of  a  separate  school  for  girls.  The  situation  in  1897  in  respect  to 


these  requirements  was  as  follows: 

Total  number  of  communes _ _ _ _ _ _ _  _  36,  520 

Number  having  one  or  more  public  schools . . . . 35, 618 

Number  having  only  private  schools .. _ _ _ _  39 

Number  maintaining  a  public  school  with  another  commune.. . .  815 

Number  having  no  school _ _ 48 

Communes  of  500  inhabitants  or  more _ _ _ _  18, 539 

Number  having  a  public  school  for  girls . . . . . . .  17, 185 

Number  having  only  private  schools  for  girls _  708 

Number  having  no  separate  school  for  girls _  646 

Communes  of  less  than  500  inhabitants  having  a  separate  school  for  girls..  3, 601 


1088 


EDUCATION  EE  PORT.,  1900-1901. 


SCHOOL  ENROLLMENT. 

Table  II. — Retrospective  view  of  jmpils  in  the  primary  schools. 


Year. 

Total  num¬ 
ber  of 
pupils.1 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Pupils  in  schools. 

Public. 

Private. 

Secular. 

Belonging 
to  religious 
orders. 

1837. . 

2,690,035 

1, 579, 888 

1,110,147 

2, 046, 455 

643, 580 

1840. . 

2, 8S)3, 934 

1, 658, 662 

1, 240, 272 

2, 216, 767 

680  187 

1843 . . 

3, 164, 297 

1,812,709 

1, 351, 588 

2, 407, 425 

756, 872 

2,457,380 

708, 917 

1847... . 

3, 530, 135 

2, 176, 079 

1,  354. 056 

1850.... . 

3, 322, 423 

1,793,667 

1,528,756 

2,601,619 

720,804 

2,368,627 

953, 796 

1861 _ _ 

4. 286, 641 

2  744  667 

1  541  974 

1863 . 

4,386,368 

2.265,756 

2,070,612 

3,413,830 

92 2, 538 

2, 725;  694 

L6lo;  764 

1885 . 

4,436,470 

2,306,792 

2, 129, 678 

3,477,542 

958, 928 

2, 763, 524 

1, 672, 946 

1866 . . 

4,515,967 

2,343, 781 

2, 172, 186 

3, 537, 709 

978, 258 

2,820, 670 

1,695,297 

1872 _ _ 

4, 722, 754 

2,445,216 

2,277,538 

3,835,991 

883, 763 

1875... . . 

4,809,728 

2, 450, 683 

2,359,045 

4, 049, 953 

759, 775 

2,938,709 

1, 871, 019 

1876-77. . 

4,  716, 935 

2,400,882 

2, 316. 053 

3,823,348 

893, 587 

2, 648, 562 

2,068,373 

1878-79. . 

4,869,087 

2,478,417 

2,390,670 

3, 8S2, 802 

886,285 

3,027,560 

1,841,527 

1879-80. . 

4,949,581 

2,518,401 

2, 431,190 

4,015,097 

934, 494 

3, 144, 938 

1, 804, 653 

1880-81... . 

5, 049, 863 

2, 568. 339 

2, 481, 024 

4, 079,988 

969, 395  • 

3,276,982 

1,772,381 

1881-82... . . 

5,341,211 

2, 708, 510 

2, 632,  701 

4, 359, 256 

981, 955 

3,567,861 

1, 773, 350 

1882-83 _ _ 

5, 432, 151 

2, 743, 564 

2, 688, 587 

4,409,810 

1,022, 841 

3, 655, 035 

1, 777, 116 

1883-84. . 

5, 488, 381 

2, 759, 050 

2, 709, 631 

4,421,212 

1,047,469 

3,701,596 

1,767,085 

1884-85. . 

5, 531, 229 

2, 790, 169 

2, 741,060 

4,463,372 

1,067,857 

3, 778, 611 

1,752,618 

1885-86 . 

5, 585, 838 

2, 823, 964 

2, 701, 874 

4,502,059 

1, 083, 779 

3,836.826 

1, 749, 012 

1886-87. . 

5, 598,919 

2, 829, 127 

2, 767, 702 

4, 505, 109 

1,091,810 

3, 877, 185 

1,719,734 

1837-88. . 

5, 616, 510 

2, 837,524 

2, 778, 936 

4,492,894 

1,123,616 

3,901,565 

1,714,945 

1888-89. . 

5,623,401 

2, 833, 218 

2, 790, 183 

4, 446, 851 

1,176.550 

3,915, 915 

1,707,486 

1889-90. . 

5, 601, 567 

2,823,877 

2, 777, 690 

4, 405, 543 

1, 196;  024 

3, 896, 700 

1, 704, 867 

1890-91  . 

5, 593, 883 

2, 823, 428 

2, 770, 455 

4, 384, 905 

1,203,978 

3,912,013 

1,681,870 

1891-92 . 

5, 558, 470 

2, 805, 849 

2, 750, 621 

4,281,183 

1.275, 287 

3, 900, 977 

1,655,493 

1892-93 . 

5, 554, 115 

2,800,316 

2, 753, 799 

4, 257,937 

1,296,178 

3,904,265 

1,6-49,850 

1893-94. . 

5,548,180 

2, 799, 089 

2,749,091 

4, 241,912 

1,306,268 

3,906, 219 

1,641,961 

1894-95 . 

5, 540, 095 

2, 790, 710 

2, 749, 385 

4,215,411 

1,324,684 

3,900, 240 

1, 639, 855 

1895-96. . 

5, 533, 511 

2,788,215 

2, 745,296 

4, 199, 727 

1,333,784 

3,898,806 

1, 634, 705 

1896-97 . 

5,531,418 

2. 782, 547 

2, 748, 871 

4, 190. 320 

1,341,098 

3,911,806 

1,618,612 

1897-98 . 

5, 535, 125 

2, 777, 739 

2, 757, 386 

4,177,590 

1,357,535 

3, 914, 352 

1, 620, 773 

1898-99 . 

5, 539, 299 

2, 774, 195 

2, 765. 104 

4,169,578 

1,369,721 

3,938,842 

1, 600, 457 

1  Infant  schools  not  included.  Algiers  not  included  prior  to  1886-87. 

Table  III. — Proportion  of  total  enrollment  in  different  classes  of  primary  schools 

at  dates  specified. 


Year. 

Public. 

Private. 

1837  . 

Per  cent. 
76 

76.5 
78.3 

78.3 
81 

81.6 
79.9 
77.1 
75.7 

75.3 

Per  cent. 
24 

23. 5 
21.7 

21.7 
19 
18.4 
20.1 
22.9 
24.3 

24.7 

1840  . . . 

1850 . . . 

1866  . . . 

1877  . 

1881-82  . 

1887-88  . 

1891-92  . . . 

1896-97  . 

1898-99  . 

Secular. 


Per  cent. 


71.2 

62.4 
56 
66.8 

69.5 
70.1 
70.7 
71 


Schools 
of  reli¬ 
gious  or¬ 
ders. 


Per  cent. 


37.6 

44 

63.2 
30.5 
29.9 

29.3 
29 


From  Table  II  it  will  be  seen  that  there  was  a  steady  increase  in  school  enroll¬ 
ment  from  1837,  when  Guizot’s  law  had  borne  fruit,  up  to  1888-89,  in  which  year 
the  maximum  enrollment  was  reached.  The  decline  in  enrollment  between  that 
year  and  1896-97,  which  for  France,  excluding  Algiers,  was  a  decline  from 
5,545,400  pupils  to  5,427,211,  or  2.1  per  cent,  is  attributed  to  the  following  causes: 
(1)  Decrease  in  the  school  population  of  France  (ages  6  to  13),  which,  a3  shown 
in  Table  IV,  amounted  to  3,145,  or  0.07  per  cent,  between  the  census  years  1891  and 
1896;  (2)  rapid  advance  of  pupils  in  the  primary  schools,  with  the  result  that  the 
leaving  certificate  (certificat  d’etudes  primaires)  is  obtained  at  an  earlier  age  than 
formerly;  (3)  less  vigorous  enforcement  of  the  obligatory  school  law.1 


1Statistique  de  1’enseignement  primaire  (1898-97),  pp.  ciii,  cv. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1089 


A  slight  advance  in  enrollment  above  that  reported  in  1886-97  is  shown  by  the 
statistics  for  1898-89  (a  gain  of  3,2S3  pupils  for  France,  excluding  Algiers), 

Table  III  shows  the  relative  enrollment  in  public  as  compared  with  private 
schools  and  in  secular  schools  as  compared  with  those  belonging  to  religious 
orders,  especially  since  the  passage  of  the  law  of  1886.  This  law,  as  already 
stated,  forbade  the  employment  in  public  schools  of  teachers  belonging  to  reli¬ 
gious  orders. 

The  decline  in  public-school  enrollment  became  somewhat  marked  after  1889-90, 
or  toward  the  end  of  the  period  assigned  for  the  full  secularisation  of  the  schools 
for  boys. 

A  transfer  of  pupils  has  been  going  on  from  public  and  secular  to  private  church 
schools,  as  appears  from  the  following  analysis  of  the  enrollment  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  half  decade  covered  by  the  last  official  report: 


Enrollment. 

Per  cent 
of  in¬ 
crease 
(  +  )  or 
decrease 
(-)• 

Classification  of  schools. 

1891-92. 

189S-97. 

SECULAR. 

Public: 

Boys _ _ _ 

2,318,349 

1,434,901 

53,955 
97, 772 

2,292, 639 
1,487, 766 

48, 199 

-  1.1 

Girls  _ _ _ _ _ 

+  3.7 

Private: 

Bovs  _  _  _  _  _  _ 

-10.7 

Girls . 

83,202 

-11.3 

CLERICAL  (UNDER  RELIGIOUS  ORDERS). 

Public: 

Boys _ _ _ _ _ 

36,969 
490, 964 

25,766 
384, 149 

415, 943 

-30.3 

Girls . . . . 

-21.8 

Private: 

Boys . . . . . . . . 

396, 576 

+  4.9 

Girls . . . . . . 

730, 884 

793, 754 

+  8.0 

The  greatest  falling  off,  it  will  be  seen,  was  in  public  schools  for  boys  conducted 
by  members  of  religious  orders.  Virtually  this  class  of  schools  has  now  disappeared. 
At  the  same  time  there  has  been  a  very  marked  decline  in  the  corresponding  class 
of  schools  for  girls.  The  schools  that  have  gained  by  the  change  are  chiefly 
private  schools  belonging  to  the  religious  orders,  though  a  slight  gain  is  also 
noticeable  in  public  schools  for  girls. 

By  reference  to  Table  II,  it  will  be  seen  that  although  there  was  a  slight  decline 
in  the  enrollment  in  primary  schools  in  the  decade  1886  to  1896,  if  the  comparison 
be  carried  back  to  1876  a  decided  increase  is  disclosed. 


Table  IV. — Retrospective  view  of  population ,  as  shown  at  census  dates ,  and 
ratio  of  enrollment  in  primary  schools  to  total  population. 


Year. 

Total  popu¬ 
lation. 

Increase 
(  +  )  or 
decrease 
(-)• 

Children  be¬ 
tween  6  and 
13,  inclusive. 

Increase 
(  +  )  or 
decrease 
(-;• 

Ratio  to 
total  pop¬ 
ulation. 

Ratio  of 
enrollment 
in  primary 
schools  to 
total  popu¬ 
lation. 

1876  . 

36, 905, 788 
37,672,048 
38,218,903 
38,343,192 
38,517,975 

Per  cent. 

4,502,506 

4,586,349 

4,729,144 

4,639,526 

4,636,381 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 
12.2 
12. 17 
12.4 
12.1 
12.03 

Per  cent. 
12. 78 
13. 97 
14.46 
14. 49 
14. 37 

1881 . 

1886  1 . „ . 

+2.1 
+3. 55 
+  .32 
+  .79 

+1.  85 
+5. 03 
-1.89 
+0. 07 

1881 . . . 

1896 . 

1  Algiers  included  for  this  and  subsequent  years. 


ED  1901 - 69 


1090 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


In  connection  with  the  general  subject  c-f  school  enrollment  the  growing  enroll¬ 
ment  in  infant  schools  (ecoles  maternelles),  which  it  is  optional  with  the  com¬ 
munes  to  establish,  deserves  attention. 

In  the  half  decade  1891-92  to  1896-97  the  number  of  pupils  in  these  schools  rose 
from  708,579  to  729,648,  an  increase  of  1.3  per  cent,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
population  2  to  6  years  of  age  (period  for  attendance  upon  infant  schools)  declined 
by  1.6  per  cent. 

Enrollment  in  mixed  schools . — The  instruction  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  same 
school  is  permitted  only  in  communes  having  less  than  500  inhabitants,  all  com¬ 
munes  above  that  limit  being  obliged  to  provide  a  separate  school  for  girls.  In  a 
letter  on  this  subject,  addressed  to  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  M.  Levasseur 
says:  “From  1892  to  1897  the  number  of  mixed  schools  has  increased  but  slightly. 
This  is  because  the  population  of  a  number  of  small  communes  has  diminished. 

“  Before  1886  many  small  communes  possessed  maternal  schools  (in  which  boys 
and  girls  are  both  admitted)  and  received  State  appropriations  for  the  supply  of 
the  same. 

‘  *  The  law  of  1886  suppressed  the  appropriation  for  all  communes  having  less  than 
1,200  inhabitants.  As  a  consequence,  a  number  of  communes  of  this  class  have 
transformed  their  maternal  schools  into  an  infant  class  annexed  to  their  mixed 
schools,  which  has  the  advantage  of  a  State  appropriation.  Hence  it  happens  that 
many  mixed  schools  have  two  classes — an  infant  class  and  a  primary  class — in  both 
of  which  boys  and  girls  are  instructed  together. 

“The  causes  of  private  mixed  schools  are  different.  Among  these  are  included 
many  small  schools  in  which  little  boys  and  girls  (up  to  12  years  of  age  and  even 
beyond  this  age)  receive  their  instruction  in  common.  The  schools  of  this  kind 
are  generally  found  in  the  large  cities.  In  Paris,  for  example,  there  are  at  least  a 
dozen,  perhaps  more.  Boys  are  admitted  only  to  the  lower  classes.” 

The  following  statistics  appended  to  the  foregoing  statement  pertain  solely  to 
the  mixed  schools  for  the  year  1896-97: 


Mixed  schools. 

Public. 

Private. 

Total  number  - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

19,991 
15,534 
5,974 
483 
20, 888 
692, 548 
377, 797 
314, 751 

155 
28 
415 
812 
1,307 
34, 988 
12, 652 
22, 330 

Number  directed  by  a  lay  master  .  _ _ - . __ . . . 

Number  directed  by  a  lay  mistress  . . . . - . 

Number  directed  by  a  religious  order. . . . . . . 

Total  number  of  classes _ _ _  _ 

Total  number  of  pupils  ...  _  ......  ....  _ 

Boys  _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ 

Girls  ....  _  ..  _  _  .  _ _ _ _ _ 

Table  V. — Distribution  of  pupils  in  separate  and  mixed  schools. 


Total  enrollment. 

Per  cent  enrolled. 

Class  of  schools. 

1887. 

1897. 

1887. 

1897. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Public: 

Separate  . . 

2,098,438 

1,661,298 

1,940,608 

1,557,164 

83.98 

82.79 

83.7 

83. 18 

Mixed . 

400,222 

345, 151 

377, 797 

314,751 

16.02 

17.21 

16.3 

16.82 

Private: 

Separate  . 

318,302 

742,302 

451,490 

854,620 

96. 31 

97.47 

97.27 

97. 45 

Mixed  . . 

12,165 

19, 041 

12,652 

22,336 

3.69 

2.53 

2.73 

2.55 

STATISTICAL  INDICATIONS  OF  THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  SCHOOLS. 

Average  attendance. — One  of  the  most  important  indications  of  the  actual  effi¬ 
ciency  of  schools  is  furnished  by  the  item  of  average  daily  attendance.  Although 
this  item  is  not  included  in  the  French  statistics,  an  approximate  idea  of  the  rela¬ 
tion  of  attendance  to  enrollment  can  be  formed  by  a  comparison  between  the 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1091 


enrollment  in  the  months  of  December  and  June,  the  months  respectively  of 
highest  and  lowest  school  attendance,  and  the  number  present  on  a  selected  day 
in  each  of  the  months  named.  The  following  tabulation  presents  these  particu¬ 
lars  for  the  latest  year  reported: 


Number  enrolled 
for  every  1,000 
pupils  belong¬ 
ing. 

Public 

schools. 

Private 

schools. 

Month  of  December,  1886  _ - _  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

875 

911 

Present  December  5 _ _ _ _ - 

786 

851 

Month  of  June,  1897 . . . . . . . . . 

846 

911 

Present  June  5  _  _  - _ _  _  _ _ 

732 

841 

-  It  appears  from  the  above  that  the  enrollment  in  public  schools  in  December  was 
87.5  per  cent  of  the  annual  enrollment,  and  the  attendance  on  the  day  selected 
89.8  per  cent  of  the  month's  enrollment;  the  enrollment  in  private  schools  for  the 
same  month  was  91.1  per  cent  of  the  annual  enrollment,  and  the  attendance  93.4 
of  the  month’s  enrollment.  The  corresponding  ratios  for  June  were:  In  public 
schools  84.6  per  cent  and  83.5;  in  private  schools  91.1  and  92.3. 

Number  and  proportion  of  classes. — The  increase  of  classes  as  compared  with  the 
number  of  schools  is  an  index  of  improvement  in  the  schools  themselves,  since 
each  class  has  its  own  teacher.  The  situation  in  this  respect  at  successive  dates 
was  as  follows: 


Number 
of  schools. 

Increase 
in  a  half 
decade. 

Number 
of  classes. 

Increase 
in  a  half 
decade. 

1886-87  - 

81,130 
82, 533 

Per  cent. 

132,309 
140,656 
145, 955 

Per  cent. 

1891-92 . . . . . . . 

1.7 

6.8 

1886-97  . 

83,654 

1.4 

3.8 

In  the  following  tabulations  comparison  is  made  (1)  between  public  and  private 
schools;  (2)  between  secular  schools  and  schools  belonging  to  the  religious  orders. 


Average  number  of  classes  for  every  100  sehools,  1895-96. 


Public  schools  for  boys _ _ _ _ _ 175 

Private  schools  for  boys . . . . . . .  301 

Public  schools  for  girls . . . . . . . . . 173 

Private  schools  for  girls . . . . . . . „ . . . . . . .  258 


Number  of  schools  of  each  category,  1896-97. 


Belong¬ 

Proportion  upon 
100  schools. 

Schools  of— 

Secular. 

ing  to  re¬ 
ligious 
orders. 

Secular. 

Belong¬ 
ing  to  re¬ 
ligious 
orders. 

1  class . . . . . . . . 

46, 525 
11,033 

6,202 
6,243 
2, 843 
1,344 
780 

Per  cent 
71.5 

Per  cent. 
33.3 

2  classes . _ . . . . . 

17.0 

33.5 

3  classes . . . . . . 

3, 771 

5.8 

35.3 

4  classes . _ . . . . . . . 

1,524 

791 

2.3 

7.2 

5  classes  .  . . . . 

1.2 

4.1 

6  classes . . . . . . . 

614 

470 

.9 

2.5 

7  classes . 

301 

3.27 

.5 

1.8 

8  classes  . 

483 

418 

.8 

2.3 

Total  . . . . 

65, 042 

18,612 

100 

100 

1092 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  relatively  higher  ratio  of  classes  in  the  private  schools,  which  are  chiefly 
schools  belonging  to  religions  orders,  is  due  in  part  to  location.  Schools  of  this 
class  are  most  numerous  in  the  large  cities  and  towns;  furthermore,  for  every  such 
school  there  is  always  more  than  one  “brother”  or  “sister,”  as  the  case  may  be. 
There  are  about  30,000  nuns  and  9,000  members  of  brotherhoods  engaged  in  the 
schools,  and  their  number  can  be  almost  indefinitely  increased.  They  live  with 
their  respective  orders,  and  receive  not  a  penny  of  salary  for  their  work,  to  which 
they  are  passionately  devoted. 

The  higher  primary  schools  and  classes. — The  total  enrollment  in  primary  schools 
includes  the  pupils  in  the  higher  primary  schools  and  classes,  in  1897,  64,658, 
distributed  as  follows: 


Public. 

Private. 

Classes: 

Boys _ _ _ 

11, 946 
6,219 

23,425 

9,816 

2, 676 
9,398 

564 

614 

Girls  . - . . . 

Schools: 

Boys  - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Girls  . . . . . 

Total  . . . . . 

51,406 

13,252 

For  admission  to  the  higher  primary  schools  candidates  must  have  attained  the 
age  of  12  years  and  have  secured  the  certificate  of  primary  studies,  or  must  pass  an 
examination  to  which  none  under  13  years  of  age  are  admitted.  Attendance  upon 
these  schools  is  stimulated  by  a  system  of  public  scholarships  (bourses).  These 
are  of  three  classes:  “Bourses  d'internat  ”  (not  to  exceed  $100  per  annum),  which 
cover  the  cost  of  living  in  the  boarding  department,  if  the  school  has  one;  “  bourses 
familiales  ”  ($100) ,  which  are  in  the  form  of  an  allowance  for  expenses  at  home,  and 
bourses  of  support  ($20  to  $80).  In  1897  the  number  of  scholarships  allowed  was 
1,008 — viz,  626  to  boys  and  380  to  girls. 

An  investigation  into  the  subsequent  career  of  students  after  leaving  the  higher 
primary  schools  was  made  in  1896,  as  had  been  done  for  the  previous  official  reports 
of  1887  and  1892,  with  the  following  results: 


1887. 

1892. 

1897. 

Entered  into  normal  or  technical  schools _ _ _ 

Per  cent. 
11.3 

Per  cent. 
17.2 

Per  cent . 
17.6 
3.3 

Entered  into  lycees  or  colleges _ _ _ _ 

5.3 

5.6 

Entered  as  instructors  in  other  schools . . . . . 

1.5 

.1 

.4 

Entered  into  the  civil  service  _ _ _ _ 

3.8 

3.9 

3.7 

1.4 

1.5 

Entered  into  military  or  naval  service . . 

Employed  in  i*ailroad service.. . . . . . 

2.4 

1.6 

1.4 

1.5 

Employed  in  commercial  or  technical  careers _ _ _ _ 

56.8 

60.0 

60.0 

2.4 

Employed  in  banks,  notaries  public,  etc _ _ _ 

6.3 

1.7 

Scholarships  secured  for  study  in  foreign  countries _ _ 

.6 

.8 

Unknown  or  dead . . . . . 

11.0 

8.0 

8.7 

Teachers . — The  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  public  and  private  primary 
schools  in  1896-97  was  161,691,  of  whom  9,414  were  in  infant  schools  and  152,277  in 
the  elementary  and  higher  primary  schools. 

Table  VI  shows  the  number  and  classification  of  the  primary-school  teachers 
(infant  schools  omitted)  for  specified  years  during  a  period  of  six  decades.  Table 
VIII  shows  the  relative  proportion  of  secular  teachers  and  those  belonging  to 
religious  orders  at  the  dates  of  the  last  three  official  reports. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE, 


1093 


Retrospective  Table  YI. — Number  and  classification  of  teachers  of  primary 

schools  at  specified  dates. 


Year. 

Total 

number 

teachers. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men  and  women. 

Public. 

Private. 

1837 . __ . 

59,735 

39,302 

20,433 

38,465 

21,270 

1840.. . . . . 

63,409 

40, 504 

22,905 

40,843 

22, 566 

1843 . . . . . . . 

75,535 

47,301 

28, 234 

50,446 

25,089 

1883 . . . . . 

108, 799 

49, 585 

59,214 

70,441 

38,358 

1872.. . . . — . . . . . 

110,238 

50,549 

59,689 

75,082 

35,176 

1876-77.  _ . . . . . . 

110, 709 

51, 717 

58,992 

80,063 

30, 646 

1878-79 . . . . . 

117, 451 

53,941 

63,510 

82,343 

35, 108 

1879-80 . . . 

119,870 

55,182 

64,688 

83,581 

36,289 

1880-81 . . . 

122,760 

56,410 

66,350 

85,451 

37,309 

1881-82 . . . . . . 

124,965 

58,137 

66,828 

88,220 

36, 745 

1882-83 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

129,657 

60,624 

69,033 

92,300 

37,357 

1883-S4 . . . . . . 

132,580 

61,654 

70,926 

94, 784 

37, 796 

1884-85 . . . . . 

133,900 

62, 158 

71, 742 

85,810 

38,090 

1885-86 . . . 

137,000 

63,670 

73,330 

97,996 

39,004 

1886-87 1 . . . . . 

138, 655 

64,039 

74,616 

98,789 

39, 886 

1887-88 . . . . . . . 

141,063 

64,631 

78,432 

100,417 

40, 646 

1888-89... . 

142, 660 

65, 181 

77,479 

100,913 

41 i 747 

1889-90 . . . . . . . . . 

143, 259 

05,312 

77,947 

101, 144 

42, 115 

1S90-91 _ _ _ _ 

146,247 

65,763 

80, 484 

103, 769 

42, 478 

1891-92 . . . . . . . 

146, 674 

66,363 

80,311 

102,486 

44, 188 

1892-93 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

148, 394 

68,965 

81,429 

103,513 

44, 881 

1893-94 . . 

149,271 

67,071 

82,200 

104,028 

45,243 

1894-95 . . . .  . 

150,913 

67,265 

83,648 

105, 162 

45, 751 

1895-96 . . . . . 

151,583 

67,203 

84,360 

105, 587 

45.976 

1896-97... . . . . . 

153. 277 

67, 339 

84, 938 

105, 774 

46 i 503 

1897-98 . . . . . . . . 

153,505 

103, 355 

47, 150 

1  For  this  and  for  subsequent  years  Algiers  included. 


Retrospective  Table  VII. — Lay  v.  clerical  teachers. 


Public  schools. 


Private  schools. 


1886-87. 

1891-92. 

1898-97. 

Increase 
or  de¬ 
crease, 
1888-87  to 
1896-97. 

1888-87. 

1891-92. 

1896-97. 

Increase 
or  de¬ 
crease, 
1883-87  to 
1898-97. 

Men: 

Lay . - . 

53,072 

55,559 

58,373 

Per  cent. 
+  6.21 

1,842 

1,4.23 

1,278 

Per  cent. 
-30. 61 

Belonging  to  religious  or¬ 

ders  . 

2,544 

132 

00 

-100. 00 

6, 580 

9,249 

9,685 

+47. 18 

Total . . . . 

55, 617 

55,691 

58,373 

+  1.35 

8,422 

10,672 

10,963 

+30. 17 

Women: 

Lay . . . . 

29, 887 

35,446 

40,385 

+  35.12 

6,923 

6, 1S6 

5,500 

-20.55 

Belonging  to  religious  or¬ 

ders  . 

13,265 

11,349 

9,013 

-  32.05 

24,541 

27,330 

30,040 

+22.40 

Total . 

43, 152 

46,795 

49,398 

+  14.47 

31,484 

33,516 

35,540 

+13.00 

Grand  -total. . 

98,769 

jl02, 486 

105, 774 

1 

+  7.09 

39,896 

44, 180 

46,503 

+16. 58 

Table  VIII. — Proportion  of  lay  and  of  clerical  teachers  for  the  years  specified,. 


Public  schools. 

Private  schools. 

1886-87. 

1891-92. 

1893-97. 

1886-87. 

1891-82. 

1898-97. 

Men: 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Belonging  to  religious  orders . 

Women: 

95.42 

99.8 

100.00 

21.87 

13.33 

11.65 

4.58 

.2 

78.13 

86. 70 

88.35 

Belonging  to  religious  orders . 

69.26 

75. 74 

81.75 

22.00 

18.45 

15.47 

30.74 

24.26 

18.25 

78.00 

81.55 

84.53 

1094 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Of  the  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools,  97  per  cent  on  a  total  of  105.774 
were  possessed  of  diplomas  and  43  per  cent  of  the  highest  diploma  (certifies! 
d'apti tude  pedagogique).  The  proportion  of  certificated  teachers  in  the  private 
schools  was  87  per  cent  on  a  total  of  48,503. 

The  remarkable  progress  made  by  France  in  securing  trained  teachers  for  its 
public  schools  is  due  in  great  measure  to  the  liberal  provision  of  normal  schools 
and  the  high  standard  at  which  these  are  maintained.  Every  department  has  com¬ 
plied  with  the  law  requiring  the  establishment  of  two  normal  schools,  one  for  men 
and  the  other  for  women,  or  has  been  authorized  to  combine  with  another  depart¬ 
ment  for  this  purpose.  The  State  shows  its  solicitude  in  this  matter  by  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  two  superior  normal  schools,  one  for  men  at  St.  Cloud,  the  other  for 
women  at  Fontenay'aux  Roses,  in  which  professors  are  trained  for  the  primary 
normals.  These  two  superior  schools  are  really  post-graduate  institutions,  requir¬ 
ing  for  admission  either  the  higher  diploma  of  pedagogy  or  a  bachelor’s  degree. 

The  following  statistics  show  the  relative  status  of  the  primary  normal  schools 
afc  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  last  half  decade  reported: 


Number 

of 

schools. 

Number 

of 

students. 

Number 
of  offi¬ 
cers  and 
teachers. 

1891-92. 

1ST ormal  schools  for  men  . . . . . . . - . . 

87 

3, 878 

890 

ISTormal  schools  for  women _  .  . . . . 

85 

3,707 

711 

1898-97. 

Normal  schools  for  men . . 

87 

3, 865 

897 

Normal  schools  for  women _ _ _ _ _ 

85 

3, 871 

852 

The  total  number  of  graduates  during  the  half  decade  1888  to  1892  was,  from  the 
schools  for  men,  7,189;  from  the  schools  for  women,  5,615.  The  corresponding 
numbers  for  the  half  decade  1893  to  1897  were,  men,  6,199;  women,  6,139;  Total 
for  the  decade,  25,142,  or  an  average  of  2,514  annually. 

Expenditure. — The  total  expenditure  for  primary  education  in  1898-97  amounted 
to  214,015,250  francs  ($42,803,050).  This  sum  includes  expenditure  for  primary 
normal  schools  and  for  infant  schools,  the  current  expenditure  for  the  primary 
schools  proper  (elementary  and  superior)  not  being  separately  presented.  On  the 
basis  of  this  total  the  expenditure  per  capita  of  enrollment  in  public  primary 
schools  (viz,  4,642,609,  infant  schools  included),  says  M.  Levasseur,  is  found  to  be 
48  francs  ($9.20).  It  is  difficult  to  institute  comparisons  on  this  basis,  because  of 
changes  in  the  financial  administration  since  1890,  but  this  the  statistician  has 
attempted  with  results  that  are  shown  in  the  following  table.  These  results,  he 
explains,  are  not  exactly  comparable,  but  they  establish  beyond  doubt  the  fact  of 
steady  increase  in  the  per  capita  expenditure  for  the  public  primary  education. 

These  estimates  do  not  include  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  moneys  advanced 
"for  school  buildings.  If  this  item  were  included  in  the  estimate  for  1896-97,  it 
would  raise  the  per  capita  expenditure  to  58  francs  ($11.20). 

The  expenditure  for  private  primary  schools1  is  not  known,  but  on  the  supposi¬ 
tion  that  it  is  relatively  the  same  as  for  the  public  schools,  the  total  annual 
expenditure  for  primary  education  is  estimated  by  M.  Levasseur  as  293,000,000 


1  According  to  a  recent  estimate,  60,000,000  francs  ($12,000,000)  are  annually  raised  for  the 
church  schools.  All  Catholics,  even  the  humblest  and  poorest,  cooperate  in  the  work.  The 
money  “is  chiefly  raised  by  what  is  called  ‘The  Sou  of  Christian  Schools,’  a  widespread  inter¬ 
diocesan  guild  whose  headquarters  are  in  Paris.  This  guild  enrolls  most  of  the  devout  Catholics 
of  France  and  binds  them  to  a  share  in  the  good  work.  Some  undertake  to  give  a  sou  a  week, 
some  a  sou  a  day,  some  more.” 


EDUCATION  IN  FBANCE. 


1095 


francs  ($58,600,000) ,  not  including  rentals,  and  including  rentals,  350.000,000  francs 
($70,000,000). 


Total  current  expenditures  for  public  primary  schools. 


Year. 

Total  expenditures. 

Proportion  from  each  con¬ 
tributory  source. 

State. 

Depart¬ 

ments. 

Com¬ 

munes. 

1877  . 

Francs. 

84,397,554 

132,314,010 

172,900,515 

186,308,075 

214,015,250 

$18,879,510 

26,462,802 

34,580,103 

37,261,215 

42,803,050 

Per  cent. 
25 

66.25 
48.80 
67. 60 
67.02 

Per  cent. 
18 

13.22 

10.50 

Per  cent. 
57 

20. 53 
40. 90 
32.40 
32.98 

1881-82 . . . . . . . 

1886-87 . . . 

1891-92  _  . 

1896-97 . - . - 

Expenditure  per •  capita  for  years  specified. 


Year. 

Per  capita  of  pop¬ 
ulation. 

Per  capita  of  en¬ 
rollment  in  public 
primary  schools 
(infant  schools 
included). 

1877  . 

Francs. 
2. 55 

$0.51 

.70 

Francs. 

23.45 

$4. 69 
6.05 

1881-82  . 

3. 51 

30.25 

1886-87  _ i . . . 

4.52 

.90 

34. 85 

6.97 

1891-92  . . . . . . 

4.82 

.96 

39.26 

7.85 

1896-97  . ' . . . 

5. 55 

1.11 

46.00 

9.20 

MOVEMENT  FOR  PROLONGING-  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

The  obligatory  period  of  primary  instruction  extends  from  the  sixth  to  the  thir¬ 
teenth  year,  but  a  child  who  passes  the  examination  for  the  certificate  of  primary 
studies  is  exempt  from  the  obligation  to  attend  school.  Candidates  may  be 
admitted  to  this  examination  at  11  years  of  age,  and  in  fact  a  large  proportion  of 
those  who  seek  the  certificate  do  so  at  that  early  age.  Hence  the  very  means  taken 
to  increase  the  interest  of  pupils  tends  to  shorten  their  school  term.  The  majority 
of  the  children  leave  school  at  an  earlier  age  than  13,  and  even  for  those  who  pass 
the  whole  obligatory  period  in  school  the  wholesome  restraints  of  instruction  and 
constant  supervision  are  too  soon  removed.  It  is  also  true  in  France,  as  in  other 
countries,  that  elementary  instruction,  by  its  natural  limitations,  does  not  leave 
the  same  lasting  effect  upon  the  character  or  furnish  the  same  intellectual  resources 
as  higher  education. 

The  condition  of  the  young  people  of  the  laboring  classes  thrown  upon  the  world 
with  meager  attainments  and  without  preparation  for  any  particular  industry  has 
long  excited  the  serious  attention  of  the  Government  and  of  public-spirited,  earnest 
men  and  women  throughout  the  country.  The  recent  vigorous  movement  for 
extending  the  provision  for  adult  education  is  the  outcome  of  this  solicitude.  The 
Government  has  given  substantial  aid  to  the  cause,  and  in  1895  ordered  a  special 
investigation,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  complete  information  as  to  the  status  of 
the  work  and  to  determining  the  means  for  extending  and  improving  it.  This 
commission  was  intrusted  to  M.  Edouard  Petit,  a  professor  in  one  of  the  Paris 
lyeees  and  an  indefatigable  promoter  of  the  cause  of  adult  education.  He  found 
teachers  and  professors  everywhere  alive  to  the  importance  of  the  effort  and  ready 
to  give  their  aid  in  establishing  and  maintaining  classes.  Numerous  private  socie¬ 
ties  entered  into  the  work  with  great  spirit,  and  in  1895  the  Havre  “Society  for 
Instruction  by  Objects”  (enseignement  par  Taspect)  celebrated  its  fifteenth  anni¬ 
versary  by  calling  a  congress  of  all  the  societies  engaged  in  promoting  popular 


1096 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


education  to  consider  the  subject  of  the  systematic  instruction  of  adults  and  ado¬ 
lescents.  The  minister  of  public  instruction  presided  over  the  congress,  and  the 
resolutions  of  this  body  have  shaped  in  a  measure  the  subsequent  official  regula¬ 
tions.  These  schools  and  classes,  which  are  held  generally  in  the  evening,  some¬ 
times  on  Sunday,  offer  courses  of  instruction  for  illiterates,  review  courses,  and 
continuation  courses.  The  last  named  have  usually  a  technical  or  industrial  char¬ 
acter  and  prepare  the  student,  especially  in  the  rural  communities,  for  agricul¬ 
ture  and  other  pursuits.  The  local  adaptation  of  the  courses  is  carefully  studied, 
and  also  their  relation  to  the  age  and  economic  condition  of  the  students.  Civic 
instruction  has  a  large  place  in  the  programmes,  and  the  subject  is  much  more 
thoroughly  treated  than  is  possible  in  the  primary  schools.  The  students  in  gen¬ 
eral  show  deep  and  earnest  appreciation  of  the  opportunities  thus  afforded.  The 
growth  of  the  work  is  shown  by  the  following  statistics: 


Year. 

Numter  of  courses  of  lectures. 

Number 
of  attend¬ 
ants  reg¬ 
istered. 

Number  of  regular  attendants. 

For  men. 

For 

women. 

Total. 

Men. 

Women. 

Total. 

1895-96 

13,920 

20,099 

22,939 

1,808 

4. 429 

7.429 

15, 728 
24,528 
30, 368 
33,291 

400,000 
700, 000 
850,000 

270, 500 
403, 481 
482, 907 
540, 000 

1896-97  . 

340, 926 
378, 198 

68, 555 
104, 711 

1897-98  . . . . 

1900 

Various  efforts  for  promoting  the  social  well-being  of  young  people  have  grown 
out  of  this  movement  for  their  continued  education.  Among  these  are  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  mutual  aid  associations  and  of  friendly  societies  (petits  amis).  The  for¬ 
mer  increased  from  10  associations  in  1896  to  1,600  in  1900.  They  included  12,000 
schools  and  450,000  young  members. 

The  friendly  associations  increased  from  56  in  1889  to  4,784  in  1800,  having 
284,958  members  and  disposingof  funds  to  the  amount  of  900,000  francs  ($180,000) . 


Table  IX. — Educational  statistics  of  the  cities  of  France  having  more  than  100,000  inhabitants,  1896-97. 
Part  A— INFANT  SCHOOLS  (ECOLES  MATERNELLES). 


EDUCATION  IN  FBANCE. 


1097 


Total. 

I3s  IIS 
-'§  - 

Bheims. 

o"  of 

Rouen. 

OD  r-l  ©l  ClOO 

rH  r-T 

Le 

Havre. 

HWg 

; 

Nantes. 

CONG  C  COG 

1 

pi 

O 

ns 

IS  eo- 

,  st. 
Etienne. 

is"  of 

Tou¬ 

louse. 

r-T  of 

Lille. 

881  8Sg 

lif  i:-  j 

4 

i3d§  £§§. 

CO 

Mar¬ 

seilles. 

CO 

Lyon. 

8&1  8S| 

J>7 

Paris. 

SSI  '881 

§  S 

Schools. 

Public. 

Number . — 

Teachers . - . - . 

Pupils . . 

Private. 

Number . - . - . 

Teachers  . . . . 

Pupils . . . 

III 

III 

311 

111 

“S 

-<n 

’“‘S 

"‘•ag 

**3 

»®1 

00 

gsgg 

of 

®8g 

sag 

m 

CO* 

of 

i— 1  ^ 

-II 

*°8g 

-S3 

i£ 

r”1 

CO 

sag 

sag 

ssp 

-Sg 

co 

CO 

co- 

■nT 

— 1; 

“8S 

Cv3^g 

CO 

CO 

S8S 

rH  CO 

”11 

HON 

i£ 

’"V 

CO 

OOL- 

“3.38 

CO 

SSg 

cf 

*=13 

lO 

$§g 

CO 

-§s 

iO 

rH  CO 

CO 

-II 

rH  00 

«SI 

»Si 

CO 

CO 

- 

CO- 

gll 

e!i 

8?5h 

CiO 

111 

3 

s 

CO 

CO 

”11 

3|l 

ciS 

d&s 

S 

cT 

>> 

s 

III 

Sll 

311 

IIS 

-g 

8 

«s 

m...  !  uf,  \  ^ 

|ld  |ld  |1|  |ld 

%  &  &  a 

mo  mo 


Table  IX. — Educational  statistics  of  the  cities  of  France  having  more  thorn  100,000  inhabitants ,  1896-97 — Continued. 

Part  C— HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 


1098 


EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


Total. 

fc||  s§i 

GO  xfT 

Rheims. 

”^1  — § 

Rouen. 

Le 

Havre. 

-»s  — § 

1 

§ 

£ 

i i ; 

2 

'-,=3g?  iH3g 

6 

il 

1 

— g  -Sg 

Tou¬ 

louse. 

"•i  iii 

Lille. 

Bor¬ 

deaux. 

'hooi 

Mar¬ 

seilles. 

NON  (MOO 

1-1  co  1—1 M 

Lyon. 

M3g 

Paris. 

ss§  “8S 
<*? 

Schools. 

Boys. 

Number . . - 

Teachers  (men) . ...... . . . 

Pupils.. . . . 

Girls. 

Number . . . . 

Teachers  (women) . . . . . 

Pupils . 

I 

5 


ps; 


II SI Si S3 

Niho"  r-T 

! I +++ I + I 


m 


+  i 


iiiisiiiiiig 


lillsIlgElls 


12 II II II SI 8  3 

5  2  h"  *  S  h"  ^  S'  ^  ® 


mmmmm 

ilfll3SSlS"§ 

<n" 


mmmm 


SllSgSpi 

gf  C-T O  CO  CO  co fc-- co 


SssISSIl 


3i 

CO%WS 


The© 


sISoslllllsl 


m 


"1681  s  "C68T  s  "0681  x 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1099 


Table  XI. — Showing  for  cities  of  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  the  ratio  of 
primary-school  enrollment  to  total  population  and  the  ratio  of  public-school  enroll¬ 
ment  to  total  enrollment . 


Cities. 

Ratio  of  total  en¬ 
rollment  t  o 

population. 

Ratio  of  public- 
school  enroll¬ 
ment  to  total 
enrollment. 

1891-92. 

1896-97. 

1891-92. 

1896-97. 

P&ris  „  „  mm  n„  . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Per  cent J 
9. 78 

\Per  cent. 
9.47 

Per  cent. 
61.99 

Per  cent. 
63  65 

Lyon  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

9.89 

8.25 

51.00 

51.47 

Marseilles  _  _ _ _ _ _ ... _ 

10. 55 

11.02 

52.82 

56.41 

Bordeaux _ 

11.07 

11.15 

51.24 

54. 61 

LiiTe  . . . . . 

17. 04 

18.43 

49.65 

40. 26 

Toulouse _ _ _ _  _ _ _ -  - 

11.64 

11.20 

52. 25 

51.64 

Saint  Etienne  _ _ _ _ _  _ _ 

15. 01 

33. 86 

56. 88 

55. 69 

Rnnhaiir  _  _  _____  _  _  _ 

14.88 

14.90 

58.47 

58.46 

"N  ant  (vi  _ 

11.21 

44.06 

Ls  Havre  .  ...  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

11.63 

12.75 

65.38 

67.23 

Rouen . . . . 

"R.Tifstms  _  .  _  __  _  _  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

12.68 

12.62 
14. 29 

75. 83 

52.15 

54.72 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  TEE  STATE-TEACHING  SYSTEM  (UNIVERSITY  OF 
FRANCE)  AND  THE  INSPECTORATE  FOR  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 


Public  education  in  France  forms  a  department  of  public  affairs,  under  the 
direction  of  a  cabinet  officer,  the  minister  of  public  instruction  and  fine  arts 
(present  incumbent,  M.  Georges  Leygues) . 

The  control  of  the  minister  is  exercised  through  a  graded  series  of  appointed 
officials  belonging  to  the  central  administration  or  to  the  academies  (17  in  number, 
including  1  in  Algiers) ,  which  are  the  local  subdivisions  of  the  system.  Public 
instruction  is  a  State  service,  professors  and  teachers  constituting  a  professional 
order  whose  qualifications,  duties,  privileges,  honors,  emoluments,  and  penalties 
are  as  rigidly  fixed  by  law  as  those  of  other  branches  of  the  civil  or  those  of  the 
military  service. 

To  the  central  administration  belong  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction, 
the  chiefs  or  directors  of  the  three  scholastic  departments  (superior,  secondary, 
primary),  the  corps  of  general  inspectors,  and  a  large  body  of  clerks  or  assistants. 

The  functions  of  the  superior  council  (council  of  the  Imperial  University,  1808, 
transformed  and  liberalized)  are  advisory  and  in  some  cases  disciplinary  and  judi¬ 
cial.  This  council  consists  of  60  members,  one-fourth  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  Republic  and  the  remainder  elected  by  their  colleagues  (professors  and 
teachers) ,  the  term  of  service  being  four  years.  General  inspectors — 10  for  sec¬ 
ondary  and  a  large  number  for  primary  instruction— are  sent  annually  from  Paris 
to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  condition  of  colleges  and  schools  in  their 
respective  jurisdictions  (service  dating  from  1808,  extended  to  primary  instruc¬ 
tion,  1846). 

The  centralized  power  is  reenforced  by  the  peculiar  organization  of  the  system. 
It  consists  of  17  academies  or  scholastic  subdivisions,  each  comprising  a  university 
and  classical  college  and  its  quota  of  primary  schools  (after  the  general  plan  of 
the  Imperial  University  created  in  1808) .  At  the  head  of  each  academy  is  a  rec¬ 
tor,  an  official  of  great  dignity,  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic.  He 
is  assisted  by  a  council  of  university  professors,  of  whom  four  are  his  own  nomi¬ 
nees.  The  control  of  the  rector  extends  nominally  to  all  three  grades  of  educa¬ 
tion,  but  here  we  consider  exclusively  his  relation  to  primary  education.  In  this 
province  he  is  virtually  represented  by  the  academy  inspector,  excepting  as  regards 
the  departmental  normal  schools.  On  the  scholastic  side  the  normal  schools  are 
under  the  rector’s  mediate  direction.  The  financial  affairs  of  the  normal  schools 
pertain  exclusively  to  the  academic  inspector.  This  official  is  appointed  by  the 
minister  of  public  instruction,  generally  from  the  corps  of  secondary  professors 


1100 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


or  of  primary  inspectors;  in  any  case  lie  must  have  had  extended  experience  in 
teaching  or  have  secured  a  university  degree.  The  importance  of  the  service  was 
emphasized  in  the  educational  exhibit  of  the  Paris  Exposition  (1900)  by  a  special 
monograph  on  the  subject,  prepared  by  the  director  of  primary  instruction,  M. 
Bayet.  In  summing  up  the  duties  and  the  influence  of  the  academy  inspectors, 
M.  Bayet  says: 

Upon  them  falls  the  task  of  applying  the  laws,  decrees,  and  regulations  which 
have  made  primary  education  compulsory,  gratuitous,  and  strictly  secular, 
reformed  the  programmes,  and  assigned  the  principal  place  to  moral  and  civic 
instruction.  It  is  their  duty  to  explain  the  spirit  of  these  regulations  to  the  teach¬ 
ers  under  their  charge,  to  guide  them  by  their  counsels,  to  sustain  their  courage, 
to  save  them  from  failures.  They  must  also  see  to  it  that  the  schools  are  properly 
installed;  they  must  excite  the  local  ambition,  keep  in  touch  with  the  local  author¬ 
ities,  with  the  elected  councils,  and  the  principal  citizens  in  order  to  draw  to  the 
schools  the  current  of  sympathies  necessary  for  their  support  and  development. 
*  *  *  The  aca(3emic  inspectors  have  fulfilled  their  obligations  with  remarkable 
success.  They  have  put  their  minds  and  their  hearts  into  the  work.  This  is  the 
unanimous  testimony  of  the  rectors,  of  the  inspector  general,  and  of  all  who  are  in 
a  position  to  observe  its  progress. 

But  the  academy  inspector  has  a  wider  province  than  elementary  education;  his 
supervision  extends  also,  though  in  a  subordinate  sense,  to  secondary  institutions. 

This  double  action  offers,  says  M.  Bayet,  the  great  advantage  of  unifying  the 
direction  of  institutions  which,  although  engaged  in  imparting  instruction  differ¬ 
ing  in  degree  and  in  the  sanctions  which  are  attached  to  them,  have  as  their  com¬ 
mon  purpose  national  education.  The  academy  inspector  is  thus  the  bond  of  union 
between  functionaries  who,  without  him,  would  remain  isolated  from  each  other. 

The  true  unit  of  primary  school  administration  in  France  is  the  department— a 
civil  district  which  for  educational  purposes  is  treated  as  a  subdivision  of  an  acad¬ 
emy.  France  (including  Algiers)  comprises  90  departments,  which  are  unequally 
distributed  among  the  17  academies.  Chambery,  the  smallest  academy,  comprises 
2  departments;  Paris,  the  largest  academy,  9.  The  departments  also  vary  in  extent 
and  in  population.  The  smallest  has  88,000  inhabitants;  the  largest  (Seine) ,  three 
and  a  half  millions;  but,  large  or  small,  their  adoption  as  units  of  administration 
has  saved  France  from  the  ills  of  petty,  autonomous  school  districts. 

The  departmental  administration  includes  two  normal  schools  (one  for  men  and 
one  for  women)  and  the  several  classes  of  primary  schools. 

The  civil  head  of  every  department  and  the  head  also  of  its  school  affairs  is  the 
prefect,  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic,  and  the  only  political  official 
in  the  long  series  of  those  who  pertain  to  the  State  teaching  service.  Around  his 
prerogatives— especially  the  most  important  prerogative  of  appointing  teachers — 
is  waged  a  perpetual  conflict,  but  so  far  only  with  the  result  of  limiting  his  power 
by  the  advisory  functions  of  the  academy  inspector  and  of  a  professional  council. 
This  departmental  council  of  public  instruction,  which  must  he  distinguished  from 
the  general  council  of  the  department,  comprises  14  members  (the  department  of 
the  Seine  has  more),  including  4  members  from  the  civil  council  elected  by  their 
colleagues,  2  primary  inspectors  designated  by  the  minister,  the  directors  of  the 
two  normal  schools,  and  4  teachers  (2  men  and  2  women)  elected  by  their  col¬ 
leagues,  and  when  matters  are  under  discussion  affecting  private  schools,  2  mem¬ 
bers  representing  the  same,  one  clerical,  the  other,  lay.  Of  this  council  the 
prefect  is  president  and  the  academy  inspector  vice-president.  The  term  of  serv¬ 
ice  is  three  years,  and  the  members  receive  no  salary,  but  are  allowed  traveling 
expenses. 

The  council  meets  four  times  a  year,  and  special  sessions  may  be  called  by  the 
prefect. 

The  functions  of  the  council  are  educational,  administrative,  and  judicial. 

It  supervises  the  carrying  out  of  courses  of  study  and  general  regulations  pre¬ 
scribed  by  the  superior  council,  including  the  arrangements  for  the  medical  super- 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1101 


vision  of  schools;  deliberates  on  all  propositions  touching  reforms,  new  departures, 
the  financial  needs  of  the  schools,  the  distribution  and  location  of  schools,  authori¬ 
zation  of  private  schools,  the  authorization  of  foreigners  to  teach;  in  short,  upon 
all  questions  touching  the  scholastic  or  business  interests  of  primary  education. 

Its  disciplinary  powers  over  teachers  are  very  great,  extending  to  a  complete 
prohibition  to  teach  in  any  school.  The  teacher  has,  however,  the  right  of  appeal 
to  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction. 

The  academy  inspector  submits  most  of  the  propositions  upon  which  the  deci¬ 
sions  of  the  council  and  the  executive  orders  of  the  prefect  are  based. 

It  will  readily  be  understood  that  the  academy  inspector,  both  from  the  prestige 
of  his  position  and  his  wide  experience,  is  in  general  the  controlling  spirit  in  the 
administration.  Besides  his  routine  duties,  the  inspector  must  also  be  watchful 
as  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  essential  principles  of  the  school  laws — the  principle 
of  compulsion,  of  free  tuition,  of  exclusively  secular  instruction,  of  an  exclusively 
lay  personnel  in  the  public  schools.  Obviously  he  has  no  time  to  look  into  the  work 
of  individual  schools.  This  is  the  duty  of  primary  inspectors,  who  are  chosen  from 
the  elite  of  the  teachers  by  a  rigid  examination,  appointed  by  the  minister  of  pub¬ 
lic  instruction  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  schools  (the  ideal 
proportion  is  assumed  as  one  to  a  hundred  schools) ,  and  who  receive  instructions 
only  from  the  academy  inspector,  the  rector,  the  general  inspectors,  or  the  minister. 

The  duties  of  these  inspectors  are  distinctly  defined.  They  must  approve  the 
sites  selected  and  the  buildings  erected  for  schools,  attend  to  the  carrying  out  of 
orders  relative  to  the  opening  of  private  schools,  auxilary  public  schools  and 
classes  (for  adults,  manual  apprenticeship,  etc.),  authorize  the  transfer  of  pupils 
from  one  grade  of  school  to  another,  approve  time  tables,  receive  the  reports  as  to 
delinquent  pupils,  participate  in  the  proceedings  of  all  local  school  committees, 
conduct  the  examinations  of  pupils  for  the  “certificat  d  etudes/’  take  part  in  the 
examination  of  candidates  for  the  departmental  normal  schools  and  for  teachers’ 
diplomas,  and  convene  the  teachers  of  their  respective  districts  for  instruction  and 
conference  (meetings  corresponding  to  teachers’ institutes  in  our  own  country). 

This  service,  like  that  of  the  academy  inspectorate,  was  made  the  subject  of  a 
special  monograph  prepared  for  the  Paris  Exposition  by  M.  Bayet. 

After  tracing  briefly  the  development  of  the  service  and  stating  the  conditions 
mposed  upon  candidates  by  the  law  of  1888,  he  leaves  the  incumbents  to  speak 
for  themselves  by  copious  extracts  from  their  own  reports.  These  reveal  com¬ 
plete  familiarity  with  the  work  of  the  schools  and  great  power  of  discriminating 
criticism.  As  to  the  general  efficiency  of  this  branch  of  the  inspection,  M.  Bayet 
contents  himself  with  heartily  reaffirming  the  following  opinion  expressed  by 
Jules  Ferry  in  1881: 

During  the  half  century  that  this  institution  has  existed  with  us  it  has  proved 
its  value,  and  the  services  it  has  rendered  are  such  that  one  can  say  it  has  no 
longer  any  adversaries.  Organized  at  first  very  feebly  as  a  sort  of  benevolent  and 
temporary  committee  of  the  arrondissement  councils,  long  condemned  to  feel  its 
way  slowly  and  to  recruit  its  ranks  with  volunteers  who  were  mere  remarkable 
for  their  good  will  than  their  competence,  the  primary  inspectorate  has  won  for 
itself  by  the  force  of  circumstances,  or  rather  by  its  own  merit,  the  important 
place  it  occupies  in  our  school  organization. 

Other  countries  have  been  able  to  surpass  us  in  the  perfection  of  their  equip¬ 
ment  and  methods,  but  none,  perhaps,  has  so  speedily  and  resolutely  linked*  the 
destinies  of  its  national  education  to  the  homogeneous  composition  and  incessant 
activity  of  an  official  body  of  professional  inspectors. 

To-day,  when  the  primary  inspector  is  necessarily  recruited  from  among  the 
elite  of  the  teaching  body  and  appointed  on  the  results  of  competition  in  profes¬ 
sional  knowledge,  file  standard  of  which  has  recently  been  once  more  raised,  he 
is  one  of  the  functionaries  of  State  whose  authority  in  its  modest  limits  is  the 
best  established  and  the  readiest  accepted. 

The  examination  for  primary  inspectors. — Candidates  for  admission  to  the  exam¬ 
ination  for  the  certificate  of  fitness  for  the  primary  inspectorate  must  be  at  least 


1102 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


25  years  of  age,  roust  hare  diplomas  showing  satisfactory  attainments,  and  must 
have  taught  at  least  five  years  in  public  schools. 

The  examination,  which  is  the  same  also  for  directors  of  normal  schools,  is  both 
written  and  oral,  including  a  practical  test.  The  written  part  is  conducted  sim¬ 
ultaneously  in  the  chief  places  of  the  several  departments,  the  subjects  being  the 
same  for  all.  Those  who  pass  this  division  repair  to  Paris  for  the  oral  part,  which 
is  conducted  by  a  special  board.  This  oral  division  includes  pedagogy,  school  law, 
and  school  management.  Each  candidate  is  asked  to  explain  orally  a  passage 
from  some  one  of  the  prescribed  authors.  The  following  is  the  list  of  subjects  for 
the  composition  in  pedagogics  for  1900: 

First  session.  What  is  the  meaning,  as  regards  primary  education,  of  the  phrase 
preparer  sa  classe  (prepare  the  lessons  beforehand)?  How  will  you  impress  upon 
teachers  who  have  had  several  years’  experience  of  teaching  that  it  is  necessary 
to  prepare  the  work  for  one’s  class  all  one's  life  long? 

The  following  is  the  subject  set  for  the  composition  in  school  administration 
for  the  same  period: 

First  session.  The  higher  primary  schools:  their  general  organization  and  staff. 
[Candidates  should  avoid  discussing  details  in  the  programme.] 

For  189S-1900  the  authors  set  included,  among  others,  Feneion,  J.  J.  Rousseau, 
Condorcet,  Emile  Boutroux,  F.  Buisson,  and  Horace  Mann.  For  1901-1903  the 
extracts  are  taken  from  the  works  of  Montaigne,  Rousseau,  Channing,  Michelet, 
Bain,  Pecaut,  and  Jules  Ferry,  it  is  worth  noting  the  large  use  made  of  English 
and  American  writers  on  education  and  the  absence  of  any  German  books  on  the 
subject. 

The  following  are  a  few  specimens  of  the  questions  in  pedagogy: 

1.  In  a  pedagogical  conference,  set  forth  the  principal  reasons  why  the  school 
attendance  has  been  defective,  and  indicate  to  the  teachers  what  they  can  do,  with¬ 
out  having  recourse  to  the  school  commission  (local  committees),  to  improve  it. 

2.  Discipline.  ITow  do  you  understand  its  application  to  the  pupils  of  all  ages 
in  your  primary  schools? 

3.  How,  in  your  opinion,  can  a  teacher  in  his  commune  extend  his  educational 
influence  outside  of  and  beyond  the  school? 

4.  How  would  you  regulate  the  use  of  monitors  in  the  elementary  school? 

Specimens  of  questions  on  school  law  and  administration: 

1.  The  functions  and  role  of  the  inspector  of  primary  education  in  the  matter  of 
examinations. 

2.  Right  of  opposition  to  the  opening  of  private  schools.  Closmg  of  the  schools. 

3.  Class  books,  prizes,  and  supply  of  school  material. 

The  primary  inspectors  are  divided  into  five  classes.  For  promotion  from  a  lower 
to  a  higher  class,  an  inspector  must  have  served  three  years  in  the  former  and  be 
on  the  list  of  eligibles  prepared  by  the  academy  inspector. 

The  annual  salaries  are  3,000  francs  in  the  lowest  class,  with  an  increase  of  500 
francs  for  each  class  np  to  the  maximum  of  5,000.  These  salaries  are  paid  by  -the 
State.  The  inspectors  are  also  allotted  so  many  traveling  days’  expenses  at  the  rate 
of  10  francs  a  day,  according  to  the  size  of  their  respective  eirconscriptions,  and 
finally  the  department  allows  them  a  minimum  indemnity  of  300  francs.  [In  Seine 
the  inspectors  are  paid  on  a  higher  scale.] 

The  inspection  of  infant  schools  (ecoies  maternelles)  is  confided  to  departmental 
inspectresses,  who  are  also  selected  by  rigid  examination. 

The  medical  inspection  of  primary  schools  is  intrusted  to  physicians  designated 
by  the  municipal  councils. 

Communal  supervision. — The  mayor  and  civil  councilors  of  every  commune 
(city  or  rural)  have  the  right  to  inspect  the  loeal  sciiools  in  respect  to  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  school  buildings,  furniture,  and  supplies,  the  health  and  conduct  of  pupils; 
but  they  have  no  authority  to  touch  on  the  course  of  study  or  the  methods  of 
instruction. 


EDUCATION  Ilf  FEAIfOE. 


1103 


There  is  also  a  school  committee  (commission  seolaire)  in  each  commune,  which 
supervises  and  encourages  school  attendance.  In  Paris  and  Lyons  there  is  a  local 
committee  for  each  municipal  arrondissement. 

The  academy  inspector  and  the  municipal  or  communal  council  have  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  the  members  of  the  committee,  the  mayor  being  always  president  and  the 
primary  inspector  on©  of  the  members, 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

To  the  department  of  secondary  instruction  (director,  M.  Rabier)  belong  the 
lycees,  or  state  classical  colleges,  for  boys,  the  state  lycees  for  girls,  and  the  com¬ 
munal  colleges,  established  by  the  communal  or  local  authorities  and  aided  by  the 
State.  In  1899  the  lycees  for  boys  numbered  109  and  enrolled  52,708  pupils.  The 
communal  colleges  numbered  227,  with  an  enrollment  of  32,891.  This  gives  a 
total  of  85,599  boys  in  the  public  secondary  schools.  The  church  secondary  schools 
for  hoys  enrolled  the  same  year-  91,825  pupils  (of  these,  23,000  in  the  petits  semi- 
naires  for  students  intending  to  enter  the  priesthood) ,  and  private  secular  secondary 
establishments  for  boys  10,182. 

The  public  lycees  and  colleges  for  girls  had  an  enrollment  the  same  year  of 
11,402  students,  and  there  were  also  3,909  girls  pursuing  courses  of  secondary 
instruction  in  classes  under  public  auspices.  The  attendance  upon  convent  and 
private  secondary  schools  for  girls  is  not  known. 

The  professors  of  secondary  instruction  (public)  are  appointed  by  the  minister 
of  public  instruction.  Their  salaries,  like  those  of  the  professors  of  superior 
instruction,  are  paid  by  the  State,  and  they  are  also  borne  on  the  pension  list. 

The  public  secondary  schools  of  France  (lycees  and  communal  colleges)  provide 
a  complete  course  of  education  distinct  from  that  given  in  the  primary  schools. 
The  latter  prepare  the  children  of  the  working  classes  for  citizenship  and  for  the 
intelligent  pursuit  of  their  humble  avocations;  the  former  impart  that  liberal  edu¬ 
cation  leading  to  the  bachelor’s  degree,  which  is  necessary  for  admission  to  the 
specialized  courses  of  the  universities  and  professional  schools  and  also  for  entrance 
upon  the  public  service. 

The  lycee  is  the  typical  secondary  school;  the  local  colleges  have  the  same  curric¬ 
ulum,  so  far  as  circumstances  permit;  often  students  pass  from  a  college  to  a 
lycee  for  the  completion  of  their  studies. 

The  following  statistics  present  a  comparative  view  of  the  enrollment  and  dis¬ 
tribution  of  secondary  students  for  a  period  of  twelve  years. 

Enrollment  in  secondary  schools  for  hoys. 


Classes  of  institutions,  i 

1887. 1 

1892.2 

1893.2 

1894.2 

1885.2 

1896.2 

1897.2 

1898.3 

1899.3 

State  schools: 

Lycees . . . — 

Colleges . 

53,816 

38,086 

52,945 

32,508 

53, 974 
32,709 

53,480 
32, 421 

53,962 
32, 161 

53,290 

32,224 

52,427 

32,412 

51,892 

32,510 

52,  708 
32,891 

Total . - 

89,902 

85,453 

86,682 

85,911 

88,123 

85,514 

84,839 

84,402 

85,599 

Schools  of  religious  associ¬ 

ations: 

Classical _ 

50,085 

51,087 

51, 377 

56,265 

57,250 

58,506 

62,188 

87,643 

68, 825 

Petits  seminaires(pre- 
paratorv  to  theolog¬ 
ical  schools) . . 

23,948 

23, 849 

25,354 

25,407 

21, 737 

22,381 

23,497 

.  23,000 

Total _ _ 

50,085 
20, 174 

75,035 

16,306 

75.226 
14;  028 

81.619 

14,214 

82.657 

12,011 

80,243 

13,599 

84,569 

12,813 

91,140 
9, 725 

91,825 
10, 182 

Private  secular  schools  ... 

Total  non-State _ 

70,259 

91,341 

89,254 

95,833 

94,668 

93,842 

97,382 

100,865 

102,007 

Grand  total . . 

160, 161 

176, 784 

175,937 

181,744 

180,791 

179,356 

182,221 

185,267 

187,606 

1  From  Statistique  de  1’enseignement  aeeondaire  des  gargons,  1887,  pp.  Ivi,  Ixxviii,  xcviil. 

2  Rapports  fails  aunomdela  commission  de  budget,  etc.— Service  de  l’instruction  publioue 
par  M.  Bouge,  1897,  pp.  124,  125;  also  J898,  pp.  82,  33. 

3  The  same  by  M.  Perreau,  1901,  pp.  89,  70. 


1104 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  classification  of  students  in  the  lycees  and  colleges  in  1899  was  as  follows:1 


Total  en¬ 
rollment. 

Classical 

course. 

Modern 

course. 

Special 

mathe¬ 

matics. 

Prepara¬ 
tory  di¬ 
vision. 

Lvcees . . 

51. 997 
32, 784 

20,032 

9,242 

14, 489 
13, 541 

4,788 

749 

12,688 

9,252 

Communal  colleges  _ _ 

Proportion  of  total  students  in  each  division. 


Classical 

course. 

Modern 
course,  includ¬ 
ing  special 
mathematics. 

Preparatory 

course. 

Lvcees . . - _ _ 

Per  cent. 

45 

28 

Per  cent. 

31 

44 

Per  cent. 

24 

28 

Communal  colleges . . . . 

From  the  f  oregoing  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  independent  or  non-State  schools, 
including  the  “petits  seminaires,”  enroll  the  larger  proportion  of  the  students  in 
secondary  education.  The  Government  has  long  viewed  with  alarm  the  growing 
influence  of  the  church  schools  in  this  important  field,  and  this  solicitude,  together 
with  a  widespread  demand  for  a  reform  in  the  curriculum  and  organization  of 
the  State  schools,  has  brought  on  what  is  called  in  France  “the  crisis  of  secondary 
education.”  The  serious  intention  of  the  Government  in  respect  to  this  matter 
has  been  shown  by  legislative  action  looking  first  to  the  reform  of  the  public  sec¬ 
ondary  schools,  and  second  to  the  repression  of  anti-Republican  tendencies  in  the 
independent  schools. 

In  pursuance  of  the  former  purpose  a  commission  was  appointed  in  1898  by  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  to  investigate  the  whole  subject  of  secondary  education  and 
to  suggest  needed  reforms.1 2 

The  conclusions  of  this  committee  have  formed  the  basis  of  a  measure  elaborated 
by  the  minister  of  public  instruction  in  advice  with  the  superior  council  of  public 
instruction,  and  the  project  now  awaits  legislative  action. 

The  proposal3  deals  with  both  sides  of  the  secondary  establishments — the  domes¬ 
tic  (internat)  and  the  educational.  The  domestic  regime  has  long  been  unsatis¬ 
factory  from  every  point  of  view.  One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  falling  off  in 
the  patronage  of  the  State  schools  is  alleged  to  be  the  scanty  comforts  enjoyed  by 
the  boarding  pupils  of  the  lycees,  who  are  in  the  great  majority.  The  food  and 
lodging  are  poor,  and  the  inmates  have  less  freedom  than  soldiers  in  a  barrack. 
The  professors  do  not  reside  in  the  establishment,  are  present  only  during  class 
time,  and  have  no  influence  in  forming  the  habits  and  character  of  the  students 
The  latter  are  under  the  espionage  of  the  repetiteurs  (house  tutors) ,  who  are  gen¬ 
erally  despised  because  of  their  disciplinary  functions,  and  are  thus  prevented 
from  exercising  any  wholesome  influence  over  the  young  men  whose  studies  they 
partially  direct. 

In  all  these  respects  the  lycees  are  inferior  to  the  independent  schools,  church 
and  private,  which  not  only  provide  for  their  boarding  pupils  better  living  condi¬ 
tions,  but  also  the  certainty  of  constant  intercourse  with  devoted,  high-minded 
teachers.  Under  these  circumstances  many  eminent  men  have  urged  that  the 
State  should  withdraw  from  the  direct  administration  of  the  lycees,  retainingonly 
control  over  the  scholastic  work  and  the  teaching  staff.  This  suggestion  is  evi¬ 
dently  not  practicable  at  present,  but  the  conditions  which  have  caused  it  explain 


1  Enrollment  here  given  excludes  day  pupils. 

2  See  Commissioner’s  Report,  vol.  1,  chap.  21,  pp.  1107-1138. 

3  See  Bulletin  Administratif ,  February  1, 1902,  pp.  97-109. 


EDUCATION  IN  FBANCE. 


1105 


the  tenor  of  the  new  provisions  touching  the  “internat”  or  domestic  regime  of 
the  schools.  The  broad  lines  of  reform  in  this  respect  as  laid  down  by  the  minis¬ 
ter  are:  Financial  separation  of  the  educational  and  domestic  sides  of  the  lycee, 
the  latter  to  be  self-supporting;  increase  of  the  dignities,  qualifications,  and 
responsibilities  of  the  principals  (proviseurs) ;  professors  to  be  brought  into  closer 
relation  with  the  life  of  the  students;  the  position  of  repetiteurs  to  be  improved, 
their  work  as  teachers  elevated,  and  their  disciplinary  functions  transferred  to 
other  officials;  hygienic  requirements  to  be  strictly  enforced;  physical  education 
to  be  seriously  organized,  with  recognition  either  in  the  leaving  examination  or  in 
the  regulations  for  military  service;  recreation  rooms  and  libraries  for  masters 
and  pupils  to  be  established  in  all  lycees.  All  these  provisions  so  far  as  they  are 
applicable  are  extended  also  to  the  local  (communal)  colleges. 

Important  as  are  the  changes  contemplated  in  the  domestic  regime  of  the  lycees, 
they  are  of  less  general  interest  than  those  relative  to  the  curriculum  and  to  the 
diploma,  which  is  the  goal  of  secondary  studies.  As  regards  the  studies  it  is  pro¬ 
posed  that  they  be  grouped  in  two  cycles,  one  comprising  four  years,  the  other 
three  years.  This  plan,  the  minister  admits,  is  not  well  suited  to  Greek  and  Latin, 
which  branches,  in  particular  the  latter,  have  heretofore  been  chiefly  considered. 
The  mere  suggestion  of  the  change  indicates  the  importance  which  other  branches 
have  recently  assumed.  “By  this  division  into  cycles,”  says  the  minister,  “ it  will 
be  possible  for  the  pupil  who  leaves  the  lycee  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  class  ( troi- 
sieme)  to  acquire  more  than  mere  beginnings  and  to  carry  with  him  a  fund  of 
knowledge  which,  though  limited,  may  be  complete  and  useful.  For  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  students  this  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  A  standard  will  thus  be 
set  for  those  who  are  pressed  by  the  necessities  of  life,  and  for  those  who  have  no 
taste  for  study,  who  follow  the  course  against  their  will  and  are  a  dead  weight 
upon  their  classes.”  In  the  first  cycle  choice  may  be  made  between  a  classical  and  a 
nonclassical  course.  The  classical  programme  will  include  morals,  civics,  French, 
Latin,  one  modern  language,  history,  geography,  the  elements  of  mathematics, 
and  drawing.  Latin  is  to  be  taught  in  three  graduated  courses  of  a  year  each, 
and  as  far  as  possible  without  change  of  teachers  during  the  three  years.  Greek, 
which  is  optional,  is  to  begin  the  third  year.  The  nonclassical  programme  includes 
for  the  first  cycle  morals  and  civics,  French,  one  modern  language,  history,  geog¬ 
raphy,  the  elements  of  science  and  drawing.  To  these  subjects  will  be  added 
optional  courses,  commercial,  industrial,  or  agricultural,  according  to  local 
demands. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  cycle  a  certificate  of  studies  will  be  conferred  upon  those 
who,  by  their  daily  records  and  the  testimony  of  the  professors,  are  found  to 
deserve  it.  For  those  who  leave  the  lycee  at  this  stage  the  certificate  will  be 
valuable,  and  for  those  who  remain  it  will  have  weight  in  their  candidacy  for  the 
bachelor’s  degree  which  is  the  goal  of  the  complete  programme.  From  the  choice 
of  studies  allowed  in  the  first  cycle,  it  will  follow  that  three  classes  of  students 
will  present  themselves  for  the  second  or  three  years’  cycle — those  who  have 
studied  both  Latin  and  Greek,  those  who  have  studied  Latin  but  no  Greek,  and 
those  who  have  studied  neither  Latin  nor  Greek.  The  first  class  will  naturally 
push  their  classical  studies  as  far  as  possible.  The  second  class  will  give  their 
attention  chiefly  to  the  sciences  and  the  modern  languages,  In  which  subjects  the 
third  class  will  be  united  with  them.  The  duration  of  studies  will  be  the  same 
for  all  three  classes,  and  all  will  lead  alike  to  the  bachelor’s  degree.  The  diploma 
will  have  the  same  value  in  all  classes,  but  will  mention  the  course  which  the  can¬ 
didate  has  pursued.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  this  single  diploma  will  not  rep¬ 
resent  identical  possibilities  in  all  cases.  For  example,  the  student  who  has  not 
taken  Greek  can  not  become  a  candidate  for  the  licence-es-lettres. 


ED  1901 


■70 


1106 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


The  new  measure  eliminates  the  modern  course  of  the  lycee,  which  is  shorter  by 
two  years  than  the  classical  course,  but  leads  like  that  to  a  bachelor's  degree.  Pro¬ 
vision  i3  made,  however,  for  a  new  section,  based  upon  the  nonclassical  division  of 
the  lower  cycle.  Like  that  division,  the  new  division  is  intended  particularly  for 
students  who  seek  a  preparation  for  active  business.  It  will  comprise  a  short  spe¬ 
cialized  course  in  the  living  languages  and  in  the  sciences  considered  in  respect 
to  their  practical  applications.  This  course  will  be  established  only  where  it  is 
demanded  and  with  special  adjustments  to  local  industries.  Students  who  finish 
this  course  will  be  tested  by  final  examination,  which  will  entitle  them  to  a  certifi¬ 
cate,  having  nothing,  however,  in  common  with  the  baccalaureate. 

The  above  summary  shows  in  brief  the  solution  which  the  educational  officials 
present  of  the  complex  problem  of  secondary  education. 

Outside  the  university  circle  the  project  is  seriously  criticised,  especially  because 
of  the  reduction  of  the  lycee  course  from  eight  to  seven  years  and  the  endeavor 
to  burden  the  lycee  with  specialties  which  are,  even  in  the  project,  stamped  as  for¬ 
eign  to  the  purpose  and  spirit  of  liberal  education. 

For  a  clear  understanding  of  the  changes  proposed,  the  new  scheme  sketched 
above  should  be  compare  1  with  the  existing  scheme  of  the  lycee  courses,  as  pre¬ 
sented  in  the  tabular  view  appended  to  this  article. 

The  purpose  of  the  Government  to  suppress  adverse  influences  in  the  domain  of 
secondary  education  is  shown  by  the  passage  of  a  law  (the  Law  of  Associations, 
July  1,  1901)  determining  the  conditions  under  which  associations  may  acquire 
the  legal  right  to  exist  and  to  work  in  France. 

Although  the  law  deals  with  all  associations,  secular  and  religious,  its  avowed 
intent  wa3  to  bring  the  religious  orders  into  subordination  to  the  civil  authority, 
of  which  they  had  been  hitherto  entirely  independent.  It  would  be  out  of  place 
here  to  consider  either  the  general  scope  of  the  law,  the  political  and  social  con¬ 
ditions  which  have  led  to  its  passage,  or  the  agitations  which  it  has  excited.  It 
must  suffice  to  state  simply  the  conditions  which  are  imposed  upon  the  religious 
orders  and  the  probable  effect  upon  their  educational  work.  The  law  requires 
that  every  association  shall  publish,  through  its  founders,  its  title  and  object,  the 
place  of  its  establishment,  and  the  names,  professions,  and  domicile  of  those  ■who 
are  in  any  way  concerned  with  its  administration  or  management.  These  decla¬ 
rations  must  be  made  at  the  prefecture  of  a  department  or  the  subprefecture  of 
a  district.  Any  changes  in  the  administration  or  modification  in  the  statutes 
must  also  be  reported  within  three  months. 

Three  months  was  the  limit  of  time  allowed  for  associations  to  comply  with  all 
the  conditions.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time  those  associations  that  had  not 
sought  authorization  were  to  be  declared  illegal  and  dissolved.  In  such  cases  the 
property  belonging  to  members  of  an  association  before  its  formation,  or  since  ac¬ 
quired  by  them  by  succession,  should  be  restored.  The  property  acquired  gratui¬ 
tously  and  not  specially  assigned  by  a  deed  of  gift  to  a  work  of  charity  may  be 
reclaimed  by  the  donor,  his  heirs  or  assigns.  After  a  delay  of  six  months  all 
property  that  has  not  been  claimed  or  devoted  to  some  work  of  charity  shall  be 
liquidated,  and  the  sum  realized  set  apart  to  be  used  by  the  public  liquidator 
according  to  the  regulation  of  public  administration  of  the  law. 

Later  regulations  defining  the  methods  by  which  the  law  should  be  enforced 
placed  the  responsibility  of  the  authorization  and  subsequent  surveillance  of  the 
religious  orders  upon  the  respective  diocesan  bishops,  thus  subordinating  to  the 
ordinary  church  authorities  those  bodies  which  had  hitherto  claimed  canonical 
exemption.  The  number  of  orders  affected  by  the  law  is  estimated  at  1,663,  of 
which  152  are  for  men  and  1,511  for  women.  They  comprise  about  18,500  estab¬ 
lishments;  of  these  a  little  above  5,000  have  applied  for  authorization.  The  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  remaining  11,327  establishments  have  been  dispersed,  the  greater  part 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1107 


having  gone  into  other  countries  to  prosecute  their  work.  A  very  large  propor¬ 
tion  of  these  establishments  maintain  schools,  but  some  are  wholly  devoted  to 
missionary  propaganda  and  works  of  charity.  In  some  cases  the  educational  work 
has  been  transferred  to  other  hands  and  will  be  continued  without  violation  of  the 
law,  but  a  large  proportion  of  teaching  establishments  are  closed. 

Until  an  official  inquiry  has  been  made  the  actual  effect  upon  education  can 
only  be  conjectured.  By  reference  to  statistics  already  given  it  appears  that 
nearly  one-half  the  secondary  classical  instruction  of  the  country  and  above  one- 
third  of  the  primary  instruction  was  in  charge  of  brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods 
when  the  law  was  passed. 

Organization  of  the  lycee  classical  course. 


Elementary  division:  Average  age  (years). 

Preparatory  class  (classe  preparatoire) -  8 

Eighth  (huitieme) - - , . . - - - - - - - —  9 

Seventh  (septieme) - - - - - -  10 


[Certificate  of  studies  (certificat  d’etudes)  to  be  obtained  before  admission  to 
the  sixieme.] 


Division  of  grammar: 

Sixth  (sixieme) _ _ _ - . . . . . 11 

Fifth  (cinquieme) -  - - - - . . . . . 12 

Fourth  (quatrieme) . . - _ _ _ _ _  13 

[Certificat  d’etudes  necessary  for  the  troisieme.] 

Superior  division  (division  superieure) : 

Third  (troisieme)  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  14 

Second.. _ _ _ „ _ _ _ _ _  15 

Rhetoric  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 16 

[First  examination  for  bachelor's  degree.] 

Philosophy _ _ _ _ _ _  17 

[Second  examination  for  bachelor’s  degree.] 


In  the  class  of  philosophy  options  are  allowed  between  three  courses;  according 
to  the  choice  the  student  has  his  diploma  inscribed,  “Lettres  philosophie, ”  PLet- 
tres  matliematiques,”  or  “  Lettres  sciences,  physiques  et  naturelles.” 

Lycee  classical  course — Programme  for  classes  above  sixth. 

NUMBER  OP  HOURS  IN  CLASS  EACH  WEEK. 1 


Class. 

Latin. 

French. 

Greek. 

English 

or 

German. 

History 
and  ge¬ 
ography. 

Science.2 

Draw¬ 

ing. 

Total 
hours  a 
-week  of 

5  days. 

Sixth . 

10 

3 

U 

24 

14 

14 

20 

Fifth . 

9 

3 

2 

if 

24 

14 

14 

20 

Fourth . 

5 

2 

6 

14 

24 

14 

14 

20 

Third . 

5 

2 

5 

It 

24 

3 

14 

20.V 

Second  . 

5 

3 

5 

H 

24 

14 

2 

204 

Rhetoric . 

4 

4 

4 

24 

24 

14 

2 

204 

1  By  a  decree  of  December  24, 1881,  clergy  of  all  denominations  are  admitted  to  the  lycees  to 
give  religious  instruction  outside  of  class  hours. 

2  Sixth  class,  zoology;  fifth,  geology  and  botany;  fourth,  geometry;  third,  mathematics  and 
rhetoric. 


1108 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901 

Class  of  philosophy. 


Studies. 

Hours  a 
week.1 

Studies. 

Hours  a 
week. a 

Philosophy . . . . 

Of 
•  1 

u 

Natural  history  _ 

2  if 

English  or  German  (optional) _ 

Physics  and  chemistry . 

Contemporaneous  history . . 

Drawing  (optional) 

1Some  hours  are  reserved  for  special  conferences  or  lessons;  of  these,  12  are  given  during  the 
year  to  hygiene. 

2  For  half  a  year. 


Modern  course  of  the  lycee. 


NUMBER  OF  HOURS  IN  CLASS  EACH  WEEK. 


Class. 

4 

1 

German. 

Language  and  litera¬ 
ture— English,  Ital¬ 
ian,  or  Spanish. 

History  and  geogra¬ 
phy. 

Elementary  law  and 
political  economy. 

History  of  civiliza¬ 
tion  and  art. 

Practical  morals. 

1 

3 

d 

Mathematics. 

Bookkeeping. 

£ 

& 

■i 

CD 

■3 

it 

s 

•Eq 

d 

d 

Natural  sciences. 

Writing. 

Drawing. 

Total  hours  a  week. 

Sixth 

6 

6 

3 

21 

U 

1 

3 

23 

Fifth  . 

G 

G 

3 

21 

U 

1 

3 

23 

Fourth . 

U 

4 

6 

21 

1 

3 

3 

1 

3 

25 

Third 

4) 

3 

3 

24 

41 

41 

3 

231 

Second  - . 

41 

3 

3 

2  i 

41 

3 

25 

First . . . 

Science  . 

3 

o 

3 

1 

11 

41 

3 

23 

Letters  . . 

41 

3 

2 

3 

G 

6 

1 

U 

U 

241 

PUBLIC  LYCEES  AND  COLLEGES  FOR  GIRLS. 

The  growth  of  the  lycees  and  colleges  for  young  women  since  their  foundation 
in  1880  is  shown  by  the  following  statistics: 


Enrollment  in  lycees  and  colleges  for  young  women  from  1881  to  1899. 1 


Year. 

Lycees. 

Colleges. 

Total. 

Academic 

depart¬ 

ment. 

Primary 

depart¬ 

ment. 

Total. 

Academic 

depart¬ 

ment. 

Primary 

depart¬ 

ment. 

Total. 

1881  . 

71 

229 

300 

1882 . 

315 

206 

521 

429 

567 

996 

1,517 

1883 . 

817 

464 

1,281 

787 

869 

1,656 

2,937 

1884 . . 

1,080 

618 

1.698 

1,060 

988 

2,048 

3, 746 

1885 . 

1,421 

522 

2,243 

1,122 

1,012 

2, 134 

4,377 

188G. . 

1,713 

1,048 

2,761 

1,218 

958 

2,206 

4,967 

1887 . . 

1,953 

1,295 

3,248 

1,446 

1,152 

2, 598 

5,840 

1888 . 

2, 191 

1,481 

3,672 

1,596 

1,366 

2,962 

6,634 

1889 . . . 

2,294 

1,570 

3, 8G4 

1,571 

1,416 

2,987 

6,851 

1890 . . 

2, 326 

1,120 

3, 955 

1,604 

1,484 

3,088 

7,043 

1891 . . . 

2,831 

2,132 

4,963 

1,410 

1,272 

2,682 

7,645 

1892. . 

3, 214 

2,411 

5,625 

1,460 

1,416 

2, 876 

8, 501 

1893 . 

3, 704 

2,822 

6,526 

1,365 

1,358 

2, 723 

9,249 

1894 . 

3, 924 

2, 899 

6,823 

1,602 

1,515 

3, 117 

9,840 

1895 . 

4,055 

3, 108 

7, 163 

1,702 

1,548 

3,250 

10, 413 

1893 . 

4,266 

3,297 

7,563 

1,653 

1,429 

3,082 

10,645 

1897 . 

4,352 

3,440 

7,792 

1,648 

1,403 

3,051 

10,843 

1898 . 

4,378 

3, 623 

8,001 

1,882 

1,519 

3, 401 

11,402 

1899 . 

4, 375 

3, 756 

8,431 

1,930 

1,633 

3,563 

11, 994 

Increase  1882-1899 . 

4,360 

3,550 

7,910 

1,501 

1,066 

2,567 

10,477 

’From  Lycees  and  Colleges  for  Yeung  Women,  by  M.  Camille  See  (author  of  the  law  of  1880), 
edition  for  the  Exposition  of  1900. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1109 


The  teaching  staff  of  the  lycees  and  colleges  in  1899  comprised  687  profesiors 
and  assistants.  The  financial  review  presented  by  M.  Camille  See,  in  his  history 
of  the  measure  providing  higher  education  for  women,  shows  that  the  State 
advanced  the  sum  of  33,409,437  francs  ($6,681,887)  from  1891  to  1898  for  building 
purposes.  These  advances  are  to  be  met  by  the  cities  and  towns  in  which  the 
lycees  are  situated. 

The  total  receipts  of  the  lycees  and  colleges,  exclusive  of  the  boarding  depart¬ 
ments,  amounted  in  1898  to  3,764,354  francs,  of  which  the  State  furnished  70  per 
cent,  tuition  fees  27  per  cent,  and  local  authorities  the  balance. 

HIGHER  EDUCATION. 

To  the  department  of  higher  education  (Director  M.  Liard)  belong  the  univer¬ 
sities  and  the  special  schools  of  university  rank  which  are  under  the  minister  of 
education.1  .Paris  is  the  seat  of  these  special  schools,  and  also  of  the  principal 
university.  Under  the  law  of  1896,  15  of  the  former  faculty  groups  have  been 
organized  into  independent  universities.  They  registered  29,377  students  in  1900, 
an  increase  of  11,772,  68  per  cent  above  the  number  enrolled  in  the  faculties 
in  1888. 

The  professors  of  the  State  universities  are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
Republic  in  advice  with  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  The  choice  is  made 
from  two  lists,  one  furnished  by  the  university  council,  the  other  by  the  superior 
council  of  public  instruction.  The  salaries  of  professors  are  paid  by  the  State, 
and  they  have  a  right  to  a  pension. 

Statistics  of  State  universities. 


Designation. 

Faculties,  1887-88. 

Universities,  1897-98. 

1900. 

Number  of 
students.2 

| 

Income. 2 

Number  of 
students. 3 

Income.3 

Number  of 
students.4 

Paris _ _ _  _ 

9,140 

433 

$685, 284 
94, 261 
43, 797 
142, 064 

12,131 

849 

$1,005,538 
129,983 
54, 026 
219, 656 
130, 687 
2, 620 

12,192 

772 

Aix  Marseille . . 

Besancon . . . . . . __ . . 

130 

197 

237 

Bordeaux . . . . . . 

1,029 

531 

2,144 

2,124 

609 

Caen . . . _ . 

101,556 
2, 600 

772 

Chambery  _ _  _  _ _ 

Clermont .  ... . . 

96 

45,492 
69, 897 
65, 431 

257 

53, 027 

279 

Dijon  . . . . 

236 

604 

91 , 002 

649 

558 

Grenoble . . . . . . 

318 

476 

86, 192 

Lille . 

810 

138, 357 

1,425 

2,335 

1,496 

1,001 

944 

195, 057 

1,141 
2, 465 

Lyon . 

962 

175, 640 

250, 940 
188, 960 
197, 377 

Montpellier . . 

890 

156,110 
158, 255 

1,531 

1,004 

Nancy . . . . 

454 

Portiers . . . . . 

391 

82, 310 

111,710 

161,992 

752 

Rennes . . . 

659 

114,345 

1,503 

1,135 

Toulouse . .  . 

1,303 

120, 618 

1, 885 

181, 450 

2, 002 

1,005 

862 

Schools  of  medicine  not  included  in  the 
universities . . 

Algiers . : _ _ 

223 

98,623 

763 

112,329 

Total. . . . . 

17, 605 

2, 294, 640 

28, 782 

3,172,546 

29,377 

1  College  de  France  (appropriation,  1900,  $104,600),  Museum  of  Natural  History  (appropriation, 
$193,500),  Practical  School  of  High  Studies  [Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes  (State  appropria¬ 
tion,  $64,200;  city,  $7,200)],  Superior  Normal  School  (110 students;  appropriation,  $103,120),  School 
of  Charts  [Ecole  Nationale  des  Chartes  (students,  69;  appropriation,  $14,990)],  School  of  Ori¬ 
ental  Languages  (students,  415;  appropriation,  $33,600),  French  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome 
(appropriation,  $14,600),  French  School  at  Athens  (appropriation,  $21,600),  Ecole  Nationale  des 
Beaux-arts  (students,  2,000;  appropriation,  $84,052).  The  remaining  special  schools,  such  as  the 
Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Ecole  Nationale  Superieure  des  Mines,  etc.,  are  under  the 
charge  of  other  ministers. 

2  Statistique  de  l’enseignement,  1878-1888,  pp.  133-418. 

3Statistique  de  l’enseignement,  1900,  pp.  10-180. 

4 Rapport  portant  fixation  du  Budget  General,- Min istere  de  ^Instruction  Publique,  1901  (Per- 
reau)  pp.  15, 16. 


1110 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Degrees  conferred  by  French  universities,  1S9T-98. 


Bachelor. 

Licentiate. 

Doctor. 

Certificate 

of 

capacity. 

Protestant  theology . . 

20 
1,440 
2, 185 
5, 358 

1,184 

261 

411 

Daw  . . . . . . 

251 

39 

23 

255 

Sciences _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Detters  . 

Total . . . . . 

9,003 

1, 859  313 

255 

Medicine: 

Doctor . 1,099 

Health  officer . 67 

Dental  surgery  . . . . . . . . . .  35 

Certificate  of  midwifery . 243 

Pharmacy : 

Diploma . . 611 

Herbalist.... . 247 


The  total  of  13,731  diplomas  conferred  in  1897-98.  as  shown  in  the  above  table, 
includes  72  conferred  upon  women.  These  were  distributed  as  follows:  Law,  licen¬ 
tiate,  1;  sciences,  bachelor,  1,  licentiate,  15;  letters,  bachelor,  26,  licentiate,  3; 
medicine,  doctorates,  16,  certificates,  8;  pharmacy,  certificates,  2. 

The  recent  history  of  higher  education  in  France  is  concerned  mainly  with  the 
outcome  of  the  measures  reorganizing  the  universities. 

While  preserving  the  organic  unity  of  the  State  system,  technically  called  the 
University  of  France,  these  measures  have  restored  in  part  the  independence  which 
belonged  to  the  old  universities  of  France.  After  the  decree  of  suppression  issued 
by  the  convention  in  1793,  higher  education  was  relegated  to  isolated  special  schools. 
In  the  Imperial  University,  created  in  1808,  letters  and  science  and  the  learned 
lirofessions  were  represented  by  faculties  which  were  scarcely  more  than  examin¬ 
ing  bodies.  “Napoleon,”  says  M.  Breal,  “whose  conceptions  assumed  inevitably 
a  hierarchical  and  administrative  form,  would  probably  never  have  created  facul¬ 
ties  of  letters  and  of  science,  but  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  some  one  to  confer 
diplomas.” 

The  policy  proved  disastrous  to  the  interests  of  higher  education.  Even  the  Sor- 
bonne,  which  alone  preserved  in  some  measure  the  unity  and  philosophic  spirit  of 
university  work,  could  not  resist  the  paralyzing  influence. 

After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the  spirit  of  culture  revived,  but  the  harassed  and 
impoverished  condition  of  the  country  prevented  practical  reforms.  As  late  as- 
1875  the  condition  of  higher  education  was  still  deplorable.  In  a  speech  made  in 
the  Senate  that  year  Paul  Bert  dwelt  upon  the  miserable  equipment  and  inefficient 
organization  of  the  faculties: 

We  have  in  France  [he  says]  43  faculties  of  diverse  orders;  they  are  distributed 
in  15  or  16  cities  and  they  comprise  each  four  or  five  professors  charged  to  cover  the 
whole  domain  of  the  sciences  and  of  letters.  In  the  science  courses  there  is  scarcely 
a  single  student  and  few  in  those  of  letters.  The  professional  faculties  alone  have 
followers  and  are  inspired  by  the  presence  of  interested  hearers.  The  other  fac¬ 
ulties  have  no  hold  upon  the  students;  they  have  scarcely  any  relation  with  them; 
they  have  no  interest  in  the  increase  of  their  number,  and  therefore  in  encourag¬ 
ing  their  attendance.  The  faculties  are  isolated.  No  common  purposes  can  be 
developed  among  the  professors  of  the  faculties  of  letters  and  of  the  sciences. 

In  France,  save  at  Paris,  in  France,  in  the  country  of  Burnouf,  there  is  not  a 
chair  of  philology;  in  the  country  of  Champoilion  there  is  not  a  chair  of  epigraphy 
or  of  archaeology;  in  the  country  of  Cuvier  there  is  not  a  chair  of  paleontology. 

If  we  consider  not  the  organization  only,  but  the  spirit  of  the  instruction,  we 
find  even  a  worse  state.  As  a  consequence  of  the  incessant  surveillance  of  officials 
every  new  doctrine,  every  original  idea  is  prescribed. 

From  this  barren  state  the  faculties  have  been  raised  to  organized  and  vigorous 
life.  The  work  was  begun  by  increasing  the  State  appropriations,  which  were 
until  recently  the  only  dependence  of  higher  education.  Within  two  decades  their 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1111 


amount  was  doubled,  risingfrom$l,157,773inl870to$2,797,071inl889,to  $3,000,000 
in  1900.  Buildings  have  been  erected  on  which  the  States  and  cities  have  spent 
about  $2,000,000.  In  1885  two  important  decrees  were  issued.  The  one  authorized 
the  faculties  to  hold  property,  receive  gifts,  and  manage  their  own  estates;  the 
other  began  the  work  of  internal  organization  by  the  constitution  of  a  general 
council  in  each  group  of  faculties  having  control  of  their  common  interests,  and 
a  council  of  each  individual  faculty  charged  with  special  interests.  These  meas¬ 
ures  culminated  in  the  law  of  1890,  which  gave  legal  sanction  and  permanency  to 
the  changes  already  accomplished. 

Article  I  of  the  law  declares  that  “  the  universities  are  public  establishments  of 
higher  education,  whose  purpose  is  instruction  and  culture  by  all  the  sciences 
(Tensemble  des  sciences) .  ”  “  They  are  civil  personalities.  ”  They  are  named  from 
the  cities  in  which  they  are  located.  Article  II  defines  the  scope  of  a  university: 
“A  university  must  comprise  at  least  the  four  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  sciences, 
and  letters;  other  establishments  of  superior  instruction  may  also  be  incorporated 
with  it  at  the  instance  of  the  minister.”  Under  this  law  fifteen  of  the  faculty 
groups  have  already  been  transformed  into  universities  having  the  measure  of 
independence  that  is  compatible  with  the  unity  of  the  State  system.  The  rulings 
of  the  university  council  are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  minister  of  public 
instruction.  The  intermediary  between  the  minister  and  the  university  is  the 
rector,  whom  the  former  appoints. 

The  present  sources  of  income  for  the  universities  are  gifts  and  bequests  of  pri¬ 
vate  individuals,  societies,  and  local  administrators,  fees,  and  state  appropria¬ 
tions.  The  control  of  gifts  and  legacies  is  vested  in  the  council  of  the  universities. 
The  receipts  from  tuition  fees  and  the  state  appropriations  are  managed  as  here¬ 
tofore — by  special  agents  appointed  by  the  minister  of  finance.  The  report  of 
these  operations  must  be  submitted  each  year  as  a  part  of  the  report  of  the  expend¬ 
itures  of  the  department  of  public  instruction. 

It  should  be  noted  also  that  every  organization  whose  contributions  to  the  sup¬ 
port  of  the  university  are  accepted  may  be  represented  in  the  sessions  of  the  uni¬ 
versity  councils  in  which  the  financial  affairs  and  the  animal  reports  upon  the 
state  of  instruction  are  discussed.  Cities  may  be  represented  by  their  mayors, 
departments  by  the  presidents  of  their  councils,  etc.  Thus  the  sense  of  a  common 
interest  and  responsibility  is  stimulated. 

The  following  details  relative  to  the  development  of  the  reorganized  universities 
are  drawn  from  the  report  of  the  chairman  of  the  financial  committee  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies  (M.  Perreau),  1901: 

The  faculties  of  medicine  have  been  provided  with  physical,  chemical,  and  bac¬ 
teriological  laboratories.  In  the  faculties  of  law  the  introduction  of  studies  relat¬ 
ing  to  historic,  political,  and  economic  sciences  has  greatly  enlarged  the  views  of 
students,  who  were  formerly  too  much  absorbed  in  the  mere  mastery  of  prescribed 
texts.  The  faculties  of  science  have  had  still  greater  development  as  regards  both 
curriculum  and  laboratory  equipments. 

Thus  (says  M.  Perreau)  has  been  realized  the  saying  of  Virchow,  that  ”  the  end 
of  higher  education  is  the  acquisition  of  general  culture  with  the  addition  of  a 
particular  specialty.”  The  growth  has  not  been  at  the  expense  of  practical  educa¬ 
tion.  This  has  simply  become  more  scientific.  The  faculties  of  all  orders  have 
not  ceased  to  be  professional  schools  wrhile  becoming,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
scientific  schools.  Indeed,  since  the  organization  of  local  (regional)  universities, 
it  seems  that  the  relation  between  science  and  practice  in  the  domain  of  higher 
education  has  become  more  intimate  and  constant.  Everywhere,  beside  theoretic 
instruction  of  the  most  elevated  order,  has  been  established  instruction  in  the 
applications  of  science. 

Invested  with  civil  personality  and  endowed  with  financial  autonomy,  the  uni¬ 
versities  have  created  institutes,  courses,  and  laboratories  for  instruction  in  indus¬ 
trial  and  agricultural  chemistry,  applied  mechanics,  electricity,  bacteriology,  and 
for  analysis,  experiments,  and  research  under  the  direction  of  distinguished  mas- 


1112 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ters.  They  have  attracted  a  new  clientele  which  does  not  disdain  either  the  spe¬ 
cial  certificates  (certificate  d’etudes)  nor  the  technical  diplomas  which  are  much 
appreciated  in  industry. 

The  following  are  cited  by  M.  Perreau  as  notable  examples  of  this  development: 

At  Lj'on,  where  there  is  already  a  flourishing  school  of  industrial  chemistry,  the 
university  is  about  to  found  a  school  of  tannery. 

‘‘The  foundation  of  this  school,”  writes  the  secretary,  ‘‘marks  a  forward  step  in 
the  university.  It  has  not  been  taken  solely  with  reference  to  the  interests  of  the 
immediate  neighborhood,  but  with  reference  also  to  the  general  interests  of  the 
tannery  industry  in  France.  The  creation  of  the  school  was  determined  and  in  a 
measure  supported  by  the  general  syndicate  of  the  industry  of  hides  and  leathers 
in  France. 

“  The  founders  have  had  in  view  not  simply  a  technical  school,  but  an  institute 
of  higher  education  of  a  special  order  intended  to  form  directors  of  tannery  works 
able  to  conduct  and  to  perfect  the  fabrication  of  leather.  Besides  instruction  in 
general  chemistry,  which  they  share  in  common  with  the  students  in  the  school  of 
industrial  chemistry,  the  students  of  the  tannery  school  follow  during  their  two 
years’  attendance  a  special  course  directed  to  the  end  which  they  have  in  view. 
This  course  includes  chemistry  as  applied  to  tannery,  natural  history,  the  technol¬ 
ogy  of  hides  and  leathers,  and  the  approved  methods  of  analysis  applied  to  the 
materials  and  the  products  of  this  particular  industry. 

“As  it  is  organized  this  school  will  soon  rival,  it  is  believed,  the  old  and  prosper¬ 
ous  schools  at  Freiburg,  Saxony,  and  Leeds,  England.” 

In  another  order  of  ideas  (continues  M.  Perreau)  the  University  of  Lyon  has 
just  opened  a  school  for  notaries,  in  which  civil  and  commercial  law  are  studied 
in  their  special  relations  to  the  functions  of  a  notary,  acts  of  registration,  and  stamp 
duties.  To  this  instruction  are  added  practical  lectures  upon  particular  cases, 
legal  documents,  etc. 

In  1889  the  University  of  Nancy,  by  the  aid  of  local  appropriations,  founded  a 
chemical  institute  for  instruction  in  the  theory  and  applications  of  the  different 
branches  of  chemistry.  The  number  of  students,  which  at  the  opening  of  the 
school  was  only  11,  had  risen  to  29  in  1895  and  to  94  in  1900.  All  these  students 
have  either  entered  into  industry  or  are  intending  to  do  so.  In  1892  the  same  uni¬ 
versity  added  to  the  technical  institute  a  laboratory  of  brewery,  which  soon 
developed  into  a  veritable  school.  Its  purpose  is  to  impart  the  scientificknowledge 
necessary  for  conducting  a  brewery  either  as  a  technical  expert,  chief,  or  foreman. 
Besides  the  theoretic  instruction,  practical  studies  of  the  processes  of  the  manu¬ 
facture  have  a  large  place  in  the  programme  of  the  school.  Each  year  the  school 
receives  about  80  students— sons  of  brewers,  or  foremen  in  breweries — and  it  ren¬ 
ders  invaluable  service  to  this  branch  of  French  industry.  Before  the  school  was 
founded,  young  Frenchmen  of  the  eastern  departments  were  obliged  to  go  to  Ger¬ 
many  for  their  scientific  and  technical  training,  and  it  was  to  Germany  also  that 
the  brewers  looked  for  the  directions  and  processes  applicable  to  their  industry. 
Now  they  look  to  Nancy,  and  the  opposition  which  the  school  at  first  encountered 
has  given  way  to  the  most  absolute  confidence. 

The  University  of  Nancy  also  founded  in  1899  new  laboratories  of  physical  chem¬ 
istry,  of  electrical  chemistry,  of  dyeing,  of  printing,  and  of  electricity.  Through 
the  successful  efforts  of  two  learned  professors,  M.  Bichat,  dean  of  the  faculty  of 
science,  and  M.  Haller,  director  of  the  chemical  institute,  funds  to  the  amount  of 
800,000  francs  ($60,000)  for  the  construction  and  equipment  of  certain  of  these 
laboratories  were  obtained  from  the  neighboring  manufacturers. 

The  University  of  Dijon  contemplates  the  creation  of  an  institute  of  wine  mak¬ 
ing  and  grape  culture,  as  well  as  a  complete  commercial  course,  including  scien¬ 
tific  and  legal  branches.  *  *  *  In  giving  their  instruction  a  more  scientific 
tendency  (says  M.  Perreau)  the  faculties  have  not  ceased  to  be  truly  professional 
bodies.  They  do  not,  however,  rest  content  with  being  sources  of  science;  they 
have  become,  in  addition,  sources  of  wealth,  and  the  efforts  which  the  public 
authorities  have  made  in  their  interests  have  resulted  in  increasing  the  renown  of 
France  and  the  prosperity  of  the  national  industry. 

M.  Perreau  closes  this  survey  with  a  list  of  institutes,  laboratories,  and  other 
technical  or  industrial  establishments  attached  to  the  faculties  and  universities, 
which  is  here  reproduced: 

University  of  Paris. — (Faculty  of  sciences)  School  of  applied  chemistry  (rue 
Michelet) .  Three  laboratories  of  maritime  zoology,  viz:  Laboratory  Arago  at  Ban- 
yuls-sur-Mer  (Pyrenees  Orientales) ;  laboratory  at  Roscoff  (Finistere);  laboratory 
of  maritime  zoology  at  Wimereux  (Pas-de-Calais)  pertaining  to  the  chair  of  the  evo- 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1113 


lution  of  organized  beings,  founded  by  the  city  of  Paris,  auxiliary  to  the  faculty 
of  sciences;  archaeological  museum  of  the  University  of  Paris  (at  the  Sorbonne, 
faculty  of  letters) ;  colonial  and  geographic  museum. 

University  of  Aix- Marseille. — Laboratory  of  maritime  zoology  at  Endoume 
(near  Marseille),  attached  to  the  faculty  of  sciences.  Colonial  Institute  at  Mar¬ 
seille,  faculty  of  sciences. 

University  of  Besangon. — Experimental  station,  faculty  of  sciences. 

University  of  Bordeaux. — Faculty  of  sciences,  two  laboratories,  viz:  Laboratory 
of  agricultural  and  of  industrial  chemistry;  laboratory  of  industrial  electricity; 
archaeological  museum  (faculty  of  letters). 

University  of  Caen. — Laboratory  of  maritime  zoology,  Luc-sur-mer  (faculty  of 
sciences). 

University  of  Clermont . — Laboratory  recently  established  at  Besse  (Puy-de- 
Dome)  for  the  study  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  mountains  and  lakes  of 
Auvergne.  Laboratory  of  industrial  electricity. 

University  of  Dijon. — Faculty  of  sciences:  Laboratory  of  industrial  physics,  lab¬ 
oratory  of  chemical  analysis,  and  laboratory  of  bacteriology.  ( The  two  latter  labo¬ 
ratories,  though  attached  to  the  faculty  of  sciences,  are  entirely  supported  by  the 
city  of  Dijon.) 

University  of  Grenoble. — Electro- technic  institute,  faculty  of  sciences. 

University  of  Lille. — Institute  of  applied  chemistry;  institute  of  industrial  phys¬ 
ics;  laboratory  of  maritime  zoology  at  Portel  (Pas-de- Calais),  the  foregoing 
pertaining  to  the  university;  laboratory  of  agricultural  chemistry  (faculty  of 
sciences);  archaeological  museum  of  the  university  (at  the  faculty  of  letters). 

University  of  Lyon. — Institute  of  chemistry  with  school  of  industrial  chemistry; 
laboratory  of  maritime  physiology;  Institute  Michel  Pacha  at  Tamaris  (Vac),  de¬ 
pendent  upon  the  university;  archaeological  museum  of  the  university  (at  the 
faculty  of  letters);  school  of  tannery;  school  for  notaries  (faculty  of  law). 

University  of  Montpellier. — Institute  of  chemistry;  of  physics;  of  zoology;  of 
botany;  botanical  garden  (all  annexes  of  the  university);  station  of  maritime 
zoology  (at  Cette);  archaeological  museum  of  the  university  (at  the  faculty  of 
letters). 

University  of  Nancy. — Institute  of  chemistry;  of  technical  electricity;  of  serum 
therapy  (all  annexes  of  the  university);  brewery  school  (faculty  of  sciences). 

University  of  Poitiers.  —Laboratory  of  agricultural  analyses  (faculty  of  sciences) . 

University  of  Toulouse. — Laboratory  of  agricultural  and  industrial  chemistry. 

ADMISSION  OF  FOREIGN  STUDENTS  TO  FRENCH  UNIVERSITIES. 

The  recent  efforts  that  have  facilitated  the  admission  of  foreign  students  to  the 
French  universities  have  been  set  forth  in  full  in  previous  Reports.1  It  will  suffice 
to  note  here  that  a  committee  was  formed  in  Paris  in  1895  (Comite  Franco- Amer- 
icain),  with  an  advisory  branch  in  Washington,  whose  purpose  it  was  to  familiar¬ 
ize  American  students  with  the  facilities  for  advanced  study  offered  by  the  French 
universities  and  with  the  conditions  for  admission  to  the  same. 

Few  foreign  students,  and  especially  few  American  students,  were  attracted  to 
the  French  universities  because  of  the  difficulty  in  securing  a  degree.  The  Ger¬ 
man  doctorate,  on  the  contrary,  could  be  gained  with  comparative  ease.  As 
pointed  out  by  Professor  Furber,  of  Chicago,  to  whose  efforts  the  new  arrange¬ 
ments  are  chiefly  due: 

There  was  an  organic  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  German  and  the  French 
degrees.  In  Germany  the  doctorate  carried  with  it  no  professional  prerogatives. 
Not  without  further  qualifications  and  severe  examinations  could  the  student 
obtain  from  the  State  the  license  permitting  him  to  practice  a  profession.  In 
Franc©,  on  the  contrary,  the  degrees  were  given,  not  by  the  universitju  but  by  the 
State,  and  clothed  the  recipient  with  special  immunities  and  rights.  The  licencie 
en  droit  could  enter  on  his  legal  duties.  The  doctor  of  medicine  was  already  a 
physician,  while  the  license  of  the  other  faculties  opened  public  careers  in  various 
directions.  To  render  degrees  more  accessible  to  foreigners  was,  therefore,  to 
subject  the  native  youth  to  sharper  competition  in  acquiring  a  livelihood,  a  com¬ 
petition  in  which,  because  of  his  military  duties,  the  Frenchman  was  at  a  disad¬ 
vantage  on  his  own  soil.  It  was  due,  in  fact,  to  this  consideration  that  at  the  very 


1  See  in  particular  Report  for  1894-95,  vol.  2,  p.  305;  Report  for  1896-97,  vol.  1,  p.  33  et  seq. ;  Report 
for  1897-98,  vol.  1,  pp.  749-759:  Report  for  1898-99,  vol.  1,  pp.  1091-1095. 


1114 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


time  the  friends  of  a  more  liberal  hospitality  were  endeavoring  to  secure  the  for¬ 
eign  student  greater  privileges,  a  counter  agitation  was  developed  which  aimed 
at  curtailing  those  that  he  already  had. 

The  arrangements  ultimately  proposed  by  the  Comite  Franco-American  har¬ 
monized  all  these  interests.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  creation  of  a  new  university 
doctorate,  which  was  sanctioned  by  a  ministerial  decree  of  July  21,  1897,  in  the 
following  terms: 

Besides  the  degrees  established  by  the  State,  the  universities  are  empowered  to 
institute  titles  of  a  nature  purely  scientific. 

These  titles  shall  confer  none  of  the  rights  and  privileges  attached  by  law  and 
regulations  to  the  (State)  degrees  and  in  no  case  shall  be  declared  a  substitute. 
The  studies  and  examinations  which  shall  determine  their  distribution  shall  be 
subject  to  regulations  formulated  by  the  council  of  the  university  and  approved 
by  the  standing  committee  of  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction.  The 
diploma  shall  be  delivered,  in  the  name  of  the  university,  by  the  president  of  the 
council  in  forms  different  from  the  forms  of  those  delivered  by  the  Government. 

The  doctorates  and  diplomas  created  under  this  decree  and  available  for  for¬ 
eigners  are  as  follows: 

University  of  Paris:  Doctorate  of  letters,  sciences,  medicine,  pharmacy,  Prot¬ 
estant  theology.  (The  university  doctorate  has  not  yet  been  adopted  for  law.) 
Also  diploma  of  pharmacy  and  certificate  of  French  language  and  literature. 

University  of  Besangon:  Doctorate  of  letters  and  of  sciences;  also  diploma  of 
agriculture. 

University  of  Bordeaux:  Doctorate  of  sciences,  medicine,  pharmacy,  letters; 
also  diploma  of  pharmacy. 

University  of  Caen:  Doctorate  of  lav/  (also  diploma  of  and  certificate  of  higher 
literary  studies;  act  November  19,  1886). 

University  of  Dijon:  Licentiate  in  law;  doctorate  of  laws. 

University  of  Grenoble:  Doctorate  of  letters,  law,  sciences:  also  diploma  for 
electro- technical  subjects  and  diploma  of  French  language  and  literature. 

University  of  Lille:  Doctorate  of  medicine;  also  diploma  of  French  language 
and  literature. 

University  of  Lyon:  Doctorate  of  medicine,  pharmacy,  sciences,  letters:  also 
diploma  of  pharmacy;  of  electro-technical  studies;  of  agriculture;  of  oratory;  of 
pedagogy;  French  letters. 

University  of  Montpellier:  Doctorate  of  pharmacy;  of  medicine;  of  law;  also 
diploma  of  legal  studies. 

University  of  Nancy:  Doctorate  of  law,  sciences,  pharmacy. 

The  following  statement  of  the  expenses  to  be  met  by  candidates  for  the  doctor¬ 
ate  of  the  University  of  Paris  is  furnished  by  M.  Henri  Breal,  corresponding- 


secretary  of  the  Franco-American  committee: 

Faculty  of  Protestant  theology:  Francs.1 

4  inscriptions  quarterly  of  30  francs  each _ _  _ _ _ _ _  120 

4  quarterly  fees  of  2.50  francs. .  . . . . . . . . . . .  10 

Examination  fees. _ _ _ _ _ _  110 


Total _ _ _ _ _ _  240 


Faculty  of  sciences: 

Annual  matriculation _ _ _ _ _ _  20 

Annual  fees  for  library _ _ _ _ _  10 

4  quarterly  fees  for  laboratory  from  50  to  200  francs  . . . .  200  or  800 

Examination  fees _ _ _ _ _  140 


aA  franc  is  ordinarily  reckoned  at  20  cents,  or  5  francs  to  $1,  but  the  exact  rate  of  exchange  is 
at  present  19.3  cents  per  franc. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1115 


The  total  depends  on  the  fees  for  laboratories  and  on  the  number  of  years  of 


study. 

Faculty  of  letters:  Francs. 

2  annual  matriculations  of  20  francs _ _  - _ _ _ .  _ _ _  40 

2  annual  fees  for  library  of  10  francs . . . . .  20 

Examination  fees _ _  140 


Total  if  the  doctorate  is  taken  in  one  year  _  . . . _  200 


Faculty  of  medicine: 

16  quarterly  subscriptions  of  30  francs _ _ ... _ _  480 

16  fees  for  library  of  2.50  francs... . . . . . . .  40 

16  fees  for  practical  exercises  of  15  francs _  240 

.8  examination  fees  of  80  francs _ _ _  640 


Total _ _ _ _  1,400 


Faculty  of  pharmacy: 

Annual  matriculation _ _  _  20 

Annual  fees  for  library _  _ _ _  10 

4  quarterly  fees  for  laboratories  of  150  francs _ _  COO 

Examination  fees ....... _  ... _ _  100 


Total  if  the  doctorate  is  taken  in  one  year _ _  730 


CONSPECTUS  OF  COURSES  OF  STUDY  3N  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PARIS. ] 

The  University  of  Paris  includes  five  faculties,  viz,  letters,  sciences,  law,  Prot¬ 
estant  theology,  and  medicine,  and  a  higher  school  of  pharmacy,  equivalent  to  a 
faculty. 

The  faculty  of  letters  (Sorbonne)  comprises  at  present  the  following  professor¬ 
ships,  complementary  courses,  and  lectureships: 

Professorships. — Philosophy,  history  of  ancient  philosophy,  history  of  modern 
philosophy,  Greek  eloquence,  Greek  poetry,  Latin  eloquence,  Latin  poetry,  French 
literature  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  history  of  the  French  language,  French  eloquence, 
French  poetry,  foreign  literature,  literatures  of  southern  Europe,  ancient  history, 
history  of  the  Middle  Ages,  modern  history,  modern  and  contemporary  history, 
history  of  the  French  Revolution,  geography,  colonial  geography,  archeology, 
Sanscrit  and  comparative  grammar  of  the  Indo-European  languages,  science  of 
education,  French  literature,  English  tongue  and  literature,  history,  Greek  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature. 

Complementary  courses. — Philosophy,  history  of  social  economy,  history  of  polit¬ 
ical  doctrines,  romance  philology,  French  literature,  sciences  auxiliary  to  history, 
history  of  French  art,  ancient  history  of  eastern  peoples,  Latin  language  and  lit¬ 
erature,  paleographic  classic  Latin,  English  language  and  literature,  experimental 
psychology. 

Lectures. — Philosophy,  Greek  language  and  literature,  Latin  language  and  liter¬ 
ature,  Latin  language,  grammar  and  philology,  French  literature,  German  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature,  English  language  and  literature,  geography,  classical  paleog¬ 
raphy,  pedagogy  (historic.) 

The  faculty  of  sciences  comprises  professorships,  annexed  courses,  and  lecture¬ 
ships  as  follows: 

Professorships. — Higher  geometry,  higher  analysis  and  higher  algebra,  differ¬ 
ential  and  integral  calculus,  mathematical  astronomy  and  celestial  mechanics, 


Statistique  de  l’ensignement  superieur,  1900,  pp.  3-8. 


1116 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


rational  mechanics,  physical  astronomy,  calculus  of  probabilities  and  mathematical 
physics,  physical  and  experimental  mechanics,  physics  (two  chairs) ,  general  chem¬ 
istry  (two  chairs),  organic  chemistry,  biological  chemistry,  comparative  zoology, 
anatomy  and  physiology,  evolution  of  organized  being,  zoology,  botany,  physical 
geography,  mineralogy,  geology,  physiology. 

Annexed  courses. — Elements  of  analysis  and  mechanics,  mathematical  astron¬ 
omy  and  celestial  mechanics,  physics  (three  courses),  physical  chemistry,  analyt¬ 
ical  chemistry,  animal  histology;  also  16  courses  of  lectures. 

The  faculty  of  law  comprises: 

Professorships. — Civil  law  (6  chairs),  Roman  law  (3  chairs),  criminal  legislation 
and  procedure,  criminal  law  and  penal  legislation  (comparative),  civil  procedure, 
commercial  law,  commercial  maritime  law  and  commercial  legislation  (compara¬ 
tive),  history  of  law,  history  of  Roman  and  of  French  law,  common  law,  pandects, 
general  public  law,  international  law,  constitutional  law,  administrative  la*w  (2 
chairs),  political  economy,  financial  science,  statistics,  international  law,  public 
and  private,  Mussulman  law. 

.  The  faculty  of  Protestant  theology  comprises: 

Professorships. — Lutheran  dogma,  Reformed  dogma,  Evangelical  ethics,  Exe¬ 
gesis  and  criticism  of  the  New  Testament,  ecclesiastical  history,  practical  theology. 

Free  courses.—  Complementary  course,  exegesis  and  criticism  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment. 

Lectures. — Patristics,  history  of  philosophy,  German  theological  language  and 
literature,  ecclesiastical  history. 

|  The  faculty  of  medicine,  Rue  et  Place  de  l’Ecole  de  Medecine,  comprises  34  chairs 
or  professorships  and  4  complementary  courses.  The  lectures  of  the  professors  are 
supplemented  by  the  specialized  instruction  of  38  agreges — a  class  of  highly  trained 
specialists. 

There  are  also  16  directorsNof  clinics,  which  are  held  in  the  hospitals  for  which 
the  city  is  famous,  and  37  directors  of  laboratory  work  with  a  large  body  of 
assistants. 

The  Superior  School  of  Pharmacy  (Avenue  de  l'Observatoire,  4)  comprises  12 
professorships.  In  addition  to  the  general  courses  for  which  these  provide,  there 
are  7  agreges  or  special  professors,  4  directors  of  laboratory  work,  and  a  large  corps 
of  laboratory  assistants. 

The  university  doctorate  authorized  by  law  and  open  alike  to  natives  and  to 
foreigners  has  been  created  by  the  University  of  Paris  in  all  the  faculties  except¬ 
ing  that  of  law.  The  conditions  on  which  the  degree  may  be  obtained  in  the  sev¬ 
eral  faculties  are  as  follows:1 

Faculty  of  letters,  university  doctorate. — At  the  faculty  of  letters  the  candidates 
for  the  university  doctorate  of  Paris  must,  if  they  are  French,  have  the  diploma 
of  licencie-es-lettres.  The  faculty  can,  however,  accord  a  dispensation  in  consid¬ 
eration  of  other  titles  they  may  possess.  If  the  candidates  are  foreigners,  this 
diploma  may  be  dispensed  with  on  the  presentation  of  credentials  of  which  the 
faculty  remains  judge. 

The  time  given  to  preparation  must  extend  over  at  least  four  half  yearly  terms. 

The  studies  may  be  carried  on  partly  in  one  of  the  great  scientific  establishments 
of  Paris,  in  a  French  university,  or  even  in  a  foreign  university.  Their  duration 
may  be  abridged  by  decision  of  the  faculty. 

The  tests  include:  First  degree,  maintenance  of  thesis,  written  either  in  French 
or  in  Latin;  second  degree,  interrogations  on  questions  chosen  by  the  candidates 
and  accepted  by  the  faculty  (regulation  of  the  28th  of  March,  1898). 

1  The  Universities  ot  France,  published  by  the  Franco- American  Committee,  pp.  45-58. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE.  1117 

Faculty  of  sciences. — To  obtain  the  doctorate  at  the  faculty  of  science  the  can¬ 
didates  must  produce  two  of  the  following  certificates  of  higher  studies:1 

1,  differential  and  integral  calculus;  2,  rational  mechanics;  3,  astronomy;  4, 
higher  analysis;  6,  celestial  mechanics;  7,  mathematical  physics;  8,  physical  and 
experimental  mechanics;  9,  general  physics;  10,  general  chemistry;  11,  mineralogy; 
12,  biological  chemistry;  13,  zoology;  14,  botany;  15,  geology;  16,  general  physiol¬ 
ogy;  17,  physical  geography. 

The  faculty  reserves  the  right  of  accepting  equivalents. 

The  length  of  time  devoted  to  study  is  a  year.  The  studies  may  be  pursued 
either  at  the  faculty  or  in  one  of  the  scientific  establishments  of  Paris. 

The  tests  include  the  public  discussion  of  a  thesis  setting  forth  the  candidate’s 
personal  investigations  and  interrogations  on  different  questions  proposed  by  the 
faculty. 

Faculty  of  Protestant  theology. — Duration  of  studies:  To  be  determined  by  the 
faculty  (minimum,  one  year). 

Conditions  of  education:  A  proof  to  be  given  during  the  time  of  study  of  knowl¬ 
edge  which  is  equivalent  to  the  licence  en  theologie,  and  credentials  of  previous 
secondary  and  higher  studies  by  certificates  from  foreign  universities,  or  equiva¬ 
lent  proof  by  the  student's  own  works.  The  licence  requires  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  following  subjects:  Dogma  and  history  of  dogmas;  evangelical  ethics;  exe¬ 
gesis  and  criticism  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments;  ecclesiastical  history  and  prac¬ 
tical  theology.  A  knowledge  of  German  enters  into  the  licence  programme.  The 
doctorate  examination  is  composed,  beside  the  colloquium  doctrine,  in  which  the 
candidate  will  give  proof  of  necessary  knowledge,  of  the  public  discussion  of  a 
thesis,  printed  in  French  or  in  Latin,  on  a  subject  which  should  previously  have 
received  the  approbation  of  the  faculty. 

Faculty  of  medicine. — At  the  Paris  faculty  of  medicine,  the  diploma  of  “  doctor 
of  the  University  of  Paris”  is  delivered  to  foreign  students  who  are,  in  virtue  of 
a  dispensation,  allowed  to  pursue  their  studies  and  undergo  their  examinations 
without  passing  by  the  bachelor’s  degree.  This  title  confers  none  of  the  rights 
or  privileges  attached  to  a  degree  and  can  not  in  any  case  be  accepted  as  an  equiva¬ 
lent  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine.  The  diploma  is  delivered  under  the  seal 
and  in  the  name  of  the  University  of  Paris  by  the  president  of  the  university 
council.  (Regulations  of  March  28,  and  April  1,  1898.) 

The  requirements  are  four  years  of  resident  study  (the duration  maybe  reduced 
according  to  the  candidate’s  ability),  five  examinations,  and  a  written  thesis  on  a 
subject  chosen  by  the  candidate. 

School  of  pharmacy. — “At  the  higher  school  of  pharmacy  the  candidates  for  the 
doctorate  of  the  University  of  Paris,  must,  if  they  are  French,  produce  the 
diploma  of  first-class  pharmaceutical  chemist;  if  they  are  foreigners,  two  study 
certificates,  the  first  of  studies  in  chemical  pharmacy  and  toxicology,  the  second 
of  studies  in  galenic  pharmacy  and  materia  medica. 

c ;  The  school  reserves  the  right  of  accepting  equivalents. 


1  Certificates  of  higher  studies.  The  examination  seasons  are  held  twice  a  year,  in  July  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  scholastic  year. 

No  unsuccsssful  candidate  can  present  himself  before  another  faculty  during  the  same  session 
for  the  same  certificate. 

The  examinations  for  each  certificate  include  three  tests:  A  written  test,  a  viva  voce  test,  a 
practical  test. 

The  two  first  tests  are  eliminatory.  The  jury  is  composed  of  at  least  three  members.  The 
marks  obtained  by  the  candidates  in  the  viva  voce  examination  and  practical  exercises  are  com¬ 
municated  to  the  jury,  who  take  them  into  account  in  their  appreciation.  The  admissibility, 
admission,  and  postponement  are  pronounced  by  the  jury  after  deliberations. 

According  to  the  terms  of  article  3  of  the  decree  of  January  22,  1896,  three  of  the  certificates 
mentioned,  above  confer  the  diploma  of  licencieAs-  sciences. 


1118 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


“The  period  of  study  extends  over  a  year  at  least  and  takes  place  at  the  school. 
“  The  test  consists  in  discussion  of  a  thesis  embodying  personal  researches.” 
(Regulation  of  March  28,  1898.) 

Higher  technical  schools  under  other  ministries  than  that  of  public  instruction 
( ministry  of  agriculture ,  of  commerce,  of  war,  etc.). 


Institutions. 

No.  of 

dents. 

Budget 
(State  ap¬ 
pro¬ 
priation). 

Conservatoire  National  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  Paris . . _ . . ... 

Fran  cs. 
500,000 

Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  Commerciales  _ 

U50 

Institut  National  Agronomique,  Paris _ _ _ _ 

200 

380, 775 

Ecole  Yeterinaire,  Alfort _ _ 

294 

440,  COO 

Ecole  Nationale  d1  Agriculture,  G-rignon . . . . . . . . 

120 

Ecole  Nationale  d’Agriculture,  Montpellier . 

200 

Ecole  Nationale  d’Agriculture,  Rennes . . 

118 

Ecole  Poly  technique,  Paris _ _ _ _ 

472 

1, 300, 000 

Ecole  Superieure  de  Guerre . . . . 

i  250 

Ecole  Speciale  Militaire,  St.  Cyr  (ministry  of  war) . 

L520 

Ecole  Navale,  Brest . . . . . . . 

GOO 

Ecole  Nationale  Superieure  des  Mines,  Paris _ _ _ _ 

146 

167, 000 

Ecole  Nationale  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  Paris . . . 

118 

355, 800 

Ecole  Coloniale . . . . . . . 

146 

1  Admitted  in  1900. 


The  independent  or  private  school  of  political  sciences  (Ecole  Libre  des  Sciences  Politiques) 
Paris,  registered  600  students  in  1901. 

INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE  OF  STUDENTS. 

The  idea  of  organizing  on  a  large  scale  a  system  of  international  correspondence 
between  students  was  started  in  1S96  by  M.  Mieille,  who  had  previously  had  wide 
experience  as  a  professor  in  a  normal  school,  Draguignan,  France.  For  several 
years  M.  Mieille,  with  the  help  of  English  friends,  had  maintained  an  exchange  of 
letters  between  his  own  pupils  and  some  English  students,  which  had  proved  a 
great  help  to  both  in  the  acquisition  of  the  foreign  tongue.  His  plan  for  the  work 
on  the  larger  scale,  based  upon  this  successful  experiment,  immediately  gained 
the  cooperation  of  Mr.  Stead,  in  England,  and  of  the  editor  of  the  Revue  Univer- 
sitaire,  France,  who  agreed  to  collect  names  in  their  respective  countries.  Pro- 
sessor  Hartmann,  of  Germany,  was  similarly  enlisted  for  that  country. 

The  following  statement  by  the  English  secretary  for  international  correspond¬ 
ence  shows  the  extent  of  the  work  during  the  four  years  from  its  announcement 
in  January,  1897,  to  Easter,  1901: 

The  statistics  presented  may  not  be  quite  accurate,  I  have  been  more  engrossed 
by  the  care  of  putting  my  friends  into  communication  with  one  another  than  by 
counting  them.  Including  Danes,  Dutch,  Italians,  etc.,  with  English -speaking- 
peoples,  French,  and  Germans  put  into  correspondence,  the  totals  for  the  four 
years  are,  roughly — 


English  boys  _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2,  887 

English  girls _ -  . . . . . . . . .  1,613 

Total  number  of  scholars  . . . . .  9, 000 

Largest  list  in  any  one  month  . . . . .  . .  480 


During  the  same  time  the  adults  of  all  countries  put  into  correspondence  have 
numbered  4,400. 


RULES  FOR  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOLARS’  INTERNATIONAL  CORRESPONDENCE. 

I.  The  exchange  of  letters  is  always  and  everywhere  under  the  supervision  cf 
the  foreign  language  teacher.  All  foreign  letters  and  other  postal  communications 


EDUCATION  IN  FEANCE. 


1119 


are  under  his  control.  If  possible,  the  scholar,  from  the  beginning  of  the  corre¬ 
spondence.  should  enter  copies  of  the  letters  he  writes  in  a  book,  and  thus  be  able 
to  show  or  refer  to  them  when  necessary. 

II.  Teachers  should  only  send  in  the  names  of  those  among  their  scholars  who 
are  trustworthy  and  whose  parents  have  sent  either  oral  or  written  permission. 
They  must  also  be  able  to  write  their  own  language  correctly  and  have  some 
knowledge  of  the  foreign  tongue.  It  should  be  explained  to  the  scholars  that  they 
should  not  write  anything  which  may  dishonor  themselves,  their  school,  or  their 
country,  and  therefore  political  and  religious  questions  are  better  avoided. 

III.  The  names  of  scholars,  with  age  of  each,  must  be  sent  by  their  teachers  or 
parents,  and  letters  will  be  addressed  to  the  school.  In  the  case  of  French  corre¬ 
spondents  names  of  boys  are  printed  in  the  Revue  Universitaire,  and  the  French 
boy  writes  first.  Lists  are  sent  over  the  1st  of  each  school  month,  and  the  foreign 
introductory  letter  should  be  received  about  the  20th.  If  no  such  letter  come, 
teachers  are  asked  to  send  a  post  card  to  Mowbray  House  before  the  30th.  Girls' 
names  are  not  printed,  but  lists  are  filled  up  from  time  to  time,  and  names  are 
selected  as  age  and  circumstances  correspond  with  the  names  sent  from  France. 

As  regards  German  correspondents,  the  occupation  of  parent  must  be  given  and 
a  2|d.  stamp  sent  with  each  name. 

If  by  mischance  a  scholar  receives  two  letters,  the  teacher  is  asked  to  arrange 
that  some  other  suitable  scholar  respond,  or  else  to  send  the  letter  on  to  Mowbray 
House.  Should  the  teacher  consider  a  rearrangement  of  letters  necessary,  he  is 
quite  free  so  to  do,  and,  if  needful,  a  scholar's  name  may  be  sent  in  again  and 
again,  provided  that  due  notice  is  given  and  that  the  foreign  partner’s  interests 
are  considered. 

IV.  The  German  bureau  asks  that  younger  correspondents  should  write  chieny 
or  only  in  their  mother  tongue. 

V.  The  rule  is  that  the  scholar  should  write  alternately  in  his  own  and  the  for¬ 
eign  language,  but  the  first  letter  should  always  be  in  his  own  tongue  and  written 
with  great  care,  as  a  satisfactory  development  depends  largely  upon  the  first 
impression  received. 

VI.  As  the  letters  in  the  mother  tongue  are  intended  as  models  for  the  partner, 
they  must  be  written  with  care  and  must  be  grammatically  correct.  The  scholar 
should  endeavor  to  find  something  of  interest  to  tell  his  friend.  Questions  should 
be  asked  and  answered,  and  a  helpful  bond  of  union  thus  be  formed.  Courtesy 
and  sympathy  are  imperative. 

VII.  The  teacher  or  parent  is  asked  to  help  in  finding  materials  for  letters.  In 
some  cases  teachers  have  planned  a  series  of  letters,  and  have  written  suggestions 
each  month  on  the  blackboard. 

VIII.  It  is  advisable  that  letters  received  in  the  foreign  tongue  should  be  entered 
in  a  note  book;  at  any  rate,  all  unknown  or  idiomatic  expressions  should  be  thus 

noted. 

Foreign  letters  are  often  useful  in  class  teaching. 

IX.  Teachers  are  asked  to  tell  us  about  any  which  are  of  unusual  interest,  and 
we  hope  we  may  be  permitted  to  see  copies  of  such. 

X.  The  mistakes  in  English  of  the  foreign  writers  must  be  carefully  corrected 
by  the  partner,  in  English,  and  returned  with  his  answer.  Younger  scholars  need 
help  in  doing  this,  for  the  more  the  correction  can  be  made  to  illustrate  idioms 
and  peculiarities  the  better  for  both  partners. 

XI.  The  time  for  the  exchange  of  letters  is  subject  to  arrangement,  but  as  regu¬ 
larity  and  frequency  are  imperative,  letters  must  be  exchanged  once  a  month  at 
least  and  a  bimonthly  arrangement  is  the  rule.  Every  letter  should  be  dated,  and 
the  date  of  receipt  of  letter  whicli  is  being  answered  should  be  given. 

XII.  To  avoid  delay,  care  should  be  taken  in  addressing  the  letters  in  plain 
handwriting.  The  address  of  sender  should  also  be  clearly  written  and  the  full 
name  given.  Fancy  handwriting  has  been  the  cause  of  many  an  undelivered  let¬ 
ter.  Scholars  should  carefully  keep  the  address  of  partner  as  it  is  given  in  the  first 
letter;  it  may  not  be  repeated”.  Remember  also  that  only  one-half  an  ounce  can 
be  sent  for  21  pence. 

XIII.  If  for  any  reason  a  scholar  who  has  sent  in  his  name  no  longer  wishes  to 
correspond,  he  must  at  once  let  us  know,  sending  the  name  and  address  of  his  cor¬ 
respondent;  simple  politeness  demands  this.  If  he  receives  a  letter  and  does  not 
wTish  to  reply,  the  letter  itself  should  at  once  be  sent  to  Mowbray  House.  To  leave 
the  partner  to  wait  in  uncertainty  is  a  rudeness  of  which  we  hope  no  one  will  be 
guilty. 

XIV.  If  for  any  reason  the  foreign  partner  discontinues  writing,  the  scholar's 
name  will  again  be  placed  on  our  lists.  One  from  another  part  of  the  country  will 
then  be  selected.  A  change  of  this  kind  is  sometimes  desired  by  both  partners, 
and  teachers  are  asked  to  inform  us  when  this  is  the  case. 


1120 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


XV.  Illustrated  post  cards  may  be  exchanged  on  condition  that  the  sender 
describes  the  picture  fully  in  his  own  language,  but  such  exchanges  are  not  to 
take  the  place  of  letters.  Comic  post  cards  and  newspapers  with  caricatures  give 
rise  to  misunderstandings,  and  therefore  should  not  be  sent.  But  in  this,  as  in  all 
things,  the  teacher  is  the  judge. 

All  English  letters  should  be  addressed  to  the  office  of  the  Review  of  Reviews 
and  indorsed  “  Secretary  for  international  correspondence.” 

The  addresses  for  the  remaining  countries  enlisted  in  the  work  are  as  follows: 

France.  — Le  Directeur  de  la  Revue  Universitaire,  5,  rue  de  Mezieres,  Paris 
M.  Mouchet,  203,  rue  de  Becon,  Courbevoie. 

Germany . — Prof.  Martin  Hartmann,  Deutsche  Centralstelle  fur  international 
Briefwechsel,  Fechnerstrasse,  2  Leipzig. 

Canada. — Mr.  W.  McLav,  Macmaster  University,  Toronto,  Canada. 

United  States. — Mr.  E.  Magill,  Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore,  Pa. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  MORALS  (LA  MORALE)  IN  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS 

OF  FRANCE. 

The  most  significant  movement  in  the  recent  history  of  primary  education  in 
France  is  the  impulse  given  to  instruction  in  morals  or  practical  ethics. 

The  subject  is  not  new;  it  is  found  in  school  programmes  that  antedate  the 
Republic,  but  always  in  relation  with  religion.  By  the  law  of  1882  the  State 
schools  were  made  strictly  secular,  but  at  the  same  time  morals  and  civics  were 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  prescribed  studies.  For  a  long  time,  however,  these 
branches  were  taught  in  a  formal  memoriter  manner  and  with  meager  results,  as 
was  shown  by  a  report  on  the  subject  prepared  for  the  Exposition  of  1889. 1  The 
report  itself  undoubtedly  conduced  to  the  improvement  of  this  instruction,  but 
the  change  is  more  directly  traceable  to  external  pressure.  The  secular  public 
school  has  encountered  the  bitter  hostility  of  the  church  or  the  powerful  teaching 
orders.  It  has  been  represented  as  godless  and  immoral,  and  as  the  active  cause 
of  an  alleged  increase  in  juvenile  crime.  These  charges  ha^e  put  the  Government 
upon  the  defensive;  the  spirit  and  methods  of  the  school  have  been  freely  dis¬ 
cussed,  and  the  whole  body  of  public  school  officials,  inspectors,  and  teachers 
alike  have  been  fired  with  patriotic  zeal  to  vindicate  the  character  of  their  work. 
Meanwhile  another  influence  had  been  gradually  leading  to  the  same  end.  Jules 
Ferry,  who  has  been  called  the  father  of  the  secular  school  in  France,  reiterated 
again  and  again  in  his  speeches  before  the  chambers  his  purpose  of  making  the 
secular  school  moral.  The  sincerity  of  these  declarations  was  proved  by  his 
appointment  to  positions  of  highest  influence  three  men  peculiarly  fitted  to 
accomplish  this  purpose.  Called  to  the  ministry  of  public  instruction  in  1879,  one 
of  his  first  acts  was  the  appointment  of  M.  Buisson  as  director  of  primary  edu¬ 
cation.  Before  the  year  closed  the  minister  had  established  the  normal  school  at 
Fontenay-aux- Roses  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  primary  normal  schools  for 
women,  and  placed  it  in  charge  of  M.  Pecaut;  shortly  after  the  minister  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  chair  of  pedagogy  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  appointed  to  the  same 
M.  Marion. 

These  three  men,  distinguished  masters  of  ethical  teaching,2  have  profoundly 
impressed  the  whole  body  of  French  teachers,  and  from  their  high  positions  an 
influence  has  gone  forth  which  has  penetrated  to  every  hamlet  of  France.  As  a 

1 11  L’education  morale  dans  les  ecoies  primaires,”  by  M  .F.  Lichtenberger,  Doyen  de  la  Faculte 
de  Theologle  Protestante  de  Paris.  Recueil  des  Monographies  Pedagogiques,  Tome  iv. 

2  In  this  connection  see,  in  particular  Buisson’s  La  Religion,  la  morale,  et  la  science — leur 
cpnfl.it  dans  l’education  contemporaine.  Pecaut’s  Etudes  au  jour  le  jour  sur  l’education  natk>- 
nale.  Marion’s  De  la  Solidarity  morale. 


EDUCATION  IN  FBANCE. 


1121 


result  of  these  infinences,  the  one  escited  by  external  opposition,  the  other  work¬ 
ing  harmoniously  within  the  system,  the  primary  school  of  France  has  undergone 
a  subtle  transformation  within  the  past  decade.  The  scientific  spirit  by  which 
for  a  time  its  instruction  was  dominated  has  given  way  to  the  ethical  spirit.  The 
teaching  of  practical  morals  has  become  living  and  effective.  It  turns  the  child’s 
thoughts  inward  and  excites  him  to  reflect  upon  his  conscious  experiences,  his 
moral  duties  and  destinies,  and  thus  relieves,  by  an  excitation  of  the  sensibilities 
and  the  will,  the  extreme  formality  of  the  intellectual  and  industrial  training. 
This  ethical  expansion  of  the  school  was  emphasized  in  many  ways  by  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  of  1900  and  received  special  recognition  from  the  jury  of  awards,  who  unani¬ 
mously  voted  a  grand  prise  for  the  system  of  moral  instruction.  The  radical 
change  which  it  implies  was  aptly  characterized  by  the  English  member  of  the 
jury,  who  had  made  personal  observation  of  its  application  in  schools  of  an 
extended  portion  of  France: 

Probably  the  world  has  never  witnessed  [he  says]  a  more  astonishing  revolution 
than  the  apparently  successful  effort  to  raise,  lift,  and  shift  the  entire  national 
education  from  a  Catholic  to  a  merely  ethical  foundation,  and  that,  apparently, 
with  no  net  loss  to  the  education  of  the  country,  but  with  even  a  considerable 
gain.  Such  an  astonishing  feat  can  be  paralleled  only  by  the  engineering  exploits 
you  sometimes  attempt  in  America  when  you  raise  a  huge  hotel  upon  rollers  and 
transfer  it  to  a  new  basis.  Now,  this  ethical  instruction  is  merely  an  attempt  to 
“  underpin  ”  the  old  structure  on  its  new  foundation,  and,  as  such,  should  have 
the  sympathy  of  all.1 

The  endeavor  on  the  part  of  the  French  Government  to  develop  a  system  of 
moral  training  entirely  separated  from  religious  faith  and  dogma  will  naturally 
be  followed  with  great  interest  by  educators  in  other  countries. 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that  a  system  which  works  well  with  the  French,  and 
especially  under  the  pressure  of  a  conflict  between  church  and  state,  can  not  be 
successfully  copied  by  any  other  people.  It  is  conditions  peculiar  to  the  French 
that  have  infused  life  into  the  instruction. 

The  most  ardent  advocates  of  moral  instruction  in  the  primary  schools  of  France 
do  not,  however,  delude  themselves  with  the  notion  that  this  alone  will  suffice  to 
make  the  people  moral.  The  limitations  of  the  school  in  this  respect  are  ably  set 
forth  by  M.  F.  Buisson  in  an  article2  from  which  the  following  is  quoted: 

The  part  of  the  school  is  rigidly  limited  for  two  reasons:  On  the  one  hand  its 
duration  is  too  brief;  it  covers  onty  the  earliest  years.  The  impressions  which  it 
makes  are,  it  is  true,  vivid  and  often  ineffaceable,  but  they  are  only  thb  impres¬ 
sions  of  childhood,  and  other  impressions— the  stronger  impressions  of  youth  and 
of  adolescence — soon  come  to  obscure  them.  A  moral  influence  which  ceases  to 
operate  the  day  after  the  child’s  confirmation  may  perhaps  affect  the  child,  but  it 
can  not  form  the  man. 

The  influence  ceases  on  the  very  day  when  should  begin  and  when,  in  fact,  for 
the  children  of  the  more  favored  classes,  does  begin  that  decisive  culture  whose 
impress  will  remain  throughout  life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  school  is  only  one 
agent  in  the  moral  education  of  the  young.  If  only  this  agent  were  assured  of 
the  cooperation  of  all  the  others!  Generally  it  may  expect  their  opposition.  Is 
the  school  always  seconded  by  the  family?  Is  it  ordinarily  seconded  by  the 
church?  Later  will  not  other  masters  seek  and  perhaps  easily  obtain  a  greater 
influence  over  the  youth  than  ever  the  teacher  exercised  over  the  child?  The 
press  (and  often  what  a  press'),  the  theater  (but  not  the  French  theater),  the 
street,  the  workshop,  the  saloon,  the  public  ball  or  the  concert  cafe,  the  temptations 
of  comrades,  of  example,  of  fashion,  of  juvenile  bravado,  the  brutal  impulse  of 
passions,  and,  still  later,  that  of  selfish  interests,  at  all  ages  the  force  of  appetites 
which  one  after  the  other  arise  and  drown  the  voice  of  reason;  these  are,  indeed, 
other  impulses  than  those  of  the  school. 


1  Cloudesley  Brereton,  esq.,  vice-president  of  the  international  jury  on  primary  education, 
Paris  Exposition,  in  an  address  before  the  national  council,  .Detroit,  1901. 

2“L’ecole  primaireen  France  et  sa  part  de  responsabilite  dans  l’education  morale  du  pays.’1 
Jost’s  annuaire  de  1’enseignement  primaire,  1898. 

ED  1901- 


71 


1122 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Poor  school,  how  soon  its  effect  is  lost  in  the  fading  light  of  childhood!  Later, 
indeed,  it  will  be  one  of  the  dear  remembrances  of  old  age.  There  will  come  a 
time  when  memory  will  recall  the  old  schoolroom,  with  its  white  walls,  its  black¬ 
board,  its  maps,  the  old  seats;  everything,  even  to  the  humblest  details  of  the 
school  life,  will  come  back. 

But  this  is  not  an  influence;  it  will  simply  be  a  late  and  melancholy  remem¬ 
brance.  Let  us  not  exaggerate,  then,  the  power  which  the  school  exercises. 
Leave  to  the  enemies  of  the  secular  teacher,  who  for  a  long  time  contemptuously 
limited  him  to  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  leave  to  them  the  noisy  preten¬ 
sion  that  he  is  accountable  for  the  whole  destiny  of  the  nation,  solely  responsible 
for  what  the  pupil  may  become  when  he  is  a  man,  although  as  a  child  he  may 
have  passed  only  a  few  months  within  the  school  walls.  *  *  * 

If  there  are,  indeed,  some  men  who  sincerely  believe  in  this  stroke  of  a  magical 
wand  they  ought  to  find  out  their  error.  They  know  now,  and  they  have  needed 
this  lesson  to  teach  them  that  a  people  can  not  be  reformed  in  twelve  or  fourteen 
years  nor  by  the  primary  school  alone;  they  know  that  in  order  to  modify  tradi¬ 
tions  centuries  old,  supported  by  the  authority  of  the  church,  of  the  state,  of  the 
family,  infused  into  the  very  blood  of  the  people  through  the  innumerable  cur¬ 
rents  of  physical  and  moral  heredity,  something  more  is  needed  than  two  lines  of 
a  law  voted  by  Parliament  and  two  pages  of  programme  signed  by  a  minister. 

For  ourselves,  we  did  not  need  this  experience  to  convince  us  that  the  school  could 
not  accomplish  more  in  fifteen  years  than  the  church  did  in  fifteen  centuries. 
We  are  not  of  those  who,  hardly  arrived  at  the  edge  of  the  field  that  they  are 
directed  to  sow,  turn  impatiently,  expecting  to  see  the  grain  already  springing  up 
behind  them. 

Does  it  follow,  then,  that  the  work  once  commenced  there  is  nothing  to  hope  for; 
that  no  encouraging  results  are  yet  to  be  seen?  It  is  not  to  partisan  journalists 
that  we  should  look  for  evidence  on  this  point,  but  rather  to  the  testimony  of  the 
people.  Consult  them  in  the  cities  and  in  the  villages  and  see  if  everywhere  they 
do  not  tell  you  that  the  pupils  leave  our  schools  with  a  perceptible  moral  improve¬ 
ment. 

The  good  sense  of  the  common  people  estimates  justly  those  paradoxes  relative 
to  the  instruction  which  so  delight  certain  circles.  To-day,  as  formerly,  the  first 
service  that  the  school  renders  and  which  is  not  questioned  in  the  homes  is  that  of 
imparting  to  the  children  habits  of  mind  and  of  body,  ways  of  acting  and  of  speak¬ 
ing,  ideas  and  sentiments  which  enable  one  to  distinguish  them  at  a  glance  from 
the  untrained  child.  To  deny  this,  is  to  deny  what  is  evident. 

In  the  same  article  in  which  this  limitation  of  the  primary  school  is  set  forth, 
M.  Buisson  explains  also  the  present  attitude  of  the  State  secular  school  toward 
moral  instruction.  This  is  a  particular  in  respect  to  which  the  State  school  has 
been  greatly  misjudged;  hence  this  exposition  by  one  who  ha3  had  an  important 
part  in  determining  its  moral  standpoint  is  essential  to  a  just  estimate  of  its  social 
and  historic  value.  M.  Buisson  approaches  this  division  of  his  subject  by  a  con¬ 
sideration  of  the  origin  of  the  notion  of  morality  in  the  human  mind.  On  this 
point  he  says,  in  part: 

No  morals  without  religion.  This  is  the  fundamental  axiom  so  thoroughly 
accepted  by  the  church  that  even  those  who  have  rejected  its  tutelage  have 
unconsciously  retained  the  axiom  in  the  modified  form— no  morals  without  phi¬ 
losophy. 

The  truth  is  that  religion  and  philosophy,  instead  of  engendering  the  notion  of 
morality,  are  derived  from  it.  It  is  not  because  it  teaches  any  doctrine  as  to  the 
nature  and  attributes  of  God,  or  as  to  rewards  and  punishments  beyond  the  tomb, 
or  as  to  the  origin  of  the  universe,  that  man  yields  to  the  moral  law  and  feels  in 
his  conscience  the  irresistible  obligation  to  conform  to  it.  It  is,  on  the  contrary, 
because  the  sense  of  this  obligation  proves  to  him  the  existence  of  a  moral  law 
that  he  is  forced  to  admit  that  there  is  a  lawgiver,  that  there  is  an  absolute 
authority,  that  the  universe  is  governed  by  infinite  wisdom.  These  metaphysical 
consequences  of  the  moral  law  once  admitted,  man,  in  obedience  to  the  innate 
demand  for  unity  and  logic,  coordinates  them  into  a  system  which,  under  the  form 
either  of  religion  or  of  philosophy,  sums  them  all  up  for  him,  enables  him  to  rep¬ 
resent  to  himself  the  universal  order,  responds  to  his  questionings,  justifies  his 
hopes.  How  natural,  then,  for  him  to  attribute  great  virtue  to  this  system,  to 
confound  it  with  the  moral  law  itself,  and  to  regard  it  as  the  supreme  instrument 
of  moral  instruction.  In  all  times  the  moment  a  science  is  constituted  the  first 
movement  of  educators  has  been  to  give  it  ready-made  to  pupils,  instead  of  show¬ 
ing  them  how  it  has  been  formed  by  obliging  them  to  grope  their  way  along  by 
the  slow  and  tedious  process  of  experience. 


EDUCATION  IN  USANCE . 


1123 


Human  morality  is  the  fruit  of  prolonged  human  effort.  It  is  not  due  either  to 
a  miracle  or  to  an  artifice.  It  springs,  or  rather,  slowly  emerges,  from  the  very 
depths  of  our  nature;  it  is  evolved  by  long  and  painful  efforts.  *  *  *  Morality 
is  not  achieved  by  one  stroke;  it  is  the  result  of  all  the  little  victories  which  man 
has  gained  over  the  brute  within  him.  The  history  of  the  human  conscience  is 
the  history  of  the  conquests  of  the  spirit  over  animality,  of  reason  over  passion,  of 
will  over  appetite.  Throughout  the  ages,  in  proportion  as  society  passes  from  the 
savage  to  the  civilized  state,  the  moral  conscience  grows.  To  respect  for  force  is 
opposed  the  respect  for  justice;  two  grand  ideas  essentially  human,  that  of  duty 
and  that  of  right,  illumine  the  darkness  of  the  animal  world.  The  distinction  of 
good  and  of  evil  marks  the  advent  of  the  human  empire. 

The  written  law  expresses  often  only  a  minimum  of  the  mutual  obligations  upon 
which  men  are  agreed.  Each  holds  himself  bound  by  the  unwritten  but  not  less 
imperative  law  within  his  conscience;  the  feeling  of  moral  obligation  becomes 
ever  more  and  more  intense,  precise,  severe,  scrupulous,  and  delicate,  until  there 
bursts  upon  the  soul  the  full  splendor  of  the  ideal  of  moral  perfection,  which, 
though  it  despair  of  attaining,  it  must  evermore  pursue.  *  *  * 

Those  who,  like  Kant,  realize  the  majesty  of  the  moral  law,  like  him,  also,  feel 
the  necessity  of  attaching  the  moral  order  to  the  universal  order,  and  each,  accord¬ 
ing  to  his  intelligence,  will  endeavor  also  to  find  for  himself  a  solution  of  the  prob¬ 
lem  which  has  agitated  so  many  great  minds.  What  is  there  that  can  weaken 
these  moral  convictions?  And  in  them  one  finds  the  joy  of  the  spirit — a  support 
and  new  encouragement  in  the  path  of  virtue.  A  philosophic  or  religious  theory 
is  not  the  foundation  of  morality,  but  why  should  it  not  be  its  crown? 

This  is  exactly  the  position  of  the  French  secular  school  on  the  question  of  moral 
education.  What  does  the  school  really  do?  Its  work  is  neither  religious  nor 
philosophic — its  work  is  moral  in  the  true  and  full  sense  of  the  word.  Those  who 
accuse  it  as  destitute  of  faith  utter  nonsense;  on  the  contrary,  the  very  thing 
v/hich  causes  this  reproach  is  itself  an  act  of  faith — faith  in  human  nature;  faith 
in  conscience  (which  certain  people  call  the  voice  of  God,  and  then  reproach  us 
for  wishing  to  listen  to  it  always  and  to  respect  if  in  preference  to  any  other  voice) ; 
faith  in  the  absolute  value  of  the  moral  law;  faith  in  the  good  and  the  true;  faith 
in  duty  even  without  punishment  or  reward,  even  without  any  other  sanction 
than  that  of  our  own  conscience. 

Starting  from  this  faith,  not  from  this  or  that  system  or  dogma,  but  from  that 
which  is  the  common  source  and  the  underlying  reason  of  every  system  and  every 
dogma,  that  is  to  say,  starting  from  faith  in  the  human  soul  and  in  its  laws, 
the  school  takes  the  child  just  as  he  comes  to  it  from  contemporaneous  society. 
It  does  not  endeavor  to  make  him  reason  about  morality,  but  to  fill  him  with 
the  spirit  and  inspire  him  to  the  practice  of  morality.  Aristotle  long  ago 
said:  “Virtue  is  not  a  science,  it  is  an  art,  it  is  a  practice,  it  is  an  ensemble  of 
habits.”  The  secular  school  teaches  morals  not  as  something  to  be  learned,  but 
as  something  to  be  lived.  For  this  it  is  not  necessary  to  create  a  new  theory,  it 
is  necessary  only  to  gather  up  and  to  fix  the  ideas,  the  sentiments,  the  opinions, 
the  principles,  the  moral  postulates  which  are  diffused  as  it  were  in  the  air  we 
breathe,  in  the  language  we  speak,  in  everything  that  expresses  the  .  public 
thought  or  conscience. 

THE  OFFICIAL  PROGRAMME  OF  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  OF 

FRANCE. 

[Abridged  from  tie  original.] 

(1)  General  instructions  and  explanations — aims  and  characteristics. — Moral 
instruction  is  intended  to  complete,  to  elevate,  and  to  ennoble  all  the  other  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  school.  While  each  of  the  other  branches  tends  to  develop  a  special 
order  of  aptitudes  or  of  useful  knowledge,  this  study  tends  to  develop  the  man  him¬ 
self;  that  is  to  say,  his  heart,  his  intelligence,  his  conscience;  hence  moral  educa¬ 
tion  moves  on  a  different  plane  from  the  other  subjects.  Its  force  depends  less 
upon  the  precision  and  logical  relation  of  the  truths  taught  than  upon  intensity  of 
feeling,  vividness  of  impressions,  and  the  contagious  ardor  of  conviction. 

The  aim  of  moral  education  is  to  cause  one  to  will  rather  than  to  know;  it  arouses 
rather  than  demonstrates;  it  proceeds  more  from  the  feelings  than  from  reasoning; 
it  does  not  attempt  to  analyze  all  the  reasons  for  a  moral  act,  it  seeks  before  all  to 
produce  it,  to  repeat  it,  to  make  of  it  a  habit  which  will  govern  the  life.  In  the 
elementary  school  it  is  not  a  science,  but  an  art — the  art  of  inclining  the  will  toward 
the  good. 

The  role  of  the  teacher . — In  respect  to  this  subject  as  to  the  other  branches  of 
education,  the  teacher  is  regarded  as  the  representative  of  society.  It  is  of  the 
highest  importance  to  a  democratic  secular  society  that  all  its  members  should  be 
initiated  early,  and  by  lessons  which  can  not  be  effaced,  into  a  feeling  of  their 


1124 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1800-1901. 


dignity,  and  into  a  feeling  not  less  deep  of  their  duty  and  of  their  personal  respon¬ 
sibility.  To  attain  this  end  the  teacher  is  not  to  proceed  as  if  he  were  addressing 
children  destitute  of  all  previous  knowledge  of  good  and  of  evil;  he  will  remember 
that  the  great  majority  of  them  have  received  or  are  receiving  a  religious  instruc¬ 
tion  which  familiarizes  them  with  the  idea  of  a  God  of  the  universe  and  a  Father 
of  men,  with  the  traditions,  the  beliefs,  the  practices  of  a  worship,  either  Christian 
or  Jewish;  that  they  have  already  received  the  fundamental  ideas  of  a  morality, 
eternal  and  universal;  but  these  ideas  are  still  with  them  in  the  germ.  They  await 
ripening  and  developing  by  appropriate  culture  and  this  culture  it  is  for  the  teacher 
to  give.  His  mission  is,  then,  limited.  He  is  to  strengthen,  to  root  into  the  minds 
of  his  pupils,  for  all  their  lives  through  daily  practice,  those  essential  notions  of  a 
morality  common  to  ali  civilized  men.  He  can  do  this  without  making  personal 
reference  to  any  of  the  religious  beliefs  with  which  his  pupils  associate  and  blend 
the  general  principles  of  morals.  He  takes  the  children  as  they  come  to  him  with 
their  ideas  and  their  language,  with  the  beliefs  which  they  have  derived  from  their 
parents,  and  his  only  care  is  to  teach  them  to  draw  from  these  that  which  is  most 
precious  from  the  social  standpoint,  namely,  the  precepts  of  a  high  morality. 

Proper  objects  and  limits  of  this  instruction. — The  moral  teaching  of  the  school 
is,  then,  distinguished  from  religious  instruction  without  contradicting  it.  The 
teacher  is  neither  a  priest  nor  the  father  of  a  family;  he  joins  his  efforts  to  theirs 
to  make  each  child  an  honest  man.  He  should  insist  upon  the  duties  which  bring 
men  together,  and  not  upon  the  dogmas  which  separate  them.  He  should  aim  to 
make  all  the  children  serve  an  effective  apprenticeship  to  a  moral  life.  Later  in 
life  they  will  perhaps  become  separated  by  dogmatic  opinion,  but  they  will  be  in 
accord  in  having  the  aim  of  life  as  high  as  possible;  in  having  the  same  horror  for 
what  is  base  and  vile,  the  same  delicacy  in  the  appreciation  of  duty,  in  aspiring 
to  moral  perfection,  whatever  effort  it  may  cost,  in  feeling  united  in  that  fealty  to 
the  good,  the  beautiful,  and  the  true,  which  is  also  a  form,  and  not  the  least  pure, 
of  the  religious  sentiment. 

Methods. — By  his  character,  his  conduct,  his  example,  the  teacher  should  be  the 
most  persuasive  of  examples.  In  moral  instruction  what  does  not  come  from  the 
heart  does  not  go  to  the  heart.  A  master  who  recites  precepts,  who  speaks  of 
duty  without  convictions,  without  warmth,  does  much  worse  than  waste  his 
efforts.  He  is  altogether  wrong.  A  course  of  morals  which  is  regular,  but  cold, 
commonplace,  dry,  does  not  teach  morals,  because  it  does  not  develop  a  love  for 
the  subject.  The  simplest  recital  in  which  the  child  can  catch  an  accent  of  grav¬ 
ity,  a  single  sincere  word,  is  worth  more  than  a  long  succession  of  mechanical 
lessons. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  the  teacher  should  carefully 
avoid  any  reflection  either  by  language  or  expression  upon  the  religious  beliefs  of 
the  children  confided  to  his  caie,  anything  that  might  betray  on  his  part  any  lack 
of  respect  or  of  regard  for  the  opinions  of  others. 

The  only  obligation  imposed  upon  the  teacher,  and  this  is  compatible  with  a 
respect  for  all  convictions,  is  to  watch  in  a  practical  and  paternal  manner  the 
moral  development  of  his  pupils  with  the  same  solicitude  with  which  he  follows 
their  progress  in  scholarship.  He  should  not  believe  himself  free  from  responsi¬ 
bilities  toward  any  of  them  if  he  has  not  done  as  much  for  the  education  of  char¬ 
acter  as  for  that  of  the  intellect.  At  this  price  alone  will  the  teacher  have  merited 
the  title  of  educator  and  elementary  instruction  the  name  of  liberal  education. 

THE  PROGRAMME. 

Infant  section:  Ages  5  to  7  years. — Very  simple  talks  mingled  with  all  the  exer¬ 
cises  of  the  class  and  of  recreation.  Simple  poems  explained  and  learned  by  heart; 
stories;  songs.  Special  care  by  the  teacher  in  regard  to  children  showing  any 
defect  in  character  or  any  vicious  tendency.  _ 

Primary  section:  Ages  7  to  9  years. — Familiar  conversations,  readings  (examples, 
precepts,  parables).  Practical  exercises  tending  to  moral  activity  in  the  class 
itself:  1„  By  observation  of  individual  character,  the  gentle  correction  of  faults, 
and  the  development  of  good  qualities.  2.  By  the  intelligent  appreciation  of  school 
discipline  as  a  means  of  education.  3.  By  appeal  to  the  feelings  and  moral  judg¬ 
ment  of  the  child  himself.  4.  By  the  correction  of  vulgar  notions,  of  prejudices, 
and  of  superstitions.  5.  By  instruction  drawn  from  facts  observed  by  the  pupils 
themselves. 

Intermediate  section:  Ages  9  to  11  years. — Familiar  talks,  reading  illustrative 
examples  with  comments,  practical  exercises  as  in  the  elementary  section,  but  with 
a  little  more  method  and  precision. 

I.  (a)  The  child  in  the  family:  Duties  toward  parents  and  grandparents:  Obedi¬ 
ence,  respect,  love,  recognition;  aiding  parents  in  their  work,  tending  them  in  sick¬ 
ness,  caring  for  them  in  their  old  age. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1125 


Duties  of  brothers  and  sisters:  Loving  each  other;  watchful  care  of  the  elder 
over  the  younger;  effect  of  example. 

Duties  toward  servants:  To  treat  them  with  politeness  and  with  kindness. 

( b )  The  child  in  the  school:  Earnestness,  docility,  industry,  civility.  Duties 
toward  the  teacher.  Duties  toward  comrades. 

(c)  The  country:  Grandeur  and  misfortunes  of  France.  Duties  toward  the 
country  and  society. 

II.  Duties  toward  one’s  self:  Care  of  the  body;  cleanliness,  sobriety,  and  tem¬ 
perance;  dangers  of  drunkenness;  gymnastics. 

Use  and  care  of  property:  Economy;  avoiding  debts;  effects  of  gambling,  prodi¬ 
gality  ,  avarice,  etc. 

The  soul:  Veracity  and  sincerity;  personal  dignity  and  self-respect:  modesty; 
recognition  of  one's  own  faults;  evils  of  pride,  vanity,  coquetry,  frivolity;  shame 
of  ignorance  and  idleness;  courage  in  peril  and  misfortune;  patience;  personal 
initiative;  evils  of  anger. 

Regard  for  animals:  Kindness  toward;  society  their  natural  protector. 

Duties  toward  other  men:  Justice  and  charity;  the  Golden  Rule;  kindness,  fra¬ 
ternity,  tolerance,  and  respect  for  the  beliefs  of  others. 

(Note. — In  all  these  considerations  the  teacher  should  assume  the  existence  of 
conscience,  of  the  moral  law,  and  moral  obligation.  He  should  appeal  to  the 
feeling  and  the  idea  of  duty  and  of  responsibility.  He  should  not  attempt  to 
demonstrate  these  by  theoretic  statements). 

III.  Duties  toward  God:  The  teacher  is  not  required  to  give  a  course  upon  the 
nature  and  attributes  of  God.  The  instruction  which  he  is  to  give  to  all  without 
distinction  is  limited  to  two  points:  B’irst,  he  teaches  his  pupil  not  to  speak  the 
name  of  God  lightly.  He  clearly  associates  in  their  minds  with  the  idea  of  the 
First  Cause  and  of  the  Perfect  Being  a  sentiment  of  respect  and  of  veneration, 
the  same  as  is  associated  with  these  ideas  under  the  different  aspects  of  their 
religious  training. 

Then,  and  without  concerning  himself  with  the  prescriptions  special  to  the 
different  religious  beliefs,  the  teacher  will  strive  to  have  the  child  comprehend 
and  feel  that  the  first  duty  he  owes  to  divinity  is  obedience  to  the  laws  of  God,  as 
revealed  to  him  in  his  conscience  and  his  reason. 

Higher  section:  Ages  11  to  IS  years. — Exercises  on  ideas  of  previous  years  con¬ 
tinued  and  expounded;  special  development  of  social  morality:  1.  The  family; 
2.  Society,  justice,  the  conditions  of  all  society;  solidarity,  fraternity  (alcoholism; 
its  destruction  little  by  little  of  the  social  sentiments  by  destroying  the  power  of 
the  will  and  the  feeling  of  personal  responsibility);  development  of  the  idea  of 
the  native  land;  the  duties  of  the  citizen  (obedience  to  the  laws,  the  military 
service,  discipline,  devotion,  fidelity  to  the  flag) ;  imposts  (condemnation  of  fraud 
toward  the  State);  the  ballot  (it  is  a  moral  obligation;  it  ought  to  be  free,  con¬ 
scientious,  dis  nterested,  enlightened) :  rights  corresponding  to  these  duties:  Per¬ 
sonal  liberty,  liberty  of  conscience,  liberty  in  respect  to  work,  in  respect  to  asso¬ 
ciation:  general  security  of  life  and  property:  the  national  sovereignty;  explana¬ 
tion  of  the  republican  motto,  “  Liberty,  equality,  fraternity.” 

“Undereach  head  of  the  course  in  social  morals  the  teacher  should  explain 
clearly,  but  without  entering  into  metaphysical  discussions:  (1)  The  difference 
between  duty  and  interest,  even  when  they  seem  to  be  confounded  with  each 
other;  that  is  to  say,  the  imperative  and  disinterested  nature  of  duty;  (2)  the  dis¬ 
tinction  between  the  written  and  the  moral  law;  the  one  fixes  a  minimum  of  pre¬ 
scriptions  that  society  imposes  upon  all  its  members  under  definite  penalties  for 
violations  of  the  same;  the  other  imposes  upon  each  one  in  his  secret  conscience 
a  duty  which  no  one  obliges  him  to  fulfill,  but  which  he  can  not  neglect  without 
the  sense  of  a  wrong  to  himself  and  to  God.” 


JUVENILE  CRIME. 

The  recent  efforts  to  make  moral  instruction  prominent  and  forceful  in  the 
primary  schools  are  due  in  a  measure  to  alarming  reports  of  the  increase  in  juve¬ 
nile  crime.  These  reports  were  based  chiefly  upon  criminal  statistics  relating  to 
the  period  1880  to  1886,  which  showed  an  increase  in  crime  over  the  period  1876  to 
1880.  Thus,  according  to  M.  Levasseur,  the  mean  annual  number  of  persons  con¬ 
victed  of  crime  in  the  period  1876  to  1880  was  4,874.  In  the  period  1881-1885  the 
mean  rose  to  4,381. 1  The  increase  in  the  number  accused  of  minor  offenses  was 
still  more  marked,  rising  from  a  mean  annual  of  140,167  in  the  decade  1871  to 


aSee  La  Population  francaise,  vol.  2,  p.  447. 


1128 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


1880  to  180,806  in  tlie  half  decade  1881-1885  and  to  the  mean  annnal  of  189,655  in 
the  succeeding  three  years,  1886-1888,1  “The  number  of  young  delinquents,” 
says  M.  Levasseur,  “also  augments  and  this  precocity  in  crime  is  a  cause  of 
anxiety.”2  He  notes  further  that  the  proportion  of  illiterate  criminals  had 
declined.  This  fact  was  not,  however,  misinterpreted  by  M.  Levasseur.  ‘  ‘  It  was,” 
he  observed,  “a  necessary  consequence  of  the  general  diffusion  of  instruction.”3 

The  statistics,  however,  were  seized  upon  by  the  enemies  of  the  State  schools 
and  by  others  either  seriously  alarmed  at  the  revelations  or  eager  for  sensations, 
and  the  cry  became  general  that  secular  education  was  undermining  good  morals. 
In  fact,  the  State  secular  schools  were  not  thoroughly  organized  until  1886,  and 
were  hardly  to  be  counted  as  a  national  force  before  1892.  Later  statistics  indicate 
that  the  annual  number  of  criminals  is  decreasing.  Meanwhile  serious  investi¬ 
gations  of  the  moral  and  criminal  status  of  the  French  population  have  put  the 
whole  problem  of  juvenile  crime  in  a  new  light.  We  present  here  citations  from 
recent  reports  and  discussions  which  summarize  the  results  of  these  investigations. 

The  report  of  the  minister  of  justice  for  the  year  1896,  published  in  1899,  pre¬ 
sents  the  following  statistics,  showing  the  number  of  minors  tried  in  the  criminal 
courts  at  the  dates  specified: 


1866. 

1876. 

1886. 

1892. 

1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

Number  of  accused  under  16 
years  of  age: 

Boys . . . . 

29 

30 

23 

24 

24 

29 

19 

17 

Girls . 

15 

16 

4 

11 

3 

3 

6 

6 

Total . . 

44 

46 

27 

35 

27 

32 

25 

23 

Number  of  accused  between  16 
and  21  years  of  age: 

Boy's . . 

637 

686 

535 

541 

601 

558 

465 

477 

Girls . . 

95 

129 

106 

111 

79 

115 

89  j 

72 

Total  . . 

732 

815 

641 

652 

680 

673 

554 

549 

DECREASE  IN  NUMBER  OF  ACCUSED  FROM  1876  TO  1896. 


Under  16 
years  of 
age. 

Between 
16  and  21 
years  of 
age. 

Boys  _ _ .... _ .... _ _ _ _ ... _ ...... _ _ _ ....... _ _ _ 

Per  cent. 
43. 3 
62.5 

Per  cent. 

-  30.4 
44.2 

Girls _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Total  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

50 

32.6 

The  same  report  showed  also  that  the  number  of  minors  brought  before  the 
“  correctional  tribunals”  (corresponding  to  our  police  courts)  charged  with  minor 
offenses  had  been  gradually  decreasing.  Under  this  head  the  following  statistics 
are  given: 


1892. 

1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

Number  presented  under  16  years  of  age: 

Boys . . 

6,118 

1,030 

5, 719 
981 

5,967 

934 

5,680 

960 

5,635 

938 

Girls . . . . . . . 

Total . . 

7,148 

6,700 

6,901 

6,640 

6,573 

Number  presented  between  16  and  21  years  of 
age: 

Boys . . . . . . . 

27,744 
3, 479 

28, 350 
3,532 

28, 701 
3,616 

27,261 

3,502 

27,044 

3,386 

Girls . . . . . . . 

Total . 

31,223 

31,882 

32,317 

30, 763 

30,430 

1  See  La  Population  frangaise,  vol.  2,  p.  449.  2 Ibid,  p,  453.  3 Ibid,  p.  465. 


EDUCATION  IN  FBANCE. 


1127 


With  respect  to  the  literacy  of  criminals,  the  report  presents  detailed  statistics 
showing  the  degree  of  instruction  of  persons  convicted  of  homicides  (including 
under  this  head  assassination,  murder,  parricide,  poisoning) ,  rape  of  minors,  and 
thefts  and  breaches  of  trust.  Summarized,  the  facts  are  as  follows: 


Date. 

Total 

number 

convicted. 

Per  cent 
unable  to 
read  or 
write. 

Per  cent 
able  to 
read  and 
write. 

Per  cent 
having 
higher  at¬ 
tain¬ 
ments. 

1873 . . . 

3,967 

36.45 

70.28 

2.27 

1873  . 

3,803 

36.29 

61.88 

1.83 

1874  . . . 

3,596 

87.01 

60. 70 

2.29 

1875  . . . . . 

3, 310 

33. 05 

63. 92 

3.03 

1878  . . . . . 

3,236 

31.70 

64. 77 

3.53 

Total  for  half  decade . 

17,811 

35.07 

63.40 

2. 53 

1893 . . . 

3, 775 

19.38 

76. 72 

.04 

1893 . . 

3, 891 

17. 15 

80. 35 

2.50 

1894  . 

2, 642 

15.93 

81.41 

2.66 

1895  . 

2,382 

16.54 

80. 68 

2.78 

1896  . . . . . 

3,464 

15. 17 

82.06 

2.77 

Total  for  half  decade . 

13,154 

16.89 

80. 80 

2.86 

The  foregoing  statistics  bring  into  comparison  the  half  decade  preceding  the 
establishment  of  the  State  secular  schools  with  the  half  decade  succeeding  their 
complete  organization.  Considering  the  entire  period,  1876  to  1896,  it  is  seen  that 
the  number  of  convictions  for  the  crimes  specified  decreased  from  3,236  in  1876 
to  2,464  in  1896,  a  decrease  of  24  per  cent. 

By  reference  to  the  statistics  relative  to  minors  it  will  be  seen  that  the  decrease 
in  the  number  of  criminal  minors  during  the  same  period  (1876  to  1896)  was  rela¬ 
tively  much  greater,  viz,  for  young  men  between  16  and  21  years  of  age,  30.4  per 
cent;  for  young  women  between  16  and  21  years,  44.2  per  cent;  for  all  between 
those  ages,  32.6  per  cent.  For  lads  under  16  years  of  age  there  was  a  decrease  of 
43.3  per  cent;  for  girls  under  16,  a  decrease  of  62.5  per  cent;  for  all  under  16,  a 
decrease  of  50  per  cent.  This  is  a  very  significant  showing,  because  it  relates  to 
persons  young  enough  to  have  received  the  full  influence  of  the  schools.  The 
minister,  in  discussing  these  several  tables,  emphasizes  their  educational  bearing: 

The  long-continued  participation  of  minors  in  certain  crimes,  often  the  most 
atrocious  crimes  [he  says] ,  offers  a  serious  consideration  for  the  reformers  of  the 
prison  system  and  the  educators  of  the  young.  *  *  *  But  considering  the 
annual  total  number  of  young  people  tried,  the  excitement  that  the  question 
has  raised  in  some  quarters  appears  to  be  groundless. 

With  respect  to  the  statistics  of  minors  brought  before  the  lower  courts  the 
minister  notes: 

Since  1894,  when  the  maximum  was  reached,  there  has  been  a  marked  decrease 
in  the  number  of  prosecutions.  It  is  true,  however,  that  an  analysis  of  the  details 
shows  a  slight  increase  from  1895  to  1896  in  the  number  of  graver  offenses.  Thus 
the  number  accused  of  stealing,  notably  those  from  16  to  21  years  of  age,  increased 
from  9,589  in  1895  to  10,777  in  1896.  But  in  1892  the  corresponding  number  was 
11,027.  There  is  also  a  somewhat  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  youths 
between  16  and  21  years  of  age  accused  of  murderous  assaults,  while  on  the  other 
hand  the  number  accused  of  indecent  assaults  varied  but  slightly  throughout  the 
decade  1886-1896.  On  the  whole,  there  is  a  decline  in  juvenile  crime,  which, 
although  slight,  must  be  regarded  as  a  favorable  sign. 

In  discussing  the  detailed  statistics  of  the  literacy  of  criminals  (all  ages  included) 
the  minister  observes  “  that  the  participation  of  persons  completely  illiterate  in 
homicidal  crimes  has  greatly  decreased,  as  regards  proportion,  by  one-half,  or  from 
36  to  18  per  cent,  and  in  absolute  numbers  from  812  to  461.”  Nevertheless,  this 
decrease  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  illiterates.  Thus 
in  1874,  out  of  a  total  of  283,768  conscripts,  18  per  cent  could  neither  read  nor 
write;  in  1894,  of  a  total  of  337,109  conscripts,  only  5.34  per  cent  were  illiterate. 


1128 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


On  the  other  hand,  of  the  conscripts  in  1874,  less  than  1  per  cent  (0.69  per  cent)  had 
obtained  a  bachelor’s  degree;  in  1894  the  proportion  was  1.89  per  cent,  or  more  than 
double  the  former  proportion.  During  the  same  time  the  proportion  of  convicts 
who  were  well  educated  had  but  very  slightly  increased,  as  appears  from  the  fore¬ 
going  table  showing  the  proportion  of  illiterates  to  total  criminals.  M.  Levasseur 
has  pointed  out  that  the  proportion  of  illiterate  criminals  must  necessarily  decline 
as  education  becomes  universal. 

It  is,  however,  evident  [he  observes]  that  criminality  diminishes  as  the  term  of 
instruction  is  prolonged.  It  may,  then,  be  expected  that  as  instruction  is  devel¬ 
oped  its  moral  influence  will  become  more  marked.  Even  now  that  influence  is 
much  more  decided  than  appeared  from  former  statistics. 

The  effect  of  public  instruction  in  diminishing  illiteracy  is  shown  by  the  decreas¬ 
ing  ratio  of  illiterates.  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  illiterates  in 
every  hundred  persons  of  the  classes  specified: 


Year. 

Conscripts. 

Newly  married— 

Men. 

Women. 

1870  a . 

26.8 

39.4 

1880  a . 

14.4 

16.1 

24.5 

1887  a  . . . . . 

10.2 

10.7 

17 

1892  a . . . 

6.9 

8. 1 

12  2 

1895  a . 

5.4 

6.3 

9.4 

1896  a  . 

5.3 

8.8 

1897  » . 

5.1 

a  Report  of  M.  Maurice-Faure,  1899,  p.  251.  h  Report  of  M.  Levasseur,  1896-97,  pp.  clxvi-vii. 


The  investigation  of  the  criminal  statistics  of  France  has  brought  to  light  many 
other  conditions  bearing  indirectly  upon  the  question  of  public  education.  Two 
of  these  conditions  deserve  attention  here.  The  tendency  to  the  formation  of  a 
criminal  class  is  indicated  by  the  very  large  percentage  of  old  offenders  who 
reappear  annually  in  the  courts.  In  France  in  1898  the  proportion  of  old  offenders 
to  the  number  of  prisoners  serving  sentence  on  the  31st  of  December  was  for 
men,  80  per  cent;  for  women,  75  per  cent.1  M.  Levasseur.  in  his  work  previously 
cited,  shows  that  the  proportion  of  old  offenders  to  the  total  annual  average  num¬ 
ber  condemned  in  the  courts  rose  steadily  during  the  period  1856-1860  to  1888,  vis, 
from  27  to  46  per  cent.  “  Society,”  he  says,  “hides  in  its  bosom  a  hideous  sore; 
instead  of  healing,  it  perpetuates  and  aggravates  the  evil.  Vice  nourishes  and 
develops  vice.  Moralists,  jurists,  and  politicians  are  agitated  by  the  spectacle  and 
alarmed  at  the  danger.” 2 

It  is  further  evident  that  the  criminal  impulse  tends  to  become  a  fixed  habit 
before  the  individual  reaches  mature  years. 

According  to  the  statistics  [says  M.  Fouillee],  the  curve  of  crime  in  France 
reaches  its  highest  point  between  the  ages  of  21  and  30.  It  falls  a  little  between 
the  ages  of  30  and  40,  and  falls  rapidly  between  40  and  50.  Youth  is  then  the 
critical  age,  and  everything  depends  upon  a  right  direction  at  the  start.  It  rarely 
happens  after  the  age  of  maturity  is  reached  that  offenders  pass  the  bound  that 
separates  occasional  crime  from  professional  crime.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  during 
childhood  and  youth  that  this  step  is  taken;  that  one  adopts  the  criminal  profes¬ 
sion.  Now  it  is  the  professional  criminal  that  recruits  the  ranks  of  old  offenders. 
What,  then,  is  the  principal  means  of  putting  an  end  to  this  class — that  is,  of 
accomplishing  the  proper  object  of  penal  law,  regarded  as  a  system  essentially 
preventive,  rather  than  expiatory?  It  is  the  prevention  of  juvenile  crime.3 

This  necessity  is  fully  recognized  by  those  in  charge  of  the  State  schools,  and, 
as  we  have  seen,  they  are  making  strenuous  efforts  to  increase  the  moral  influence 

1  Statistique  penitentiaire,  1894,  pp.  xlvi,  li. 

2  La  Population  f  rangaise,  p.  469. 

3 Fouillee:  La  France  au  point  de  vue  moral,  p.  147. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1129 


of  the  schools  and  to  extend  the  time  during  which  young  people  shall  be  kept 
under  instruction.  But  the  school  alone  can  never  overcome  the  evil  impulses 
inherent  in  man,  nor  can  it  alone  combat  the  social  influences  that  make  for  evil. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  discuss  these  influences.  We  may,  however, 
note  two  that  are  peculiar  to  France,  and  which  because  of  their  coincidence  in 
time  with  the  school  laws  have  given  color  to  the  charge  that  the  schools  foster 
crime.  In  1880  a  law  was  passed  permitting  the  opening  of  saloons  without  pre¬ 
vious  authorization  by  local  authorities;  the  year  following  was  passed  the  law 
establishing  full  liberty  of  the  press. 

Since  the  passage  of  the  first-named  law,  according  to  M.  Fouillee,  the  con¬ 
sumption  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  France,  and,  moreover,  of  all  bad  liquors,  has 
tripled,  and  in  the  consumption  of  intoxicants  per  capita  of  the  population  France 
has  passed  from  the  seventh  to  the  first  rank  among  nations.  In  1887  the  annual 
number  of  prosecutions  for  assaults  upon  persons  had  increased  by  one-third,  and 
the  statistics  attribute  this  increase  to  the  spread  of  alcoholism,  and  not  to  the 
progress  of  instruction.1 

With  respect  to  the  freedom  of  the  press  in  France,  M.  Fouillee  complains  that 
it  is  liberty  without  responsibility.  No  attempt  is  made  to  control  the  circulation 
of  immoral  journals,  and  their  sale  among  young  people  is  pushed  by  all  the 
devices  of  commercial  greed. 

In  1882  a  cabinet  minister  declared  before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  there 
were  distributed  every  day  in  Paris,  at  the  very  doors  of  the  schools,  more  than 
30,000  immoral  papers. 

In  the  Senate,  in  1897.  during  the  discussion  of  a  proposal  to  restrict  circulation 
through  the  mails,  M.  Berenger  stated  that  there  was  not  a  village  in  France  to 
which  these  journals  did  not  penetrate.  “They  are  distributed,”  he  said,  “by 
twenty  and  thirty  thousand  at  a  time.”  A  journalist  declared  that  he  had  no 
need  to  read  the  recitals  in  papers,  as  he  could  learn  of  the  crimes  of  the  day  from 
the  children  in  the  streets.  These  examples,  which  might  be  multiplied,  show 
the  extent  to  which  the  liberty  of  the  press  has  been  abused  in  France. 

“  Our  laws  relating  to  the  press,”  says  M.  Fouillee,  “are  in  a  crude  and  chaotic 
state,  the  interests  of  the  press  as  well  as  its  dignity  require  that  it  should  stand 
for  justice,  which  consists  only  in  the  maintenance  of  the  greatest  liberty  for  all 
with  a  responsibility  equal  in  extent  to  that  liberty.”  He  cites  in  this  connection 
the  effect  of  public  opinion  in  our  own  country  and  in  England  in  repressing  the 
circulation  of  immoral  publications. 

In  New  York  [he  says]  and  throughout  the  United  States  there  are,  for  example, 
“  associations  for  the  prevention  of  vice,”  which  see  to  it  that  scandalous  journals 
do  not  circulate,  and  which,  moreover,  have  the  power  to  bring  cases  before  the 
courts  and  to  institute  suits  against  offenders.  *  *  *  The  National  Vigilant 
Society,  of  England,  works  also  to  secure  the  enforcement  of  the  very  vigorous 
laws  for  the  repression  of  vile  literature.  With  us,  also,  there  exist  some  societies 
of  the  same  nature,  such  as  the  League  of  Public  Morality.  *  *  *  But  our 
judicial  regime  renders  these  societies  powerless.  Societies  can  do  nothing  in  a 
country  if  the  law  itself  is  insufficient  and  if  the  Government,  failing  through  fear 
of  the  press  to  enforce  even  the  crude  laws  that  exist,  suffers  the  filthy  stream  to 
spread,  ingulfing  everything. 

M.  Fouillee  writes  as  a  philosopher  and  a  careful  student  of  social  conditions. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  his  comprehensive  survey  of  the  causes  of  crimi¬ 
nality  he  lays  special  stress  upon  the  same  conditions  that  M.  Buisson,  the  dis¬ 
tinguished  chief  of  primary  education,  has  also  emphasized. 

Whatever  [says  M.  Buisson]  be  the  nature  of  the  facts  that  are  regarded  as  indi¬ 
cations  of  a  relaxation  of  morals,  they  impress  everybody  with  their  twofold  char¬ 
acter.  On  one  side,  they  are  phenomena  that  have  not  developed  suddenly  since 
the  enactment  of  recent  school  laws  but  during  preceding  decades,  phenomena 


Fouillee,  La  France  au  point  de  vue  moral,  p.  156. 


1130 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


•whose  movements  statisticians  have  traced  repeatedly  since  the  beginning  of  the 
century.  Progression  in  crime  and  vice  is  a  social  fact  depending  upon  causes 
very  complex;  more  profound,  more  general,  than  the  primary  school.  On  the 
other  hand,  these  lamentable  phenomena  are  not  peculiar  to  France.  They  are 
found  in  all  countries  almost  without  exception.  Quite  recently  the  German  press 
deplored  an  increase  in  the  number  of  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  notably  in  those 
imputed  to  youth,  although  religious  instruction  and  ecclesiastical  supervision 
were  never  more  strictly  organized. 

Whatever  is  the  case,  no  one,  outside  of  that  special  public  which  reads  LaCroix 
or  La  Gazette  de  France,  will  be  so  foolish  as  to  maintain  that  the  school,  laic  or 
not,  is  the  direct  cause  of  all  the  disorders  of  society,  crimes,  misdemeanors,  sui¬ 
cides,  etc.  If  we  must  find  some  recent  Jaws  upon  which  to  lay  a  part  of  the 
responsibility,  it  would  suffice  to  cite  two  laws  which  have  given  free  scope  and 
entire  impunity,  the  one  to  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  alcoholic  drinks,  the  other 
to  the  cheap  pornographic  press  with  or  without  illustrations. 


THE  SIMPLIFICATION  OF  FRENCH  SYNTAX,1 

INCLUDING  DECREE  OF  THE  FRENCH  MINISTER  FOR  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION, 
FEBRUARY  26,  1901. 


I.— Introductory  Note. 

A  few  words  will  suffice  to  explain  the  circumstances  in  which  the  decree  of 
February  26,  1901,  relating  to  the  simplification  of  French  syntax,  was  issued  by 
the  minister  for  public  instruction. 

In  January,  1900,  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction  adopted  a  resolution 
that  a  committee  should  be  appointed  to  consider  what  simplifications  might  be 
effected  in  French  grammar  for  the  purposes  of  school  instruction  and  of  exam¬ 
inations  controlled  by  the  ministry  for  public  instruction.  The  committee  was 
composed  of  MM.  Gaston  Paris  (president),  Henri  Bernes,  Comte,  Croiset,  Devi- 
nat,  O.  Greard,  Paul  Meyer,  and  Henri  Olairin  (secretary).  Their  report,  signed 
by  M.  Clairin,  was  delivered  in  June,  1900.  In  it  they  stated  that  from  the  way 
in  which  grammar  was  now  being  taught,  elementary  education  was  losing  the 
simplicity  which  should  always  be  its  distinguishing  characteristic;  that  pupils 
were  perplexed  and  education  hampered  by  undue  insistence  both  by  teachers  and 
examiners  on  totally  unimportant  grammatical  and  orthographical  rules.  They 
therefore  recommended  that  such  rules  should  in  future  be  omitted  from  school 
grammars,  and  that  ignorance  of  them  should  not  be  counted  as  mistakes  against 
candidates  in  examinations  controlled  by  the  ministry  for  public  instruction,  and 
they  drew  up  a  list  of  cases  in  which  tolerance  should  be  exercised.  They  repudi¬ 
ated  any  intention  of  altering  the  French  language  or  injuring  its  best  traditions, 
but  they  professed  that  the  object  of  the  reforms  they  proposed  was  to  introduce 
into  examinations  a  generous  and  intelligent  toleration  of  alternative  usages.  It 
was  urged  that  the  benefits  of  the  reform  would  be  reaped  in  the  first  place  by 
French  children,  for  their  work  would  become  less  wearisome  and  more  intelligent. 
They  would  be  enabled  to  acquire  a  wider  and  more  thorough  knowledge  of 
French  literature,  instead  of  burdening  their  memories  with  useless  rules,  which 
were  forgotten  as  soon  as  learned.  In  the  second  place,  if  French  grammar  were 
made  more  clear  and  simple,  the  study  of  the  French  language  would  be  encour¬ 
aged  among  foreigners. 

A  decree,  accompanied  by  this  report  and  the  list  of  grammatical  difficulties  in 
which  latitude  was  to  be  allowed,  was  issued  by  the  minister  for  public  instruction 

1  Republished  from  pamphlet  issued  by  the  special  inquiries  branch  of  the  board  of  educa¬ 
tion,  England.  The  circular  letter  and  decree  were  translated  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Lipscomb,  M.  A., 
assistant  master  at  University  College  School,  London,  and  honorable  secretary  of  the  Modern 
Language  Association. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1131 


on  July  31, 1900,  but  its  execution  was  suspended  pending  the  approval  of  the 
Academie  frangaise.  The  Academie  at  once  expressed  its  sympathy  with  the 
principle  of  the  reform  and  accepted  the  majority  of  the  concessions,  but  made 
certain  reservations,  notably  in  the  case  of  certain  rules  concerning  the  agreement 
of  the  past  participle.  Accordingly,  a  joint  committee  was  appointed,  composed 
of  members  of  the  Academie  f  rangaise  and  of  the  superior  council  of  public 
instruction,  to  consider  the  points  on  which  the  two  bodies  were  not  in  accord  and 
any  other  points  on  which  fresh  proposals,  acceptable  to  both,  might  be  made. 

On  February  26,  1901,  a  revised  decree  was  issued  rendering  compulsory  the 
observance  of  the  recommendations  of  the  joint  committee,  which  were  appended 
as  a  schedule.  This  decree  and  the  schedule,  together  with  the  circular  of  the 
minister  of  public  instruction  to  the  rectors  of  educational  districts  ( recteurs 
d-  Academie)  are  translated  below. 

W.  G.  L. 

II. — Circular  Letter  relating  to  the  Simplification  of  Syntax  addressed 
by  the  Minister  for  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts  to  the  Rectors 
of  Educational  Districts. 

Paris,  February  28, 1901. 

Sir:  On  the  31st  July  last  I  issued  a  decree  relating  to  the  simplification  of 
French  syntax.  I  felt  it  my  duty,  however,  before  making  its  provisions  obliga¬ 
tory  to  await  the  opinion  that  I  had  requested  from  the  Academie  frangaise ,  for  I 
felt  that  any  reform  in  a  matter  of  such  delicacy  should  be  supported  not  only  by 
the  authority  of  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction,  which  determines  the 
curricula  and  regulates  the  examinations  of  the  different  grades  of  education,  but 
also  of  the  Academie  frangaise,  whose  “prescriptive  office  it  is  to  labor  for  the 
preservation  and  purity  of  the  language,  for  the  maintenance  of  its  distinguish¬ 
ing  characteristics  and  principles,  and  the  explanation  of  its  difficulties.” 

The  Academie  frangaise  has  been  kind  enough  to  communicate  to  me  the  observa¬ 
tions  of  the  special  committee  appointed  by  its  members  to  consider  the  proposed 
reforms  to  which  I  had  directed  their  attention  in  the  decree  of  July  31,  and  the 
schedule  attached  to  it.  I  learn  that  the  principle  of  the  reform  met  with  no 
opposition,  and  that  although  the  proposals  of  the  superior  council  of  public 
instruction  might  not  in  every  case  be  in  accordance  with  the  feeling  of  the  Acad¬ 
emie  frangaise,  there  was  perfect  agreement  in  a  great  number  of  cases  in  which 
grammatical  difficulties  can  be  simplified. 

In  these  circumstances  I  have  decided  to  give  effect  to  the  reforms  on  which  the 
superior  council  of  public  instruction  and  the  Academie  are  in  accord.  This  is 
the  object  of  the  new  decree  which  I  issued  on  February  26,  and  of  which  I  send 
you  herewith  a  number  of  copies. 

I  think  it  will  be  useful  to  direct  your  attention  particularly  to  the  character  of 
the  reform  which  is  hereby  sanctioned.  It  is  in  fact  of  importance  that  teachers 
and  members  of  examining  committees  who  will  be  affected  by  these  regulations 
should  understand  that  there  is  no  question  of  suppressing  any  fundamental  rules 
of  our  syntax.  The  reform  simply  aims  at  rendering  elementary  instruction  in 
French  syntax  simpler  and  easier  for  children  and  foreigners,  and  freeing  it  from 
useless  complexities. 

As  early  as  1891  one  of  my  honorable  predecessors  protested  against  the  abuse  of 
grammatical  tests  and  deplored  the  time  spent  even  in  primary  schools  on  the  study 
of  rules  often  disputed  by  the  most  famous  writers  of  dictionaries,  and  affecting 
neither  the  character  nor  the  essential  principles  of  the  language.  I  may  mention 
in  this  connection  the  use  which  is  still  made  in  some  schools  of  dictations  which 
are,  as  a  rule,  nothing  but  a  succession  of  meaningless  sentences  in  which  oddities 
and  catches  in  spelling  are  piled  up  at  will.  These  exercises  are  of  no  use,  and  you 


1132 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


will  be  good  enough  to  request  teachers  to  discontinue  them.  Dictations  should 
not  be  artificially  manufactured.  They  should  be  taken  from  our  best  authors,  in 
order  that  the  pupils  may  have  at  the  same  time  a  lesson  in  grammar  and  in 
literary  taste. 

The  committee  of  the  superior  council  has  alluded  to  subtle  and  sometimes  false 
rules  which  hamper  elementary  education  and  serve  no  purpose  either  in  reading 
or  in  the  cultivation  of  intelligence  and  the  development  of  thought.  They  have 
drawn  up  a  sort  of  catalogue  indicating  the  licenses  that  may  properly  be  allowed. 
This  list,  supported  by  the  approbation  of  the  Academie  frangaise,  is  appended  as 
a  schedule  to  the  present  decree. 

Henceforth  the  members  of  examining  committees  will  no  longer  have  to  act 
upon  merely  general  instructions;  they  will  be  in  possession  of  a  definite  guide 
which  will  relieve  them  of  all  doubt  and  render  their  task  easier.  On  the  olher 
hand,  masters  will  know  exactly  what  to  retain  and  what  to  discard  in  the  books 
that  are  used  in  the  lower  and  middle  forms  of  schools. 

The  reform  in  syntax  that  we  are  carrying  out  does  not  in  the  least  imply  that 
less  time  and  care  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  study  of  French — quite  the  contrary. 
The  genius  of  a  language,  its  flexibility,  elegance,  and  clearness  do  not  lie  in  pecul¬ 
iarities  of  spelling.  They  are  learned  by  studying  the  words  of  the  great  orators 
and  writers.  The  time  gained  by  the  simplification  of  the  grammar  will  be  use¬ 
fully  employed  in  the  study  and  explanation  of  selected  books  and  in  French  essay 
writing — the  only  kind  of  work  which  is  capable  of  teaching  the  resources  and 
manipulation  of  the  language. 

I  request  you,  sir,  to  take  the  necessary  steps  to  have  the  accompanying  decree 
put  in  force.  You  will  be  good  enough  to  bring  it  to  the  notice  of  the  district 
inspectors  under  your  direction,  the  heads  of  secondary  schools  and  the  presidents 
of  the  various  examining  committees,  and  to  see  that  it  is  published  in  the  primary 
education  gazettes. 

I  remain,  sir,  etc., 

The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts., 

Georges  Leygtjes. 

III. —Translation  of  the  Decree  and  of  the  Schedule. 

1.  By  virtue  of  article  5  of  the  law  of  the  27th  February,  1880.  2.  In  re  the 
decree  of  the  81st  July,  1900.  The  minister  of  public  instruction  and  fine  arts, 
after  consultation  with  the  superior  council  of  public  instruction,  decrees: 

1.  In  all  competitive  or  other  examinations  controlled  by  the  ministry  for  public 
instruction  involving  special  tests  in  orthography,  the  use  by  candidates  of  the 
concessions  notified  in  the  present  decree  shall  not  be  reckoned  as  mistakes. 

The  same  provision  applies  to  the  marking  of  the  various  French  compositions 
in  the  competitive  or  other  examinations  controlled  by  the  ministry  for  public 
instruction  which  do  not  involve  special  orthographical  tests. 

2.  The  decree  of  the  31st  July,  1900,  is  revoked. 

Given  in  Paris,  the  28th  February,  1901. 

Georges  Leygues. 

Schedule  to  the  decree  of  February  26 ,  1901. 
substantives. 

Plural  or  singular.— hi  all  constructions  where  the  sense  permits  the  noun  com¬ 
plement  to  be  understood  either  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  the  use  of  either 
number  will  be  allowed;  e.  g.,  des  habits  de  femme  or  d.e  femmes;  des  confitures  de 
groseille  or  groseilles;  des  prStres  en  bonnet  carre  or  en  bonnets  carres;  Us  out  ote 
leur  chapeau  or  leurs  chapeaux. 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


1133 


SUBSTANTIVES  OF  TWO  GENDERS. 

1.  Aigle  — According  to  present  usage  this  noun  is  masculine,  except  when  it 
means  standards;  e.  g.,  les  aigles  romaines. 

2.  Amour ,  Orgue. — Present  usage  makes  these  two  words  masculine  in  the  singu¬ 
lar.  In  the  plural  the  masculine  or  feminine  will  be  allowed  without  distinction; 
e.  g. ,  les  grandes  orgues,  un  des  plus  beaux  orgues;  de  folles  amours ,  des  amours 
tardifs. 

3.  Delice  and  Delices  are,  in  reality,  two  different  words.  The  former  is  rare 
and  rather  affected.  It  is  of  no  use  to  pay  any  attention  to  it  in  elementary  edu¬ 
cation  and  school  exercises. 

4.  Automne,  Enfant.— These  two  words  being  of  both  genders,  it  is  useless  to 
pay  any  special  attention  to  them.  The  same  applies  to  all  substantives  which 
are  without  distinction,  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

5.  Gens,  Orge . — In  all  cases  the  adjective  qualifying  gens  may  be  made  femi¬ 
nine;  e.  g.,  Instructs  or  instruites  par  V experience  les  vieilles  gens  sont  soupgonneux 
Gr  soupgonneuses. 

Orge  may  be  feminine  in  all  cases;  e.  g.,  orge  carree,  orge  mondee,  orge  perlee. 

6.  Hymne. — There  is  no  sufficient  reason  for  giving  this  word  two  different 
meanings,  according  to  whether  it  is  used  masculine  or  feminine.  Either  gender 
will  be  admitted,  whether  it  means  national  anthems  or  religious  hymns;  e.  g.,  un 
bel  hymne  or  une  belle  hymne. 

7.  Pdques . — This  word  may  be  feminine  whether  it  denotes  a  date  or  a  religious 
festival;  e.  g.,  A  Pdques  prochain,  or  d  Pdques  prochaines. 

PLURAL  OF  SUBSTANTIVES. 

Plural  of  proper  names.— Since  there  is  the  greatest  obscurity  in  the  rules  and 
exceptions  taught  in  the  grammars,  proper  names  preceded  by  the  plural  article 
may  in  all  cases  take  the  sign  of  the  plural ;  e.  g. ,  Les  Corneilles  and  les  Gracques; 
des  Virgiles  (copies)  and  des  Virgiles  (editions).  And  so  with  the  names  of  per¬ 
sons  denoting  their  works;  e.  g.,  des  Meissoniers . 

Plural  of  nouns  borrowed  from  oilier  languages.  —When  these  words  have  thor¬ 
oughly  become  part  of  the  French  language  the  plural  may  be  formed  according 
to  the  general  rule;  e.  g.,  des  exeats;  des  deficits. 

COMPOUND  NOUNS. 

Compound  nouns. — The  same  compound  nouns  are  nowadays  met  with  some¬ 
times  with  and  sometimes  without  a  hyphen.  It  is  useless  to  weary  children  by 
teaching  unjustifiable  inconsistencies.  The  absence  of  a  hyphen  in  the  expression 
pomme  de  terre  does  not  prevent  it  from  being  a  real  compound  word  just  as  much 
as  chef-d'oeuvre,  for  example.  These  words  may  always  be  written  without  the 
hyphen. 

THE  ARTICLE. 

Article  before  proper  names  of  persons. — It  is  the  custom  to  use  the  article  before 
certain  Italian  family  names;  e.  g.,  Le  Tasse,  le  Correge,  and  sometimes  incorrectly 
before  Christian  names  (le)  Dante ,  (le)  Guide.  Ignorance  of  this  usage  will  not 
be  counted  as  a  mistake. 

Great  uncertainty  exists  also  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  article  which  forms 
part  of  certain  French  names  should  be  written:  la  Fontaine,  la  Fayette  or 
Lafayette.  When  such  names  occur  in  dictations,  it  is  best  to  say  whether  the 
article  ought  to  be  separated  from  the  noun. 

Omission  of  the  article. — When  two  adjectives  joined  by  et  relate  to  the  same 
substantive  in  such  a  way  as  to  denote  in  reality  two  different  things,  the  article 


1134 


EDUCATION  REPOST,  1900-1901. 


may  be  omitted  before  the  second  adjective;  e.  g.,  Nhistoire  ancienne  et  moderne 
or  Vhistoire  ancienne  et  la  moderne. 

Partitive  article. — Du,  de  la,  des,  instead  of  the  partitive  de,  will  be  allowed 
before  a  substantive  preceded  by  an  adjective;  e.  g.,  de  or  du  bon  pain ,  de  bonne 
viande  or  de  la  bonne  viande ,  de  or  des  bons  f  ruits. 

Article  before  plus,  moins,  etc. — The  rule  which  exacts  that  le  plus,  le  moins,  le 
mieux  shall  be  invariable  before  an  adjective  denoting  the  highest  degree  of  the 
quality  in  the  substantive  which  it  qualifies,  without  comparison  with  other 
things,  is  very  subtle  and  of  little  practical  use.  It  is  unnecessary  to  pay  any 
attention  to  it  in  elementary  education  or  in  school  exercises.  Le  plus,  la  plus , 
les  plus,  les  moins,  les  mieux  may  all  be  used  in  such  constructions  as  on  a  abattu 
les  arbres  le  plus  or  les  plus  exposes  a  la  tempete. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Agreement  of  the  adjective. — In  the  expression  se  faire  fort  de  the  adjective  may 
be  made  to  agree;  e.  g.,  se  faire  fort,  forte,  forts,  fortes  de.  .  .  . 

Adjective  qualifying  several  substantives. — When  a  qualifying  adjective  follows 
several  substantives  of  different  gender,  the  adjective  may  always  be  put  in  the 
masculine  plural,  whatever  the  gender  of  the  nearest  substantive;  e.  g.,  apparte- 
ments  et  chambres  meubles. 

Nu,  demi,feu. — These  adjectives  may  agree  with  the  substantive  which  they 
precede;  e.  g.,  nu  or  nuspieds;  une  demi  or  demie  lieure  (without  a  hyphen  between 
the  words) ;  feu  or  feue  la  reine. 

Compound  adjectives. — The  two  component  words  may  be  united  into  one  word, 
which  shall  form  its  feminine  and  plural  according  to  the  general  rule;  e.  g., 
nouveaune,  nouveaunee,  nouveaunes,  nouveaunees;  courtvetu,  courtvetue,  courive- 
tus,  courtvetues,  etc.  But  compound  adjectives  which  denote  shades  of  color 
having  become,  by  an  ellipsis,  really  invariable  substantives,  will  be  treated  as 
invariable  wToras;  e.  g.,  des  robes  bleu  clair,  vert  cVeau,  etc.,  just  like  des  habits 
marron. 

Invariable  past  participles. — At  present  the  participles  approuve,  attendu,  ci - 
inclus,  ci-joint,  excepte,  non  compris,  ycompris,  ote, passe,  suppose,  vu,  when  placed 
before  the  substantive  to  which  they  are  joined,  are  invariable.  And  indeed  excepte 
is  already  classed  among  the  prepositions.  The  agreement  of  these  participles  will 
be  made  optional,  and  the  application  of  different  rules — according  to  whether 
they  are  placed  at  the  beginning  or  in  the  middle  of  the  clause,  and  whether  they 
define  the  substantive  or  not — will  not  be  insisted  upon;  e.  g.,  ci  joint  or  cijointes 
les  pieces  dem,andees  (without  hyphen  between  ci  and  the  participle) ;  je  vous  envoie 
ci  joint  or  ci  jointe  copie  de  la  piece. 

The  same  freedom  will  be  allowed  in  the  case  of  the  adjective  franc;  e.  g., 
envoy  er  franc  de  port  or  franche  de  port  une  lettre. 

Avoir  Fair. — File  a  Vair  doux  or  douce,  spirituel  or  spirituelle  may  be  written 
indifferently.  No  knowledge  will  be  demanded  of  any  subtle  difference  of  mean¬ 
ing  arising  from  the  agreement  of  the  adjective  with  the  word  air  or  with  the 
person  described. 

Numeral  adjectives.  Vingt,  cent. — The  existing  rule  by  which  these  two  words 
are  put  in  the  plural  when  they  are  multiplied  by  another  number  is  justified  in 
certain  cases  by  the  pronunciation.  The  plural  of  vingt  and  cent  will  be  allowed 
even  when  these  words  are  followed  by  another  numeral  adjective;  e.  g.,  quatre 
vingt  or  quatre  vingt s  dix  homines;  quatre  cent  or  quatre  cents  trente  homines. 

The  hyphen  between  the  word  denoting  the  units  and  that  denoting  the  tens 
will  not  be  insisted  on;  e.  g.,  dix  sept. 

In  dates  of  the  Christian  era  mille  will  be  accepted  instead  of  mil,  as  in  ordinary 
numbers;  e.  g.,  Nan  mil  huit  cent  quatre  vingt  dix  or  Van  mille  huit  cents  quatre 
vingts  dix. 


EDUCATION  IN  USANCE. 


1135 


DEMONSTRATIVE  AND  INDEFINITE  ADJECTIVES  AND  PRONOUNS. 

Ce.  —The  particles  ci  and  Id  may  be  added  to  the  preceding  pronoun  without 
making  any  distinction  between  qu’est  ceci,  qu’est  cela,  and  qu'est  ce  ci,, qu’est  ce  Id. 
In  these  expressions  the  hyphen  may  be  omitted. 

Meme. — Meme  following  a  plural  substantive  or  a  pronoun  may  be  made  to  agree, 
and  no  hyphen  between  meme  and  the  pronoun  is  necessary;  e.  g.,  nous  memes , 
les  dieux  memes. 

Tout. — Tout  may  be  made  to  agree  with  the  name  of  a  town  which  it  precedes, 
and  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  establish  a  somewhat  subtle  distinction  between 
such  constructions  as  toute  Rome  and  tout  Rome. 

It  will  not  be  counted  as  a  mistake  to  write  without  any  difference  of  meaning, 
when  it  is  a  woman  who  is  speaking,  je  suis  tout  d  vous  or  je  suis  toute  a  vous. 
When  tout  is  used  with  the  indefinite  sense  of  chaque  it  may,  with  its  accompany¬ 
ing  substantive,  be  written  either  singular  or  plural  without  altering  the  mean¬ 
ing;  e.  g.,  des  marchandises  de  toute  sorte  or  de  toutes  sortes;  la  sottise  est  de  tout 
(tons)  temps  et  de  tout  ( tous )  pays. 

Aucun. — This  word  may  be  used  with  a  negative  either  singular  or  plural;  e.  g., 
ne  faire  aucun  projet  or  aucuns  projets. 

Chacun. — V/hen  this  pronoun  follows  the  verb  and  refers  to  a  plural  subject  or 
object  either  of  the  possessive  adjectives,  viz,  son,  sa ,  ses,  or  leur,  leurs,  shall  be 
allowed  after  chacun;  e.  g.,  Its  sont  sortis  chacun  de  son  cote  or  de  leur  c6te; 
remettre  des  livres  chacun  d  sa  place  or  d  leur  place. 

VERBS. 

Compound  verbs. — The  omission  of  the  apostrophe  and  of  the  hyphen  will  be 
allowed  in  compound  verbs;  e.  g. ,-entr.ouvrir,  entrecroiser. 

Hyphen. — The  omission  of  the  hyphen  between  the  verb  and  the  pronoun-subject 
following  the  verb  will  be  allowed;  e.  g.,  est  il . 

Distinction  betiveen  the  apparent  subject  and  the  real  subject;  e.  g. ,  sa  maladie 
sont  des  vapeurs. — There  is  no  occasion  to  teach  rules  for  such  constructions  as  this, 
for  their  study  can  only  be  profitable  when  they  occur  in  the  text  which  is  being 
read  and  explained.  It  is  not  a  question  of  grammar  but  of  style,  and  should  find 
no  place  in  elementary  school  work  or  in  examinations. 

Concord  of  the  verb  preceded  by  several  subjects  not  joined  by  the  conjunction  et. — 
If  the  subjects  are  not  summed  up  in  an  indefinite  word  such  as  tout ,  rien ,  chacun, 
the  verb  may  always  be  put  in  the  plural;  e.  g, ,  sa  bonte,  sa  douceur  le  font  admirer. 

Concord  of  the  verb  preceded  by  several  subjects  in  the  singular  joined  by  ni, 
comme ,  ainsi  que,  and  other  similar  expressions. — The  verb  will  always  be  allowed 
in  the  plural;  e.  g.,  Ni  la  douceur  ni  la  force  n’y  peuvent  rien  or  n’y  peui  rien; 
La  sante  comme  la  fortune  demandant  a  etre  menagees  or  demande  a  etre  menagee. 
Le  general  avec  quelques  ojfciers  sont  sortis  or  est  sorti  du  camp;  Le  chat  ainsi 
que  le  tigre  sont  des  carnivores  or  est  un  carnivore. 

Concord  of  the  verb  when  the  subject  is  a  collective  noun. — Whenever  the  col¬ 
lective  is  accompanied  by  a  plural  complement  the  verb  may  agree  with  the  com¬ 
plement;  e.  g.,  Unpeu  de  connaissances  suffit  or  suffisent. 

Concord  of  the  verb  when  the  subject  is  plus  d'un , — Since  the  existing  practice  is 
to  make  the  verb  singular  to  agree  with  its  subject  plus  d’un,  it  will  be  permissible 
to  do  so  even  when  plus  d’un  is  followed  by  a  plural  complement;  e.  g.,  Plus  d'un 
de  ces  hommes  etait  or  etaient  cl  plaindre. 

Concord  of  the  verb  preceded  by  un  de  ceux  ( une  de  celles)  qui.— When  should  the 
verb  in  the  relative  clause  be  plural  and  when  singular?  This  is  a  nicety  of 
language,  and  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  introduce  it  into  school  work  or 
examinations. 


1136 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


C’est,  ce  sont. — As  great  diversity  of  custom  exists  as  to  the  exact  use  of  c’est  and 
ce  sont,  and  as  the  best  authors  have  used  c’est  to  introduce  a  plural  subject  or  a 
pronoun  in  the  third  person  plural,  the  use  of  c’est  instead  of  ce  sont  shall  always 
be  permitted;  e.  g.,  c’est  or  ce  sont  des  montagnes  et  des precipices. 

Sequence  of  tenses. — The  present  subjunctive  will  be  allowed  instead  of  the 
imperfect  in  subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  clauses  in  which  the  verb  is  in 
the  conditional  present;  e.  g.,  II  faudrait  qu’il  vienne  or  quit  Pint. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present  participle  and  verbal  adjective. — The  general  rule  should  be  observed, 
by  which  the  participle  is  distinguished  from  the  adjective,  in  that  the  former 
denotes  action  and  the  latter  state.  It  is  sufficient  for  pupils  and  candidates  to 
give  evidence  of  common  sense  in  doubtful  cases.  Subtleties  must  be  carefully 
avoided  in  setting  exercises;  e.  g.,  Des  sauvages  vivent  errant  or  errants  dans  les 
bois. 

Past  participle. — No  change  is  to  be  made  in  the  rule  by  which  the  past  partici¬ 
ple  must  agree  with  the  word  it  qualifies  when  it  is  used  as  an  epithet,  and  with 
the  subject  when  it  is  a  complement  to  the  verb  etre  or  when  it  is  an  intransitive 
verb  conjugated  with  etre;  e.  g. ,  Des  fruits  gates;  ils  sont  tombes;  elles  sont  tonibees. 

A3  for  the  past  participle  with  the  auxiliary  verb  avoir,  when  it  is  followed  either 
by  an  infinitive  or  by  a  present  participle  or  another  past  participle,  it  may  remain 
invariable,  whatever  the  gender  and  number  of  the  objects  which  precede;  e.  g., 
Les  fruits  queje  me  suis  laisse  or  laisses  prendre;  les  sauvages  que  Von  a  trouve  or 
tr ouves  errant  dans  les  bois.  When  the  past  participle  is  preceded  by  a  collective 
noun  it  may  be  made  at  choice  to  agree  with  the  collective  or  the  noun  dependent 
on  it;  e.g.,  Lafoule  d’ homines  quej’ai  vue  or  vus. 

ADVERBS. 

Ne  in  subordinate  clauses. — The  use  of  this  negative  in  a  great  number  of  sub¬ 
ordinate  clauses  gives  rise  to  complicated,  difficult,  and  incorrect  rules,  often  at 
variance  with  the  usage  of  the  most  classical  writers. 

Regardless  of  whether  the  clauses  on  which  they  depend  are  affirmative,  nega¬ 
tive,  or  interrogative,  the  omission  of  ne  will  be  permitted  in  subordinate  clauses 
dependent  on  such  verbs  or  phrases  as:  Emp&cher,  defendre,  eviter  que,  &c.;  e.  g., 
Defendre  qu’on  vienne  or  qu’on  ne  vienne;  Craindre,  desesperer,  avoir  peur,  depeur 
que,  &c. ;  e.g.,  De  peur  qu’il  aille  or  qu’il  n’aille.  Douter,  contester,  nier  que,  &c. ; 
e.  g. ,  Je  ne  doute  pas  que  la  chose  soit  vraie  or  ne  soit  vraie.  II  tient  a  peu,  il  ne 
tient  pas  a,  il  s’en  faut  que,  &c. ;  e.  g. ,  II  ne  tient  pas  a  moi  que  cela  se  fasse  or  ne 
sefasse. 

In  like  manner  the  omission  of  ne  after  comparatives  or  words  implying  com¬ 
parison  will  be  permitted:  Autre,  autrement  que,  &c. ;  e.  g. ,  L’annee  a  ete  meil- 
leure  qu’on  Vesperait  or  qu’on  ne  Vesperait;  les  resultats  sont  autres  qu’on  le 
croyait  or  qu’on  ne  le  croyait. 

Likewise  after  the  phrases  a  moins  que,  avant  que;  e.  g.,  a  moins  qu’on  accorde 
le  pardon  or  qu’on  n’accorde  le  pardon. 


NOTE. 

In  examinations,  mistakes  which  prove  no  want  of  intelligence  or  real  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  candidates,  but  only  show  ignorance  of  some  nice  point  or  gram¬ 
matical  subtlety,  must  not  be  counted  as  serious. 

Approved  as  a  schedule  to  the  decree  of  February  26th,  1901. 

The  minister  for  public  instruction  and  fine  arts. 

Georges  Leygues. 


CHAPTER  XXY. 

HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION.1 


The  movement  for  the  institution  of  courses  of  study  for  the  purpose  of  afford¬ 
ing  an  opportunity  for  the  higher  education  of  young  men  who  desire  to  enter' 
upon  business  careers  or  branches  of  the  public  service,  like  the  consular,  is  mak¬ 
ing  considerable  progress.  For  more  than  fifty  years  commercial  or  business- 
colleges  have  flourished  in  this  country  and  have  furnished  instruction  to  large 
numbers  of  students.  The  subjects  of  study  included  in  the  courses  of  these- 
institutions  were  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  accounting,  stenography,  typewriting, 
English,  penmanship,  business  forms,  correspondence,  etc.,  designed  to  prepare 
young  men  and  women  for  clerical  positions,  such  as  bookkeepers,  stenographers, 
typewriters,  etc.,  but  did  not  include  a  study  of  the  sciences  related  to  commer¬ 
cial  and  industrial  pursuits.  The  work  of  the  commercial  or  business  colleges 
is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Edmund  J.  James: 

As  to  the  so-called  commercial  or  business  colleges,  I  would  not  willingly  do 
them  an  injustice.  I  believe  that  they  are  a  great  and  permanent  constituent  of 
our  educational  system.  They  have  done  and  are  doing  and  are  destined  to  con¬ 
tinue  doing  a  great  and  useful  work.  But  the  training  which  they,  wTitk  few 
exceptions,  furnish  can  scarcely  be  called  a  higher  training  at  all.  It  has  to  do  with 
facilities — indeed,  chiefly  with  manual  facilities — "writing,  reckoning,  etc.,  those 
things  that  go  to  make  up  a  good  clerk,  things  of  great  value  in  them  elves, 
things  which  every  business  man  would  be  the  better  for  having,  and  yet  things 
which  after  all  are  only  facilities;  they  do  not  touch  the  essence  of  successful 
business  management  or  tend  to  develop  the  higher  sides  of  business  activity; 
they  bear  little  or  no  relation  to  those  broader  views  characteristic  of  the  business 
manager  as  distinct  from  the  business  clerk  and  are  of  course  next  to  useless  as  a 
means  of  liberal  education.  The  knowledge  which  they  impart,  however  valu¬ 
able  in  itself,  does  not  suffice  to  fit  a  young  man  for  the  struggle  of  commercial 
life,  for  wise  management  of  a  private  estate  or  for  efficient  public  service.2 

The  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Economy  of  the  University  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  is  generally  conceded  as  having  been  the  first  institution  that  offered  special3 
courses  of  study  for  the  higher  education  of  business  men.  It  was  established  om 
an  endowment  of  $100,000,  given  to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1881  by  Mr. 
Joseph  Wharton,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.  In  1889  Mr.  Wharton  gave  an  additional1 
sum  of  $25,000  to  establish  a  library  fund  for  the  school. 

The  considerations  that  determined  Mr.  Wharton  to  establish  the  school  are  thus 
stated  by  Dr.  James,  formerly  a  professor  in  the  school: 

First,  the  belief  that  the  business  classes  of  our  country  need  a  higher  training 
as  much  or  more  than  any  other  classes;  second,  the  view  that  the  commercial  or 


1  Other  articles  upon  this  subject  in  previous  Reports  of  this  office  are:  Report  on  commer¬ 
cial  education  in  Europe  to  the  American  Bankers’  Association  (James),  Report  1895-96,  Vol. 
1,  721-837;  Commercial  . education  in  Europe,  Rep.  1896-97,  Vol.  1,207-231;  Commercial  education1 
(Eliot),  Rep.  1898-99,  Vol.  1, 677-681;  Report  of  committee  of  National  Educational  Association  on 
courses  of  study  for  business  colleges,  Id.,  Vol.  2,  2163-2174;  The  German  commercial  clerk,  Repr 
1899-1900,  Vol.  1, 835-846;  Industrial  and  commercial  schools  in  Hungary,  865-878;  Commercial  edu¬ 
cation  in  Scotland,  Id.,  Vol.  2, 1431-1436;  in  Saxony,  1439-1441;  the  commercial  courses  of  a  num¬ 
ber  of  higher  institutions  of  learning,  1861-1871. 

2  Education  of  Business  Men,  I  and  II,  American  Bankers’  Association,  1892. 

ED  1901 - 72 


1137 


1138 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


business  college,  however  valuable  its  curriculum,  is  by  its  very  nature  unable  to 
give  this  higher  training;  third,  the  fact  that  the  American  college,  however  real 
and  valuable  its  higher  training,  does  not  in  its  present  form  furnish  a  kind  of 
higher  training  which  appeals  to  the  business  sentiment  of  the  community,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  of  the  small  number  of  youths  looking  to  business  careers  who 
enter  college. 

The  object  of  the  Wharton  School,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Wharton  in  the  “project” 
submitted  to  the  trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  is  “to  provide  for 
young  men  special  means  of  training  and  of  correct  instruction  in  the  knowledge 
and  in  the  arts  of  modern  finance  and  economy,  both  public  and  private,  in  order 
that,  being  well  informed  and  free  from  delusions  upon  these  important  subjects, 
they  may  either  serve  the  community  skillfully  as  well  as  faithfully  in  offices  of 
trust,  or,  remaining  in  private  life,  may  prudently  manage  their  own  affairs  and 
aid  in  maintaining  sound  financial  morality;  in  short,  to  establish  means  for 
imparting  a  liberal  education  in  all  matters  concerning  finance  and  economy.” 

While  the  instruction  to  be  given  in  the  school  was  not  strictly  defined  nor  lim¬ 
ited  by  Mr.  Wharton,  he  suggested  in  the  “  project  ”  that  the  school  should  be  con¬ 
ducted  by  one  principal  or  dean,  one  professor  or  instructor  of  accounting  or  book¬ 
keeping,  one  professor  or  instructor  upon  money  and  currency,  one  professor  or 
instructor  upon  industry,  commerce,  and  transportation,  and  one  professor  or 
instructor  upon  elementary  and  mercantile  law.1 

The  Wharton  School  was  opened  for  instruction  in  the  fall  of  1881,  but  in  its 
first  years  did  not  attract  any  large  numbers  of  students.  The  number  in  1881-82 
was  13;  in  1830-91,  59;  and  in  1900-1901  the  number  had  increased  to  139. 

In  1889  education  for  business  began  to  receive  the  attention  of  the  American 
Bankers’  Association.  On  October  16  of  that  year  the  following  resolution  was 
unanimously  adopted  by  the  executive  council  ot  that  association: 

Resolved ,  That  a  committee  of  not  less  than  three  or  more  than  five  he  appointed 
by  the  chairman,  to  whom  shall  be  submitted  the  subject  of  the  preparation  or 
procurement  of  a  paper  to  be  read  at  the  next  convention  of  the  association  upon 
the  establishment  of  schools  in  connection  with  the  universities  and  colleges  of 
the  country,  of  general  scope  and  character  like  that  of  the  Wharton  School  of 
Finance  and  Economy,  connected  with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
best  means  by  which  the  establishment  and  endowment  of  such  schools  may  be 
promoted  and  fostered  by  the  association. 

The  committee  appointed  under  the  above  resolution  secured  Prof.  Edmund  J. 
James,  Ph.  D.,  of  the  Wharton  School  to  prepare  and  read  a  paper  on  schools  of 
finance  and  economy,  which  he  did  at  the  convention  held  at  Saratoga  on  Sep¬ 
tember  3,  1890.  In  his  address  Dr.  James  emphasized  the  need  of  schools  for  the 
education  of  business  men,  and  gave  a  somewhat  detailed  account  of  the  work 
and  aims  of  the  Wharton  School.  Recognizing  the  limitations  of  that  institution 
as  then  organized,  Dr.  James  gave  some  idea  as  to  what,  in  his  opinion,  a  school 
of  finance  and  economy  should  include.  He  said: 

The  ideal  of  the  faculty,  it  may  be  said,  is  a  great  institution,  comprising  many 
different  courses — one  looking  to  business,  another  to  journalism,  still  another  to 
politics,  another  to  the  university — all  composed  alike  of  two  elements — a  common 
one,  consisting  of  such  studies  as  political  economy,  constitutional  law,  politics, 
history,  etc.,  and  a  professional  one,  embracing  such  special  instruction  as  may 
be  of  aid  to  preparing  the  students  for  their  particular  careers.  The  business 
course  itself  should  be  subdivided  according  to  the  intention  of  the  student,  and 
should  comprise  not  merely  the  fundamental  branches  we  now  have,  but  many 
others,  such  as  railroading,  commerce,  insurance,  etc. 

An  institution  like  this,  with  a  curriculum  based  upon  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  our  own  vernacular,  its  use, literature,  history,  etc.,  with  such  other  languages, 
ancient  or  modern,  as  the  student  might  choose  to  take,  and  all  based  on  a  thor¬ 
ough  elementary  training  in  languages,  mathematics,  and  natural  science,  would 
be  an  addition  to  our  educational  system  comparable  in  importance  and  influence 


1  For  the  course  of  study  and  detailed  description  of  instruction  now  offered  by  the  Wharton 
School,  see  p.  1173. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1139 


only  to  the  great  system  of  technical  schools  which  in  a  different  field  are  revolu¬ 
tionizing  our  American  education.  It  would  give  us  also  the  best  system  of  train¬ 
ing  for  business,  journalism,  teaching — in  a  word,  for  citizenship — which  the 
world  has  yet  seen. 

On  September  5,  1890,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  American 
Bankers’  Association: 

Resolved,  That  the  American  Bankers’  Association  most  earnestly  commends, 
not  only  to  the  bankers,  but  to  all  intelligent  and  progressive  citizens  throughout 
the  country,  the  founding  of  schools  of  finance  and  economy  for  the  business 
training  of  youth,  to  be  established  in  connection  with  the  universities  and  col¬ 
leges  of  the  land,  upon  a  general  plan  like  that  of  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance 
and  Economy  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  so  ably  set  forth  by  Professor 
James  in  his  most  admirable  address  before  this  convention. 

Resolved,  That  the  executive  council  is  hereby  directed  to  carefully  consider 
and,  if  possible,  devise  some  feasible  plan  whereby  this  association  may  encourage 
or  promote  the  organization  of  a  school  or  schools  of  finance  and  economy  among 
our  institutions  of  learning,  and  report  upon  the  same  at  the  next  convention. 

The  address  of  Dr.  James  and  the  action  of  the  association  on  the  subject  of 
schools  of  finance  and  economy  were  printed  by  the  association  and  distributed 
among  bankers,  educators,  and  universities  and  colleges  throughout  the  country, 
and  awakened  great  interest  in  the  subject.  In  1892  Dr.  James  was  commissioned 
by  the  association  to  make  an  examination  into  European  institutions  for  the 
education  of  business  men,  and  his  report  on  the  subject  was  published  by  the 
American  Bankers’  Association  and  was  reprinted  in  full  in  the  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1895-98,  pages  721-837.  This  report  gives  an  his¬ 
torical  survey,  as  well  as  the  courses  of  study  offered  in  the  commercial  schools  of 
Europe,  particularly  in  Austria#  France,  and  Germany,  and  was  received  by  busi¬ 
ness  men  and  educators  as  a  valuable  contribution  in  aid  of  commercial  education. 

As  a  result  of  the  agitation  of  this  subject,  schools,  colleges,  or  courses  of  study 
of  various  designations,  but  all  designed  for  the  education  of  persons  desiring  to 
enter  upon  business  careers,  the  public  service,  or  other  callings  in  which  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  business  is  essential,  have  been  established  in  a  number  of  the  universities 
and  colleges  of  the  country.  The  majority  of  such  courses  extend  through  a 
period  of  four  years  and  lead  to  the  baccalaureate  degree.  The  Amos  Tuck 
School  of  Dartmouth  College  is  essentially  a  graduate  school  and  is  intended 
primarily  for  persons  who  have  already  taken  a  baccalaureate  degree. 

While  special  courses  in  commerce  and  finance  are  announced  by  a  compara¬ 
tively  small  number  of  the  universities  and  colleges  of  the  country,  instruction  in 
many  of  the  branches  of  study  included  in  such  courses  has  been  for  some  time 
and  is  now  offered  in  the  departments  of  economics  or  political  economy  of  a 
considerable  number  of  the  leading  institutions.  Thus  we  find  included  in  such 
departments  courses  on  money,  banking,  transportation,  corporations,  trusts, 
commercial  geography,  commercial  history,  economic  organization,  trade  statis¬ 
tics,  accounting,  speculative  market,  etc.  New  courses  are  being  added  con¬ 
stantly  to  these  departments,  and  under  the  elective  system  in  vogue  in  our 
institutions  students  are  enabled  to  select  the  subjects  offered  that  are  suited  to 
their  future  careers. 

In  the  fallowing  pages  are  given  the  courses  of  study  in  commerce,  finance,  and 
administration  maintained  by  a  number  of  the  institutions  of  the  country,  with 
detailed  statements  concerning  the  instruction  offered  in  the  commercial  branches 
so  far  as  given  in  the  annual  catalogues  of  the  institutions. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY,  CAL. 

The  college  of  commerce  was  opened  for  instruction  in  the  fall  of  1898,  and 
“the  curriculum  is  intended  to  afford  an  opportunity  for  the  scientific  study  of 
commerce  in  all  its  relations  and  for  the  higher  education  of  business  men  and  of 
the  higher  officers  of  the  civil  service.”  The  undergraduate  course  of  four  years 


1140 


EDUCATION  DEPORT,  1900-1901. 


leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  and  “is  devoted  almost  wholly  to  those 
studies  of  an  elementary  or  a  technical  nature  which  are  deemed  most  appropriate 
as  a  broad  preparation  for  commercial  life.  The  small  number  of  electives  are  to 
consist  of  such  special  studies  as  shall  most  directly  aid  the  student  in  his  prepara¬ 
tion  for  the  career  that  he  intends  to  follow  after  graduation. ”  Opportunity  for 
further  specialization  is  offered  in  the  graduate  department. 

One  hundred  and  twenty-five  units  are  required  for  graduation,  and  are  grouped 
as  follows: 

(1)  Elementary  studies. — -English,  6  units;  modern  languages,  18  units;  mathe¬ 
matics,  8  units;  history  (mediaeval  and  modern),  12  units;  economics  (theoret¬ 
ical),  6  units;  geography  (including  7  units  in  the  study  of  the  materials  of 
commerce  with  the  assistance  of  the  Pacific  Commercial  Museum),  15  units; 
military  science,  5  units. 

(2)  Technical  studies:  (a)  In  practical  economics. — History  and  theory  of  inter¬ 
national  commerce,  6  units;  money,  banking,  and  credit,  8  units;  manufacturing 
processes,  3  units;  public  finance,  3  units;  statistics,  3  units;  accounting,  3  units; 
transportation,  3  units;  commercial  practice,  2  units;  social  policy,  3  units.  ( b ) 
Jurisprudence. — Elementary  lav/,  3  units;  international  law,  3  units;  industrial 
and  commercial  law,  6  units. 

(3)  Electives. — To  be  devoted  to  a  special  field,  14  units. 

In  a  report  to  the  board  of  regents  made  by  President  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler 
in  December,  1900,  he  says: 

The  work  of  the  College  of  Commerce,  as  outlined  in  the  curriculum  adopted  by 
the  faculty,  does  not  include  a  sufficient  amount  of  work  characteristic  of  com¬ 
mercial  activities.  The  faculty  has  intended  a  thorough  revision  of  its  curricu¬ 
lum,  but  until  the  funds  of  the  university  or  the^special  equipment  of  this  school 
make  it  possible  to  add  a  number  of  chairs  for  the  teaching  of  practical  commer¬ 
cial  subjects,  it  is  feared  that  the  college  will  not  fulfill  its  highest  opportunity. 

The  work  in  geography,  conducted  by  Professor  Davidson,  has  given  very  par¬ 
ticular  attention  to  the  subjects  of  currents  and  climatology  of  the  Pacific.  It  is 
necessary  that  this  work  be  very  much  enlarged  by  a  study  of  the  products  and 
climates  of  the  other  regions  involved  in  the  trade  connections  of  this  country. 
It  is  highly  important  that  there  should  be  offered  to  students  in  the  College  of 
Commerce  instruction  in  the  Russian  language,  and  to  a  fuller  extent  than  our 
possibilities  now  allow,  in  the  Spanish  language.  Provision  has  already  been 
made  for  instruction  in  Chinese  and  Japanese.  Added  instruction  is  needed  in 
banking,  insurance,  statistics,  and  in  various  fields  of  practical  business  proced¬ 
ure,  The  founding  of  the  Pacific  Commercial  Museum  promises  to  provide  for 
this  school  an  invaluable  laboratory. 

COLORADO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  BOULDER,  COLO. 

The  commercial  course  was  established  in  1896,  extends  through  two  years,  and 
is  as  follows:  * 

Junior  year. — Commercial  arithmetic,  geometry,  general  history,  spelling,  book¬ 
keeping,  penmanship,  rhetoric  and  composition,  accounting,  business  correspond¬ 
ence,  business  practice  and  banking. 

Senior  year. — Constitution  of  the  United  States,  stenography,  typewriting, 
literature,  business  geography,  business  law,  physiological  psychology,  sociology, 
political  economy,  and  office  practice. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

The  College  of  Commerce  and  Administration  was  inaugurated  in  1898  “in 
response  to  the  growing  demand  for  a  course  of  university  instruction  that  should 
be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  students  who  desire  to  make  university  work  more 
directly  introductory  to  careers  in  business,  law,  diplomacy,  administration,  jour¬ 
nalism,  etc.”  The  course  of  study  extends  through  four  years,  and  leads  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy.  It  is  partly  prescribed  and  partly  elective. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1141 


In  the  junior  college  (freshman  and  sophomore  years)  the  work  includes  18 
majors,1  besides  a  specified  amount  of  public  speaking  and  physical  culture.  In 
the  senior  college  (junior  and  senior  years)  th9  work  includes  18  majors,  besides 
physical  culture  for  four  quarters. 

The  prescribed  work  of  the  junior  college  is  as  follows: 

Economic  and  social  history. — The  development  of  the  economic  organization  of 
society  down  to  the  time  of  the  so-called  industrial  revolution  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

Commercial  geography. — A  study  of  the  various  countries  and  their  chief  prod¬ 
ucts;  the  effect  of  soil,  climate,  and  geographical  situation  in  determining  the 
character  of  national  industries  and  of  international  trade,  commercial  routes, 
seaports;  the  location  of  commercial  and  industrial  centers;  exports  and  imports; 
the  character,  importance,  and  chief  sources  of  the  principal  articles  of  foreign 
trade. 

Civil  government  in  the  United  States. — This  course  includes  an  analysis  of  the 
structure  and  working  of  government  in  the  United  States — local,  State,  and 
national. 

History. — (1)  The  mediaeval  period;  (2)  the  modern  period;  (8)  the  United  States. 

An  introduction  to  the  study  of  society. — A  descriptive  account  of  the  organiza¬ 
tion  and  processes  of  modern  society. 

Modern  languages.— The  three  required  courses  in  modern  languages  may  be 
selected  with  the  advice  of  the  dean  from  any  of  the  junior  college  courses  offered 
in  those  departments. 

English. — In  English  two  courses  in  English  composition  and  rhetoric  will  be 
followed  by  one  affording  an  introduction  to  English  literature. 

Mathematics. — Plane  trigonometry  and  college  algebra  are  required. 

Science. — The  two  required  courses  in  science  may  be  elected,  with  the  advice  of 
the  dean,  from  any  of  the  junior  college  courses  in  physics,  chemistry,  the  biolog¬ 
ical  group,  or  geology. 

The  work  of  the  senior  college  consists  of  18  majors;  of  these  7  are  prescribed 
and  11  are  elective.  The  prescribed  courses  are:  Principles  of  political  economy, 
2  majors;  elements  of  jurisprudence,  1  major;  Federal  constitutional  law,  1  major; 
history  of  Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century,  1  major;  recent  American  history,  1 
major;  psychology,  1  major. 

The  prescribed  work  of  the  senior  college  is  as  follows: 

Principles  of  political  economy. — Exposition  of  the  hrws  of  modern  political 
economy. 

The  course  is  designed  to  give  the  students  an  acquaintance  with  the  working 
principles  of  modern  political  economy. 

Elements  of  jurisprudence. — A  study  of  fundamental  legal  ideas  and  principles, 
illustrated  by  cases  and  statutes. 

Federal  constitutional  law  of  the  United  States. — An  elementary  course  based 
on  a  selected  text-book. 

Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century . 

Recent  American  history  (1861-1900). 

Psychology. 

The  remaining  11  majors  of  the  senior  college  will  be  selected,  with  the  advice 
of  the  dean,  from  among  the  following  groups  of  courses.  In  special  circumstances 
technical  scientific  work  may  be  more  beneficial  than  the  courses  listed  here. 
These  or  other  courses  outside  the  following  list  may  be  taken  only  with  the  con¬ 
sent  of  the  dean. 


ECONOMICS,  COMMERCE,  AND  FINANCE. 

Economic  theory. — Value.  The  aim  is  to  trace  the  development  of  the  theory  of 
value  down  to  the  writings  of  the  present  day,  and  to  take  up  other  controverted 
topics  of  economic  theory. 

Unsettled  problems  of  economic  theory. — Questions  of  exchange  and  distribution. 
Critical  examination  of  selections  from  leading  writers. 

History  of  political  economy. — This  course  on  the  development  of  economic  doc¬ 
trine  treats  both  of  the  history  of  topics  and  that  of  schools  and  leading  writers; 
the  mercantile  system,  the  physiocratic  school,  the  English  writers  from  Adam 
Smith  to  J.  S.  Mill,  and  recent  American  and  European  economists. 

Scope  and  method  of  political  economy. — The  province,  postulates,  and  character 
of  political  economy,  its  method,  the  nature  of  economic  truth,  methods  of  proof, 


1 A  major  is  a  subject  pursued  daily  for  one  quarter  (twelve  weeks). 


1142  EDUCATION"  REPOET,  1900-190J. 

and  the  relation  of  political  economy  to  ethics,  political  science,  and  sociology  are 
discussed. 

Training  course  in  statistics. — The  object  of  this  course  is  to  train  students  in 
the  practical  use  of  the  statistical  method  of  investigation.  Stress  will  be  laid 
upon  methods  of  collecting,  tabulating,  and  interpreting  statistics  of  different 
orders,  and  constructive  work  will  be  required  in  order  to  obtain  practical  effi¬ 
ciency  in  the  treatment  of  such  data. 

Economic  factors  in  civilization. — Study  is  given  of  the  origin  of  some  phases  of 
present  forms  of  industry,  and  the  effect  of  economic  motives  and  exigencies 
on  cultural  development. 

Problems  of  American  agriculture. — Special  attention  will  be  given  to  the  exten¬ 
sion  and  changes  of  the  cultivated  area  of  the  United  States;  the  methods  of  farm¬ 
ing;  the  influence  of  railways  and  population,  and  of  cheapened  transportation; 
movements  of  prices  of  agricultural  products;  European  markets;  competition  of 
other  countries;  intensive  farming;  "diminishing  returns;  farm  mortgages;  and 
the  comparison  of  American  with  European  systems  of  culture. 

Industrial  development  of  the  United  States. — A  study  is  made  of  the  distribu¬ 
tion  of  population  among  the  important  industries  at  different  periods  of  our 
development,  and  a  comparison  is  made  of  the  wages  and  profits  secured  by  the 
different  groups.  The  effects  of  changing  from  extractive  industries  to  manufac¬ 
tures  are  traced.  The  influence  of  legislation  in  shaping  the  industrial  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  nation  is  sought.  The  forces  which  determine  the  iocation  and 
prosperity  of  industries  are  studied,  and  the  effect  upon  our  exports  and  imports 
of  changes  in  our  industries  is  dwelt  upon. 

Recent  industrial  development  in  Europe. — The  competition  of  industries  in 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  other  countries  with  our  own  producers;  the  ele¬ 
ments  lying  behind  the  industrial  growth  of  Germany;  the  changed  relation  of 
different  countries  in  the  scale  of  industrial  importance  during  recent  decades;  the 
influence  of  tariffs  on  European  development;  and  the  existing  tariff  systems  in 
the  principal  countries  of  Europe. 

Modern  industries. — This  elementary  course,  requiring  no  previous  study  of 
economics,  gives  an  exposition  of  the  present  organization  of  productive  indus¬ 
tries;  the  processes  of  leading  industries,  such  as  iron  and  steel,  cotton,  wool,  etc.; 
the  effects  of  modern  invention;  internal  business  methods,  etc.  Visits  will  be 
made  to  a  number  of  large  industrial  establishments. 

Economics  of  workingmen. — The  purpose  is  to  treat  of  efforts  made  to  improve 
the  condition  of  workingmen,  and  the  effects  of  cooperation,  profit  sharing,  build¬ 
ing  associations,  manual  training,  trades  unions,  and  the  like. 

The  group  of  industrials.  —The  labor  movement  from  the  point  of  view  of  soci¬ 
ology.  The  influence  of  habitat,  race,  inheritance,  migration,  division  of  labor, 
towns,  institutions,  and  conventions  on  the  differentiation  and  opportunities  of 
the  so-called  operative  class,  the  actual  condition  of  this  group,  and  their  partici¬ 
pation  in  the  goods  of  civilization;  the  essentials  of  a  truly  human  existence;  the 
modes  by  which  improved  ideals  of  welfare  originated  and  are  diffused;  the  social 
system  of  economic,  political,  and  cultural  organization  through  which  the  group 
must  enjoy  the  social  inheritance;  description,  criticism,  programme  of  ameliora¬ 
tion. 

Socialism. — This  course  treats  historically  and  critically  socialistic  theories, 
recent  socialistic  developments;  the  writings  of  Marx,  Rodbertus,  and  Lassalle; 
and  gives  a  review  of  recent  popular  writers,  platforms,  and  programmes  of  social¬ 
istic  organizations. 

Technique  of  trade  and  commerce. — A  study  of  the  actual  forms  of  modern  busi¬ 
ness;  market  quotations;  investment  securities;  operations  on  the  stock  and 
produce  exchange;  foreign  and  domestic  exchange;  insurance;  the  construction 
and  use  of  exchange,  bond,  and  annuity  tables. 

Commercial  treaties. — A  study  is  made  of  the  text  of  the  most  important  com¬ 
mercial  treaties,  supplemented  by  an  examination  into  their  economic  causes  and 
effects.  This  course  is  suitable  for  students  who  have  already  given  considerable 
attention  to  history  and  political  science. 

Colonial  economics. —  This  course  will  discuss  the  trade  and  financial  relations 
of  modern  colonies  to  the  mother  country;  their  gains  or  losses;  the  economic 
development  of  colonies  to  the  present  time;  their  productions,  their  monetary 
systems,  their  labor  conditions,  and  the  influence  of  racial  characteristics  on  their 
industrial  growth. 

The  history  of  commerce  during  the  middle  ages. 

Trusts. — Main  emphasis  at  present  will  be  put  upon  industrial  combinations  or 
trusts  as  a  type  of  industrial  organization,  while  outlining  also  the  general  prov¬ 
ince  of  government  in  regard  to  industry. 

American  shipping. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1143 


Railway  transportation. — The  course  opens  with  a  brief  historical  survey  of  the 
development  of  the  transportation  system  of  the  United  States;  then  takes  up  a 
discussion  of  theories  of  rates,  competition,  combination,  speculation,  discrimina¬ 
tion,  legislation,  and  the  position  of  the  State,  the  public,  the  investors,  the 
managers,  and  the  employees. 

Comparative  railway  legislation. — This  course  studies  the  development  and 
present  status  of  the  railway  systems  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Russia,  Italy,  Brazil,  and  Australia.  A  comparative  study  will  show 
what  light  the  experience  of  other  countries  throws  on  our  ow n  railway  problems. 

Accounting. — A  study  of  the  underlying  principles.  Some  practice  work  under 
the  guidance  of  an  expert  auditor  of  accounts  will  be  given,  but  only  with  a  view 
to  illustrating  the  principles  discussed  in  the  lectures.  Emphasis  will  be  placed 
on  the  interpretation  of  balance  sheets  and  the  problems  implied  therein. 

Money. — An  examination  is  made  first  of  the  principles  of  money,  whether 
metallic  or  paper;  next  the  subjects  of  metallic  and  paper  money  are  taken  up, 
and  attention  is  given  to  the  experiences  of  the  United  States  and  modern  countries. 

Banking. — A  study  is  made  of  the  banking  systems  of  leading  nations;  the  rela¬ 
tions  of  the  banks  to  the  public;  their  influence  on  speculation;  and  the  relative 
advantages  of  national  banks,  State  banks,  trust  companies,  and  savings  banks. 

Financial  history  of  the  United  States. — After  a  rapid  survey  has  been  made  of 
the  financial  experiences  of  the  colonies  and  the  confederation,  a  detailed  study 
is  undertaken  of  fiscal  administration  and  the  course  of  legislation  upon  currency, 
debts,  and  banking  in  the  United  States.  The  study  will  be  based  upon  first-hand 
examination  of  the  sources. 

Finance. — In  these  courses  it  is  intended  to  make  a  comprehensive  survey  of 
the  whole  field  of  public  finance.  The  treatment  is  both  theoretical  and  practical, 
and  the  method  of  presentation  historical  as  well  as  systematic.  Most  emphasis 
is  placed  upon  the  study  of  taxation,  although  public  expenditures,  public  debts, 
and  financial  administration  are  carefully  studied. 

LAW  AND  GOVERNMENT. 

History  of  political  theory. — American  theory.  The  development  of  political 
theory  since  the  French  revolution.  First  term  devoted  to  the  European  move¬ 
ment;  second  term  to  American  political  ideas.  Lectures,  reports,  and  discussions. 

Comparative  national  government. — A  comparative  study  of  the  constitutions 
and  constitutional  law  of  leading  hations,  as  France,  Germany,  Switzerland, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States.  The  texts  of  constitutions  are  read  in  the 
light  of  commentaries,  like  those  of  Burgess,  Laband,  Dicey,  Lebon,  and  others, 
with  lectures  by  the  professor. 

Federal  government. — The  principal  federations  of  history  are  studied — the 
United  States  of  America,  Germany,  and  Switzerland  receiving  special  attention. 

The  government  of  Great  Britain. — A  somewhat  detailed  study,  historical  and 
descriptive,  of  the  British  system. 

The  government  of  France. — A  somewhat  detailed  study  of  the  French  system, 
as  it  has  developed  since  the  revolution. 

The  government  of  Germany. — A  study  of  the  German  Empire. 

The  government  of  colonies,— A  study  of  the  political  development  of  the  colo¬ 
nial  system  in  recent  times. 

Federal  constitutional  law  of  the  United  States. — This  course  will  examine  the 
leading  principles  established  by  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  Selected  cases  are  studied  in  detail. 

State  constitutional  laic:  I.  Principles  of  organization. — Making  and  amend¬ 
ment  of  constitutions;  suffrage  and  elections;  the  separation  of  powers;  legislative 
and  administrative  organization;  local  self-government. 

State  constitutional  law;  II.  Principles  of  legislation.  —  Constitutional  limita¬ 
tions  regarding  process  and  substance  cf  legislation,  with  special  reference  to  the 
police  power. 

Comparative  politics;  State  governments  in  the  United  States. — A  study  in  the 
constitutions  and  constitutional  history  of  the  American  Commonwealths. 

The  law  of  municipal  corporations. — Organization  and  power  of  municipal  cor¬ 
porations.  Corporate  rights  and  liabilities. 

Municipal  government. — A  comparative  study  of  the  modern  municipality, 
American  and  European,  in  its  legal,  constitutional,  and  administrative  aspects. 

The  elements  of  international  law. 

Diplomatic  history  of  Europe. — The  principal  European  treaties  of  the  last  cen¬ 
tury  are  examined,  with  an  especial  view  to  ascertain  the  main  principles  of  exist¬ 
ing  international  agreements. 


1144 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Diplomatic  history  of  the  United  States. — The  treaty  relations  of  the  United 
States  with  foreign  powers  are  studied  in  detail,  including  an  analysis  of  docu¬ 
ments  and  an  examination  of  methods. 

Roman  general  administration. — A  historical  view  with  constant  reference  to 
the  sources,  of  the  methods  of  election,  powers,  limitations,  privileges,  insignia, 
etc.,  of  the  various  Roman  magistrates,  and  to  the  organization,  functions,  and 
order  of  business  of  the  senate  and  the  comitia.  The  work  of  the  class  room  will 
consist  of  lectures  and  the  discussion  of  papers  prepared  by  the  members  of  the 
class. 

Institutes  of  Roman  law. — A  brief  outline  of  the  history  of  the  Roman  law. 
Study  of  the  text  of  Justinian’s  Institutes. 

History  and  elements  of  the  laic  of  property. — Principally  the  development  of 
the  law  of  real  property.  Instruction  will  be  based  on  the  second  book  of  Black- 
stone’s  Commentaries. 

The  law  of  persons. — Status;  legal  and  acting  capacity;  absolute  personal  rights; 
domestic  relations. 

HISTORY. 

American  history. — (1)  The  early  period  under  the  Constitution  (1789-1820). 
(2)  The  middle  period  (1820-1860). 

The  history  of  American  political  parties. — Their  organization  and  action  to  1840. 

The  age  of  the  renaissance,  1250  A.  D.  to  1500  A.  D. 

The  history  of  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 

The  French  revolution  and  the  era  of  Napoleon. 

The  rise  of  Prussia. 


SOCIOLOGY. 

Contemporary  society  in  the  United  States. — A  concrete  study  of  natural  condi¬ 
tions,  the  population  and  its  distribution,  institutions,  economics,  political,  edu¬ 
cational,  and  ecclesiastical,  together  with  an  examination  of  conventional  ideas  as 
to  national  characteristics. 

American  cities. — A  study  of  the  location,  growth,  population,  groupings, 
arrangements,  architecture,  and  typical  institutions  of  American  cities. 

Development  and  organization  of  the  press. — A  brief  historical  survey,  followed 
by  a  study  of  the  technical  side  of  a  modern  newspaper,  its  organization  as  a  busi¬ 
ness  unit,  its  relation  to  organized  news  collecting,  to  news  and  other  syndicates, 
to  advertising,  to  distributing  agencies. 

The  family. — The  development  of  the  domestic  institutions  in  lower  and  higher 
civilizations;  social  ethics  of  the  family;  legal,  industrial,  educational,  and  reli¬ 
gious  problems  of  the  family. 

Rural  communities. — Conditions  of  social  existence  in  the  country;  organization 
for  improvement. 

Contemporary  charities. — Studies  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  depressed  and 
defective  classes;  principles  and  methods  of  relief;  organization  of  benevolence. 

Social  treatment  of  crime. — Causes  of  crime;  principles  of  criminal  anthropology; 
prison  systems;  legal  factors;  juvenile  offenders;  preventive  methods. 

The  structure  of  English  society. — A  study  of  the  economic,  physiological,  social, 
aesthetic,  intellectual,  and  ethical  elements  in  a  typical  society. 

Philanthropy  in  its  historical  development. 

The  elements  and  structure  of  society. — A  study  of  the  economic,  physiological, 
social,  sesthetic,  intellectual,  and  moral  elements  in  American  society;  the  inter¬ 
relation  of  the  individual  and  the  group;  the  problem  of  social  progress  in  a  demo¬ 
cratic  society. 

Municipal  sociology. — An  examination  of  the  means  of  satisfying  communal 
wants  through  public  activity,  with  special  reference  to  British  and  American 
cities. 

The  sociological  conception  of  the  State  and  of  government. 

The  sociological  conception  of  the  problems  of  modern  democracy. 

SCIENCE. 

Electricity  and  magnetism. — A  course  of  advanced  work  in  theoretical  electricity 
and  magnetism. 

Physiography. — The  earth's  features,  treated  with  special  reference  to  their 
origin  and  significance;  agencies  affecting  changes  in  geographic  features;  physi¬ 
ographic  changes  in  progress;  genetic  geography. 

Economic  geology. — A  discussion  of  the  nature  and  distribution  of  ore  deposits 
and  of  nonmetallic  materials  of  economic  value. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1145 


Introduction  to  mineralogy;  physical  and  geometrical  crystallography. — Physical 
characteristics  of  crystals;  general  principles  of  crystallography ;  projection  and 
construction  of  figures  of  crystals.  Groth,  Physikalische  Krystallographie,  etc. 

Elementary  mineralogy  and  petrology. — This  course  will  include  the  study  of  a 
few  of  the  commor  rock-fcrming  minerals  and  of  the  common  rocks. 

Descriptive  mineralogy  and  determinative  mineralogy. — Essential  characteristics 
of  minerals;  laboratory  work  in  testing  minerals  by  chemical  and  blowpipe 
methods. 

The  chemistry  of  ore  deposits. — A  discussion  of  the  origin  of  ore  deposits  and  the 
chemical  processes  involved  in  their  formation;  lectures  and  laboratory  work. 

Geographic  botany. — This  course  presents  regional  and  world  problems. 

Public  hygiene.—  The  application  of  bacteriology  to  municipal  hygiene;  water 
supply,  food  supply,  sewage  disposal,  etc. 

Sanitary  aspects  of  water  and,  food,. — Special  study  will  be  given  to  the  physio¬ 
logical  and  chemical  principles  of  water  and  foods,  including  food  analysis,  food 
adulteration,  money  values,  and  dietaries. 

Mechanical  drawing. — A  course  designed  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  mechanical  drawing  and  projection,  the  preparation  of  working  sketches 
and  drawings,  and  elementary  curve  tracing. 

The  following  suggestions  on  the  grouping  of  courses  are  added  for  the  guid¬ 
ance  of  students  who  are  seeking  preparation  for  any  of  the  following  activities: 

Banking. — Money,  banking,  financial  history  of  the  United  States,  accounting, 
trusts,  technique  of  commerce,  law  of  property. 

Railroads. — Railway  transportation,  comparative  railway  legislation,  technique 
of  commerce,  American  shipping,  accounting,  training  course  in  statistics. 

General  industries. — Modern  industries,  technique  of  commerce,  accounting, 
banking,  money,  trusts,  economics  of  workingmen,  the  group  of  industrials,  indus¬ 
trial  development  of  the  United  States. 

Foreign  commerce. — History  of  commerce,  commercial  treaties,  American  ship¬ 
ping,  industrial  development  of  Europe,  industrial  development  of  the  United 
States,  colonial  economics. 

Consular  service. — International  law,  diplomatic  history  of  Europe,  diplomatic 
history  of  the  United  States,  history  of  commerce,  American  shipping,  training 
course  in  statistics,  technique  of  commerce,  American  agriculture,  commercial 
treaties. 

Journalism. — Development  and  organization  of  the  press,  money,  banking, 
trusts,  American  shipping,  financial  history  of  the  United  States,  American  city 
life,  municipal  sociology,  economics  of  workingmen,  comparative  government, 
international  law,  oral  debates,  argumentation. 

In  addition  to  the  courses  of  study  offered  by  the  College  of  Commerce  and 
Administration,  the  following  course  of  open  lectures  was  given  during  the  year 
1901-1902:  The  New  Education,  by  Prof.  J.  Laurence  Laughlin,  Ph.  D.,  of  the 
University  of  Chicago;  Railroad  Management  and  Operation,  by  A.  W.  Sullivan, 
assistant  second  vice-president  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  Company;  Railways 
as  Factors  in  Industrial  Development,  by  Louis  Jackson,  industrial  commissioner 
of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway;  Some  Railway  Problems,  by 
Paul  Morton,  second  vice-president  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Rail¬ 
way;  Railway  Consolidation,  by  E.  D.  Kenna,  vice-president  of  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railway;  Railway  Finance  (three  lectures),  by  Edwin  H. 
Abbot,  A.  B.,  LL.  B.,  formerly  president  of  Wisconsin  Central  Railroad;  The  Rail¬ 
way  Mail  Service,  by  George  G.  Tunell,  Ph.  D.,  secretary  to  the  president  of  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway;  The  Steel  Industry,  by  Franklin  H.  Head, 
LL.  D. ;  At  Wholesale,  by  Adolphus  C.  Bartlett,  vice-president  of  Hibbard,  Spen¬ 
cer,  Bartlett  &  Co.;  Development  of  the  Forging  Industry  and  Modern  Methods 
of  Making  Steel  Forgings  (two  illustrated  lectures),  by  H.  F.  J.  Porter,  M.  E., 
sales  agent  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Company;  The  Credit  Department  of  Modern 
Business,  by  Dorr  A.  Kimball,  credit  man  of  Marshall  Field  &  Co.;  The  Commer¬ 
cial  Value  of  Advertising,  by  John  Lee  Mahin,  president  of  the  Mahin  Advertising 
Company;  The  Textile  Industries  (three  illustrated  lectures),  by  S.  N.  D.  North, 
A.  M.,  secretary  of  the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers;  The  Methods 
of  Banking  (two  lectures),  by  J.  H.  Eckels,  LL.  B.,  president  of  the  Commercial 
National  Bank,  Chicago;  The  Stock  Exchange;  Investments,  by  D.  R.  Forgany 


1146 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


vice-president  of  First  National  Bank,  Chicago;  The  Board  of  Trade  (two  lec¬ 
tures),  by  George  F.  Stone,  secretary  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade;  Fire  Insur¬ 
ance,  by  A.  F.  Dean,  assistant  manager  of  the  western  department  of  the  Springfield 
Fire  and  Marine  Insurance  Company;  Life  Insurance,  by  Willard  Merrill,  A.  B., 
vice-president  of  the  Northwestern  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company;  Foreign 
Exchange,  by  H.  K.  Brooks,  manager  of  the  financial  department  of  the  American 
Express  Company. 

The  officers  of  instruction  of  the  College  of  Commerce  and  Administration,  as 
given  in  a  circular  of  information  of  August  31,  1901,  are  as  follows:  William  E. 
Harper,  Ph.  D.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  president  of  the  university,  professor  and  head  of 
the  department  of  Semitic  languages  and  literatures;  Harry  P.  Judson,  A.  M., 
LL.  D.,  professor  of  comparative  constitutional  law  and  diplomacy  and  head  of 
the  department  of  political  science;  Charles  R.  Henderson,  A.  M.,  D.  D.,  professor 
of  sociology;  J.  Laurence  Laughiin,  Ph.  D.,  professor  and  head  of  the  department 
of  political  economy;  Albion  W.  Small,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  professor  and  head  of  the 
department  of  sociology;  Edmund  J.  James,1  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  public 
administration;  Benjamin  Terry,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  mediaeval  and  English  his¬ 
tory;  J.  Franklin  Jameson,  Ph.  D. ,  professor  and  head  of  the  department  of  history; 
George  S.  Goodspeed,  Ph.  D. ,  professor  of  ancient  history;  Starr  W.  Cutting,  Ph.  D. , 
professor  of  German  literature;  Adolph  C.  Miller,2  A.  M.,  professor  of  finance; 
Oliver  J.  Thatcher,  Ph.  D. ,  associate  professor  of  mediaeval  and  English  history; 
Karl  Pietsch,  Ph.  D.,  associate  professor  of  Romance  languages  and  literatures; 
Ernst  Freund,  J.  U.  D.,  Ph.  D. ,  associate  professor  of  jurisprudence  and  public 
law;  William  I.  Thomas,  Ph.  D.,  associate  professor  of  sociology;  Edwin  E. 
Sparks,  Ph.  D. ,  associate  professor  of  American  history;  George  E.  Vincent,  Ph.  D., 
associate  professor  of  sociology;  Alex.  Smith,  Ph.  D.,  associate  professor  of  gen¬ 
eral  chemistry;  Charles  Zueblin,  Ph.  B.,  D.  B.,  associate  professor  of  sociology; 
Thorstein  B.  Veblen,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  political  economy;  Maxirae 
Ingres,  B.  es  Lettres,  assistant  professor  of  Romance  languages  and  literatures; 
Francis  W.  Shepardson,  Ph.  D. ,  assistant  professor  of  American  history;  Herbert 
E.  Slaught,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  mathematics;  George  C.  Howland,  A.  M., 
assistant  professor  of  Romance  languages  and  literatures;  Camillo  von  Klenze, 
Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  German  literature;  Jacob  W.  A.  Young,  Ph.  D., 
assistant  professor  of  mathematical  pedagogy;  Ferdinand  Schwill,  Ph.  D.,  assist¬ 
ant  professor  of  modern  history;  William  Hill,  A.  M.,  assistant  professor  of  politi¬ 
cal  economy;  Paul  O.  Kern,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  Germanic  philology;  Theodore 
L.  Neff,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  Romance  languages;  David  J.  Lingle,  Ph.  D., 
instructor  in  physiology;  James  H.  Boyd,  Sc.  D.,  instructor  in  mathematics; 
Charles  M.  Child,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  zoology;  Ralph  C.  H.  Catterall,  A.  B., 
instructor  in  modern  history;  Robert  A.  Millikan,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  physics; 
Henry  R.  Hatfield,  Ph.  D. ,  instructor  in  commerce;  James  W.  Thompson,  Ph.  D., 
instructor  in  European  history;  Philip  S.  Allen,  Ph.  D.,  associate  in  German; 
Wesley  C.  Mitchell,  Ph.  D..  associate  in  political  economy;  Charles  G.  Merriam, 
Ph.  D.,  docent  in  political  science. 

In  his  quarterly  statement,  made  at  the  spring  convocation  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  held  on  March  18,  1903,  President  Harper  said: 

By  the  action  of  the  senate  of  the  university,  approved  by  the  trustees,  a  sepa¬ 
rate  faculty  has  been  established  for  the  conduct  of  the  College  of  Commerce  and 
Administration.  This  faculty  consists  of  those  instructors,  from  various  depart¬ 
ments,  selected  to  give  instruction  in  accordance  with  the  curriculum  of  the  college, 
and  of  five  members  of  the  university  at  large,  appointed  by  the  trustees.  Mr.  Henry 
Rand  Hatfield  (assistant  professor  of  political  economy)  has  been  appointed  dean 
of  this  college.  It  is  expected  that  the  work  of  this  division  will  assume  a  more 
definite  form  and  take  on  a  more  technical  character. 


1  Since  elected  president  of  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Ill. 

2  Elected  professor  of  political  economy  and  commerce  at  the  University  of  California. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1147 


NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  EVANSTON,  ILL. 

This  institution  announces  courses  of  instruction  for  students  desiring  special 
training  for  commerce,  industry,  and  the  public  service.  Attention  is  called  to  the 
fact  that  under  the  liberal  system  of  election  a  student  preparing  for  business  or 
for  the  public  service  may  find  courses  bearing  directly  on  his  future  life  work 
sufficient  to  occupy  his  time  for  three  years,  which  may  be  counted  toward  a  reg¬ 
ular  college  degree.  The  courses  especially  recommended  for  such  students  are 
those  in  psychology,  modern  languages,  history,  administration,  economic  theory 
and  economic  history,  finance,  banking,  transportation,  commerce  (with  commer¬ 
cial  geography) ,  and  sociology.  The  instruction  offered  in  some  of  the  above- 
mentioned  branches  is  as  follows: 

Economic  theory. — An  introductory  and  elementary  course.  Recitations,  lec¬ 
tures,  and  frequent  written  tests.  First  semester,  three  hours  per  week. 

Transportation. — An  elementary  course  in  the  theory  and  history  of  transporta¬ 
tion.  The  modern  era  of  turnpikes  and  canals.  The  development  of  the  railroad, 
including  the  organization,  management,  and  consolidation  of  corporations;  the 
question  of  rates  and  of  public  control,  State  and  Federal.  The  railroad  as  a 
prime  factor  in  the  development  of  commerce  and  industry.  Hadley's  Railroad 
Transportation  and  the  reports  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  are  used 
as  guides.  Second  semester,  three  hours  per  week. 

Administration. — A  course  in  administrative  law  and  the  comparative  theory 
and  history  of  administration  of  the  leading  modern  nations.  The  course  treats 
of  the  general  field  of  administrative  study  and  the  nature  of  administrative  law, 
the  comparative  central  administration  of  the  leading  countries,  together  with  a 
study  of  the  legal  relations  existing  between  the  different  organs  of  administra¬ 
tion.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  organization  of  the  diplomatic  and  consular 
services  of  the  different  countries.  The  questions  of  local  administration,  with 
special  reference  to  the  organization  and  administration  of  cities  in  the  chief 
modern  countries.  The  separation  of  local  and  central  functions  and  the  possi¬ 
bility  of  exercising  an  administrative  rather  than  a  legislative  control  over  the 
local  governments.  Two  hours  per  week  through  the  year. 

Industrial  and  commercial  history. — The  industrial  and  commercial  history  of 
Western  Europe  and  America  since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
effects  of  modern  inventions  and  political  changes  on  trade  and  industry.  The 
economic  effects  of  the  formation  of  the  Zollverien;  the  adoption  of  free  trade  by 
England;  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia;  the  American  civil 
war,  and  the  rapid  extension  of  the  means  of  transportation.  The  effects  of  political 
changes  in  establishing  new  lines  of  trade  and  new  centers  of  industry.  The  result¬ 
ing  tendency  toward  concentration  and  combination  of  capital  and  labor.  Three 
hours  per  week  through  the  year. 

Public  finance. — Modern  systems  of  taxation;  objects  and  methods  of  public 
expenditure;  equilibrium  of  the  budget;  public  loans;  the  relation  of  public  finan¬ 
ciering  to  private  economy.  In  taxation  a  comparative  study  is  made  of  the  various 
systems  in  leading  modern  countries;  and  in  the  United  States  the  relation  between 
existing  methods  of  taxation  and  the  present  industrial  organization  is  given  special 
attention.  First  semester,  two  hours  per  week. 

Money  and  banking. — The  evolution  of  money;  the  standards  of  various  coun¬ 
tries,  together  with  an  historical  survey  of  the  different  kinds  of  money  used  in  the 
United  States;  banking  functions  in  the  modern  business  world;  clearing  houses 
and  systems  of  credit  and  their  relation  to  the  trade  and  industry  of  the  country. 
Second  semester,  two  hours  per  week. 

Commercial  geography  and  international  trade. — A  general  survey  of  modern 
commerce.  The  mechanism,  organization,  and  instruments  of  international  trade; 
the  factors  determining  tne  values  of  commodities;  the  points  of  origin  and  methods 
of  producing  and  preparing  for  the  market  and  transporting  the  more  important 
articles  entering  into  the  commerce  between  nations;  the  relation  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  and  of  centers  of  production  to  national  commercial  supremacy.  One  hour 
per  week  through  the  year. 

Labor  question  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. — Economic  condition  of  the 
working  classes  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  during  the  past  century;  rela¬ 
tion  of  labor  organizations  to  capital  in  the  production  and  distribution  of  wrealth; 
rise  and  growth  of  labor  organizations:  the  development  of  the  labor  contract; 
methods  of  industrial  remuneration:  the  shorter  working-day;  workingmen’s 
insurance,  and  employers’  liability.  Three  hours  per  week  through  the  year. 

Tariff  and  financial  history  of  the  United  States,-—' Three  hours  per  week  through 
the  year. 


1148 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA,  ILL. 

Beginning  with  the  scholastic  year  1902-1903  this  institution  offers  ‘ 4  courses  of 
training  for  business/’  The  courses  consist  of  work  regularly  organized  in  the 
college  of  literature  and  arts  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The 
requirements  for  admission  are  the  same  as  those  for  entrance  to  the  university  in 
the  course  in  literature  and  arts.  Students  in  the  college  of  science  and  college 
of  agriculture,  as  well  as  engineering  students,  can  so  arrange  their  courses  that 
they  may  take  a  considerable  amount  of  work  in  business  administration. 

In  order  to  graduate  from  the  university  in  the  courses  of  training  for  business, 
the  student  must  do  the  work  prescribed  for  all  students  in  the  college  of  litera¬ 
ture  and  arts,  that  prescribed  for  all  students  in  industry  and  commerce,  and  that 
required  for  the  particular  line  that  he  elects  to  follow.  He  must  also  in  his  senior 
year  write  a  thesis  on  some  topic  directly  connected  with  the  line  of  business  he 
is  planning  to  enter,  and  secure,  in  all,  130  hours’  credit.  Students  are  urged  to 
take  one  or  two  years  of  graduate  work  in  their  special  lines  after  completing  the 
undergraduate  course  of  four  years. 

The  subjects  required  of  all  students  in  the  college  of  literature  and  arts,  irre¬ 
spective  of  their  future  course  of  study,  are  as  follows:  Advanced  algebra,  2  or  3 
hours;  English  literature,  4  hours;  French  or  German,  8  hours;  geometry,  solid 
and  spherical,  3  hours;  history,  6  hours;  logic,  3  hours;  military,  5  hours;  physical 
training,  2  hours;  natural  science,  8  to  10  hours;  rhetoric,  6  to  10  hours;  trigonom¬ 
etry,  3  or  2  hours.  This  work  amounts  to  from  50  to  58  semester  hours,1  and  must 
be  taken  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  course.  It  does  not  take  up  all  of  the  stu¬ 
dent’s  time  through  the  two  years,  and  he  may  fill  up  bis  schedule  of  studies  by 
elections  of  certain  of  the  subjects  offered  especially  for  business  training. 

In  addition  to  the  above  general  requirements,  the  following  subjects  are 
required  of  all  students,  whichever  one  of  the  courses  in  business  training  they 
wish  to  pursue:  Principles  of  economics,  commercial  geography ;  English  economic 
history;  economic  history  of  the  United  States;  French  two  years,  or  German 
three  years,  beyond  tlie  freshman  year;  elements  of  commercial  law;  courses  in 
business  correspondence,  or,  for  students  preparing  for  journalism,  English  com¬ 
position. 

The  subjects  offered  for  business  training  are  so  grouped  as  to  furnish  specific 
training  for  (1)  trade;  (2)  banking;  (3)  transportation,  especially  railroad  trans¬ 
portation;  (4)  journalism;  (5)  insurance.  Students  who  enter  the  several  courses 
should  take  from  the  following  subjects,  among  others,  in  addition  to  the  general 
requirements  mentioned  above,  sufficient  to  secure,  in  all,  130  hours’  credit: 

General  course  in  business  training. — Labor  problems;  corporation  management 
and  finance;  industrial  consolidations;  commercial  politics;  commercial  policy  of 
the  United  States;  materials  of  commerce;  generation  and  transmission  of  power. 

Course  in  banking. — Money;  financial  history  of  the  United  States;  public 
finance;  money  market;  statistics;  history  of  commerce;  banking;  elements  of  cor¬ 
poration  law. 

Course  in  transportation. — Statistics;  industrial  consolidations;  labor  problem; 
railway  management;  railway  systems;  elements  of  corporation  law;  materials 
of  commerce;  elements  of  drafting:  maintenance  of  way;  machinery  and  manu¬ 
facturing;  locomotive  and  steam  railways;  electric  railways;  generation  and  trans¬ 
mission  of  power. 

Course  for  journalism. — American  history;  colonial  policy;  charities  and  cor¬ 
rection;  commercial  policy  of  the  United  States;  constitutional  law;  elements  of 
commercial  law;  English  literature;  financial  history  of  the  United  States;  indus- 

1 A  semester  hour  is  one  class  period  per  week,  presupposing  two  hours  of  preparation,  for 
one  half-year;  or  an  equivalent  amount  of  time  spent  in  laboratory  or  shop  practice. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1149 


trial  consolidations;  international  law;  labor  problem;  municipal  corporations; 
political  ethics;  political  institutions;  public  finance;  socialism  and  social  reform; 
taxation;  money  market. 

Course  in  insurance. — Corporation  management  and  finance;  economics  of 
insurance;  public  finance;  money  market;  statistics. 

The  instruction  offered  in  some  of  the  subjects  is  as  follows: 

ECONOMICS,  COMMERCE,  AND  INDUSTRY. 

Principles  of  economics. — This  course  is  introductory  to  the  more  advanced 
courses.  Attention  is  confined  to  the  underlying  principles  of  the  science.  Three 
hours. 

Principles  of  economics. — This  is  a  course  in  general  economics  offered  primarily 
to  junior  and  senior  students  of  high  standing  in  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  engi¬ 
neering,  science,  and  law.  Emphasis  is  laid  on  the  practical  side  of  economic 
questions.  Two  hours. 

Principles  of  economics. — This  is  the  same  as  the  preceding  with  the  addition  of 
one  lecture  per  week  on  practical  economic  questions  by  Professor  Kinley.  Three 
hours. 

Money. — This  course  is  devoted  to  an  elementary  study  of  the  history  and  theory 
of  money  and  the  monetary  history  of  the  United  States.  Three  hours. 

Financial  history  of  the  United  States . — This  course  deals  with  the  growth  and 
management  of  the  national  debt,  national  taxation,  and  monetary  policy.  Three 
hours. 

Public  finance. — This  course  consists  of  a  critical  comparative  study  of  financial 
theories  and  methods.  Special  attention  to  American  conditions.  Three  hours. 

Taxation. — A  detailed  study  of  State  and  local  taxation  in  the  United  States. 
Two  hours. 

English  economic  history. — Special  attention  is  directed  to  the  evolution  of 
modern  industrial  institutions.  Two  hours. 

The  money  market. — This  is  an  advanced  course  dealing  with  rates  of  exchange, 
functions  of  bill  broker  and  banker,  causes  of  fluctuations  in  rates  of  discount,  the 
concentration  of  financial  dealings  at  such  centers  as  New  York  and  London, 
international  payments,  and  the  determination  of  rates  of  foreign  exchange,  the 
effect  of  different  monetary  standards  on  international  payments,  monetary  panics 
and  crises,  and  the  financial  aspects  of  dealings  on  the  stock  and  produce  exchanges. 
Three  hours. 

Banking. — This  course  consists  of  a  study  of  the  histor;y  and  theory  of  banking 
with  special  reference  to  the  banking  experience  of  the  United  States,  and  of  a 
study  of  the  existing  banking  systems  and  practices  of  various  countries,  particu¬ 
larly  the  United  States,  England,  Germany,  France,  and  the  Orient.  Three  hours. 

History  of  economic  thought. — This  course  takes  up  the  history  of  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  economic  theory  since  the  sixteenth  century."  Two  hours. 

Industrial  consolidations. — This  course  will  treat  of  the  development  of  indus¬ 
trial  consolidations,  the  causes  at  work  producing  them  and  their  forms  in 
Europe  and  America;  the  promotion,  financiering,  incorporation,  and  capitaliza¬ 
tion  of  corporate  consolidations;  monopoly  prices  and  monopoly  methods;  the 
ability  of  trusts  to  affect  prices,  wages,  interest,  and  profits;  and  the  proposed 
plans  for  controlling  trusts,  such  as  iiublicity,  taxation  of  profits,  and  public 
ownership.  Three  hours. 

The  labor  problem. — This  course  is  a  study  of  the  labor  movement  and  its  social 
significance.  The  progress  of  the  laboring  classes,  the  legal  relations  of  employ¬ 
ers  and  employed,  wages,  strikes,  arbitration,  labor  organizations,  and  similar 
topics  are  studied  and  serve  to  show  the  general  character  of  the  course.  Three 
hours. 

Railway,  management. — A  study  of  the  theoretical  and  practical  aspects  of  rail¬ 
way  transportation,  with  especial  reference  to  American  conditions.  Some  of  the 
topics  are  the  historical  development  of  railroads,  principles  of  construction,  oper¬ 
ation  and  traffic  management,  organization  and  finance,  methods  of  control.  Two 
hours. 

Railway  systems. — A  comparative  study  of  the  railway  systems  of  the  United 
States,  England,  Germany,  France,  Australia,  etc.,  with  special  reference  to 
methods  of  management,  control,  and  economic  effects.  Two  hours. 

Charities  and  corrections. — This  course  begins  with  the  histor}*-  of  poor  relief  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  As  full  a  discussion  of  the  various  methods  of 
reform  and  prevention  is  given  as  the  time  will  permit.  Two  hours. 


1150 


EDUCATION-  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 


Sociology. — This  course  comprises  an  elementary  presentation  of  social  princi¬ 
ples  and  phenomena  and  a  brief  discussion  of  some  of  the  recent  theories  advanced 
to  explain  the  growth  and  structure  of  society,  Two  hours. 

Economic  seminary. — Advanced  students  are  formed  into  a  seminary  for  inves¬ 
tigation  and  for  the  study  of  current  economic  literature.  Students  who  write 
their  theses  in  economics  must  do  so  in  connection  with  the  seminary  work.  Four 
hours. 

The  industrial  organization  of  modern  Europe. — A  study  of  the  industrial  con¬ 
ditions,  methods,  and  organization  of  the  leading  European  countries,  with  special 
reference  to  international  competition  and  the  foreign  policy  of  the  various  Gov¬ 
ernments.  Three  hours. 

Corporation  management  and  finance. — The  growth  of  corporations;  th9ir 
organization  and  securities,  position  and  relations  of  stockholders  and  directors, 
analysis  of  reports,  stock  speculation,  relation  of  industrial  corporations  to  inter¬ 
national  competition,  receiverships  and  reorganizations,  social  and  political  effects. 
Three  hours. 

Socialism  and  social  reform . — This  course  is  a  study  of  the  nature  of  socialism 
and  of  its  strength  and  weakness  as  a  scheme  for  the  production  and  distribution 
of  wealth,  with  a  historical  and  critical  examination  of  socialistic  theories  and 
propositions  for  social  reform  put  forward  during  the  nineteenth  century.  Three 
hours. 

Economic  history  of  the  United  States. — This  course  is  an  inquiry  into  the  trend 
of  our  development  and  into  the  physical,  economic,  and  political  forces  which 
have  directed  and  controlled  it.  The  physical  conditions  under  which  our  people 
have  worked,  the  movement  and  character  of  our  population,  the  interaction  of 
our  political  and  economic  life,  our  position  in  the  world's  industry  and  commerce, 
the  problem  of  territorial  expansion  in  its  relation  to  our  industrial  and  commer¬ 
cial  growth,  are  some  of  the  topics  discussed.  Attention  is  given  to  the  history 
of  some  specific  great  industries,  such  as  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  cotton  man¬ 
ufacture,  shipping  question,  etc.  Three  hours. 

Statistics. — This  is  a  course  in  descriptive  statistics,  intended  to  familiarize 
students  with  the  statistical  literature  of  economics.  One  hour. 

Statistics. — This  course  is  the  same  as  mathematics  where  the  description  is 
given.  Students  of  economics  should  take  this  course  and  the  preceding  together. 
Those  who  do  not  wish  the  mathematical  theory  of  probability  may  drop  out  of 
the  class  when  that  part  of  the  subject  is  reached.  For  them  the  mathemat¬ 
ical  requirements  for  entrance  will  not  be  enforced,  and  both  courses  will  count 
for  four  hours’  credit.  All  who  take  the  course  must  take  both  parts  of  it,  as 
described  under  mathematics,  which  see. 

Public  control  of  trade  and  industry. — This  course  is  an  economic  and  financial 
study  of  the  practical  results  of  the  public  regulation  of  private  business  enter¬ 
prises,  and  the  public  control,  ownership,  and  operation  of  public  service  corpora¬ 
tions  such  as  street  railways,  waterworks,  gas  and  electric  light  plants,  docks, 
and  markets.  Three  hours. 

Commercial  geography. — This  course  comprises  a  study  of  the  natural  and  arti¬ 
ficial  conditions  of  the  various  countries  and  the  effects  of  these  conditions  upon 
their  industrial  development  and  international  commerce.  Two  hours. 

History  of  commerce. — This  course  comprises  a  historical  survey  of  commerce 
from  ancient  times,  with  special  stress  on  the  growth  of  commerce  since  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  America.  Two  hours. 

Institutes  of  commerce. — This  course  comprises  a  discussion  of  such  subjects  as 
kinds  of  commerce,  the  importance  and  organization  of  commerce  and  the  man¬ 
agement  of  commercial  transactions.  Two  hours. 

Institutes  of  commercial  politics. — (1)  Domestic  commercial  politics,  compris¬ 
ing  a  discussion  of  trade  restrictions,  of  protection  against  unlimited  competition 
and  against  the  misuses  of  credit,  etc.  (2)  Foreign  commercial  politics,  includ¬ 
ing,  among  other  subjects,  a  discussion  of  the  aims  of  foreign  commercial  policy, 
of  the  different  kinds  of  tariffs,  commercial  treaties,  bounties,  subsidies,  etc. 
Two  hours. 

History  of  the  commercial  policy  of  the  United  States. — This  course  includes  a 
historical  study  of  ail  those  measures,  such  as  tariff  legislation,  commercial  trea¬ 
ties,  laws  regulating  coastwise  navigation,  tonnage  duties,  reciprocity  arrange¬ 
ments,  bounties,  subsidies,  consular  matters,  etc. ,  which  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  commercial  side  of  the  foreign  relations  of  the  United  States.  Four  hours. 

History  of  the  commercial  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Germany. — 
This  is  to  be  followed  in  later  years  by  the  history  of  the  commercial  relations  of 
the  United  States  with  other  powers.  One  hour. 

Economics  of  insurance. — The  course  consists  of  a  brief  study  of  the  historical 
development  of  insurance,  followed  by  a  more  extended  discussion  of  its  economic 
aspects.  The  various  forms  of  insurance— fire,  accident,  employment,  and  life— are 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAI  EDUCATION. 


1151 


considered  from  the  standpoint  of  internal  organization  and  from  that  of  social 
service.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  theories  and  practices  relating  to  rates, 
policies,  investments,  corporate  management,  accounting,  public  supervision,  and 
insurance  law.  Three  hours. 

The  theory  of  value. — This  is  a  historical  and  critical  study  of  theories  of  value. 
(Graduate  work. ) 

The  distribution  of  wealth. — This  course  deals  with  the  problem  of  distribution, 
both  in  theory  and  practice.  The  facts  of  distribution  of  wealth  and  of  income 
are  first  discussed,  and  attention  is  then  turned  to  a  comparison  of  theories  of 
wages,  interest,  and  profits.  An  atiefnpt  is  made  to  show  the  relation  of  the 
existing  distributive  process  to  social  prosperity  and  progress.  (Graduate  work. ) 

Seminary  in  commerce. — A  seminary  for  graduate  students,  devoted  to  a  study 
of  present  international  commercial  relations,  with  special  reference  to  the  trade 
conditions  of  the  United  States  and  the  extension  of  her  trade  to  foreign  markets. 
The  basis  of  this  work  will  be  a  study  of  the  statistical  and  commercial  reports  of 
the  American  and  foreign  Governments,  as  well  as  a  study  of  board  of  trade  and 
other  journals  devoted  to  the  interest  of  foreign  and  domestic  commerce.  The 
primary  aim  will  be  to  familiarize  the  student  with  the  principal  sources  of 
information  on  commercial  subjects.  (Graduate  work.) 

Research  courses  in  selected  subjects.  (Graduate  work.  ) 

GOVERNMENT. (SCIENCE  OF). 

Political  institutions.  —  This  is  an  elementary  course  in  historical  and  practical 
politics.  After  a  brief  preliminary  survey  of  some  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  politics,  a  comparative  study  of  the  political  systems  of  the  United  States  and 
the  leading  countries  of  Europe  is  made,  with  special  reference  to  their  historical 
development  and  practical  operation.  Six  hours. 

HISTORY. 

Mediaeval  and  modern  European  history. — Elementary  introductory  course. 
Three  hours. 

Historical  introduction  to  contemporary  politics. — The  political  history  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Three  hours. 

American  history. — The  origin  and  growth  of  the  nation  from  the  beginning  of 
English  colonization  in  America  to  the  close  of  the  reconstruction  period.  Five 
hours. 

English  constitutional  history. — Three  hours. 

The  colonial  interests  and  colonial  policies  of  the  European  powers. — Special 
attention  is  given  to  the  nineteenth  century.  Three  hours. 

English  history. — A  general  course  in  the  history  of  England  from  the  migra¬ 
tions  until  1815.  Four  hours. 


LAW. 

Elements  of  jurisprudence. — The  origin,  development,  and  classification  of  law, 
followed  by  an  introduction  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  common  law. 
Text-books:  Blackstone’s  Commentaries,  Robinson’s  American  Jurisprudence. 
Four  hours. 

Elements  of  commercial  law.— A  course  dealing  with  those  branches  of  sub¬ 
stantive  law  most  commonly  employed  in  mercantile  pursuits.  The  work  of  the 
first  semester  covers  the  main  principles  underlying  the  law  of  contracts.  The 
leading  English  and  American  cases  are  referred  to,  but  the  instruction  is  based 
upon  lectures  and  collateral  reading  in  the  best  text-  books.  In  the  second  semester 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  contracts  are  studied  in  their  application  to  the  law 
of  negotiable  securities,  railroads  and  other  common  carriers,  pledges  and  chattel 
mortgages,  insurance  and  bankruptcy.  Four  hours. 

Elements  of  corporation  law. — Legal  relations.  A  study  of  the  legal  principles 
involved  in  the  organization  and  operation  of  the  modern  corporation,  the  consti¬ 
tutional  and  statutory  limitations,  both  State  and  Federal,  and  questions  arising 
under  interstate  comity.  Lectures  and  assigned  readings  in  cases  and  texts.  Two 
hours. 

Civil  law  of  the  Spanish- American  colonies. — This  course  is  intended  especially 
for  those  who  intend  to  be  connected  with  business  houses  having  to  do  with  com¬ 
merce  between  the  United  States  and  the  Spanish-American  countries.  Two 
hours. 

Contracts. — Text-book,  Keener’s  Cases  on  Contracts.  Three  hours. 

Roman  law. — Text-book,  Sohm’s  Institutes  of  Roman  Law.  Four  hours. 

Insurance. — Text-book,  Wambaugh’s  Cases  on  Insurance.  Two  hours. 


1152 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900=1901. 


MATHEMATICS. 

Statistical  adjustments. — This  course  is  given  in  two  parts,  of  which  the  first 
may  he  taken  alone. 

(a)  Theory  of  statistical  adjustments:  This  part  of  the  course  includes  a  dis¬ 
cussion  of  the  general  method  of  statistical  investigation,  the  arithmetical  and 
geometrical  average,  application  of  averages  to  tabulation,  graphic  methods  of 
deducing  the  law  of  error,  interpolation,  and  the  application  of  the  theory  of  prob¬ 
ability  to  statistics.  Two  hours. 

( b )  Applications:  A  problem  course  in  which  the  applications  of  the  principles 
developed  in  (a)  are  made  to  specific  problems  in  economics,  biological  science, 
insurance,  etc.  Two  hours. 


MATERIALS  OF  COMMERCE. 


Agricultural . — A  study  of  the  animals,  grains,  fruits,  vegetables,  end  forage 
crops  entering  the  channels  of  trade,  together  with  a  sketch  of  their  manufactured 
products  and  by-products.  This  would  embrace  the  following: 

Horses  and  mules  and  their  market  classes;  hogs,  beef  cattle,  and  mutton  sheep, 
together  with  fresh,  refrigerator,  and  canned  meats,  and  the  by-products  of 
slaughterhouses,  such  as  leather,  hair,  gelatine,  medicinal  extracts,  horn,  bone, 
fertilizers,  etc.;  poultry — meat,  feathers,  and  eggs;  milk  and  its  manufactured 
products — cream,  butter,  cheese,  kumiss,  etc.;  wool,  cotton,  felt,  shoddy;  grain 
for  human  consumption,  as  wheat,  rye,  etc,;  grains  and  forage  for  animal  con¬ 
sumption,  as  corn,  oats,  barley,  hay,  straw,  stover;  grains  and  vegetables  worked 
for  sugar,  starch,  oil  or  spirits,  as  corn,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  and  their 
by-products  used  for  stock  feeding;  fruits.  Two  hours. 

Chemical.— Classification  and  review  of  the  chemical  industries,  including 
related  lines  which  depend  for  their  success  upon  chemical  processes.  A  further 
study  in  detail  of  typical  industries,  as  for  example,  paints  and  painting,  theory 
of  paint  composition,  materials,  substitutes,  adulterants,  methods  of  manufac¬ 
ture,  future  lines  of  probable  development,  etc.  Two  hours. 

Geological  {economic  geology) . — This  course  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  uses 
man  may  make  of  geologic  materials,  the  conditions  under  which  these  materials 
occur,  and  the  qualities  which  render  them  valuable.  A  series  of  laboratory  exer¬ 
cises  on  ores,  soils,  and  structural  materials  runs  parallel  with  the  lecture  course. 
Five  hours. 

Vegetable  ( economic  botany). — Commercial  plants  and  plant  products.  This  is 
a  study  of  the  plants  themselves  from  which  are  derived  important  commercial 
products,  the  conditions  under  which  the  latter  are  developed,  and  the  methods 
by  which  they  are  obtained  and  utilized.  Substitutions  and  falsifications  and 
their  detection  are  studied.  Two  hours. 

Zoological. — This  is  a  study  of  the  origin  and  economic  uses  of  economic  prod¬ 
ucts  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom,  aside  from  those  ordinarily  classed  as 
agricultural.  It  will  include  the  fisheries  (marine  and  fresh  water),  products  of 
fur-bearing  animals,  bees,  the  silk  worm,  etc.  Injuries  by  insects  to  stored  mer¬ 
chandise  and  other  manufactured  property  will  be  discussed  with  reference  to 
measures  of  prevention  and  remedy.  Two  hours. 

MECHANICAL  TECHNOLOGY. 

Elements  of  drafting . — Geometrical  constructions;  orthographic,  isometric,  and 
cabinet  projections.  Tracy's  Mechanical  Drawing.  Three  hours. 

Shop  practice. — Students  in  transportation  will  be  given  training  either  in  the 
machine  shop,  wood  shop,  foundry,  or  the  forge  shop,  according  to  the  circum¬ 
stances  of  the  case.  Three  hours. 

Maintenance  of  way. — Development  of  maintenance  of  way;  general  relations 
to  transportation  problems  and*  railway  development.  Character  of  permanent 
way  as  related  to  financial  conditions.  Signal  systems.  Two  hours. 

Machinery  and  manufacturing. — Classification,  construction,  operation,  and 
erection  of  “ form- changing  machines.”  A  study  of  machinery  that  transforms 
raw  material  into  a  finished  product.  Manufacture  v.  building;  hand  labor  v. 
automatic  machinery;  the  American  system  of  interchangeable  machine  parts. 
Three  hours. 

Locomotives  and  steam  railways ,  electric  railways. — General  treatment,  giving 
peculiar  adaptations  and  limitations  of  steam  and  electric  roads;  their  adoption  as 
determined  by  character  of  country  or  service  and  distance.  Probable  future 
changes  in  the  latter;  essential  differences  in  operation.  Two  hours. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1153 


Generation  and  transmission  of  power. — Elementary  principles  of  generation 
and  transmission  of  power.  Applications  of  power  for  purposes  of  agriculture, 
manufacturing,  mining,  and  transportation  on  land  and  water.  Two  hours. 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Political  ethics ,  historical  and  applied. — A  study  of  various  phases  of  thought 
concerning  the  ethics  of  social  organizations;  theories  of  the  nature  of  the  state, 
including  views  of  the  state  of  nature,  of  natural  law,  and  natural  right.  A  dis¬ 
cussion  of  rights  and  duties  in  relation  to  social  institutions;  international  rights 
and  duties;  the  ethics  of  diplomacy.  Two  hours. 

RHETORIC  AND  ORATORY. 

Business  writing. — English  composition  for  students  preparing  for  business 
careers.  Business  correspondence,  the  making  of  summaries  and  abstracts,  adver¬ 
tising,  proof  reading,  and  the  preparation  of  manuscript  for  the  press.  Four 
hours. 

OTHER  COURSES. 

Accounting . — This  course  furnishes  opportunity  to  study  the  general  principles 
of  accounting  and  auditing  adapted  to  modern  business.  Public  accounts  of  rail¬ 
roads,  banks,  and  other  corporations  are  studied  with  a  view  to  teaching  students 
how  to  interpret  them  and  how  to  devise  systems  of  accounting  suitable  to  par¬ 
ticular  business  enterprises.  The  work  is  done  in  the  main  in  the  courses  on  bank” 
ing,  railroads,  etc.,  but  is  supplemented  with  special  lectures. 

Commercial  grading  of  grains. 

The  instructors  who  give  courses  prescribed  for  students  in  business  adminis¬ 
tration  are  as  follows:  David  Kinley,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  economics;  George  M. 
Fisk,  Ph.  D..  professor  of  commerce;  Maurice  H.  Robinson,  A.  M.,  professor  of 
industry  and  transportation;  Matthew  B.  Hammond,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor 
of  economics;  Nathan  C.  Weston,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  economics;  Evarts  B. 
Greene,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  history;  James  B.  Scott,  J.  U.  D.,  Charles  C.  Pickett, 
LL.  B.,  and  Charles  W.  Tooke,  LL.  B.,  professors  of  law;  Thomas  A.  Clark,  B.  L., 
professor  of  rhetoric;  Lewis  A.  Rhoades,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  German  language  and 
literature;  George  D.  Fairfield,  A.  M.,  professor  of  Romanic  languages;  Thomas 
J.  Burrill,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  botany  and  horticulture;  Charles  W.  Rolfe,  M.  $., 
professor  of  geology;  Samuel  W.  Parr,  M.  S.,  professor  of  applied  chemistry; 
Frank  Smith,  A.  M.,  assistant  professor  of  zoology;  dames  D.  Phillips,  B.  S.,  assist¬ 
ant  professor  of  general  engineeringdrawing;  EdwTard  C.  Schmidt,  M.  E.,  assistant 
professor  of  railroad  engineering;  Gerdt  A.  Gerdtzen,  M.  E.,  assistant  professor 
of  machine  design. 


INDIANA  UNIVERSITY,  BLOOMINGTON,  IND. 

A  commercial  course  will  be  inaugurated  at  the  opening  of  the  university  year, 
October  1, 1902,  and  will  cover  the  last  two  years  of  the  regular  university  course. 
The  first  two  years  at  the  university  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  regular  course  of 
studies,  and  all  required  subjects  should  be  finished  during  that  time.  In  addi¬ 
tion,  the  student  will  be  required  to  take,  as  a  preparation  for  the  commercial 
course,  three  terms’  work  in  the  department  of  history,  and  also  elements  of 
political  economy  and  the  principles  of  commerce. 

The  following  is  a  provisional  curriculum  of  the  two  years’  work  in  the  com¬ 
mercial  course: 

First  year  (third  year  of  university  course). — Economic  history  of  England,  two 
hours;  economic  history  of  the  United  States,  four  hours;  business  and  commer¬ 
cial  law,  three  hours;  business  organization  and  management,  three  hours;  trans¬ 
portation,  three  hours;  American  history,  nine  hours;  American  politics,  six 
hours;  modern  language  (French,  German,  Spanish),  fifteen  hours;  or  modern 
language  nine  hours  and  physiography  six  hours. 

Second  year  ^fourth  year  of  university  course). — Money  and  banking,  four  hours; 
public  finance,  three  hours;  financial  history  of  the  United  States,  three  hours; 
commercial  geography,  three  hours;  theory  of  distribution,  two  hours;  interna¬ 
tional  law,  six  hours;  modern  European  history,  three  hours;  American  history, 
six  hours;  political  institutions,  six  hours;  modern  language,  nin#  hours. 

- 73 


ED  1901 


1154 


EDUCATION  EE  POET,  1900-1901. 


LOUISIANA  STATE  UNIVERSITY,  BATON  ROUGE,  LA. 

This  institution  offers  a  commercial  course  extending  through  four  years  and 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  as  follows: 

FRESHMAN  YEAR. 


First  term. 

Honrs 

per 

week. 

Second  term. 

Honrs 

per 

week. 

English . . . . . 

5 

English . . . . 

5 

Mathematics . . . . 

5 

Mathematics . _ . . 

5 

Commercial  geography _ _ 

3 

Commercial  geography . . . __ 

3 

Physics . . . . . . . 

Physics . . 

2 

Commercial  arithmetic  ... . . . 

10 

Stenography . . 

2 

Bookkeeping . 

6 

SOPHOMORE  YEAR. 


English . 

Mathematics. 

Physics . . 

Spanish  . . 

Economics 

Bookkeeping 

Stenography 


3  English . 

3  Surveying  . 

3  Physics . 

3  Spanish . . 

3  Economics  . 

6  Bookkeeping . 

2  Field  work— surveying 


3 

3 

3 

3 

3 
6 

4 


JUNIOR  YEAR. 


English . 

3 

English . . . 

3 

French  or  German . 

3 

French  or  German . 

3 

Spanish . . . . 

3 

Spanish  . . 

3 

History . 

3 

History  . . . . 

3 

Law . 

5 

Law . . . . 

Money  and  credit . . . . 

3 

Statistics . . . 

4 

Bookkeeping . 

4 

SENIOR  YEAR. 


English  . . . . . . 

2 

English . . . . . 

2 

French  or  German  .  _ . . 

3 

French  or  German _ _ _ 

3 

Psychology . . . . . . 

3 

Ethics  . . . . 

3 

Economics . 

2 

Econ  omics . - _ _ _ _ 

p 

Constitutional  law . 

3 

International  law . . . . . 

3 

Spanish _ _ _ _ 

2 

Spanish  . . . 

o 

Military  science . 

2 

Military  science . 

2 

History  . . . . 

3 

History  . . 1 . 

3 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN,  ANN  ARBOR,  MICH. 

To  meet  ths  wants  of  students  who  wish  to  pursue  the  study  of  history,  eco¬ 
nomics,  and  subjects  allied  thereto  for  purposes  of  specialization  and  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  careers  they  have  in  view,  provision  has  been  made  for  the  extension 
and  the  systematic  grouping  of  all  the  courses  of  study  offered  in  those  depart¬ 
ments  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  a  student  to  pian  his  work  in  an  orderly  manner. 

Two  special  courses  have  been  organized,  one  in  higher  commercial  education 
and  the  other  in  public  administration.  In  the  former  the  aim  is  to  give  a  scien¬ 
tific  training  in  the  structure  and  organization  of  modern  industry  and  com¬ 
merce,  and  thus  enable  the  student  quickly  to  master  the  technique  of  any  busi¬ 
ness  career.  In  the  latter  the  aim  is  to  give  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  political  organization  and  of  the  methods  and  practice  of  public 
administration. 

The  course  in  higher  commercial  education  covers  three  years  of  systematic 
instruction,  and  in  the  case  of  candidates  for  a  degree,  should  be  elected  at  the 
beginning  of  the  third  year  of  university  residence.  If  all  graduation  require- 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1155 


Hients  are  met,  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  is  conferred  at  the  close  of  the  sec¬ 
ond  year  of  the  special  course  and  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  at  the  close  of  the 
third  year.  The  first  two  years  of  residence  should  he  devoted  to  collegiate 
studies  and  to  studies  preparatory  to  the  special  course.  The  courses  in  mediaeval 
and  modern  history,  English  history,  history  of  the  development  of  industrial 
society,  and  the  course  in  the  elements  of  political  economy  should  be  completed 
during  the  first  two  years  of  residence. 

The  following  programme  is  suggested  to  students: 

THIRD  YEAR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

First  semester. — Social  and  industrial  reforms,  4  hours;1  commercial  geography 
of  the  extractive  industries,  3  hours;  theory  and  history  of  money,  2  hours;  gen¬ 
eral  electives,  7  hours. 

Second  semester. — Science  of  finance,  3  hours;  commercial  geography  of  the 
manufacturing  industries,  3  hours;  theory  and  history  of  banking,  2  hours;  sta¬ 
tistics,  1  hour;  general  electives,  7  hours; 

FOURTH  YEAR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

First  semester. — Problems  in  political  economy,  4  hours;  resources  and  extrac¬ 
tive  industries  of  the  United  States,  3  hours;  commercial  law,  3  hours;  science  of 
accounts,  2  hours;  general  electives,  4  hours. 

Second  semester. — Administration  of  corporate  and  public  industries,  2  hours; 
manufactures  of  the  United  States,  3  hours;  commercial  law,  3  hours;  history  of 
industrial  chemistry,  2  hours;  general  electives,  6  hours. 

FIFTH  YEAR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

First  semester. — The  distributive  and  regulative  industries  of  the  United  States, 
3  hours;  technique  of  foreign  trade,  3  hours;  money  market,  2  hours;  labor  laws 
of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  2  hours;  thesis  seminary,  2  hours. 

Second  semester . — Transportation  problems,  3  hours;  European  commercial 
geography,  2  hours;  American  trade  with  China,  Japan,  and  the  Philippines,* 2 
hours;  history  of  industrial  physics,  2  hours;  business  organization,  2  hours; 
thesis  seminary,  2  hours. 

The  instruction  offered  in  some  of  the  branches  is  as  follows: 

INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE. 

Commercial  geography  of  the  extractive  industries. — Lectures  and  topical  reports. 
The  design  of  this  course  is  to  present  the  technical  and  trade  conditions  which 
determine  the  success  or  failure  of  the  chief  extractive  industries,  such  as  agricul¬ 
ture,  horticulture,  forestry,  fisheries,  and  mining. 

Commercial  geography  of  the  manufacturing  industries. — Lectures  and  topical 
reports.  This  is  a  continuation  of  the  above  course,  and  presents  the  chief  tech¬ 
nical  processes  and  trade  relations  of  the  manufacturing  industries. 

The  resources  and  extractive  industries  of  the  United  States.  —Lectures  and 
assigned  readings.  A  study  of  the  natural  and  social  resources  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  chief  extractive  industries  to  determine  their  location,  present 
condition,  and  relations  to  each  other. 

The  manufactures  of  the  United  States. — Lectures  and  assigned  readings.  The 
evolution,  present  location,  and  condition  of  our  chief  manufacturing  industries 
will  be  presented,  and  the  relations  of  these  industries  to  one  another,  to  sources 
of  raw  materials,  transportation,  and  market  facilities,  and  foreign  trade. 

The  distributive  and  regulative  industries  of  the  United  States. — Lectures  and 
assigned  readings.  This  course  will  include  a  description  of  the  various  methods 
of  marking  goods,  of  the  classifications,  grades,  brands,  and  trade-marks  employed, 
and  of  wholesale  and  retail  trade,  jobbing,  etc.  Attention  will  also  be  given  to 
those  private  organizations,  not  connected  with  money  and  banking,  which  guide 


Per  week. 


1156 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


and  control  the  industrial  process,  such  as  trade  associations  and  trade  papers, 
boards  of  trade  and  chambers  of  commerce,  stock  and  produce  exchanges,  national 
and  export  associations,  museums  and  expositions. 

Technique  of  f  oreign  trade. — This  course  treats  of  the  supply  and  demand  areas 
of  the  world,  with  special  reference  to  the  chief  articles  of  international  trade.  It 
comprises  a  study  of  the  documents,  regulations,  and  customary  procedure  of  for¬ 
eign  trade,  including  methods  of  selling  goods  in  foreign  countries,  skipping 
routes,  customary  packages,  weights  and  measures,  tariffs,  export  bounties,  com¬ 
mercial  treaties,  and  foreign  industrial  legislation. 

European  commercial  geography. — Lectures  and  assigned  readings.  A  presen¬ 
tation  of  the  resources  and  industries  of  the  chief  European  states,  particular 
emphasis  being  laid  upon  openings  for  American  trade. 

American  trade  with  China,  Japan,  and  the  Philippines . — This  course  will 
include  a  statement  of  the  resources  and  industries  of  the  countries  mentioned, 
and  a  consideration  of  the  present  and  probable  future  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  them. 

Science  of  accounts. — This  course  is  designed  to  give  the  student  an  insight  into 
that  phase  of  administrative  management  which  has  been  styled  ‘ k  the  vital  ele¬ 
ment  of  business.”  It  assumes  that  the  student  is  familiar  with  the  simpler  forms 
of  bookkeeping.  A  study  will  be  made  of  the  methods  used  by  auditors  in  con¬ 
ducting  investigations,  illustrations  from  the  business  world  forming  the  basis  of 
this  part  of  the  work.  Considerable  time  will  be  devoted  to  a  consideration  of 
the  essential  data  concerning  the  various  lines  of  commercial  enterprises,  which 
must  be  furnished  to  the  financier  by  the  accountant  in  order  that  correct  deduc¬ 
tions  may  be  made  with  regard  to  the  needs  of  the  business  under  discussion  and 
the  means  which  must  be  taken  to  increase  its  efficiency. 

History  of  industrial  chemistry. — The  purpose  of  this  course  and  of  the  course 
in  general  chemistry  which  is  required  for  its  election  is  to  familiarize  students 
with  the  significance  of  chemistry  in  the  process  of  manufacture  and  to  enable  the 
factory  manager  to  understand  the  reports  of  laboratory  experts.  He  learns  chem¬ 
ical  nomenclature,  chemical  laws  and  principles,  and  something  of  the  purpose  of 
chemical  tests  and  investigations  in  the  general  course  given  by  the  chemical 
department  as  introductory  to  further  study.  In  the  present  course  he  learns  of 
the  manner  in  which  chemical  principles  have  been  applied  in  the  development  of 
chemical  technique,  and  prepares  himself  to  judge  intelligently  proposals  for  the 
further  application  of  such  principles. 

History  of  industrial  physics. — The  purpose  of  this  course  is,  in  general,  the 
same  as  that  of  history  of  industrial  chemistry. 

.  Thesis  seminary. — This  seminary  is  confined  to  students  in  the  course  in  higher 
commercial  education.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  hear  reports  from  such  studentsas 
are  required  to  present  a  thesis  for  graduation.  It  will  also  be  made  the  occasion 
of  lectures  from  men  not  regularly  connected  with  the  academic  staff  of  the  uni¬ 
versity,  in  which  case  all  students  enrolled  in  the  course  in  higher  commercial 
education  will  be  expected  to  attend. 

GENERAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  LAW. 

Commercial  law. — It  is  the  design  of  this  course  to  instruct  students  in  the  fun¬ 
damental  principles  of  law,  so  far  as  these  principles  pertain  to  the  ordinary  activi¬ 
ties  of  business  life.  It  is  a  three-hour  course  throughout  the  year,  comprising 
two  lectures  and  one  quiz  upon  lectures  and  assigned  readings  each  week.  The 
topics  covered  by  this  course  are  as  follows: 

First  semester. — Elementary  law  (six  lectures);  contracts  (twelve  lectures); 
agency  (eight  lectures) ;  sales  (ten  lectures). 

Second  semester. — Bailments  and  carriers  (eight  lectures) ;  bills  of  exchange 
and  promissory  notes  (eight  lectures);  partnership  (eight  lectures) ;  corporations 
(twelve  lectures). 

Public  corporations. — Two  hours  a  week.  Second  semester.  Lectures. 

The  science  of  jurisprudence. — One  hour  a  week.  Second  semester.  Text- book, 
accompanied  by  oral  exposition. 

Taxation. — One  hour  a  week.  Second  semester. 

Public  officers.— One  hour  a  week.  First  semester. 

Private  international  law. — Two  hours  a  week.  First  semester. 

in  addition  to  the  regular  course  noted  above,  the  lectures  on  the  following 
topics  are  open  to  students  in  the  course  in  higher  commercial  education:  Insur¬ 
ance  (Dr.  M.  M.  Bigelow) ;  mining  law  (Mr.  Clayberg) ;  patent  law  (Mr.  Walker) ; 
copyright  law  and  trade-marks  (Mr.  Reed);  railway  law  (Professor  Knowlton), 


HIGHEE  COMMEECIAL  EDUCATION. 


1157 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY  AND  FINANCE. 

Elements  of  political  economy. — This  course  is  introductory  to  all  other  courses 
in  political  economy.  The  weekly  quiz  covers  both  the  lectures  and  some  standard 
text  announced  at  the  beginning  of  the  semester.  The  ground  covered  in  the  lec¬ 
tures  includes  the  usual  topics — production,  exchange,  and  distribution. 

History  of  the  development  of  industrial  society. — A  study  of  the  history  of  Eng¬ 
lish  industrial  society  from  the  twelfth  century  to  the  present  time,  designed  to 
show  how  modern  industrial  customs  and  rights  came  into  existence. 

Principles  of  the  science  of  finance. — Finance  as  here  used  is  not  concerned  with 
money  or  banking,  but  treats  of  public  expenditure,  public  revenue,  and  public 
credit. 

Public  finance. — A  comparative  study  of  financial  legislation  and  administra¬ 
tion  among  the  leading  nations. 

Problems  in  political  economy. — The  problems  studied  areas  follows:  The  immi¬ 
gration  problem,  industrial  crises,  free  trade  and  protection,  the  railway  problem, 
the  municipal  or  trust  problem,  and  taxation. 

Social  and  industrial  reforms.—  The  special  problems  studied  are  the  following: 
Cooperation,  profit  sharing,  communism,  socialism,  factory  legislation,  working¬ 
men  s  insurance,  trades  unions,  and  industrial  federation. 

Transportation  problems. — The  social  and  industrial  significance  of  modern 
transportation,  the  development  of  railway  transportation  in  this  country  and  in 
the  more  important  European  countries,  the  administrative  and  legislative  organ¬ 
ization  of  railway  systems,  the  history  of  the  railway  problems  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  control  of  railways  through  commissions. 

Administration  of  corporate  and  public  industries. — An  analysis  of  industrial 
organization  primarily  from  the  administrative  point  of  view.  It  considers  the 
history  and  social  significance  of  rapid  transit  in  cities  and  other  quasi  public 
industries,  both  public  and  private.  It  studies  railway  administration  under  pub¬ 
lic  as  well  as  private  ownership,  and  makes  a  special  investigation  into  the  his¬ 
tory,  organization,  and  administration  of  the  post^ffice  department  of  this  and 
other  countries. 

Theory  and  history  of  money. — The  first  half  of  the  semester  will  be  occupied 
with  a  fuller  study  of  special  topics.  Among  these  will  be  the  value  of  money, 
the  theory  of  the  standard,  and  regulation  of  the  paper  money.  The  second  half 
of  the  semester  will  be  given  to  the  history  of  money,  particularly  in  the  United 
States. 

Theory  and  history  of  banking. — Among  the  topics  considered  will  be  the  nature 
and  social  functions  of  banking,  the  natural  laws  of  banking  phenomena,  systems 
of  regulation,  etc. 

Economic  theory. — Ingram's  History  of  Political  Economy  will  serve  as  a  basis 
for  this  course,  but  much  of  the  time  will  be  given  to  the  study  of  masterpieces. 

Economic  theory. — History  of  opinion  on  leading  problems.  The  work  will  be 
conducted  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  a  seminary.  Open  only  to  advanced 
students. 

The  theory  and  practice  of  statistics. — This  course  treats  statistics  as  a  method 
of  social  research,  an  instrument  important  not  only  to  economists  and  statisti¬ 
cians,  but  also  to  all  who  wish  to  qualify  themselves  to  understand  or  criticise 
current  social  and  political  discussion.  The  class  read  Mayo- Smith  s  Statistics 
and  Sociology,  and,  in  addition,  each  member  is  assigned  an  exercise  intended  to 
afford  some  practice  in  collating  statistical  material  and  presenting  it  in  tabular 
and  graphical  form.  Advanced  students  only  are  allowed  to  elect  the  course. 

Seminary  in  economics. — Two  hours. 

Seminary  ill  finance. — Two  hours. 

The  course  in  public  administration  covers  three  years,  and,  like  the  course  in 
higher  commercial  education,  should  be  elected  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  year 
of  university  residence.  The  following  programme  is  presented  as  suggesting  an 
appropriate  order  of  elections: 

THIRD  YEAR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

First  semester.— History  of  Europe  from  the  peace  of  Westphalia  to  the  close  of 
the  French  revolution,  3  hours;  political  and  constitutional  history  of  the  United 
States,  3  hours;  constitutional  law  and  political  institutions  of  the  United  States, 
3  hours;  American  administrative  law,  3  hours;  public  officers,  1  hour;  general 
electives,  3  hours. 


1158 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


Second  semester. — History  of  Europe  since  the  French  revolution,  8  hours;  polit¬ 
ical  and  constitutional  history  of  the  United  States,  8  hours;  administrative  law 
in  European  countries,  3  hours;  taxation,  i  hour;  general  electives,  6  hours, 

FOURTH  YEAR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY. 


First  semester.—  Present  problems  of  European  politics,  3  hours;  English  politi¬ 
cal  institutions,  2  hours;  municipal  administration,  3  hours;  private  international 
law,  2  hours;  general  electives,  6  hours. 

Second  semester. — Comparative  study  of  the  political  institutions  of  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  other  continental  states,  3  hours;  municipal  adminis¬ 
tration,  3  hours;  the  government  of  Michigan,  2  hours;  public  corporations,  2 
hours;  general  electives,  G  hours. 

FIFTH  YEAR  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

First  semester. — Seminary  in  administration,  2  hours;  research  course  for  the 
study  of  present  problems  of  European  politics,  2  hours;  seminary  in  American 
history,  2  hours. 

Second  semester. — Seminary  in  administration,  2  hours;  research  course  for  the 
study  of  irresent  problems  of  European  politics,  2  hours;  seminary  in  American 
history,  2  hours. 

The  instructors  whose  principal  work  lies  in  history  and  political  science  are  as 
follows:  James  B.  Angell,  LL.  D.,  president,  lecturer  on  international  law;  Henry 
C.  Adams,  LL.  D.,  professor/of  political  economy  and  finance;  Richard  Hudson, 
LL.  D.,  professor  of  history;  Andrew  C.  McLaughlin,  A.  M.,  LL.  B.,  professor  of 
American  history;  Fred  M.  Taylor,  Ph.  D. ,  junior  professor  of  j>olitical  economy; 
Earle  W.  Dow,  A.  B.,  assistant  professor  of  history;  Charles  H.  Cooley,  Ph.  D., 
assistant  professor  of  sociology;  John  A.  Fairlie,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of 
administrative  law;  Edward  D.  Jones,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  commerce 
and  industry;  Arthur  L.  Cross,  Ph.  D. ,  instructor  in  history;  Duran  W.  Springer, 
B.  S.,  lecturer  on  the  science  of  accounts;  Harlow  S.  Person,  A.  M.,  instructing 
fellow  in  economics;  Andrew  H.  Wood,  assistant  in  history;  Theo.  J.  Zimmer¬ 
man,  fellow  in  American  history. 

In  his  report  for  the  year  ending  September  30,  1901,  President  Angell  says: 

The  courses  which  were  established  last  year  for  giving  instruction  in  higher 
commercial  education  and  administrative  law  have  attracted  much  attention. 
They  have  been  highly  commended  in  the  public  press,  and  have  deeply  interested 
some  of  our  most  earnest  students.  The  organization  of  the  work  was  necessarily 
tentative  and  experimental.  A  number  of  eminent  specialists  assisted  us  by  brief 
courses  of  lectures.  We  have  now  added  to  our  faculty  Dr.  E.  D.  Jones,  formerly 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  as  assistant  professor  of  commerce  and  industry. 
We  shall  also  have  again  the  aid  of  some  special  lecturers.  The  almost  simultane¬ 
ous  establishment  of  similar  courses  of  work  in  several  of  the  leading  colleges  and 
universities  shows  that  there  is  a  widespread  demand  for  them.  Fortunately  for 
us,  we  had  in  our  various  departments  a  large  force  of  teachers  whose  work  prop¬ 
erly  coordinated  was  easily  made  tributary  to  the  ends  sought  by  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  these  new  courses.  In  our  special  announcement  the  names  of  no  less 
than  twenty- five  teachers  appear. 

NEVADA  STATE  UNIVERSITY,  RENO,  NEV. 

The  School  of  Commerce  offers  a  course  of  study  extending  through  four  years 
and  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  The  requirements  for  admission 
are  the  same  as  for  the  other  university  schools.  The  course  is  as  follows: 

Freshman  year. — English  literature  and  composition,  German,  algebra,  solid 
geometry,  trigonometry,  general  history,  stenography  or  accounting. 


HIGrHEE.  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1159 


Sophomore  year. — German,  general  chemistry,  mediaeval  history  industrial 
economics,  geography  of  commerce,  stenography  or  accounting. 

Junior  year. — German,  French,  organic  and  industrial  chemistry,  history  of 
England,  municipal  and  international  law. 

Se?iior  year. — French,  Spanish,  principles  of  economics,  political  economy, 
finance  and  trade,  political  history  of  the  United  States. 

In  addition  to  the  subjects  named  in  the  junior  and  senior  years,  considerable 
reading  and  investigation  in  geography,  history  of  commerce,  and  the  political 
and  economic  conditions  of  the  chief  trading  nations  are  required. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  HANOVER,  N.  H. 

The  Amos  Tuck  School  of  Administration  and  Finance  was  established  in  1900 
on  an  endowment  of  $300,000,  granted  to  Dartmouth  College  by  Mr.  Edward  Tuck, 
a  graduate  of  the  college  in  the  class  of  1862.  By  a  second  gift  of  $100,000  Mr.  Tuck 
has  made  provision  for  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  a  building  for  the  use  of 
the  school. 

The  object  of  the  school  is  to  train  college  graduates  who  desire  to  engage  in 
affairs  rather  than  to  enter  the  professions.  The  instruction  offered  is  intended  to 
prepare  men  to  enter  upon  private  banking,  brokerage  and  investments,  insurance, 
railroad  service  and  water  transportation,  foreign  trade,  general  mercantile  or 
manufacturing  businesses,  journalism,  consular  service,  or  for  active  participa¬ 
tion  in  municipal  and  civic  affairs. 

The  course  of  study  extends  through  two  years  and  is  intended  as  a  graduate 
course.  The  first-year  courses  of  the  school  may  be  elected  by  seniors  in  Dart¬ 
mouth  College.  The  work  of  the  first  year  is  largely  required,  consisting  mainly 
of  courses  in  modern  languages,  advanced  history,  advanced  economics,  Ameri¬ 
can  constitutional  and  international  law,  sociology,  money  and  banking,  and  the 
history  and  theory  of  transportation.  From  these  courses  the  student  must 
choose  eighteen  hours  each  semester. 

The  work  of  the  second  year  permits  of  wider  choice  within  the  range  of  the 
following  subjects:  Modern  languages  continued,  modern  history  and  diplomacy, 
municipal  administration,  accounting  and  auditing,  theory  and  technique  of 
statistics,  business  organization  and  procedure,  commercial  law,  commerce,  rail 
and  water  transportation,  insurance,  practical  banking,  investments,  and  public 
finance. 

The  scope  of  the  courses  of  instruction  offered  is  shown  in  the  following  out¬ 
line: 

MODERN  LANGUAGES. 


A.  French. — Composition  and  conversation. 

B.  German . — Composition  and  conversation. 

C.  Spanish. — Composition  and  conversation. 

During  the  first  year,  two  of  the  three  languages  are  to  be  elected,  and  one  of 
these  during  the  second  year.  Students  will  enter  upon  the  grade  of  language 
work  which  their  previous  preparation  permits.  Those  whose  equipment  in  one  or 
more  of  these  languages  is  considered  adequate,  will  be  permitted  to  substitute 
electives  therefor. 

D.  English. — See  Business  Organization  and  Procedure,  H. 

ADVANCED  HISTORY. 

A.  The  history  of  England  to  the  sixteenth  century . — This  course  will  consist 
primarily  of  the  political  history  of  the  English  nation,  with  such  reference  as  is 
necessary  to  constitutional,  economic,  and  intellectual  development. 

B.  The  history  of  England  and  the  British  Empire  from  the  sixteenth  century. — 
This  is  a  continuation  of  Course  A,  and  will  include,  in  addition  to  the  history  of 
Great  Britain,  the  development  of  the  British  Empire  and  the  history  of  its  col¬ 
onies  and  dependencies. 


1160 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


C.  American  colonial  history  to  1783. — This  course  is  intended  to  trace  the 
beginnings  of  the  American  nation  rather  than  the  details  of  the  history  of  the 
individual  colonies.  Emphasis  is  therefore  laid  on  the  European  inheritance 
brought  to  this  country  by  the  colonists,  their  development  of  American  institu¬ 
tions  in  the  new  environment,  the  expansion  of  population,  the  struggle  between 
French  and  English  for  North  America,  the  underlying  causes  of  the  Revolution, 
the  growth  of  independence  and  union. 

D.  European  political  history ,  1789-1878. — This  course  will  open  with  a  review 
of  the  geography  of  Europe  and  lectures  on  the  various  nationalities,  the  state  of 
the  leading  countries  on  the  eve  of  the  French  revolution  and  the  early  stages  of 
that  movement.  It  will  continue  with  text-book  work,  supplemented  with  lec¬ 
tures  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  and  varied  exercises  on  the  part  of  the 
students. 

E.  United  States  political  history ,  1783-1877. — This  course  will  be  conducted  in 
substantially  the  same  way  as  the  work  of  the  previous  course. 

F.  Modern  history. — This  course  will  consist  of  lectures  on  the  political  history 
of  Canada,  Mexico,  and  the  South  American  States,  Asia  and  Africa,  with  special 
emphasis  on  recent  developments  and  particular  reference  to  the  phases  of  their 
history  which  might  bear  on  their  relations  with  this  country.  Under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  instructor  the  students  will  do  constructive  work  in  the  political  his¬ 
tory  of  Europe  since  1878,  each  student  covering  a  given  period  and  profiting  from 
the  results  of  the  work  of  other  students. 

ADVANCED  ECONOMICS. 

A.  American  industrial  development. — Brief  treatment  of  the  earlier  period  of 
national  development,  followed  by  a  more  careful  study  of  the  history  since  the  civil 
war.  This  will  include  the  consideration  of  agricultural  conditions  and  problems 
both  North  and  South;  special  study  of  some  of  the  more  important  products,  such 
as  iron,  coal,  wheat,  and  cotton;  the  development  of  the  great  manufacturing  indus¬ 
tries;  the  growth  of  corporations,  trusts,  and  monopolies,  and  a  consideration  of  the 
relations  of  labor  and  capital  as  influencing  industrial  progress. 

B.  Advanced  theory. — A  study  of  the  development  of  economic  theory.  Assigned 
readings  in  the  works  of  the  classical  school,  especially  Smith,  Ricardo,  and  Mill, 
and  in  the  writings  of  the  representatives  of  modern  development — Marshall, 
Boehm- Bawerk,  Patten,  Clark,  and  others. 

LAW  AND  DIPLOMACY. 

.a.  American  constitutional  law. — This  course  is  designed  to  give  students  a 
knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  the  constitutional  law  of  the  United  States, 
both  Federal  and  State.  Particular  attention  is  given  to  the  origin  and  develop¬ 
ment  of  American  political  institutions,  to  the  formation  of  State  governments, 
and  to  the  immediate  causes  of  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  to 
its  text. 

B.  Politics  and  administration. — A  study  of  American  political  parties  since 
1873;  their  organization  and  increasingly  centralized  control;  their  policies  and 
methods  chosen  for  executing  them:  existing  electoral  machinery,  its  practical 
workings  and  defects;  some  proposed  remedies. 

C.  International  laiv. — This  course  is  historical  and  explanatory  of  present  inter¬ 
national  relations.  It  treats  of  the  origin  and  development  of  the  rules  that  gen¬ 
erally  govern  the  intercourse  of  modern  civilized  States,  and  their  recent  modifi¬ 
cations  by  treaty. 

D.  Diplomacy. — The  subject  of  this  course  will  be  the  business  of  international 
negotiation,  and  while  necessarily  parallel  to  international  law,  it  will  deal  with 
that  subject  only  as  it  must  and  in  an  incidental  way.  Lectures  will  be  given  on 
the  origin  and  evolution  of  modern  diplomacy;  the  qualifications  and  methods  of 
typical  modern  diplomats;  the  course  of  certain  specially  noteworthy  negotiations 
from  the  Congress  of  Vienna  to  the  Venezuela  case,  including  the  evolution  and 
history  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine:  the  organization  of  American  and  foreign  diplo¬ 
matic  and  consular  services;  principles  of  diplomatic  procedure,  and  the  duties 
laid  down  by  the  United  States  Government  for  its  agents  in  foreign  countries. 
Constructive  work  in  the  history  of  Europe  since  1878  will  be  done  by  the  students. 

SOCIOLOGY  AND  STATISTICS. 

A.  Anthropological  geography. — This  considers  man  in  relation  to  his  physical 
environment,  as  determining  his  dispersal  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  his  mode  of 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1161 


life,  and  the  density  of  population.  It  traces  the  bearings  of  the  natural  sur¬ 
roundings  upon  man’s  physical  and  mental  characteristics,  and  follows  this  fun¬ 
damental  and  necessary  adjustment  through  the  history  of  the  family  and  the 
State  and  in  the  evolution  of  the  forms  of  economic  life. 

B.  Social  statistics  and  applied  sociology. — This  course  has  for  its  foundation  an 
inquiry  into  the  chief  results  of  vital  statistics,  such  as  birth  and  death  rates,  the 
mortality  from  different  diseases  and  under  varying  social  and  climatic  con¬ 
ditions.  These  data  are  then  brought  into  connection  with  crime,  pauperism,  and 
social  reform.  It  is  the  biological  side  of  social  life. 

C.  History,  theory,  and  technique  of  statistics. — A  course  in  statistical  methods 
and  results,  with  practical  work  in  investigation  and  tabulation.  An  attempt  to 
determine  the  lawTs  that  govern  group  actions  of  men.  Sources  and  reliability  of 
statistical  data.  The  methods  of  distinguishing  true  and  false  inferences. 

D.  Studies  in  American  statistics. — Critical  study  of  the  contributions  of  sta¬ 
tistics  to  our  knowledge  of  production,  banking,  coinage,  prices,  wages,  and  par-, 
ticularly  domestic  and  foreign  commerce. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

A.  Municipal  administration. — A  series  of  lectures  in  which  the  development  of 
municipal  policy  will  be  traced  with  regard  both  to  the  forms  and  the  aims  of 
municipal  government.  The  principles  determining  State  control  and  municipal 
home  rule;  the  place  in  the  municipal  system  of  the  council,  the  mayor  and  the 
heads  of  departments;  comparison  of  the  chief  points  in  typical  municipal  charters, 
Continental,  English,  and  American;  the  development  of  metropolitan  administra¬ 
tion  in  London,  New  York,  and  other  great  cities.  The  proper  sphere  of  the 
municipality,  first,  in  its  traditional  function  as  protector  of  person  and  property; 
secondly,  in  the  extension  of  its  functions  to  include  the  control  of  public  utilities, 
the  education  of  the  electorate,  and  the  care  of  the  dependent  classes;  the  practical 
workings  of  municipal  departments  in  the  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United  States 
with  a  comparison  of  results  for  different  cities;  the  peculiar  conditions  which 
affect  American  municipal  progress;  the  causes  of  municipal  corruption,  especially 
as  found  in  economic  conditions,  and  the  relation  between  municipal  reform  and 
social  reform  in  general. 

B.  Business  administration.  See  Business  Organization  and  Procedure,  E  and  F. 

ACCOUNTING  AND  AUDITING. 

A.  A  series  of  lectures  including  a  consideration  of  accounting  as  a  profession. 

B.  Theory  and  practice  of  accounts  and  audit. 

(a)  General  books,  viz:  Cashbook,  journals,  ledgers,  and  subsidiary  books  and 
forms. 

(5)  Opening,  conducting  and  closing  accounts  of  manufacturers,  merchants, 
clubs,  electric-light  companies,  street  railways,  dealers  in  investment  securities. 

(c)  Trial  balance,  balance  sheet,  cost,  depreciation,  good  will,  profit  and  loss. 

(d)  Examinations  of  accounts  for  purposes  of  (1)  extending  credit,  (2)  ascer¬ 
taining  causes  of  insolvency,  (3)  ascertaining  earnings  for  a  series  of  years  as  a 
basis  for  capitalization  and  change  from  partnership  to  corporation. 

(e)  Various  systems  of  accounting  compared  and  analyzed. 

(/)  Auditing  and  arrangement  of  accounts  with  a  view  of  facilitating  an  audit. 
This  is  a  practice  course  as  distinct  from  a  lecture  course. 

O,  Theory  and  practice  of  railroad  accounting. 

(a)  Revenue  and  expenses,  why  railroads  are  operated,  how  organized  and 
administered,  and  the  relation  of  accounting,  auditing,  and  statistics  to  operation. 
General  plan  and  technique  of  railroad  accounting. 

(b)  Revenue  accounting,  freight  and  ticket;  how  the  money  is  collected  and 
covered  into  the  treasury;  the  safeguards  provided. 

(c)  Disbursement  accounting,  stages  and  methods  of  authorization,  checks  pro¬ 
vided,  significance  of  the  different  certifications,  possibilities  of  fraud. 

(d)  Stores  and  car  accounting,  various  systems, watching  balances,  use  of  the 
car  record  in  car  distribution,  car  mileage,  clearing  houses,  the  home  record,  the 
foreign  record,  the  interchange  record, 

( e )  Statistics  of  operation,  revenue  disbursement,  motive  power,  transportation, 
and  maintenance  of  way.  Use  of  statistics  in  handling  a  property. 

(/)  General  books,  ledger,  side  ledgers,  journal,  journal  entries,  accounts  cur¬ 
rent,  general  balance  sheet,  organization  and  methods  of  the  accounting  office,  the 
division  and  general  office,  the  shops,  the  storehouse,  the  station  agency. 


1162 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900*1901. 


BUSINESS  ORGANIZATION  AND  PROCEDURE. 

A.  Commercial  law. — An  outline  of  the  law  of  real  property,  including  deeds, 
mortgages,  and  wills;  of  the  law  of  contracts;  of  negotiable  instruments;  of  per¬ 
sonal  property,  including  sales  and  bailments;  of  agency,  carriers,  insurance,  and 
trustees. 

B.  Industrial  and  commercial  corporations. — A  course  of  lectures  treating  of 
the  distinctions  between  natural  persons,  partnerships,  and  corporations;  modes 
of  forming  corporations;  inviolability  of  charters;  powers  of  corporations,  and 
their  officers  and  agents;  fiduciary  relations  of  their  officers  and  agents;  ultra  vires 
acts;  Stat9  control  over  corporations;  rights  of  stockholders;  relation  of  stock¬ 
holders  to  each  other;  issue  of  stocks  and  bonds;  sales  and  dealing  in  stocks; 
rights  of  creditors;  quasi-public  corporations,  industrial  trusts. 

C.  Business  organization. — A  study  of  the  methods  of  business  organization 
devised  for  the  conduct  of  industrial  undertakings.  See  also  Course  B  (a)  under 
Transportation  and  Course  B  (b)  under  Money  and  Banking  for  typical  instances 
of  the  organization  of  great  undertakings. 

D.  Materials  and  facilities. — Detailed  study  of  the  raw  products  that  enter  into 
manufactures,  with  their  sources,  costs,  transportation  facilities,  and  markets. 
Study  of  the  costs  and  processes  in  the  stages  of  manufacture  from  the  raw  ma¬ 
terial  to  the  completed  product.  Investigation  of  the  times,  places,  and  oppor¬ 
tunities  for  the  sale  of  the  manufactured  product. 

E.  Procedure. — A  series  of  lectures,  contrasting  business  conditions  before  and 
after  the  formation  of  combinations,  treated  under  the  following  topics:  Former 
business  conditions,  suggestions  as  to  the  causes  of  failure  in  business,  unintelli¬ 
gent  competition,  industrial  consolidations,  economic  gains  and  losses  of  consoli¬ 
dations,  the  competition  of  the  future,  commercial  integrity. 

F.  Relation  of  the  employer  to  labor. — This  course  deals  with  the  present  rela¬ 
tions  of  capital  and  labor  in  the  United  States.  It  investigates  the  statistics, 
organization  and  methods  of  trades  unions,  their  temper  and  tendencies,  together 
with  strikes  and  lockouts.  It  considers  attempts  to  improve  the  conditions  of  la¬ 
bor,  and  the  relations  of  employer  and  employed,  such  as  various  methods  of  shop 
management,  the  model  factory  village,  profit-sharing,  and  cooperation.  The 
course  i3  based  on  the  belief  that  an  understanding  of  the  workingman’s  point  of 
view  is  essential  to  the  successful  conduct  of  business. 

G.  Materials  of  construction  and  motors. — (a)  Materials,  source,  use,  prepara¬ 
tion,  testing  and  cost  of  wood,  lime,  cement,  mortar,  steel,  steel-concrete  con¬ 
struction,  brick  and  building  stones,  (b)  Motors,  characteristics,  adaptation  and 
general  construction  of  windmills,  heat,  steam,  and  electric  engines,  waterwheels. 

H.  Commercial  correspondence. — Training  in  business  forms,  and  in  the  prob¬ 
lems  of  correspondence  which  involve  the  correct  use  of  terms  and  care  in  con¬ 
struction  and  expression. 


COMMERCE. 

A.  Descriptive  and  commercial  geography. — This  course  is  designed  to  acquaint 
the  student  with  so  much  of  geographical  knowledge  as  is  needed  in  modern  busi¬ 
ness  relations.  It  involves  a  careful  study  of  the  geographical  data  at  the  basis 
of  commercial  and  economic  geography,  with  special  reference  to  the  number  and 
quality  of  the  various  populations.  Atlases  and  maps  ere  studied  in  detail  on  the 
practical  rather  than  the  mathematical  or  scientific  side. 

B.  International  trade. — A  study  of  international  trade  routes  and  the  facilities 
employed,  tariff  laws  of  the  more  important  trading  countries,  commercial 
treaties,  and  a  consideration  of  America's  competitive  position  in  the  markets  of 
the  world. 

C.  International  commercial  law. — The  course  comrjrises  such  general  topics  in 
private  international  law  as  are  of  practical  importance  to  persons  engaging  in 
business  in  or  with  jurisdictions  other  than  their  own,  together  with  more  spe¬ 
cialized  instruction  in  the  commercial  codes  of  the  principal  European  and  Asiatic 
nations,  including  the  organization  of  companies  abroad,  the  provisions  relative 
to  American  securities  on  the  exchanges  of  Paris  and  Berlin,  trade-marks,  and  the 
method  of  collecting  debts  from  foreign  debtors. 

D.  Materials  of  commerce,  (a)  Economic  chemistry. — This  will  treat  of  the 
place  of  the  chemist  in  the  world’s  work,  the  source  and  history  of  the  materials 
in  the  chemical  industries,  the  struggle  for  existence,  the  utilization  of  by-products, 
the  economic  value  of  exact  knowledge. 

(b)  Economic  botany. — This  will  aim  to  cover  some  of  the  most  important 
aspects  of  those  economic  botanical  problems  which  have  a  large  part  in  practical 
affairs  and  to  demonstrate  the  place  of  the  botanist  in  the  commercial  world. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1163 


Sugar,  coffee,  wheat,  forestry,  and  allied  topics  will  form  the  basis  for  a  consid¬ 
eration  of  the  botanical  and  agricultural  questions  involved,  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad.  Some  attention  will  also  be  given  to  the  conditions,  natural  and 
artificial,  necessary  for  the  successful  establishment  of  these  industries. 

(c)  Economic  mineralogy. — This  will  treat  of  the  origin,  distribution,  identifica¬ 
tion,  mining,  and  reduction  of  ores,  annual  output,  and  practical  application  to 
arts  and  industries.  The  products  treated  will  include  quarry  products,  carbon 
minerals,  such  as  coal  and  petroleum,  the  precious  metals,  the  useful  metals,  ores 
of  the  alkaline  earths,  and  alkalies,  together  with  glass  and  sand. 

E.  Consular  service. — For  organization  and  duties  of  the  consular  service,  see 
Law  and  Diplomacy,  D. 

F.  Statistics. — For  statistics  of  foreign  and  domestic  commerce,  see  Sociology 
and  Statistics,  D, 

TRANSPORTATION. 

A.  History  and  theory  of  transportation. — The  history  of  railroad  development 
in  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries,  with  a  study  of  the  great  railroad  sys¬ 
tems  of  .the  world.  Theories  of  rates,  combination,  consolidation,  community  of 
ownership,  and  government  ownership  and  control,  both  here  and  abroad,  including 
a  study  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  and  State  commissions.  Water 
transportation,  lake,  river,  canal,  and  ocean,  its  history  and  present  condition,  and 
its  position  as  an  aid  to  and  competitor  of  railroads. 

B.  Railroad  service,  (a)  Organization. — The  organization  of  a  railroad  for 
business,  with  a  discussion  of  the  duties  of  officers  and  employees. 

( h )  Operation. — Practical  methods  of  operation,  including  a  careful  study  of 
the  regulations  governing  all  forms  of  railroad  service.  A  study  of  the  traffic 
department,  including  systems  of  caT  accounting.  Theories  of  rates  and  methods 
of  forming  classifications  and  rate  schedules.  Fast  freight  lines,  joint  rates,  and 
various  forms  of  railroad  associations. 

(c)  Accounting  and  auditing. — See  Course  C,  under  Accounting  and  Auditing. 

(d)  Mechanics. — Study  of  the  elements  of  railroad  construction  and  maintenance 
and  their  costs.  Details  of  locomotives  and  cars,  their  use,  construction,  and 
repair.  Modern  mechanical  and  safety  devices,  including  brakes,  couplers,  sig¬ 
naling*  systems,  and  the  like.  Purchasing  department,  with  consideration  of 
properties  of  materials  and  railroad  supplies. 

(e)  Management. — Competition,  discrimination,  pooling,  combination,  consoli¬ 
dation,  state  ownership  or  control. 

C.  Water  transportation  {inland),  (a)  Lakes  and  rivers. — The  service  as  a 
competitor  of  railroads.  Character  of  lake  and  river  traffic,  its  organization, 
facilities,  rates,  and  influences  upon  industry.  Projects  for  its  development. 

( b )  Canals. — Their  economic  value,  practical  use  and  development  within  the 
country.  Careful  study  of  th.8  isthmian  canal  problem. 

MONEY  AND  BANKING. 

A.  History  and  theory  of  money  and  hanking. — Special  attention  will  be  devoted 
to  the  financial  legislation  of  the  United  States.  The  practical  problems  before  the 
country  will  be  briefly  considered.  Modern  currency  standards  in  operation  in 
foreign  countries. 

B.  Practical  hanking.  ( a )  Law. — Detailed  study  of  the  bank  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  typical  States,  and  of  generally  accepted  banking  practice. 

(5)  Organization . — The  organization  of  a  bank  for  business,  with  the  duties  and 
liabilities  of  its  officers  and  employees.  Comparative  study  of  national,  State,  pri¬ 
vate,  and  savings  banks,  loan  and  trust  companies.  Clearing  houses,  their  func¬ 
tions  and  administration. 

(c)  Operation. — Practical  methods  of  operation.  Forms  of  credit  transactions, 
note  issues,  domestic  exchange.  Comparative  study  of  English  and  continental 
banks. 

C.  Modern  hanking,  practice. — A  study  of  the  question  from  the  banker’s  stand¬ 
point.  See  Corporation  Finance  and  Securities,  C. 

PUBLIC  FINANCE. 

A.  Public  finance. — Methods  of  public  administration.  Public  expenditure  and 
revenue.  Relation  of  the  Treasury  Department  to  the  monej^  market  in  the  issu¬ 
ance  of  bonds  and  the  placing  of  deposits.  National,  State,  and  municipal  debt 
and  taxation.  Typical  States  and  municipalities  will  be  carefully  studied. 


1164 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


CORPORATION  FINANCE  AND  SECURITIES. 

A.  Corporation  finance. — Forms  of  investment  securities,  methods  of  corpora¬ 
tion  “financiering,”  consolidation,  bankruptcy,  receivership,  reorganization,  gen¬ 
eral  principles  of  investment. 

B.  Money  markets  and  speculation. — Movements  of  money  and  rates  of  domestic 
exchange.  New  York  as  a  financial  center,  and  the  influences  affecting  interest 
rates.  Note  and  bill  brokers.  Theory  of  foreign  exchange  and  the  causes  that 
determine  rates.  Methods  of  international  payment,  movements  of  capital,  mone¬ 
tary  standards  of  foreign  countries  as  they  influence  international  settlements.  A 
study  of  the  English  money  market.  Panics,  signs  of  their  approach,  and  the 
methods  of  meeting  them.  Detailed  study  of  stock  and  produce  exchanges,  includ¬ 
ing  a  comparison  of  the  exchanges  of  England  and  the  continental  countries  with. 
those  of  the  United  States. 

C.  Practical  study  of  the  market. — This  subject  is  considered  from  the  banker's 
standpoint. 

(a)  The  money  market,  including  interest  rates,  exchange,  modern  banking 
methods  and  practice,  crises  and  panics. 

( b )  The  stock  market,  including  investments,  speculation,  and  financial  humbug. 


INSURANCE. 

A  series  of  lectures  designed  to  illustrate  the  practical  workings  of  insurance  as 
conducted  to-day  in  a’l  its  important  forms,  with  special  reference  to  the  United 
States.  After  a  brief  discussion  of  the  economic  conception  of  insurance,  its  his¬ 
tory,  development,  problems,  and  social  service,  attention  will  be  given  to  fire  and 
casualty  insurance,  to  employer’s  liability  and  corporate  suretyship,  but  special 
study  will  be  devoted  to  its  most  highly  developed  form  in  life  insurance.  This 
will  involve  consideration  of  fundamental  assumptions,  rate  making,  policy  con¬ 
struction,  varied  benefits,  field  management,  advertisements,  compensation,  solici¬ 
tation.  medical  selection,  practical  accounting,  investments,  office  work,  corporate 
management.  Si  ate  supervision,  insurance  law,  insurance  by  the  State.  A  crit¬ 
ical  estimate  will  be  presented  of  the  leading  theories  and  different  practices 
related  to  these  questions,  the  object  being  to  give  a  just  estimate  of  the  business 
and  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  its  present-day  workings. 

THESIS. 

A  thesis  embodying  original  research  and  representing  study  in  the  line  of  work 
which  the  student  is  especially  pursuing  will  be  required  of  every  candidate  for 
the  certification  of  the  school. 

The  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  Amos  Tuck  School  and  the  subjects  taught 
by  them  are  as  follows:  Rev.  William  J.  Tucker,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. ,  president;  James 
F.  Colby,  A.  M.,  LL.  B.,  constitutional  and  international  law;  Justin  H.  Smith, 
A.  M.,  modern  history  and  diplomacy;  David  C.  Wells,  A.  B.,  geography  and 
labor  problems;  Warren  A.  Adams,  Ph.  D.,  German  composition  and  conversa¬ 
tion;  George  R.  Wicker,  Ph.  D. ,  finance  and  statistics;  Frank  H.  Dixon,  Ph.  D., 
transportation,  finance,  and  business  organization;  Wilbur  C.  Abbott,  B.  Litt., 
English  history;  John  E.  Allen,  A.  B. ,  LL.  B.,  commercial  and  corporation  law; 
Prescott  O.  Skinner,  A.  M.,  French  and  Spanish  composition  and  conversation; 
Homer  E.  Keyes,  B.  L. ,  commercial  correspondence. 

The  following  lecturers  and  instructors  were  appointed  for  the  year  1901-1902: 
Edwin  J.  Bartlett,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Dartmouth  College,  economic  chemistry;  Charles 
H.  Richardson,  Ph.  D.,  Dartmouth  College,  economic  mineralogy;  Charles  A. 
Holden,  C.  E.,  Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineering,  materials  of  construction  and 
motors;  George  T.  Moore,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  economic 
botany;  Robert  A.  Woods,  A.  B. ,  head  of  the  South  End  House,  Boston,  Mass., 
municipal  administration;  Joseph  A.  De  Boer,  A.  M.,  actuary  of  the  National  Life 
Insurance  Company,  theory  and  practice  of  life  insurance;  Marshall  P.  Thompson, 
A.  B.,  LL.  B.,  lawyer,  Boston,  Mass.,  international  commercial  law;  J.  Shirley 
Eaton,  A.  M.,  statistician  of  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  Company,  theory  and 
practice  of  railroad  accounting;  Alfred  L.  Ripley,  A.  M.,  vice-president  of  the 
National  Hide  and  Leather  Bank,  Boston,  Mass.,  stock  and  money  markets; 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1165 


James  Logan, -general  manager  of  the  United  States  Envelope  Company,  Worces¬ 
ter,  Mass.,  business  methods;  Gerald  Wyman,  A.  M.,  professional  accountant, 
Boston,  Mass.,  accounts  and  accounting;  Edward  P.  Comma,  public  accountant, 
Boston,  Mass.,  accounting  and  auditing. 

NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

The  School  of  Commerce,  Accounts,  and  Finance  was  established  in  October,  1900, 
“  to  train  men  for  the  higher  duties  of  commercial  life.”  The  course  of  study 
extends  through  two  years,  and  leads  to  the  uegree  of  Bachelor  of  Commercial 
Science.  The  following  outline  of  the  subjects  embraced  in  the  curriculum  is 
announced,  subject  to  changes: 


A.  ACCOUNTING. 

1.  Theory  of  accounts. — Principles  of  accounting,  purpose  of  accounts;  single 
and  double  entry;  the  different  books  of  accounts. 

2.  Practice  in  accounting. — Description  and  illustration  of  accounts  of  individ¬ 
uals;  accounts  of  partners;  accounts  of  corporations— commercial,  financial,  man¬ 
ufacturing,  transportation,  etc.;  municipal  accounts;  State  accounts;  Federal 
accounts;  receivership;  trusteeship;  executorship;  liquidation,  etc. ;  statement  of 
affairs. 

3.  Auditing. — Methods  of  procedure  in  examination  of  accounts  of  individuals, 
partners,  corporations,  municipalities,  etc.;  verification  of  balance  sheets  and 
statements  of  profit  and  loss;  special  reports. 

B.  COMMERCE. 

1.  Foreign  commercial  relations. — Theory  of  international  trade;  history  and 
development  of  commerce  during  the  last  two  centuries;  trade  policies  of  foreign 
governments  toward  one  another  and  toward  colonial  dependencies;  foreign  com¬ 
merce  of  the  United  States;  commercial  treaties  of  United  States  with  the  countries 
of  Europe;  economic  aspects  of  colonial  development;  foreign  trade  of  America  as 
affected  by  recent  acquisitions  of  territory;  commercial  possibilities  of  the  Orient 
and  South  America;  consular  service  and  regulations  as  affecting  commerce; 
economic  and  commercial  geography. 

2.  Domestic  commerce  and  transportation. — History  of  transportation  and  of 
railway  policies;  economic  and  social  bearings  of  present  transportation  problems; 
railway  construction,  speculative  management,  stocks  and  bonds;  railway  failures, 
receiverships,  reorganisations,  negotiations,  profits;  theories  of  rates,  classifica¬ 
tion,  discrimination,  competition,  combination  railway;  employers’  liabilities, 
labor  relief,  insurance,  State  ownership  and  management;  comparative  study  of 
interests  of  inventors,  of  employees,  of  public,  of  State. 

c.  FINANCE. 

1.  Money. — Tneory  and  history  of  money;  functions  of  money  as  a  medium  of 
exchange  and  denominator  of  value;  relation  of  prices  to  prosperity;  Government 
paper  money  and  fiat money;  bimetallism  v.  monometallism:  monetary  experiences 
and  legislation  of  the  United  States;  the  law  of  March  14,  1600. 

2.  Credit  and  hanking. — Theory  of  credit  and  its  relation  to  prices;  history  and 
theory  of  banking;  development  and  functions  of  deposit  banks;  nature  and  serv¬ 
ices  of  the  bank  note;  banking  systems  of  Europe;  national  banking  system  and 
proposed  reforms. 

3.  Money  market. — Influences  governing  the  rate  of  interest  and  prices  of  securi¬ 
ties;  relation  of  the  money  market  to  the  United  States  Treasury;  rules  and  prac¬ 
tices  of  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange;  produce  exchanges  and  deals  in  futures; 
panics  and  commercial  crises;  theory  of  foreign  exchange;  payment  between  coun¬ 
tries  having  different  standards;  internati  >nal  movements  of  gold  and  securities; 
arbitrage  operations. 

4.  Public  finance. — Revenues  and  expenditures  of  the  various  political  units  in 
America  (local.  State,  national) ;  chief  features  of  public  financial  administration; 
history  of  financial  development  (Federal,  State,  and  municipal);  recent  problems 
of  State  taxation. 


1166 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


D.  COMMERCIAL  LAW. 

First  year. — Elementary  law  (one  hour  per  week);  contracts  (one  hour  per 
week). 

Secondyear. — Commercial  paper  (one  hour  per  week) ;  corporations. 

E.  ADMINISTRATION. 

1.  General  principles  of  business  organization  and  management. 

2.  Administration  of  public  business. 

3.  Ethics. 

The  faculty  of  the  school  consists  of  the  following  members:  Henry  M.  Mac- 
Cracken,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  chancellor;  Charles  Waldo  Haskins,  C.  P.  A.,  dean  and  pro¬ 
fessor  of  auditing  and  of  the  history  of  accounting;  Joseph  French  Johnson,  A.  B., 
secretary  and  professor  of  political  economy;  Charles  E.  Sprague,  A.  M.,  Ph.D., 
C.  P.  A.,  professor  of  the  theory  of  accounts;  Anson  O.  Kittredge,  C.  P.  A.,  profes¬ 
sor  of  theory  of  accounts  and  practical  auditing;  Ferdinand  William  Lafrentz, 
C.  P.  A.,  professor  of  auditing;  Joseph  Hardcastle,  C.  P.  A.,  lecturer  on  accounts 
of  trustees  and  executors;  J.  Shirley  Eaton,  A.  M.,  lecturer  on  domestic  commerce 
and  transportation;  William  Clarence  Webster,  Ph.  D.,  lecturer  on  theory,  his¬ 
tory,  and  geography  of  commerce;  Cleveland  F.  Bacon,  A.  B.,  LL.  B. ,  lecturer  on 
law  (elementary  law  and  contracts);  William  F.  Walsh,  A.  B.,  LL.  B.,  lecturer 
on  law  (commercial  paper  and  corporations):  Leslie  J.  Tompkins,  M.  S.,  LL.  M., 
registrar;  Clarence  N.  Jones,  A.  M.,  lecturer  on  life  insurance;  Morris  Putnam 
Stevens,  LL.  B.,  lecturer  on  law. 

OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY,  COLUMBUS,  OHIO. 

The  course  in  commerce  and  administration  extends  through  four  years  and 
leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy.  The  studies  included  in  the  course 
are  as  follows: 

First  year. —  French,  German,  European  history,  algebra,  trigonometry,  analyt¬ 
ics,  calculus,  rhetoric. 

Second  year. — French  or  German,  LTnited  States  history,  elementary  economics, 
history  of  England,  rhetoric,  English  literature,  and  one  of  the  following:  Botany, 
general  chemistry,  physics,  zoology. 

Third  year. — Elementary  law  (or  commercial  law  and  private  and  municipal 
corporations) ,  philosophy,  contracts,  or  any  two  of  the  following:  Private  corpora¬ 
tions,  insurance,  agency,  sales,  and  mortgages.  Electives:  Economics,  German, 
history,  political  science,  rhetoric,  romance  languages.  Four  hours  per  week  ars 
devoted  to  the  major  subject  elected  by  the  student. 

Fourth  year. — Five  hours  per  week  are  devoted  to  the  major  subject  and  ten 
hours  to  studies  chosen  from  the  electives  enumerated  under  third  year. 

CENTRAL  HIGH  SCHOOL,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

The  department  of  commerce  was  inaugurated  in  September,  1898.  It  has  a  four 
years’  course  of  study  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  as  follows: 

FRESHMAN  YEAR. 

English. — Composition  writing,  with  a  study  of  classical  literature  in  translation 
and  of  American  literature,  4  hours. 

Latin. — Elements  of  Latin  and  easy  readings,  4  hours. 

Mathematics. — Algebra,  5  hours. 

History. — Greek  and  Roman  history  and  European  history  to  800  A.  D.,  3  hours. 

Science. — Raw  materials  of  commerce  (animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  products), 
4  hours. 

Economics. — Philadelphia  history,  government,  and  business  interests  (lectures 
and  quizzes) ,  2  hours. 

Business  technique.—  Business  forms,  with  penmanship.  Practice,  2  hours. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1167 


SOPHOMORE  YEAR. 

English. — History  of  English  literature,  -with  composition  writing,  3  hours. 

German. — Grammar,  reading,  and  conversation,  5  hours. 

Mathematics. — Advanced  commercial  arithmetic,  including  mensuration  and  the 
metric  system,  2  hours.  Elements  of  geometry  and  trigonometry,  3  hours. 

History. — English  and  modern  European  history,  3  hours. 

Science  and  economics . — Commercial  geography,  2  hours.  Trade  centers  of  the 
world — lectures  in  connection  with  the  course  on  commercial  geography,  1  hour. 

Business  technique. — Bookkeeping,  3  hours.  Stenography,  2  hours.  Typewrit¬ 
ing  (optional). 

JUNIOR  YEAR. 

English. — Readings  from  English  literature,  with  essay  writing,  2  hours. 

German. — Reading,  composition,  and  conversation,  3  hours. 

Romance  languages. — Spanish  or  French,  4  hours. 

History. — American  history,  2  hours. 

Science. — Physics  and  chemistry,  4  hours. 

Economics. — Political  economy,  2  hours. 

Business  technique. — Mechanical  drawing,  2  hours.  Observation  of  and  report 
on  office  practice,  business  methods,  etc.,  3  hours.  Stenography,  2  hours.  Type¬ 
writing  (optional). 

SENIOR  YEAR. 

English. — Readings  from  literature  and  thesis  writing,  3  hours. 

German. — Advanced  reading,  conversation,  and  correspondence,  3  hours. 

Romance  languages. — Spanish  or  French,  3  hours. 

History. — Modern  industrial  and  commercial  history  (of  the  United  States  and 
England),  3  hours. 

Science. — Industrial  chemistry,  2  hours. 

Economics  and  political  science. — Transportation,  banking  and  finance,  4  hours. 
Statistics  (in  connection  with  thesis  writing),  1  hour.  Study  of  government 
(chiefly  of  cities) ,  3  hours. 

Business  technique. — Ethics  of  business  and  commercial  law,  2  hours. 

DREXEL  INSTITUTE,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

The  department  of  commerce  and  finance  offers  a  liberal  and  thoroughly  prac¬ 
tical  course  of  study,  including  two  years’  training  in  a  knowledge  of  the  world’s 
industries  and  markets,  the  laws  of  trade  and  finance,  and  the  mechanism  and 
customs  of  business.  Besides  the  systematic  course  of  two  years,  there  are  three 
distinct  office  courses,  each  occupying  one  year  and  leading  to  a  specific  line  of 
employment.  A  course  is  offered  for  teachers  who  wish  to  fit  themselves  for 
commercial  high-school  work. 

Applicants  for  admission  to  any  of  the  courses,  except  the  commercial  course 
for  teachers,  must  pass  satisfactory  examinations  in  English  grammar  and  com¬ 
position,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  United  States  history,  and  must  be  at  least  16 
years  of  age.  The  diploma  of  high  schools  of  approved  standing  is  accepted  in 
place  of  an  examination. 

I.  COURSE  IN  COMMERCE  AND  FINANCE. 

The  aim  of  the  course  in  commerce  and  finance  is  to  give  young  men  and  young 
women  thorough  fundamental  training  for  the  activities  of  business,  which 
include:  (1)  The  production,  manufacture,  sale,  and  transportation  of  articles  of 
commerce;  (2)  the  management  of  stock  companies  and'  corporations:  (3)  the 
buying  and  selling  of  securities;  (4)  the  importing  and  exporting  of  merchandise; 
(5)  the  borrowing  and  lending  of  money  and  credit;  (6)  the  advertising  of  com¬ 
mercial  concerns;  (7)  the  keeping  of  business  records;  (8)  a  knowledge  of  the 

The  work  of  the  course  is  divided  into  two  years,  as  follows: 

JUNIOR  YEAR. 

First  term. 

English  language.— -Composition;  letter- writing.  American  classics. 

Commercial  arithmetic. — W eights  and  measures ;  metric  system ;  trade  standards 
and  prices;  wages  and  pay  rolls;  commercial  interest  and  discount;  speed  practice. 


1168  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

Business  customs. — Invoices;  commercial  paper;  bills  of  lading  and  manifests; 
vouchers. 

Bookkeeping.— Principles  and  practice  of  single  and  double  entry;  simple 
transactions:  business  forms. 

Penmanship. — A.  plain,  rapid  business  hand. 

Typewriting. — Word  exerpises;  study  of  mechanism  of  machine;  transcribing 
from  rough  draft. 

Correspondence , — Mechanical  arrangement  and  style  of  business  letter;  exercises 
in  condensing  and  expanding. 

Commercial  geography. — Physical  and  mathematical  geography  in  their  rela¬ 
tions  to  commerce.  Commercial  geography  of  the  United  States. 

Spanish  language. — Elementary  grammar,  oral  and  written  exercises;  vocab¬ 
ulary. 

Second  term. 

English  language. — Grammatical  principles;  diction.  Selected  classics. 

Industrial  arithmetic. — Measurements;  builders’  and  contractors’  bids  and  esti¬ 
mates;  scientific  measurements;  manufacturers’  and  mechanics’  estimates;  met¬ 
ric  system. 

Business  customs. — Securities;  collections;  discounts. 

Bookkeeping. — Principles  and  practice  of  single  and  double  entry  in  more  com¬ 
plicated  transactions.  Shipments,  consignments,  and  business  forms. 

Commercial  calculations. — Practical  exercises  for  acquiring  rapidity  and  accu¬ 
racy  of  work. 

Commercial  geography. — Industrial  and  economic  geography  of  the  United 
States,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  new  dependencies.  Studjr  of  the 
world’s  commercial  staples,  raw  and  manufactured. 

Spanish  language. — Grammar,  oral  and  written  exercises,  vocabulary,  reading; 
business  letters  and  business  forms. 

Penmanship. — Continued. 

Typewriting. — Continued. 

Correspondence. — Letters  relating  to  contracts,  purchases  and  sales,  recommen¬ 
dations,  introduction,  credit;  circulars,  telegrams. 

Public  speaking. — One  hour  a  week  throughout  the  year. 

Physical  training  in  the  gymnasium  twice  a  week  throughout  the  year. 

SENIOR  YEAR. 

First  term. 

English  language. — Rhetorical  principles;  synonyms;  essay  writing. 

Advanced  boolckeeeping. — Importing  and  jobbing;  wholesale  and  retail;  manu¬ 
facturing,  real  estate,  joint  stock  companies,  corporations,  banking,  etc.  Intro¬ 
ducing  order  book,  cashbook,  invoice  and  sales  register,  special-column  journal, 
bill  book. 

Banking  and  finance. — Outlines  of  the  history  of  banking  and  of  the  national 
banking  system^  State  banks,  savings  banks,  trust  and  financial  companies;  foreign 
banking;  banking  in  its  relations  to  foreign  trade. 

Commercial  arithmetic. — Financial  problems  involving  partial  payments;  buy¬ 
ing  and  selling  exchanges;  stocks  and  bonds;  equating  of  accounts;  adjusting  of 
partnership,  joint  stock  company,  and  corporation  accounts. 

Commercial  geography. — A  comparative  study  of  the  commerce  and  industry  of 
the  great  commercial  nations  of  the  world. 

History  of  commerce. — Outlines  of  the  history  of  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern 
commerce,  with  special  reference  to  the  history  of  American  commerce. 

Civics. — Principles  and  practical  operation  of  government  in  the  United  States. 

Spanish  language. — Grammar,  conversation,  reading,  correspondence. 

Typewriting. — Arrangement  of  papers. 

Second  term. 

English  language. — Paragraph — its  sum  and  structure.  Study  of  selected  plays 
of  Shakespeare. 

Advanced  bookkeeping.  — Conti nued. 

Commercial  arithmetic. — Continued. 

Banking  and  finance. — Bank  management,  mechanism  and  practice  of  banking; 
the  clearing  house;  currency  reform. 

Commercial  geography. — Continued.  Special  studies  requiring  independent  re¬ 
search. 

Mechanism  of  commerce. — Boards  of  trade;  stock  and  produce  exchanges;  trans- 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION'. 


1169 


portation;  interstate  commerce;  warehousing;  importing  and  exporting;  duties; 
exchange;  mercantile  agencies. 

Commercial  law.—  Elementary  principles  of  contracts  and  negotiable  paper,  and 
the  leading  principles  which  regulate  the  relations  of  the  business  man — princi¬ 
pal  and  agent;  carriers;  commission  merchants;  partnerships;  joint  stock  com¬ 
panies;  corporations. 

Civics. — Principles  and  practical  operation  of  government  in  the  United  States; 
history,  principles,  and  organization  of  political  parties;  civil  service;  ballot 
systems;  representation  systems;  municipal  government. 

Business  printing  and  advertising. — Type  and  paper;  printers’  estimates;  proof¬ 
reading;  business  cards,  circulars,  and  catalogues.  Modern  advertising,  includ¬ 
ing  mediums,  rates,  agencies. 

Spanish  language. — Reading,  conversation,  correspondence. 

Public  speaking. — One  hour  a  week  throughout  the  year. 

Physical  training  in  the  gymnasium  twice  a  week  throughout  the  year. 

There  are  evening  classes  in  the  Spanish,  French,  and  German  languages,  to 
which  students  of  the  department  may  be  admitted  on  the  payment  of  a  fee  of  $6 
for  each  language. 

Students  may  elect  to  do  special  work  in  chemistry  at  the  discretion  of  the 
director  in  charge. 

The  stereopticon  is  freely  used  in  the  class  room  as  an  aid  in  teaching  the 
history  and  mechanism  of  commerce,  commercial  geography,  and  other  subjects. 

During  the  senior  year  visits  are  made  to  some  of  the  leading  industrial  and 
commercial  establishments  of  Philadelphia,  and  systematic  use  is  made  of  the 
Philadelphia  commercial  museums  in  the  study  of  commercial  geography. 

Table  showing  the  distribution  of  time  for  the  several  subjects  of  instruction. 

JUNIOR  YEAR. 


English  language . 

Commercial  and  industrial  arithmetic 

Business  customs . . . 

Bookkeeping . . . . . 

Penmanship . — . 

Typewriting . . . . 

Correspondence . . . 

Commercial  geography . 

Spanish  language . 

Public  speaking . . 

Physical  training . . . . 


Subject. 


Hours 

per 

week. 


2 


4 
1 

5 
2 
2 
1 
2 


2 

1 

2 


Total. 


24 


SENIOR  YEAR. 


Subject. 

Hours  per 
week. 

First 

term. 

Second 

term. 

English  language . . . . . . . . . . 

2 

2 

Book  keeping . . . 

3 

3 

Banking.and  finance . . . . . 

1 

1 

Commercial  arithmetic . . . . . . . 

3 

3 

Commercial  geography . . . . . . 

2 

2 

History  of  commerce . _ .  . . 

2 

Mechanism  of  commerce . . . . . 

2 

Civics _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Spanish  language  . . . 

2 

2 

Commercial  law . . . . . 

2 

Business  printing  and  advertising . . . . . 

u 

Typewriting-  . . . . . . 

2 

Public  speaking  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1 

1 

Physical  training . . . 

2 

2 

Total . . . . . . . 

22 

23 

1  Part  of  the  term. 

The  diploma  of  the  institute  is  granted  to  students  who  complete  the  course  in 
commerce  and  finance  and  pass  the  prescribed  examinations. 

ED  1901 - 74 


1170 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


II.  COMMERCIAL  COURSE  FOR  TEACHERS. 

In  order  to  meet  the  growing  demand  for  specially  trained  commercial  teach¬ 
ers,  the  institute  offers  instruction  to  men  and  women  who  wish  to  equip  them¬ 
selves  for  entrance  upon  the  new*  and  widening  field  of  commercial  work  in  high 
schools  and  academies. 

For  admission  to  this  course,  the  applicant  must  have  had  at  least  two  years’ 
experience  in  general  teaching,  or  must  have  been  graduated  from  a  State  nor¬ 
mal  school  of  approved  standing. 

Students  who  enter  this  course  are  given  special  consideration  by  the  professors 
and  instructors  of  the  department,  generous  assistance  being  given  in  methods  of 
teaching,  the  preparation  of  outlines  and  courses,  and  the  bibliography  of  the 
several  subjects. 

The  course  occupies  one  year,  divided  into  two  terms,  and  includes  the  follow¬ 
ing  subjects: 

English  language. — Rhetorical  principles;  essay  writing;  selected  plays  of 
Shakespeare. 

Bookkeeping. — Principles  and  practice  of  single  and  double  entry;  business 
forms;  importing  and  jobbing;  wholesale  and  retail;  manufacturing,  real  estate, 
joint  stock  companies;  corporations;  banking,  etc.  Introducing  order  book,  cash 
book,  invoice,  and  sales  register,  special  column  journal,  bill  book.  - 

Commercial  arithmetic. — Financial  problems  involving  partial  payments;  buy¬ 
ing  and  selling  exchanges;  stocks  and  bonds;  equating  of  accounts;  adjusting  of 
partnership,  joint  stock  company,  and  corporation  accounts. 

Banking  and  finance. — Outlines  of  the  history  of  banking  and  of  the  national 
banking  system;  State  banks,  savings  banks,  trust  and  financial  companies;  for¬ 
eign  banking;  banking  in  its  relations  to  foreign  trade;  bank  management, 
mechanism,  and  practice  of  banking;  the  clearing  house;  currency  reform. 

Commercial  geography . — Physical  and  mathematical  geography  in  their  relations 
to  commerce;  industrial,  commercial,  and  economic  geography  of  the  United 
States;  comparative  study  of  the  commerce  and  industry  of  the  great  commer¬ 
cial  nations  of  the  world;  special  studies  requiring  independent  research. 

History  of  commerce. — Outlines  of  the  history  of  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern 
commerce,  with  special  reference  to  the  history  of  American  commerce. 

Commercial  law . — Elementary  principles  of  contracts  and  negotiable  paper,  and 
the  leading  principles  which  regulate  the  relations  of  the  business  man — principal 
and  agent;  carriers;  commission  merchants;  partnerships;  joint  stock  companies; 
corporations. 

Mechanism  of  commerce. — Boards  of  trade;  stock  and  produce  exchanges;  trans¬ 
portation;  interstate  commerce;  warehousing:  importing  and  exporting;  duties; 
exchange;  mercantile  agencies. 

Civics. — Principles  and  practical  operation  of  government  in  the  United  States; 
history,  principles,  and  organization  of  political  parties;  civil  service;  ballot  sys¬ 
tems;  representation  system;  municipal  government. 

Stenography. — Theory  of  Pitman  system;  special  emphasis  upon  methods  of 
teaching  the  subject. 

Typewriting. — Word  exercises;  study  of  leading  typewriters;  transcribing  from 
rough  draft;  arrangement  of  papers;  instruction  in  duplicating  processes;  letter 
press;  office  practice. 

Penmanship. — A  plain,  rapid  business  hand. 

Should  the  student’s  time  admit,  the  Spanish  language  may  be  added  to  the 
course. 


Table  of  the  distribution  of  time  for  the  several  subjects  of  instruction. 


Subject. 

Hours  per 
week. 

First 

term. 

Second 

term. 

Bookkeeping . _ . . . 

3 

3 

Commercial  arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . 

3 

3 

Commercial  geography  . . . . 

3 

3 

History  of  commerce . . . _ . . . 

2 

0 

Banking  and  finance . . . . . 

1 

1 

English  language . _ . 

2 

2 

Civics . - . . . . . . . . . 

2 

2 

Stenography . . . . . _ . . . _ . 

3 

3 

Typewriting . . 

3 

1 

Commercial  law . - . . . 

0 

2 

Mechanism  of  commerce . . . . __ . . . . . ... . 

0 

2 

Penmanship . . . . 

1 

1 

Total. . . . 

23 

83 

HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1171 


The  diploma  of  the  institute  is  granted  to  students  who  complete  the  commer¬ 
cial  course  for  teachers  and  prepare  an  acceptable  thesis  upon  an  assigned  com¬ 
mercial  topic. 

III.  OFFICE  COURSES. 

Three  distinct  office  courses  are  ottered.  These  are  thoroughly  practical  in  char¬ 
acter,  and  are  adapted  to  prepare  young  men  and  young  women  for  entering 
immediately  upon  the  respective  lines  of  employment  to  which  the  training  leads. 

Private  secretary  course. — This  course  has  been  organized  to  respond  to  appli¬ 
cations  that  are  made  to  the  institute  for  clerks  fitted  to  do  work  of  a  more  general 
character  and  of  a  higher  grade  than  that  required  in  a  purely  business  office. 
Applicants  for  admission  must  show  by  examination,  or  otherwise,  that  they  are 
prepared  to  profit  by  the  training  given  in  this  course. 

The  course  occupies  one  year,  divided  into  two  terms,  and  includes  the  follow¬ 
ing  subjects: 

Stenography.—  First  term:  Theory  of  Pitman  System-;  daily  drill  in  phonetics. 
Second  term:  Practice  of  the  art  by  means  of  carefully  graded  dictation  exercises, 
and  daily  transcript  of  notes. 

Typewriting. — Word  exercises;  study  of  leading  typewriters;  transcribing  from 
rough  draft;  arrangement  of  papers;  instruction  in  duplicating  processes;  letter 
press;  office  practice. 

Englishlanguage.—  Rhetorical  principles;  essay  writing;  collection  and  arrange¬ 
ment  of  material;  criticism  of  manuscript;  English  classics. 

Spanish  language.— Grammar,  oral  and  written  exercises;  reading,  correspond¬ 
ence,  business  letters  and  business  forms. 

Business  printing . — Type  and  paper;  printers’  estimates;  proof-reading. 

Accounts,  business  forms  and  customs. — Elements  of  single  and  double  entry 
bookkeeping;  invoices,  commercial  paper,  vouchers,  etc. 

Correspondence. — Arrangement  and  style  of  business  letters;  letters  of  recom¬ 
mendation,  introduction,  etc.;  circulars,  telegrams. 

Penmanship. 

Public  speaking. — One  hour  a  week,  for  young  men. 

Physical  training  in  the  gymnasium,  twice  a  week. 

Table  of  the  distribution  of  time  for  the  several  subjects  of  instruction. 


Stenography . 

Typewriting . 

English  language . - . 

Spanish  language . . 

Accounts,  business  forms  and  customs. 

Correspondence . . . . . 

Penmanship . . . . 

Business  printing _ _ _ _ _ 

Physical  training  _ _ _ _ 


Subject. 


Hours 

per 

week. 


9 

5 


2 


2 

1 

1 

1 

U 


9 


Total. 


24 


1  Part  of  second  term. 

Bookkeeping  course. — The  object  of  this  course  is  to  prepare  young  men  and 
young  women  for  positions  as  bookkeepers.  It  occupies  one  year,  divided  into 
two  terms,  and  includes  the  following  subjects: 

Bookkeeping.— Single  and  double  entry;  use  of  auxiliary  books;  order  books, 
cashbooks,  invoice  and  sales  register,  bill  book,  special-column  journal,  etc. 

Commercial  arithmetic. — Weights,  measures;  metric  system;  builders’,  manu¬ 
facturers’,  mechanics’ estimates;  partial  payments;  exchanges,  stocks,  bonds,  part¬ 
nerships;  joint-stock  companies  and  corporations;  speed  practice. 

Business  forms  and  customs. — Invoices,  commercial  paper,  bills  of  lading,  and 
manifests;  vouchers. 

English  language.— Composition;  letter  writing;  grammatical  principles.  Amer¬ 
ican  classics. 

Correspondence. — Arrangement  and  style  of  business  letters;  letters  of  recom¬ 
mendation,  introduction,  etc.;  circulars,  telegrams. 

Penmanship. — A  plain,  rapid  business  hand. 

Typewriting. — Word  exercise;  mechanism  of  machine;  transcribing  from  rough 
drafts;  arrangement  of  papers. 

Public  speaking. — One  hour  a  week,  for  young  men. 

Physical  training. — In  the  gymnasium,  twice  a  week. 


1172  EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

Table  of  the  distribution  of  time  f  or  the  several  subjects  of  instruction. 


Bookkeeping . 

Commercial  arithmetic . 

Business  forms  and  customs 

English  language . . . 

Correspondence . 

Penmanship . 

Typewriting  . . 

Public  speaking . . 

Physical  training . 


Subject. 


Hours 

per 

week. 


8 

5 

1 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 


Total 


'  25 


Stenography  course. — The  aim  of  this  coarse  is  to  train  young  men  and  young 
women  for  positions  as  stenographers.  There  is  a  growing  demand  among  busi¬ 
ness  men  for  stenographers  who  can  not  only  take  down  and  typewrite  corre¬ 
spondence,  but  who  have  a  serviceable  knowledge  of  good  English  and  who  are 
intelligently  trained  along  general  educational  lines. 

The  course  occupies  one  year,  divided  into  two  terms,  and  includes  the  follow¬ 
ing  subjects: 

Stenography . — First  term:  Theory  of  Pitman  System;  daily  drill  in  phonetics. 
Second  "term:  Practice  of  the  art  by  means  of  carefully  graded  dictation  exercises 
and  daily  transcript  of  notes. 

Typewriting. — Word  exercises;  study  of  leading  typewriters;  transcribing  from 
rough  draft;  arrangement  of  papers.  Instruction  in  duplicating  processes;  letter¬ 
press;  office  practice. 

English  language. — Composition*  letter-writing;  grammatical  principles. 
Selected  American  or  English  poets. 

Accounts ,  business  forms,  and  customs.— Elements  of  single  and  double  entry 
bookkeeping;  invoices,  commercial  paper,  vouchers,  etc. 

Correspondence.— Practice  in  writing  business  letters,  orders,  and  telegrams. 

Penmanship. 

Public  speaking.— One  hour  a  week,  for  young  men. 

Physical  training. — In  the  gymnasium,  twice  a  week. 

Table  of  the  distribution  of  time  for  the  several  subjects  of  instruction. 


Stenography . . . 

Typewriting . . . 

English . - . 

Accounts,  business  forms,  and  customs 

Correspondence . 

Penmanship . 

Physical  training . 


Subject. 


Hours 

per 

week. 


9 

5 


2 

1 

1 

1 

2 


Total 


21 


Certificates  are  granted  to  students  who  complete  any  one  of  the  office  courses 
and  pass  the  prescribed  examinations. 

COMMERCIAL  MUSEUM. 

A  beginning  was  made  in  1895  toward  the  formation  of  a  permanent  commer¬ 
cial  museum,  and  a  large  collection  of  raw  and  manufactured  products  has  already 
been  secured.  The  collection  represents  quite  fully  the  following  industrial  prod¬ 
ucts:  Flour,  wool,  petroleum,  teas  and  coffees,  sugar,  cotton,  copper,  iron  and 
steel,  glass,  tobacco,  leather,  rubber,  paper,  wood,  carpet,  linen,  spices,  alumi¬ 
num,  building  stone,  brick  and  terra  cotta.  Additions  are  constantly  being  made, 
and  the  student  who  is  looking  forward  to  devoting  his  life  to  trade,  shipping,  or 
manufacturing,  has  opportunity,  in  connection  with  his  academic  work,  to  make 
a  special  study,  from  both  a  geographic  and  an  economic  standpoint,  of  the 
particular  industry  in  which  he  is  interested. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1173 


The  instructors  in  the  department  of  commerce  and  finance  are  as  follows: 
Parke  Schocli,  A.  M. ,  director,  professor  of  the  history  and  mechanism  of  commerce, 
and  stenography;  Jonathan  J.  Sparling,  professor  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
accounts;  Carl  L.  Altmaier,  professor  of  commercial  law  and  instructor  in  corre¬ 
spondence  and  typewriting;  John  T.  Holdsworth,  professor  of  commercial  geogra¬ 
phy  and  banking;  Harriet  L.  Mason,  professor  of  English  language  and  literature; 
Calixto  Guiteras,  C.  E.,  professor  of  Spanish;  Carolyn  H.  Locke,  instructor  in 
stenography;  Alice  E.  Chase,  A.  B.,  instructor  in  English;  Lillian  M.  Dalton, 
instructor  in  English. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


The  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Economy  was  founded  in  1881  by  Joseph 
Wharton,  esq.,  of  Philadelphia,  who  expressed  the  desire  that  it  should  offer 
facilities  for  obtaining  (1)  “An  adequate  education  in  the  principles  underlying 
successful  civil  government.”  (2)  “A  training  suitable  for  those  who  intend  to 
engage  in  business  or  to  undertake  the  management  of  property.”  The  regular 
course  of  study  extends  through  four  years,  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Science,  and  is  as  follows: 


FRESHMAN  CLASS. 


Hours  a  week. 

Subjects. 

First 

term. 

Second 

term. 

Political  economy  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Constitutional  law _ _ _ _  _  . _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Physiography  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

9 

A  neon  nting  .  _  __ _ _  _  _ _ _  _  _ _ _ 

3 

3 

American  history _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i . . . . . . . . 

2 

English  composition _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

F.ngliwh  Ifl.nguap'ft 

1 

1 

German 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

3 

French 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ -  . .  . . . . . . . 

1  3 

SOPHOMORE  CLASS. 


Political  economy . - . - . . . . . 

Geography  of  commerce2 . 

Economic  geography2 . . . . . 

Railway  finance2 . . . . . 

Money,  credit,  and  foreign  exchange  2.. . . . . 

European  history  2 . - . - . 

Modern  legislative  problems . . . 

M  od  ern  novelists . . . . . . 

Modern  essayists . . . . 

German1 . - . \ 

French1 . . . - . .  j 

Chemistry1 . . . 

Mathematics 1 . . . . . 

Public  speaking 3 . . . . . 


2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

9 


2 


9 


2 

3 

2 


3 

2 

2 

1 


2  Elective  courses  from  which  seven  hours  must  be  chosen.  3  Optional. 


1  One  only  required. 


1174 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


JUNIOR  CLASS. 


Hours  a  week. 

Subjects.1 

First 

term. 

Second 

term. 

2 

2 

Sociology _  _ _  _ 

2 

o 

Government  and  State  activity . . . . 

2 

2 

American  history. _ _ _ _ .  .  _ _ 

2 

2 

English  constitutional  history. . . . . 

2 

o 

English  industrial  development . _ . . . 

2 

2 

Elementary  common  law _ _ _ „ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Roman  law.  .  ..  _  _  _ _ _ 

2 

4 

Charities  and  correction . . . . . . _ . 

2 

2 

American  commerce  and  commercial  relations . . . . . 

2 

2 

Industrial  management  .  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ _  _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

History  of  banking  in  Europe  ..  _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

History  of  banking  in  the  United  States _ _ 

2 

Economic  geography  of  America _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

Public  administration _ . . . . _ . . . . 

2 

2 

Engbsh  literature  .  .  . . . .  _  .... _ _  _ _ _  _ _  .  _ 

2 

o 

Logic  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

Ethics  _ _ _ 

2 

SENIOR  CLASS. 


Public  finance _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

American  history. . . . . . . . . . . 

2 

2 

Development  of  English  civilization _ _ _ _ 

2 

9 

English  legal  institutions . . . . 

2 

2 

2 

Court  decisions  on  the  Federal  Constitution . . . . . . 

2 

Colonies  and  dependencies _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

o 

2 

Private  finance  _ _  _ _  _ _ _ . 

2 

Social  reformers  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

International  law _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Local  and  municipal  institutions  .  _ _ _ _ 

2 

European  commerce  and  commercial  relations _ 

2 

9 

The  Renaissance  and  Reformation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Transportation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

2 

Financiering  of  trusts  and  corporations . . . . . . . . . 

2 

1  Prom  which  each  student  must  choose  sixteen  hours  in  each  term. 


The  instruction  offered  in  some  of  the  technical  subjects  is  as  follows: 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  COMMERCE. 

American  commerce  and  commercial  relations. —The  history  of  American  com¬ 
merce.  An  analytical  study  of  the  present  trade  of  the  United  States  with  differ¬ 
ent  sections  of  the  world,  and  an  investigation  of  the  commercial  treaties  in  force 
between  the  United  States  and  the  leading  foreign  nations.  The  latter  part  of 
the  course  deals  with  commercial  policy.  Lectures,  assigned  readings,  and  reports. 
Elective  for  juniors  and  seniors  in  finance  and  economy.  Two  hours. 

European  commerce  and  commercial  relations.— A  history  of  European  commerce. 
An  analytical  study  of  the  present  commerce  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
and  Russia.  A  study  of  the  commercial  policy  and  commercial  relations  of 
European  countries  with  special  reference  to  their  relation  to  American  com¬ 
merce.  Elective  for  seniors  in  finance  and  economy.  Two  hours. 

Transportation. — A  study  of  the  American  railway  system,  the  several  branches 
of  the  railway  service,  and  the  questions  of  public  aid  and  public  control.  *  A  study 
of  inland  navigation  and  ocean  shipping,  with  special  reference  to  the  United 
States.  Lectures,  assigned  readings,  and  reports.  Elective  for  seniors  in  finance 
and  economy.  Two  hours. 

Geography  of  commerce. — A  study  of  the  economic  and  commercial  geography 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  organization  and  routes  of  our  international  trade. 
The  leading  industries  of  the  different  sections  of  the  country  are  considered,  and 
a  study  is  made  of  the  foreign  trade  to  which  those  industries  give  rise.  Lectures, 
assigned  readings,  and  reports.  Elective  for  sophomores  in  finance  and  economy, 
and  required  of  second-year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

Physiography , — (a)  Land  sculpture :  A  treatment  of  the  forces  and  laws  of  land 
sculpture,  with  special  application  of  the  United  States.  ( h )  The  principles  of 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1175 


meteorology:  The  charting  of  weather  elements  and  interpretation  of  weather 
maps.  Lectures,  readings,  and  map  construction.  Freshmen  in  finance  and 
economy,  and  first-year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

Economic  geography  of  America. — The  geologic  structure  of  America,  with 
results  in  topography  and  soils.  The  distribution  of  heat  and  moisture  resulting 
in  forests,  farms,  and  grazing  lands.  Distribution  of  minerals  and  of  soils,  and 
of  plant  and  animal  life,  determining  the  settlement  and  industrial  development 
of  the  country.  Facilities  for  transportation  and  communication:  harbors,  com¬ 
mon  roads,  railways,  and  canals.  The  location  of  great  trade  centers.  Action 
and  reaction  between  man  and  his  environment.  Elective  for  juniors  and  seniors 
in  finance  and  economy,  and  second-year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

BUSINESS  PRACTICE. 

Bookkeeping  and  office  methods. — Theoretical  and  practical  bookkeeping;  prac¬ 
tice  employed  in  different  forms  of  business,  mercantile,  manufacturing,  and 
banking.  Lectures  and  bookkeeping  practice.  Three  hours  (first  term). 

Corporation  accounting. — Lectures  on  the  elements  of  corporation  accounting, 
supplemented  by  the  examination  of  the  accounts  of  railway  and  industrial  corpo¬ 
rations.  Three  hours  (second  term). 

Industrial  management. — The  organization  and  management  of  industry  and 
trade.  A  study  of  the  practice  of  business.  Lectures,  assigned  readings,  and 
reports.  Elective  for  juniors  and  seniors  in  finance  and  economy,  and  required 
for  second-year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

Business  law  and  contracts. — Post  seniors  in  civil  and  mechanical  engineering, 
seniors  in  the  four-year  engineering  courses,  and  in  chemistry.  Sophomores  in 
finance  and  economy,  and  second-year  sjjecials  in  banking.  One  hour. 

Banking  practice. — The  practice  of  banking  in  the  United  States;  forms  and 
methods;  duties  of  officers  and  employees;  organization  of  banks,  functions  and 
machinery  of  the  clearing  house,  etc.  Bolles’s  Practical  Banking.  First-year 
specials  in  banking.  Two  hours  (first  term). 


FINANCE. 

Public  finance. — A  course  on  public  revenue  and  public  expenditures,  with 
special  reference  to  the  financial  systems  of  the  United  States,  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  of  Philadelphia.  Adams’s  Public  Debts.  Seniors  in  finance  and  economy,  and 
in  arts  and  science  in  the  economics,  social  science,  and  law  group,  and  second- 
year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

Money ,  credit,  and  foreign  exchange. — The  phenomena  of  the  money  market  in 
their  relation  to  trade,  industry,  and  speculation.  The  principles  regulating  the 
flow  of  gold  and  currency  in  domestic  and  international  settlement.  The  machin¬ 
ery  of  the  domestic  and  foreign  exchanges.  G  oschen ’s  Foreign  Exchange.  Clare’s 
A  B  C  of  Foreign  Exchange.  Sophomores  in  finance  and  economy,  and  second- 
year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

Principles  of  private  finance.— The  acquisition  and  expenditure  of  private  funds. 
What  forms  of  money  and  credit  may  be  used  as  funds;  the  instruments  used  in 
procuring  funds;  the  institutions  and  agents  employed  in  funding  operations; 
settlements  made  between  funding  agents.  Lectures,  special  assignments,  and 
class  discussion.  Seniors  in  finance  and  economy  and  second-year  specials  in 
banking  (first  term). 

The  financiering  of  iru.sts  and  industrial  corporations. — A  study  of  the  financial 
methods  peculiar  to  the  industrial  corporation  and  of  the  special  advantages  of 
the  several  financial  methods  that  may  be  properly  employed.  Special  attention 
is  given  to  the  methods  employed  in  the  financiering  of  trusts.  Lectures,  assign¬ 
ments,  and  class  discussion.  Elective  for  seniors  in  finance  and  economy  and 
second-year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours. 

History  of  banking  in  Europe. — After  a  general  survey  of  the  money  and  credit 
systems  among  the  ancients  and  in  the  middle  ages  the  course  takes  up  the  great 
European  systems.  Beginning  with  the  history  of  banking  in  Italy,  this  is  fol¬ 
lowed  by  that  of  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  banking  in  England.  France,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Germany,  Russia,  and  the  Scotch  system;  Conant’s  History  of  Modern 
Banks  of  Issue;  lectures  and  assignments;  juniors  in  finance  and  economy,  and 
second-year  specials  in  banking.  (First  term. ) 

History  of  banking  in  the  United  States. — This  course  first  takes  up  the  banking 
experience  during  colonial  days.  In  the  subsequent  development  special  stress  is 
thrown  on  the  history  of  “The  first  and  second  Banks  of  the  United  States,” 
“The  New  England  banking  system,”  “The  safety-fund  system,”  the  “Free- 


1176 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


banking  system,” the  “National  banking  system,” and  present  tendencies  in  bank¬ 
ing.  Knox's  History-  of  Banking;  Report  of  Monetary  Commission;  lectures  and 
assignments.  Juniors  in  finance  and  economy,  and  second-year  bankers.  (Second 
term.) 

Investment  and  speculation. — The  nature,  methods,  and  law  of  investment,  and 
of  the  relation  of  speculation  to  investment.  The  relative  merits  of  railway  stocks, 
bonds,  farm  mortgages,  street  railways,  gas  and  water  securities,  municipal  and 
county  bonds,  etc.,  as  investments  receive  special  attention.  Lectures,  assign¬ 
ments,  and  class  discussion.  First-year  specials  in  banking,  and  elective  for 
sophomores  in  finance  and  economy.  Two  hours  (second  term.) 

Railway  finance. — A  study  of  the  financial  operations  in  promotion,  construc¬ 
tion,  operation,  and  consolidation  of  railway  companies,  including  bankruptcy, 
receiverships,  and  reorganization.  Lectures.  Poor’s  Manual  and  Commercial  and 
Financial  Chronicle.  Elective  for  sophomores  in  finance  and  economy  and  for 
first-year  specials  in  banking.  Two  hours  (first  term) 

The  faculty  of  the  Wharton  School  is  as  follows:  Charles  C.  Harrison,  LL.  D., 
provost;  Edgar  F.  Smith,  Pli.  D.,  Sc.  D.,  vice-provost;  Josiah  H.  Penniman,  Ph.  D., 
dean;  Simon  N.  Patten,  Ph.  D.,  professor  of  political  economy;  John  Bach  McMas- 
ter,  A.  M.,  Lift.  D.,  professor  of  American  history;  Edward  P.  Cheyneyj'A.  M.,1 
professor  of  European  history;  Emory  R.  Johnson,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of 
transportation  and  commerce;  Samuel  M.  Lindsay,1  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor 
of  sociology;  Leo  S.  Rowe,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  political  science;  Henry 
R.  Seager,  Ph.  D.,  assistant  professor  of  political  economy;  James  T.  Young, 
Ph.  D. ,  instructor  in  administration;  Albert  S.  Boiles,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  lecturer  cn 
banking  law  and  practice;  William  E.  Lingelbach,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  European 
history;  Frederick  A.  Cleveland,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  finance;  Edward  S.  Meade, 
Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  business  practice;  J.  Paul  Goode,  Ph.  D.,  instructor  in  geog¬ 
raphy;  George  W.  Scott,  A.  B.,  assistant  in  public  law. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SOUTH  DAKOTA,  VERMILION,  S.  DAK. 

The  College  of  Commerce  offers  a  course  of  study  extending  through  two  years 
and  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Commerce.  Admission  to  the  course  is 
granted  to  persons  who  have  completed  the  preparatory  course,  substituting  short¬ 
hand,  bookkeeping,  and  typewriting  for  foreign  languages. 

The  course  of  study  is  as  follows: 

Junior  year. — Commercial  law  and  legislation;  commercial  arithmetic;  English; 
political  economy;  commercial  geography;  transportation. 

Senior  year. — Banking;  insurance;  economic  history;  finance;  corporations; 
parliamentary  law;  one  elective. 

The  instruction  offered  in  some  of  the  commercial  branches  is  as  follows: 

Commercial  and  industrial  geography. — Natural  products  of  the  world,  by 
countries;  methods  for  preparing  these  products  for  the  market;  manufactured 
articles,  where  and  how  made;  where  raw  materials  are  obtained;  what  are  or 
may  be  markets  for  these  products  or  materials;  comparative  study  of  great  com¬ 
mercial  centers  and  nations;  business  methods  in  foreign  countries;  prices,  tariffs, 
means  of  communication,  etc. 

Transportation. — Development  and  present  status  of  railroads,  canals,  steam¬ 
boats,  and  steamship  lines;  their  relation  to  individual  shippers  and  to  industry 
and  commerce. 

Commercial  laiv.— Elements  of  law,  the  feudal  system  and  customs  of  ancient 
traders;  contracts,  negotiable  papers,  agency,  partnership,  guaranty,  lien,  usury, 
etc. 

Commercial  legislation. — Commercial  legislation  passed  by  Congress  and  other 
legislative  bodies;  commercial  treaties;  State  legislation,  Western  States,  espe¬ 
cially  South  Dakota. 


Appointed  commissioner  of  education  of  Porto  Rico. 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1177 


Banking.— History  of  banking;  national,  State,  savings,  and  private  banks; 
trust,  investment*,  and  mortgage  companies;  foreign  banking  systems;  bank 
papers  and  records;  clearing  houses;  analysis  of  proposed  banking  reforms. 

Insurance. — Life,  fire,  and  marine  insurance;  nature  of  policies  issued  under 
each  system;  examination  of  insurance  contracts  and  of  insurance  companies’ 
reports. 

Corporations. — Purpose  and  organization  of  corporations,  trusts,  and  monopo¬ 
lies;  charters,  powers,  rights,  and  duties  of  each;  effect  on  commerce,  benefits  and 
injuries;  proposed  legislation;  method  of  keeping  records  and  distributing  funds. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  SOUTH,  SEWANEE,  TENN. 

The  course  in  finance  and  economy  is  designed  to  cover  a  period  of  two  years. 
Instruction  is  given  in  the  following  branches:  Bookkeeping,  banking,  commer¬ 
cial  law,  finance,  political  economy,  history,  English,  commercial  arithmetic, 
typewriting,  stenography,  and  telegraphy. 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  OF  UTAH,  LOGAN,  UTAH. 

This  institution  offers  two  commercial  courses;  a  four-year  course  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science,  and  a  short  course  of  two  years. 

The  subjects  included  in  the  four-year  course  are  as  follows: 

Freshman. — Grammar,  rhetoric,  literature,  algebra,  geometry,  history,  physics, 
drawing,  shopwork. 

Sophomore. — Chemistry,  rhetoric,  solid  geometry  and  higher  algebra,  trigonome¬ 
try,  analytical  geometry,  civil  government  and  constitutional  law,  anatomy  and 
physiology,  surveying. 

Junior. — Heat  .md  electricity,  or  stenography,  agricultural  chemistry  or  ste¬ 
nography,  German,  calculus,  botany,  psychology,  zoology,  history  of  commerce, 
science  of  accounts,  physics,  bookkeeping. 

Senior. — Physiological  botany,  commercial  law,  German,  geology,  literature, 
commercial  calculations,  political  economy,  stenography  or  business  practice,  ste¬ 
nography  or  business  customs,  stenography  or  auditing  and  exporting  of  accounts, 
typewriting. 

The  short  course  of  two  years  includes  all  of  the  commercial  branches  assigned 
to  the  four-year  course,  but  contains  much  less  of  general  culture  studies. 

The  instruction  given  in  some  of  the  commercial  branches  is  as  follows: 

Business  customs.—  The  fundamental  principles  of  bookkeeping  are  applied 
according  to  modern  ideas  of  business.  The  subjects  of  banking,  securities,  export¬ 
ing  and  importing,  railroading,  business  correspondence,  and  everyday  business 
transactions  are  carefully  examined  from  a  practical  standpoint. 

History  of  commerce. — Careful  study  of  the  principal  countries  of  the  world 
from  which  such  staple  articles  of  commerce  as  food,  textile  and  mineral  sub¬ 
stances,  metals  and  manufactured  products  are  obtained.  The  student  notes  the 
kinds  and  amount  of  such  products  from  those  countries,  and  the  dependence  of 
each  upon  every  other  for  the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life;  he  learns  how  mar¬ 
kets  are  created  and  controlled;  how  waterways  and  railways  afford  a  ready 
means  of  transportation  and  influence;  and  how  the  improved  mail,  postal,  tele¬ 
phone,  and  telegraph  services  facilitate  the  interchange  of  thought  and  also  influ¬ 
ence  trade.  Statistics  are  gathered  showing  the  magnitude  of  the  world’s  pro¬ 
duction.  Practical  commercial  problems  of  the  day  are  discussed. 

Political  economy. — The  economic  laws  of  trade,  the  general  principles  of  politi¬ 
cal  economy  technically  applied  to  commerce,  and  general  business  methods  are 
carefully  examined. 

Commercial  law. — Customs  and  the  law  of  the  nature,  formation,  operation, 
interpretation,  and  discharge  of  contracts,  including  agency,  partnership,  eorpo- 


1178 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 


ration,  bills,  notes  and  checks,  purchase  and  sale  of  personal  property,  guaranty 
or  suretyship,  limitation  of  the  time  to  sue,  commission  merchants  and  brokers, 
agreements  for  personal  services,  bailments,  insurance,  telegraphic  communica¬ 
tion,  patents,  copyright,  trade  marks,  real-estate  conveyances,  and  the  business 
and  legal  forms  that  are  used  to  carry  on  trade. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  VERMONT,  BURLINGTON,  VT 

The  course  of  study  in  commerce  and  economics  extends  through  four  years  and 
leads  to  a  baccalaureate  degree.  The  freshman  and  sophomore  years  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  general  culture  courses  of  the  university.  The  junior  and  senior 
years  are  as  follows,  the  students  being  expected  to  take  sixteen  hours  per  week: 

Junior  year. — Required:  Economics,  3;  modern  languages,  3;  English,  1;  Amer¬ 
ican  civil  institutions,  3;  accounting,  3.  Elective:  History,  3;  logic,  3;  mathematics, 
3;  physics,  4;  sociology,  3. 

Senior  year. — Required:  Economics,  3;  constitutional  law  and  comparative 
politics,  2;  international  law,  2;  money,  banking,  and  international  trade,  3.  Elec¬ 
tive:  History,  3;  sociology,  3;  commercial  law,  2;  modern  languages,  3;  English,  2. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  VIRGINIA,  CHARLOTTESVILLE,  VA. 

This  institution  offers  a  course  of  study  extending  through  three  years  for  young 
men  who  desire  to  be  prepared  to  enter  the  consular  service  of  the  United  States. 
The  course  does  not  lead  to  a  degree,  but  a  certificate  of  proficiency  is  given  on 
the  completion  thereof.  The  course  is  as  follows: 

1.  French,  German,  Spanish,  Italian. 

2.  Modern  history,  economics,  general  and  industrial  chemistry. 

3.  Constitutional  and  international  law,  contracts,  criminal  law,  persons  andi 
wills,  conflict  of  laws. 

Under  the  general  subject  of  economics  are  studied  the  general  principles  of 
economic  science  (Walker),  money  and  banking  (White),  public  finance  (Plehn), 
protective  tariffs  (Sherman),  monopolies  and  trusts  (Ely). 

WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  PULLMAN,  WASH. 

The  course  of  study  of  the  School  of  Business  extends  through  two  years  and 
includes  the  subjects  of  penmanship,  commercial  geography,  banking,  commercial 
arithmetic,  grammar  and  composition,  rhetoric,  typewriting,  stenography,  alge¬ 
bra,  general  history,  commercial  law,  economics  and  industrial  history,  orthogra¬ 
phy  and  punctuation,  and  French,  German,  or  Spanish. 

WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY,  MORGANTOWN,  WL  VA. 

The  commercial  school  was  established  in  1895.  The  course  of  study  extends 
through  two  years  and  includes  instruction  in  chemistry,  English,  commercial 
geography,  economics,  botany,  freehand  drawing,  bookkeeping,  commercial  law, 
bank  accounting,  shorthand,  typewriting,  history  of  commerce,  physics,  and 
geology. 

The  instruction  in  commercial  law,  commercial  geography,  and  history  of  com¬ 
merce  is  as  follows: 

Commercial  law. — Contracts,  negotiable  paper,  bailments  and  suretyships, 
agency. 

Commercial  geography. — A  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  with  special 
reference  to  the  production,  manufacture,  transportation,  and  exchange  of  arti¬ 
cles  of  trade.  A  general  outline  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  soil,  climate,  agri¬ 
cultural  products,  forests,  manufactories,  quarries,  mines,  centers  of  industry, 
foreign  relations,  ways  of  communication,  social  relations  and  conditions,  im¬ 
ports,  exports,  and  markets.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  study  of  the  United 
States,  area,  climate,  position,  population,  natural  resources,  raw  products,  man- 


HIGHER  COMMERCIAL  EDUCATION. 


1179 


ufactnres,  waterways,  railways,  seaports,  exports,  imports,  reason  for  rapid  growth 
of  Western  cities,  industrial  possibilities. 

History  of  commerce. — History  of  commerce;  methods  of  exchange  in  ancient 
times;  shipping  of  the  ancients;  fairs  and  markets '.results  of  maritime  discoveries, 
changing  the  commercial  routes;  international  treaties  affecting  commerce;  scien¬ 
tific  and  industrial  discoveries  affecting  commerce;  trade  restrictions;  consuls  and 
modern  commerce;  boards  of  trade;  stock  and  produce  exchanges;  modern  trans¬ 
portation;  freight  express  companies;  insurance;  modern  modes  of  preparing  and 
shipping  articles  of  merchandise;  circulation  of  commodities  between  cities  and 
countries;  trade  statistics;  dependence  of  manufactures  upon  producers  of  raw 
material;  nomenclature  of  commerce. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN,  MADISON,  AVIS. 

The  School  of  Commerce  was  established  in  1900  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
“facilities  for  the  training  of  young  men  who  desire  to  enter  business  careers, 
especially  in  such  fields  as  domestic  and  foreign  commerce  and  banking,  or  branches 
of  the  public  service,  like  the  consular,  in  which  a  knowledge  of  business  is 
essential.” 

The  course  of  study  extends  through  four  years  and  leads  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Commercial  Science.  The  studies  of  the  school  are  grouped  in  three 
classes:  (1)  Those  required  of  all  students,  no  matter  what  business  they  desire  to 
enter.  (2)  Specially  arranged  and  correlated  electives  leading  to  the  particular 
business  which  the  student  intends  to  enter.  (3)  Free  electives  chosen  for  the 
purpose  of  general  culture. 

I.  REQUIRED  STUDIES. 

The  courses  belonging  to  this  group  are  of  three  sorts: 

(a)  Those  needed  as  a  foundation  or  preparation  for  more  technical  courses 
which  are  to  follow.  Under  this  head  fall  the  courses  in  trigonometry,  chemistry, 
physics,  mediaeval,  modern,  and  American  history,  and  economic  geography. 
Trigonometry  is  needed  in  the  study  of  physics;  chemistry  is  essential  to  the 
study  of  the  materials  of  commerce  and  their  adulterations,  and  physics  lays  the 
foundation  for  the  study  of  the  generation  and  transmission  of  power,  materials 
of  construction,  etc.  The  courses  in  history  and  .economic  geography  are  essen¬ 
tial  to  the  successful  study  of  the  subjects  enumerated  under  ( b ) ,  and  they  are 
also  of  direct  practical  advantage  in  extending  the  student's  horizon  and  in  giving 
him  such  an  acquaintance  with  national  habits  and  characteristics  and  such  skill 
in  the  interpretation  of  men  and  events  as  are  essential  to  the  highest  success  in 
business. 

(b)  This  group  includes  a  number  of  courses  designed  to  acquaint  the  student 
with  the  structure  of  the  business  and  commercial  Avorld,  and  with  the  methods 
of  conducting  modern  business  enterprises.  Under  this  head  fall  the  courses  in 
the  industrial  history  of  England,  the  history  of  commerce,  business  forms  and 
accounts,  transportation,  banking  and  the  mechanism  of  exchange,  business 
organization  and  management,  commercial  law  and  economics. 

(c)  The  studies  belonging  to  this  group  are  as  essential  to  the  general  equip¬ 
ment  of  the  business  man,  no  matter  what  particular  branch  of  business  he  pur¬ 
sues,  as  those  mentioned  under  (a)  and  (b).  It  includes  German,  French,  and 
Spanish.  In  one  of  these  languages,  at  least,  he  must  acquire  such  facility  in 
reading,  speaking,  and  writing  as  will  enable  him  successfully  to  conduct  busi¬ 
ness  in  the  countries  in  which  the  language  he  has  learned  is  spoken.  An  oppor¬ 
tunity  to  elect  a  second  language  is  open  to  students  after  the  freshman  year.  For 
the  coming  year,  besides  the  above-named  languages,  Italian  and  Russian  are 
available  for  such  election.  This  group  also  includes  a  series  of  graded  courses 
in  the  study  of  English,  designed  to  enable  the  student  to  use  his  mother  tongue 
fluently  and  correctly.  It  includes  also  a  course  in  the  generation  and  transmis¬ 
sion  of  power,  designed  to  give  the  business  men  who  graduate  from  uhis  school  a 
knowledge  of  the  natural  sources  and  limitations  of  water,  steam,  and  electric 
power,  and  of  the  important  place  which  these  physical  agencies  occupy  in  the 
successful  conduct  of  business  enterprises. 

A  careful,  technical  study  of  some  group  of  products  is  also  required  of  all  stu¬ 
dents.  So  far  as  possible,  each  one  will  be  allowed  to  select  the  group  in  which 
he  is  most  interested  and  which  will  best  fit  him  for  the  business  he  expects  to 


;  1180 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


follow.  As  an  indispensable  aid  to  studies  of  this  sort  a  commercial  museum  is 
being  accumulated.  The  university  already  possesses  a  collection  of  about  5,000 
economic  plants  with  samples  of  the  products  into  which  they  enter  and  materials 
for  tlie  illustration  of  the  processes  of  their  manufacture,  and  the  beginnings  of  a 
valuable  chemical  collection  which  will  be  made  the  basis  of  a  technical  study  of 
the  most  important  chemical  industries.  Two  courses  are  available  for  election 
based  upon  these  two  collections  respective^.  Other  courses  along  this  line  will 
be  offered  as  the  commercial  museum  grows. 

II.  TECHNICAL  ELECTIVES. 

JT  In  addition  to  the  studies  enumerated  above  and  required  of  all  students,  groups 
of  courses  have  been  arranged  extending  throughout  the  junior  and  senior  years 
and  designed  to  furnish  special  preparation  for  particular  lines  of  business.  Each 
student  is  required  to  elect  one  of  these  groups.  Two  such  groups  are  available, 
one  preparatorjT  to  the  business  of  banking  and  the  other  to  the  consular  service. 

The  first  mentioned  group  consists  of  the  following  courses:  (a)  The  elements 
of  money  and  banking;  (b)  the  history  of  the  currencies  of  the  chief  modern 
nations:  (c)  corporation  finance  and  securities;  and  (d)  commercial  crises  with 
especial  reference  to  their  influence  upon  the  banking  business. 

The  consular  group  consists  of  the  following  courses:  (a)  international  law;  (b) 
commercial  geography  of  Europe;  (c)  history  of  diplomacy;  (d)  history  and  char¬ 
acteristic  features  of  the  consular  services  of  the  chief  foreign  countries;  (e)  the 
consular  service  of  the  United  States. 

The  school  also  expects  to  offer  one  or  more  courses  of  lectures  by  specialists  on 
various  phases  of  South  American  and  West  Indian  commerce  designed  to  be  of 
especial  value  to  young  men  who  may  desire  to  engage  in  commerce  in  those  parts 
of  the  world. 

III.  FREE  ELECTIVES. 

From  three  to  five  hours  per  week,  beginning  with  the  second  semester  of  the 
sophomore  year  and  extending  throughout  the  junior  and  senior  years,  will  be 
available  to  the  students  of  this  school  for  free  electives.  A  large  number  of 
courses  in  the  various  departments  of  the  university  will  be  open  to  them,  and 
they  wiT  be  urged  to  make  such  selections  as  will  contribute  most  to  the  increase 
of  their  general  culture  and  to  the  extension  of  their  knowledge  along  lines  not 
represented  in  the  required  work  of  the  school. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  STUDIES. 

The  arrangement  of  studies  for  the  academic  year  1901-2  is  as  follows  (the 
figures  indicate  number  of  hours  per  week) : 

Freshman  year. — First  semester:  Economic  geography,  4,  or  American  history, 
4; 1  German,  French,  or  Spanish,  4;  English,  3;  trigonometry,  2;  chemistry,  3; 
drill  and  gymnastics,  2.  Second  semester:  Economic  geography,  4,  or  American 
history,  4;  economic  history  of  England,  2;  language  (continued),  4;  English,  3; 
chemistry,  3;  drill  and  gymnastics,  2. 

Sophomore  yenr. — First  semester:  History  of  commerce,  2;  mediaeval  history,  3; 
business  methods  and  accounts,  2;  language  (continued),  2:  English,  2;  physics,  5; 
dril  1  and  gymnastics,  2.  Second  semester :  Business  organization  and  management, 
2;  elementary  economics,  3;  modern  history,  3;  language  (continued),  2;  physics,  5; 
elective,  2;  dri  1  and  gymnastics,  2. 

Junior  year. — First  semester:  Money  and  banking.  3;  transportation,  2;  genera¬ 
tion  and  transmission  of  power,  3;  language  (continued),  2;  technical  elective,  3:  free 
electives.  5.  Second  semester:  Commercial  law,  3;  transportation,  2:  nineteenth 
century  history,  3;  language  (continued) ,  2:  technical  elective,  3;  free  electives,  5. 

Senior  year. — First  semester:  Commercial  law,  2;  materials  of  commerce,  3;  lan¬ 
guage  (continued),  2;  thesis,  2;  technical  elective,  3;  free  electives,  6.  Second 
semester:  Commercial  law,  2;  materials  of  commerce,  3;  language  (continued),  2; 
thesis,  2;  technical  elective,  3;  free  electives,  6. 

OUTLINE  OF  COURSES  IN  ECONOMIC  HISTORY,  GEOGRAPHY,  AND  COMMERCE. 

Economic  history  of  England. — Begins  with  a  study  of  the  economic  life  of 
England  as  depicted  in  the  doomsday  survey,  and,  with  this  as  a  basis,  traces  the 
most  important  changes  in  the  agricultural,  manufacturing,  and  commercial  life 


1  Students  who  take  economic  geography  the  first  semester  will  take  American  history  the 
second,  and  vice  versa. 


HIGHEE  COMMEECIAL  EDUCATION. 


1181 


of  the  country  from  that  time  to  the  present,  Scott’s  Syllabus  of  Lectures  and 
Gibbon's  Industry  in  England.  Repeated  each  semester.  Lectures  twice  a  week; 
quiz  once  a  week. 

The  history  of  commerce:  ( a)  The  development  of  the  world's  commerce  from 
ancient  times  to  the  Napoleonic  era. — Special  attention  is  given  to  the  materials  and 
the  machinery  of  commerce,  to  trade  routes,  and  to  the  relations  between  com¬ 
mercial  development  and  other  branches  of  the  history  of  civilization.  Lectures 
and  assigned  readings,  first  semester,  twice  a  week. 

( b )  Commercial  policies. — Study  of  commercial  treaties  and  tariff  history  since 
the  Napoleonic  era.  A  sketch  of  the  histories  of  the  commercial  policies  pursued 
by  the  chief  modern  nations  previous  to  the  present  century  will  be  given  by  way 
of  introduction.  Lectures,  assigned  readings,  and  topics,  second  semester,  three 
times  a  week. 

Currency  history. — Systematic  presentation  of  the  currency  history  of  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  Second  semester,  three  times  a  week. 

Commercial  geography:  (a)  Introductory  course. — A  study  of  the  technique  of 
productive  industry.  Topical  reports  and  lectures.  Repeated  each  semester,  four 
times  a  week. 

(b)  Extractive  industries  of  the  United  States. — A  study  of  the  natural  and  social 
resources  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  chief  extractive  industries  for  the  pur¬ 
poses  of  determining  their  location,  condition,  and  relations  to  each  other.  Lec¬ 
tures  and  required  readings.  First  semester,  three  times  a  week. 

(c)  Manufacturing  industries  of  the  United  States.— The  evolution,  present  loca¬ 
tion,  and  condition  of  the  chief  manufacturing  industries,  their  relations  to  one 
another,  to  the  extractive  industries,  to  transportation,  credit,  and  market  agen¬ 
cies,  and  foreign  trade.  Lectures  and  required  readings.  Second  semester,  three 
times  a  week. 

(d)  Commercial  geography  of  Europe. — Natural  resources  and  industries  of  the 
chief  European  countries,  with  special  emphasis  on  their  location,  their  present 
state  of  development,  and  their  relations  to  the  commercial  interests  of  the  United 
States.  Second  semester,  twice  a  week. 

Business  forms  and  accounts. — Various  methods  of  accounting  and  auditing 
actually  employed  by  and  suitable  to  great  corporations.  Also  a  study  of  business 
forms,  such  as  invoices,  sales,  accounts,  custom-house  documents,  ships’  reports 
and  papers,  bills  of  lading,  warehouse  receipts,  charters,  insurance  policies,  etc. 
First  semester,  twice  a  week. 

Transportation:  (a)  Railroad  transportation. — History  of  its  development  in 
the  chief  modern  nations,  with  a  discussion  of  its  economic  and  legal  aspects.  Lec¬ 
tures  and  assigned  readings.  First  semester,  twice  a  week. 

(b)  Water  transportation. — Brief  historical  survey  of  the  growth  of  inland  and 
ocean  navigation,  followed  by  a  description  of  the  leading  water  routes  of  the 
world  and  the  industrial  forces  and  geographical  and  political  conditions  deter¬ 
mining  them.  Lectures  and  assigned  readings.  Second  semester,  twice  a  week. 

Materials  of  commerce — (a)  Vegetable. — Throughout  the  year  two  lectures  per 
week  and  two  hours  per  week  of  laboratory  work. 

(b)  Chemical. — One  lecture  per  week  and  two  laboratory  periods. 

Economic  crises. — Organization  of  the  market,  causes  and  characteristics  of 
economic  crises  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  business  manager  and  the  banker, 
history  of  crises,  concrete  study  of  the  more  important  crises.  First  semester, 
three  hours  a  week. 

Corporation  finance  and  securities. — Methods  of  financiering  employed  in  great 
corporations,  with  especial  reference  to  the  various  sorts  of  negotiable  securities 
which  they  issue  and  the  circumstances  which  affect  their  value.  A  technical 
study  of  stock  and  produce  exchanges  and  of  their  relations  to  the  business  of 
banking.  Lectures  and  assigned  reading.  Second  semester,  twice  a  week. 

Business  organization  and  management. — Lectures,  assigned  readings,  and  top¬ 
ical  reports.  Second  semester,  twice  a  week. 

Consular  service — (a)  Foreign  consular  service. — Brief  outline  of  the  growth  of 
foreign  relations,  history  of  the  consular  services  of  the  chief  countries  of  the 
world,  methods  and  work  of  the  consular  officers  of  the  chief  foreign  countries. 
First  semester,  three  times  a  week. 

( b )  Consular  service  of  the  United  States. — Detailed  study  of  the  work  and  duties 
of  the  consular  officers  of  the  United  States,  combined  with  practical  work  in  the 
investigation  of  existing  industrial  conditions  and  the  making  of  such  reports  as 
are  required  of  consuls.  Second  semester,  three  times  a  week. 

South  American  and  West  Indian  commerce. — Courses  of  lectures  by  specialists 
on  commercial  geography  of  the  chief  South  American  States,  their  systems  of 
banking,  exchange,  currency,  credits,  transportation,  tariff,  commercial  law,  etc. 

Seminaries. 


1182 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 


The  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  School  of  Commerce,  with  the  subjects  taught 
by  them,  are  as  follows:  William  A.  Scott,  Pli.  D.,  director,  economic  history, 
elements  of  money  and  banking,  currency  history;  Andrew  A.  Bruce,  A.  B.,  LL,  B. , 
law  of  agency  and  carriers;  Edwin  E.  Bryant,  law  of  corporations,  bankruptcy, 
negotiable  paper,  and  insurance;  Storm  Bull,  M.  E.,  generation  and  transmission 
of  power;  Lellen  S.  Cheney,  M.  S.,  materials  of  commerce;  Victor  Coffin,  Ph.  D., 
modern  European,  nineteenth  century,  and  diplomatic  history;  William  F.  Giese, 
A.  M.,  French  and  Spanish;  Charles  N.  Gregory,  A.  M.,  LL.  B.,  law  of  patents; 
Charles  H.  Haskins,  Ph.  D.,  mediaeval  history;  Edward  D.  Jones,  Ph.  D.  J  commer¬ 
cial  geography  and  commercial  crises;  Edward  Kremers,  Ph.  G.,  Ph.  D.,  materi¬ 
als  of  commerce;  Victor  Lenher,  Ph.  D.,  chemistry;  Balthaser  II.  Meyer,  Ph.  D., 
transportation,  history  of  commerce,  corporation  finance  and  securities;  James  C. 
Monaghan,  A.  B.,  consular  service,  commercial  geography,  business  forms  and 
accounts;  George  R.  Noyes,  Ph.  D.,  Russian;  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  B.,  law 
of  real  and  personal  property,  contracts,  sales,  and  procedure;  Ernest  B.  Skinner, 
Ph.  D.,  trigonometry;  Howard  L.  Smith,  A.  B.,  LL.  B. ,  law  of  partnership;  Ben¬ 
jamin  W.  Snow,  Ph.  D.,  phj^sics;  William  G.  Bleyer,  M.  L. ,  English;  R.  E.  Neil 
Dodge,  A.  M.,  English;  Carl  R.  Fish,  Ph.  D.,  American  history;  Edward  L.  Han¬ 
cock,  B.  S.,  trigonometry;  Gustavus  A.  Kleene,  Ph.  D.,  elementary  economics; 
Otto  Patzer,  B.  L.,  French;  Edwin  C.  L.  C.  Roedder,Ph.  D.,  German;  Samuel  E. 
Sparling,  Ph.  D.,  business  organization  and  management;  Edward  A.  Thurber, 
A.  M.,  English. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WYOMING,  LARAMIE,  WYO. 

The  school  of  commerce  offers  a  course  of  study  that  may  be  completed  in  three 
years.  The  course  is  divided  into  two  parts — the  department  of  bookkeeping  and 
practice  and  the  department  of  shorthand — each  extending  through  two  years,  but 
both  of  which  may  be  completed  by  a  student  in  three  years. 

The  course  in  the  department  of  bookkeeping  and  business  practice  is  as  follows: 

First  year. — English  history,  bookkeeping,  commercial  arithmetic,  raw  mate¬ 
rials  of  commerce,  commercial  geography,  spelling  and  penmanship,  business 
forms,  business  correspondence. 

Second  year. — English,  history,  civil  government,  bookkeeping,  drawing,  com¬ 
mercial  arithmetic,  penmanship  and  spelling,  business  law,  history  of  commerce 
and  transportation. 

The  course  in  the  department  of  shorthand  is  similar  to  the  above,  stenography 
and  typewriting  being  substituted  for  some  of  the  commercial  branches. 

STATISTICS. 


The  number  of  students  in  the  colleges  or  courses  of  commerce  and  finance 
during  the  year  1900-1901,  so  far  as  reported,  was  as  follows: 


University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal. . . 

Colorado  Agricultural  College,  Fort  Collins,  Colo  . 

University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Ill . . . 

Louisiana  State  University,  Baton  Rouge,  La _ 

Nevada  State  University,  Reno,  Nev . . 

Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H . 

New  York  University,  New  York,  N.  Y . 

Central  High  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa . . 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa . 

University  of  South  Dakota,  Vermilion,  S.  Dak  ... 

Utah  Agricultural  College,  Logan,  Utah. . 

University  of  Vermont,  Burlington,  Vt . . 

Washington  Agricultural  College,  Pullman,  Wash 
West  Virginia  University,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. .. 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis . . 

University  of  Wyoming,  Laramie,  Wyo . . 


41 

83 

88 

33 

1 

15 

67 

362 

139 

82 

44 
1 

50 

52 

81 

45 


Elected  assistant  professor  of  commerce  and  industry  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


LIST  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 


(1)  ARRANGED  BY  STATES. 


Alabama. 

Birmingham,  Educational  Exchange,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  16. 

Huntsville,  The  Educator,  M.,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Normal,  Normal  Index,  W.,  1901,  vol.  15. 

Arkansas. 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas  School  Journal,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  6. 

California. 

Berkeley,  University  Chronicle,  Bi-m.,  1901, 
vol.  4. 

San  Francisco,  Western  Journal  of  Education, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  16. 

Colorado. 

Denver,  Colorado  School  Journal,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
16. 

Connecticut. 

Meriden,  Connecticut  School  Journal,  W.,  1901, 
vol.  7. 

New  Haven,  Yale  Review,  M.,  1901,  vol.  10. 

District  of  Columbia. 

Washington,  American  Annals  of  the  Deaf, 
Qu.,  1901,  vol.  47. 

Washington,  Catholic  University  Bulletin,  Qu., 
1901,  vol.  7. 

Washington,  National  Capital  Searchlight,  M., 
1901,  vol  1. 

Florida. 

Jacksonville,  Florida  School  Exponent,  M., 
1901,  vol.  8. 

Georgia. 

Atlanta,  Georgia  Education,  M.,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Atlanta,  Southern  Educational  Journal,  M., 
1901,  vol.  14. 

Illinois. 

Bloomington,  School  and  Home  Education,  M., 
1801,  vol.  20. 

Chicago,  Biblical  World,  M.,  1901,  vol.  15. 

Chicago,  Chicago  Teacher,  M.,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Chicago,  Child  Garden,  M.,  1901,  vol.  9. 

Chicago,  Child  Study  Monthly,  M  ,  1901,  vol.  7. 

Chicago,  Course  of  Study,  Chicago  Institute, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  Z. 

Chicago,  Dial  (The),  M  ,  1901,  vol.  29. 

Chicago,  Educational  Forum,  M  ,  1901,  vol.  4. 


Illinois— Continued. 

Chicago,  Educational  School-Record,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  2. 

Chicago,  Kindergarten  Magazine,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
14. 

Chicago,  Manual  Training  Magazine,  Qu.,  1901, 
vol.  3. 

Chicago,  Music,  M.,  1901,  vol.  19. 

Chicago,  Progress,  M.,  1901,  vol.  6. 

Chicago,  Review  of  Education,  M.,  1901,  vol.  7. 

Chicago,  School  Review,  M.,  1901,  vol.  9. 

Chicago,  School  Science,  M.,  1301,  vol.  1. 

Chicago,  School  Weekly,  W.,  1901,  vol.  7. 

Chicago,  University  Record,  W.,  1901,  vol.  6. 

Normal,  Illinois  Society  for  Child  Study,  Qu., 
1901,  vol.  6. 

Oak  Park,  Intelligence,  Semi-m.,  1801,  vol.  21. 

Taylorsville,  School  News  and  Practical  Edu¬ 
cator,  M.  ,  1901,  vol.  15. 

Indiana. 

Elkhart,  Educational  News,  M.,  1901,  vol.  6. 

Indianapolis,  Inland  Educator  and  Indiana 
School  Journal,  M.,  1901,  vol.  2. 

Indianapolis,  School  Music,  M.,  1901,  vol.  2. 

loxoa. 

Boonesboro,  Boone  County  Teacher,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  12. 

Cedar  Rapids,  The  Western  Penman,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  18. 

Charles  City,  Iowa  Teacher,  M.,  1901,  vol.  16. 

Des  Moines,  Midland  Schools,  M.,  1901,  vol.  16. 

Dubuque,  Iowa  Normal  Monthly,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
24. 

Keokuk,  School  Music  Monthly,  M.,  1901,  vol. 2. 

Kansas. 

Emporia,  State  Normal  Monthly,  M. ,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Emporia,  Paidology,  Qu.,  1901,  vol.  2. 

Lawrence,  Kansas  University  Quarterly,  Qu., 
•1901,  vol.  10. 

Manhattan, Industrialist  (The),  M. ,  1901 ,  vol.  28. 

New  Albany,  Country  School  Champion,  M., 
1901,  vol.  4. 

Topeka,  Western  School  Journal,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
18. 

Louisiana. 

New  Orleans,  Teachers'  Outlook,  M.,  1901,  vol.  2. 


1183 


1184 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

(1)  ARRANGED  BY  STATES-Continued. 


Maine. 


Neiv  Jersey . 


Farmington,  School  World,  M.,  1901,  vol.  21. 

Maryland. 

Baltimore,  Johns  Hopkins  University  Circular, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  21. 

Baltimore,  New  Pedagogue  (The),  M.,  1901, 
vol.  3. 

Massachuse  t  ts. 

Boston,  American  Kitchen  Magazine,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  14. 

Boston,  American  Physical  Education  Review, 
Qu.,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Boston,  American  Primary  Teacher,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  19. 

Boston,  Boston  Academy,  Qu.,  1901,  vol.  15. 

Boston,  Boston  Cooking  School  Magazine,  Bi- 
m.,  1901,  vol.  6. 

Boston,  Education,  M.,  1901,  vol.  22. 

Boston,  Germania,  M.,  1901,  vol.  13. 

Boston,  Journal  of  Education,  W.,  1901,  vol.  53. 

Boston,  Literary  World,  Semi-m.,  1901,  vol.  32. 

Boston,  Popular  Educator,  M.,  1901,  vol.  18. 

Boston,  Posse  Gymnasium  Journal,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  9. 

Boston,  Practical  Psychology,  M.,  1901,  vol.  1. 

Boston,  Primary  Education,  M.,1901,  vol.  9. 

Boston,  School  Physiology  Journal,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  11. 

Boston,  Technological  Quarterly,  Qu.,  1901,  vol. 
14. 

Cambridge,  The  People,  M.,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Springfield,  Kindergarten  Review,  M. ,  1901,  vol. 

12. 

Worcester,  Seminary  (The),  Qu.,  1901,  vol.  8. 

Worcester,  American  Journal  of  Psychology, 
Qu.,  1901,  vol.  13. 

Michigan. 

Lansing,  Michigan  School  Operator,  Semi-m., 
1901,  vol.  22. 

Minnesota. 


Minneapolis,  School  Education,  M.,  1901,  vol.  20. 
Mississippi. 


Jackson,  Mississippi  School  Journal,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  7. 


Missouri. 


Jefferson  City,  Missouri  School  Journal,  M., 
1901,  vol.  18. 

Kansas  City,  Western  College  Magazine,  M., 
1901,  vol.  6. 

St.  Louis,  Evangelish-Lutherisches  Schulblatt, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  36. 

St.  Louis,  School  and  Home,  M.,  1901,  vol.  19. 
Nebraska. 

Lincoln,  Nebraska  Teacher,  M.,  1900,  vol.  4. 
Omaha,  Nebraska  Mute  Journal,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
29. 

Santee  Agency,  Word  Carrier,  M.,  1901,  vol.  30. 
New  Hampshire. 

Manchester,  Notes  and  Queries,  M.,  1901,  vol.  20. 


Ringoes,  Journal  of  Orthoepi  and  Orthografi. 
M.,  1901,  vol.  18. 

Trenton,  Silent  Worker  (The),  M.,  1901,  vol.  14. 
Netv  York. 

Albany,  American  Education  from  Kindergar¬ 
ten  to  College,  M.,  1901,  vol.  5. 

Dansville,  Normal  Instructor,  M.,  1901,  vol.  10. 
Malone,  Mentor  (The),M.,  1901,  vol.  7. 

Newark  Valley,  Educational  Review,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  2. 

New  York,  American  School  Board  Journal, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  21. 

New  York,  American  University  Magazine,  Bi- 
m.,  1901,  vol.  8. 

New  York,  Art  Amateur  (The),  M.,  1901,  vol.  43. 
New  York,  Art  Education,  Bi-m.,  1901,  vol.  8. 
New  York,  Columbia  University  Quarterly, 
Qu.,  1901,  vol.  4. 

New  York,  Deaf  Mutes’  Journal,  W.,  1901,  vol. 
30. 

New  York,  Educational  Foundations,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  13. 

New  York,  Educational  Review,  M.,  1901,  vol. 

21. 

New  York,  Literary  Digest,  W.,  1901,  vol.  21. 
New  York,  Journal  of  Mental  Pathology,  M., 
1901,  vol.  1. 

New  York,  New  Education,  M.,  1901.,  vol.  14. 
New  York,  Our  Times,  Semi-m.,  1901,  vol.  18. 
New  York,  Penman’s  Art  Journal,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
26. 

New  York,  Pitman’s  Phonetic  Journal,  W.a  1901, 
vol.  59. 

New  York,  Pitman’s  Shorthand  Weekly,  W., 
1901,  vol.  25. 

New  York,  Pratt  Institute  Monthly,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  9. 

New  York,  Primary  School,  M.,  1901,  vol.  11. 
New  York,  School,  W.,  1901,  vol.  13. 

New  York,  School  Journal,  W.,  1901,  vol.  61. 
New  York,  The  Schoolmaster,  M.,  1901,  vol.  3. 
New  York,  School  Music  Review,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
10. 

New  York,  Sunday  School  Journal  M.,  1901 
vol.  33. 

New  York,  Teachers’  Institute,  M.,  1901,  vol.  23. 
New  York,  Teachers’  World,  M.,  1901,  vol.  13. 
New  York,  Werner’s  Magazine,  M.,  1901,  vol.  26. 
Rochester,  Educational  Gazette,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
17. 

Syracuse,  Journal  of  Pedagogy,  Qu.,  1901,  vol. 
14. 

Syracuse,  School  Bulletin,  M.,  1901,  vol.  28. 
North  Carolina. 

Greensboro,  State  Normal  Magazine,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  14. 

Salem,  Academy,  M.,  1901,  vol.  24. 

Ohio. 

Akron,  Home  and  School,  M.,  1901,  vol.  3. 
Cincinnati,  Christian  Educator,  Bi-m.,  1901,  vol. 
12. 

Cincinnati,  National  Humane  Educator,  M., 
1901,  vol.  13. 


EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS, 


]  185 


(1)  ARRANGED  BY  STATES— Continued. 


Ohio — Continued. 

Columbus,  Ohio  Chronicle  for  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
W.,  1901,  vol.  34. 

Columbus,  Ohio  Educational  Monthly,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  50. 

Lebanon,  The  Teachers’  Outlook,  M.,  1901., 
vol.  1. 

Marietta,  Ohio  Teacher,  M.,  1901,  vol.  22. 

South  Dakota — Continued. 

Mitchell,  South  Dakota  Educator,  M.,  1901,  voL 
15. 

Tennessee. 

Nashville,  New  Century  Education,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  3. 

Nashville,  Progressive  Teacher  (The),  M.,  1901, 
vol.  7. 

Texas. 

Oklahoma. 

Norman,  Oklahoma  School  Herald,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  10. 

Oregon. 

Salem,  Oregon  Teachers’  Monthly,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  5. 

Pennsylvania. 

Allentown,  National  Educator,  M.,  1901,  vol.  42. 

Edinboro,  Educational  Independent,  W.,  1901, 
vol.  9. 

Harrisburg,  School  Gazette,  M.,  1901,  vol.  13. 

Huntingdon,  Juniata  Echo,  M.,  1901,  vol.  10. 

Lancaster,  Journal  of  School  Geography,  M., 
1901,  vol.  5. 

Lancaster,  Pennsylvania  School  Journal,  M., 
1901,  vol.  50. 

Meadville,  Chautauquan  (The),  M.,  1901,  vol.  31. 

Millersville,  Normal  Journal,  Qu.,  1901,  vol.  15. 

Mount  Airy-Philadelphia,  Association  Review, 
Bi-m.,  1901,  vol.  3. 

Philadelphia,  Journal  of  Franklin  Institute, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  151. 

Philadelphia,  Stenographer  (The),  M.,  1901,  vol. 
16. 

Philadelphia,  Teacher  (The),  M.,  1901,  vol.  6. 

Scranton,  Science  and  Industry,  M.,  1901,  vol.  1. 

Austin,  Texas  School  Journal,  M.,  1901,  vol.  18. 

Dallas,  Texas  School  Magazine,  M.,  1901,  vol.  4 

Stephenville,  Erath  Journal  of  Education,  M., 
1901,  vol.  2. 

Virginia. 

Hampton,  Southern  Workman  and  Hampton 
School  Record,  M.,  1901,  vol.  30. 

Richmond,  Atlantic  Educational  Journal,  M., 
1901,  vol.  4. 

Richmond,  Virginia  School  Journal,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  10. 

Williamsburg,  William  and  Mary  College  Quar¬ 
terly,  Qu.,  1901,  vol.  10. 

Washington. 

Seattle,  Northwest  Journal  of  Education,  M., 
1901,  vol.  13. 

Vancouver,  Washingtonian  (The),  Semi-m., 
1901,  vol.  10. 

West  Virginia. 

Charleston,  West  Virginia  School  Journal,  M., 
1901,  vol.  22. 

Wisconsin. 

Madison,  Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education,  M., 
1901,  vol.  31. 

Milwaukee,  American  Journal  of  Education, 

South  Carolina. 

Aiken,  Schofield  School  Bulletin,  M.,  1901,  vol. 
12. 

South  Dakota. 

Madison,  South  Dakota  Journal  of  Education, 
M.,  1901,  vol.  2. 

M.,  1901,  vol.  35. 

Milwaukee,  Lutherische  Schulzeitung,  M.,  1901, 
vol.  27. 

Milwaukee,  Mind  and  Body,  M.,  1901,  vol.  8. 
Milwaukee,  Psedagogische  Monatshefte,  M., 
1901,  vol.  3. 

Milwaukee,  Western  Teacher,  M.,  1901,  vol.  10. 

(2)  ARRANGED  BY  SUBJECTS. 


Common  school  education ,  elementary  and  sec¬ 
ondary. 

Academy  (The)— N.  C. 

American  Education — N.  Y. 

American  Journal  of  Education— Wis. 

American  Primary  Teacher— Mass. 

Arkansas  School  Journal — Ark. 

Atlantic  Educational  Journal— Va. 

Boone  County  Teacher — la. 

Chicago  Teacher— Ill. 

Colorado  School  Journal — Col. 

Connecticut  School  Journal — Conn. 

Country  School  Champion — Kan. 

Course  of  Study,  Chicago  Institute— Ill. 
Education— Mass. 

Educational  Exchange— Ala. 

Educational  Forum— Ill. 

Educational  Foundations— N.  Y. 

Educational  Gazette— N.  Y. 

Educational  Independent — Pa. 

Educational  News— Ind. 

ED  1901  75 

Common  school  education ,  elementary  and  sec¬ 
ondary — Continued. 

Educational  Review — N.  Y. 

Educational  School  Record — Ill. 

Educator  (The)— Ala. 

Evangelisch-Lutherisches  Schulblatt— Mo. 
Florida  School  Exponent — Fla. 

Georgia  Education— Ga. 

Home  and  School— O. 

Inland  Educator  and  Indiana  School  Journal — 
Ind. 

Intelligence— Ill. 

Iowa  Teacher— la. 

Journal  of  Education — Mass. 

Journal  of  Education — Tex. 

Juniata  Echo — Pa. 

Lutherische  Schulzeitung — Wis. 

Mentor — N.  Y. 

Michigan  School  Moderator— Mich. 

Midland  Schools— la. 

Minnesota  School  Journal— Minn. 

1186 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

(2)  ARRANGED  BY  SUBJECTS— Continued. 


Common  school  education ,  elementary  and  sec¬ 
ondary—  Continued. 

Mississippi  School  Journal — Miss. 

Missouri  School  Journal— Mo. 

National  Capital  Searchlight— D.  C. 

National  Educator — Pa. 

Nebraska  Teacher — Neb. 

New  Century  Education— Tenn. 

New  Education— N.  Y. 

New  Pedagogue— Md. 

Normal  Index— Ala. 

Northwest  Journal  of  Education— Wash. 

Ohio  Educational  Monthly— O. 

Ohio  Teacher — O. 

Oklahoma  School  Herald— Okl. 

Oregon  Teachers’  Monthly— Or. 

Our  Times— N.  Y. 

Paedagogische  Monatshefte — Wis. 
Pennsylvania  School  Journal — Pa. 

People  (The) — Mass. 

Popular  Educator— Mass. 

Primary  Education— Mass. 

Primary  School — N.  Y. 

Progressive  Teacher— Tenn. 

Review  of  Education — Ill. 

Schofield  School  Bulletin-S.  C. 

School— N.  Y. 

School  and  Home— Mo. 

School  and  Home  Education— Ill. 

School  Bulletin— N.  Y. 

School  Education— Minn. 

School  Gazette— Pa. 

School  Journal— N.  Y. 

Schoolmaster  (The) — N.  Y. 

School  News  and  Practical  Educator — Ill. 
School  Weekly— Ill. 

School  World— Me. 

Seminary  —Mass. 

South  Dakota  Educator— S.  Dak. 

South  Dakota  Journal  of  Education— S.  Dak. 
Southern  Educational  Journal— Ga. 

Teacher  (The)— Pa. 

Teachers’  Outlook— La. 

Teachers’  Outlook — O. 

Teachers’  World— N.  Y. 

Texas  School  Journal— Tex. 

Texas  School  Magazine— Tex. 

Virginia  School  Journal— Va. 

Washingtonian  (The) — Wash. 

Western  Journal  of  Education— Cal. 

Western  School  Journal— Kan. 

Western  Teacher— Wis. 

West  Virginia  School  Journal— W.  Va. 
Wisconsin  Journal  of  Education — Wis. 

Word  Carrier — Neb. 

Kindergarten  education. 

Child  Garden-Ill. 

Kindergarten  Magazine— Ill. 

Kindergarten  Review— Mass. 

Secondary  education,  exclusively  or  chiefly. 

Boston  Academy— Mass. 

Educational  Review— N.  Y. 

Journal  of  Pedagogy — N.  Y. 

School  Review— Ill. 

School  Science— Ill. 


Normal  school  education. 

Education  Extension— Mich. 

Iowa  Normal  Monthly— la. 

Normal  Instructor— N.  Y. 

Normal  Journal— Pa. 

State  Normal  Magazine — N.  C. 

State  Normal  Monthly— Kans. 

Teachers’  Institute — N.  Y. 

University  publications. 

American  University  Magazine — N.  Y. 
Catholic  University  Bulletin— D.  C. 

Columbia  University  Quarterly— N.  Y. 

Johns  Hopkins  University  Circular — Md. 
Seminary  (The) — Mass. 

University  Chronicle — Cal. 

University  Quarterly— Kans. 

University  Record— Ill. 

Western  College  Magazine — Mo. 

William  and  Mary  College  Quarterly— Va. 

Physical  education. 

American  Physical  Education  Review— Mass. 
Mind  and  Body— Wis. 

Posse  Gymnasium  Journal— Mass. 

Religious  and  moral  education. 

Biblical  World-Ill. 

Christian  Education— O. 

National  Humane  Educator — O. 

Sunday  School  Journal— N.  Y. 

Art  education. 

Art  Amateur— N.  Y. 

Art  Education— N.  Y. 

Child  study  and  psychology. 
American  Journal  of  Psychology— Mass. 

Child  Study  Monthly-Ill. 

Illinois  Society  for  Child  Study — Ill. 

Journal  of  Mental  Pathology— N.  Y. 

Practical  Psychology— Mass. 

Industrial  and  technical  education. 

Industrial  (The)— Kans. 

Journal  of  Franklin  Institute — Pa. 

Manual  Training  Magazine — Ill. 

Technological  Quarterly— Mass. 

Pratt  Institute  Monthly — N.  Y. 

Science  and  Industry— Pa. 

Southern  Vvr orkman  and  Hampton  School 
Record— Va. 

Deaf-mutes'  education. 

American  Annals  of  the  Deaf— D.  C. 
Association  Review — Pa. 

Deaf-Mutes’  Journal — N.  Y. 

Nebraska  Mute  Journal — Neb. 

Ohio  Chronicle— O. 

Silent  Worker— N.  J. 

Domestic  education. 

American  Kitchen  Magazine— Mass. 

Boston  Cooking  School  Magazine — Mass. 

Language  and  elocution. 

Germania— Mass. 

Werner’s  Magazine— N.  Y. 


EDUCATIONAL  PERIODICALS. 


1187 


(2)  ARRANGED  BY  SUBJECTS-Continued. 


Calligraphy  and  stenography. 

Journal  of  Orthoepi  and  Orthografi — N.  J. 
Penman’s  Art  Journal — N.  Y. 

Pitman’s  Shorthand  Weekly— N.  Y. 
Pitman’s  Phonetic  Journal— N.  Y. 
Stenographer  (The)— Pa. 

Western  Penman— la. 

Music. 

Music— Ill. 

School  Music  Monthly — la. 

School  Music  Review— N.  Y. 

Geography. 

Journal  of  School  Geography— Pa. 


Physiology. 

School  Physiological  Journal — Mass. 

School  administration. 

School  Board  Journal — N.  Y. 

Literature  and  criticism. 

Chautauquan  (The)— Pa. 

Dial  (The)— Ill. 

Literary  Digest — N.  Y. 

Literary  World— Mass. 

Notes  and  Queries— N.  H. 
Progress— Ill. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY.1 


I. — Chief  State  School  Officers. 


Name. 


Address. 


Official  designation. 


H.  C.  Gunnels. . 

Sheldon  Jackson . 

Robert  L.  Long . 

J.  J.  Doyne . 

Thomas  J.  Kirk . 

Mrs.  Helen  L.  Grenfell  - 

Charles  D.  Hine - 

P.  B.  N  orman,  jr . 

A.  T.  Stuart . 

W.N.Sheats, . 

Gustavus  R.  Glenn _ 

Miss  Permeal  French  . . 

Alfred  Bayliss . 

John  D.  Benedict . . 

Frank  L.  Jones . 

R.  C.  Barrett . 

Frank  Nelson . . 

H.  V.  McChesney . 

J.V.  Calhoun  . . ...j 

W.  W.  Stetson . 

M.  Bates  Stephens . 

Frank  A.  Hill . . 

Delos  Fall . 

J.  W.  Olsen _ 

Henry  L.  Whitfield _ 

W.  T.  Carrington  _ . . 

W.  W.  Welch . 

W.  K.  Fowler . 

Or  vis  Ring. . . 

Channing  Folsom . 

Chas.  J.  Baxter . 

J.  Franco  Chavez . 

Charles  R.  Skinner . 

J.  Y.  Joyner . . 

J . M. Devine  . . . 

Lewis  D.  Bonebrake _ 

L.  W.  Baxter _ _ 

J.  H.  Ackerman . 

Nathan  C.  Schaeffer _ 

Thomas  B.  Stock  well. . . 

John  J.  McMahan . 

E.  E.  Collins . . 

Morgan  C.  Fit2?patrick . 

Arthur  Lefevre . 

A.  C.  Nelson . . 

Walter  E.  Ranger . 

Joseph  W.  Southall _ 

R.  B.  Bryan  - . . 

Thomas  C.  Miller _ 

L.  D.  Harvey . 

Thomas  T.  Tynan . 


Montgomery,  Ala  - . 

Sitka,  Alaska . 

Phoenix,  Ariz _ _ 

Little  Rock,  Ark . 

Sacramento,  Cal . .  - . 

Denver,  Colo _ 

Hartford,  Conn _ 

Dover,  Del. . - . . 

Washington,  D.  C _ 

Tallahassee,  Fla - - 

Atlanta,  Ga _ 

Boise,  Idaho . . 

Springfield,  Ill- . 

Muscogee, Ind.T  . . 

Indianapolis,  Ind  . . 

Des  Moines,  Iowa . 

Topeka,  Kans.. . 

Frankfort,  Ky . . 

Baton  Rouge,  La . 

Augusta,  Me- . 

Baltimore,  Md . 

Boston,  Mass. . 

Lansing,  Mich . 

St.  Paul,  Minn  . . 

Jackson,  Miss . 

Jefferson  City,  Mo . 

Helena,  Mont . 

Lincoln,  Nebr . . 

Carson,  Nev . 

Concord,  N.H - - 

Trenton,  N.J . - . 

Santa  Fe,N.  Mex . 

Albany,  N.Y . 

Raleigh,  N.  C . 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak . 

Columbus,  Ohio . . 

Guthrie,  Okla . . 

Salem,  Oreg . . 

Harrisburg,  Pa . 

Providence,  R.I . 

Columbia,  S.C . 

Pierre,  S.  Dak.. . 

Nashville,  Tenn . . 

Austin,  Tex.- . 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah . 

Montpelier,  Vt . 

Richmond,  Ya . . 

Olympia,  Wash . 

Charleston,  W.Va . 

Madison,  Wis .  - . 

Cheyenne,  Wyo . . 


State  superintendent  of  education. 

Genera]  agent  of  education. 

Territorial  superintendent  of  public  in¬ 
struction. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Do. 

Secretary  of  State  board  of  education. 

Do. 

Superintendent  of  District  schools. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
State  school  commissioner. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Territorial  superintendent  of  schools. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

State  superintendent  of  public  education. 
State  superintendent  of  public  schools. 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Secretary  of  State  board  of  education. 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

State  superintendent  of  public  education. 
State  superintendent  of  public  schools. 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Do. 


Do. 

Territorial  superintendent  of  public  in¬ 
struction. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Do. 

State  commissioner  of  common  schools. 
Territorial  superintendent  of  public  in¬ 
struction. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Commissioner  of  public  schools. 

State  superintendent  of  education. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

State  superintendent  of  education. 

State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Do. 

State  superintendent  of  free  schools. 

State  superintendent  of  public  schools. 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 


1  Corrected  to  July,  1902,  in  so  far  as  changes  have  been  reported  to  the  Bureau. 

1189 


1190 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
II. — List  of  City  Superintendents. 


ALABAMA. 

Anniston,  D.  R.  Murphy. 

Bessemer,  W.  P.  Gunn. 

Birmingham,  J.  H.  Phillips. 

Eufaula,  F.  L.  McCoy. 

Florence,  Henry  Clay  Gilbert. 
Huntsville,  S.  R.  Butler. 

Mobile,  S.  S.  Murphy. 

Montgomery,  Charles  L.  Floyd. 

New  Decatur,  R.  R.  Harris. 

Opelika,  T.  C.  Pinckard. 

Phoenix,  W.  F.  Monk. 

Selma,  R.  E.  Hardaway. 

Tuscaloosa,  James  H.  Foster. 

ARIZONA. 

Tucson,  William  Angus. 

ARKANSAS. 

Fort  Smith,  B.  W.  Torreyson. 

Helena,  S.  H.  Spragins. 

Hot  Springs,  George  B.  Cook.  , 

Little  Rock,  J.  R.  Rightsell. 

Pine  Bluff,  J.  H.  Hinemon. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Alameda,  Charles  C.  Hughes. 
Bakersfield,  David  W.  Nelson. 
Berkeley,  S.  D.  Waterman. 

Eureka,  A.  C.  Barker. 

Fresno,  C.  L..  McLane. 

Los  Angeles,  J.  A.  Foshay. 

Napa  City,  J.  L.  Shearer.1 
Oakland,  John  W.  McClymonds.  I 
Pasadena,  James  D.  Graham.2 
Pomona,  Frank  H.  Hyatt.2 
Redlands,  Lewis  B.  Avery. 

Riverside,  Howard  L.  Lunt.2 
Sacramento,  O.  W.  Erlewine. 

San  Bernardino,  Miss  Lula  Claire  Bahr, 
San  Diego,  F.  P.  Davidson. 

San  Francisco,  Reginald  H.  Webster. 
San  Jose,  Frank  P.  Russell. 

Santa  Ana,  Joseph  C.  Templeton. 

Santa  Barbara,  William  A.  Wilson. 
Santa  Cruz,  D.  C.  Clark. 

Santa  Rosa,  E.  M.  Cox.  2 
Stockton,  James  A.  Barr. 

Villejo,  J.  J.  Rippetoe. 

COLORADO. 

Aspen,  F.  J.  Brownscombe. 

Boulder,  William  V.  Casey. 

Colorado  Springs,  John  Dietrich. 
Cripple  Creek,  Ezra  W.  Palmer. 


COLORADO — Continued. 

Denver: 

District  No.  1,  Aaron  Gove. 

District  No.  2,  L.  C.  Greenlee. 

District  No.  7,  M.  F.  Miller. 

District  No.  17.  Charles  E.  Chadsey. 
Leadviile,  Edward  C.  Elliott. 

Pueblo: 

District  No.  1,  James  S.  McClung. 

District  No.  20,  John  F.  Keating. 

Trinidad,  Charles  Y.  Parker. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Ansonia,  Wm.  Alexander  Smith. 

Bridgeport,  Charles  W.  Deane. 

Bristol,  C.  L.  Wooding. 

Danbury,  A.  C.  Hubbai’d.3 
Derby,  J.  W.  Peck. 

East  Hartford,  Joseph  O.  Goodwin,3  Charles 
D.  Hine.  4 

Enfield,  George  T.  Finch.  4 
Greenwich,  Newton  B.  Hobart,5  Thomas  F» 
Howley. 3 

Hartford,  Thomas  S.  Weaver. 

Huntington,  Horace  Wheeler.3 
Manchester: 

Town  schools,  Herbert  O.  Bowers.3 
Ninth  district  (south),  F.  A.  Yerplanck. 
Meriden,  Albert  B.  Mather. 

Middletown,  Walter  B.  Ferguson. 

Naugatuck,  Frank  W.  Eaton. 

New  Britain,  Giles  A.  Stuart. 

New  Haven,  Frank  Herbert  Beede. 

New  London,  Charles  B.  Jennings. 

New  Milford,  Charles  N.  HalL, 

Norwalk,  A.  Blanchard.3 
Norwich: 

Central  district,  Nathan  Lee  Bishop. 

West  Chelsea  district,  John  B.  Stanton, 
Putnam,  W.  R.  Barber,3  E.  H.  Johnson.0 
Southington,  Mrs.  Anna  D.  Pollard. 

Stamford,  Everett  C.  Willard. 

Torrington,  Edwin  H.  Forbes. 

Vernon,  W.  B.  Foster. 4 
Wallingford,  Malcolm  Booth. 

Waterbury,  B.  W.  Tinker. 

West  Haven,  Edgar  C.  Stiles. 

Westport,  L.  T.  Day.3 
Winchester,  H.  Hungerford  Drake.7 
Windham,  George  E.  Hinman.  8 

DELAWARE. 

Wilmington,  George  W.  Twitmyer. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 
Washington,  A.  T.  Stuart. 


1  Principal  grammar  school. 

2  Supervising  principal. 

3  Secretary  board  of  school  visitors. 

4  Acting  visitor. 

6  Principal. 


6  School  visitor. 

7  School  visitor  and  secretary  of  the  board; 
post-office,  Winsted. 

8  Secretary  of  school  committee;  post-office, 
Willimantic. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIEECTOEY. 


1191 


II.— List  of  City  Superintendents— Continued. 


FLORIDA. 

Jacksonville,  George  P.  Glenn. 

Key  West,  C.  F.  Kemp.1 
Lake  City,  T.  B.  Owens.1 
Pensacola,  N.  B.  Cook.1 
St.  Augustine,  E.  H.  Reynolds. 

Tampa,  L.  W.  Buchholz.1 

GEORGIA. 

Albany,  S.  R.  De  Jarnette.2 
Americus,  J.  E.  Mathis. 

Athens,  G.  G.  Bond. 

Atlanta,  W.  F.  Slaton. 

Augusta,  Lawton  B.  Evans. 

Brunswick,  1ST.  H.  Ballard. 

Columbus,  Carleton  B.  Gibson, 

Dalton,  B.  M.  Thomas. 

Griffin,  J.  Henry  Walker. 

Macon,  J.  M.  Pound. 

Rome,  James  C.  Harris. 

Savannah,  Otis  Ashmore. 

Thomasville,  C.  Jackson. 

Waycross,  E.  A.  Pound. 

IDAHO. 

Boise,  John  W.  Daniels. 

Pocatello,  Walter  R.  Siders. 

ILLINOIS. 

Alton,  Robert  A.  Haight. 

Aurora: 

District  No.  4  (west  side),  A.  Y.  Greenman. 
District  No.  5  (east  side),  C.  M.  Bardwell. 
Beardstown,  H.  J.  Jokisch. 

Beileville,  H.  D.  Updike. 

Belvidere,  Arthur  J.  Snyder, 

Bloomington,  J.  K.  Stableton. 

Blue  Island,  J.  E.  Lemon. 

Cairo,  Taylor  C.  Clendenen. 

Canton,  Charles  S.  Aldrich. 

Centralia,  S.  H.  Bohn. 

Champaign,  Joseph  Carter. 

Charleston,  J.  L.  Hughes. 

Chicago,  Edwin  G.  Cooley. 

Clinton,  E.  B.  Bentley. 

Collinsville,  Charles  H.  Dorris. 

Danville,  L.  H.  Griffith. 

Decatur,  Enoch  A.  Gastman. 

Dekalb,  Newell  D.  Gilbert. 

Dixon,  Charles  W.  Groves. 

Duquoin,  Charles  W.  Houk. 

East  St.  Louis,  John  Richeson. 

Ed  wards  ville,  Charles  W.  Parkinson. 

Elgin,  M.  A.  Whitney. 

Evanston: 

District  No  1,  Homer  H.  Kingsley. 

District  No.  2,  South  Evanston,  Fred  W. 
Nichols. 

District  No.  3,  North  Evanston,  Mary  H. 
O’Brien.2 

Freeport,  R.  S.  Page. 

Galena,  James  W.  Cupples. 


ILLIN  OIS— Continued. 

Galesburg,  William  L.  Steele. 

Harlem,  Frank  Curtis. 

Harvey,  F.  L.  Miller. 

Jacksonville,  J.  W.  Henninger. 

Joliet,  John  J.  Allison. 

Kankakee,  F.  N.  Traey. 

Kewanee,  A.  C.  Butler. 

La  Salle,  J.  B.  McManus. 

Lincoln,  B.  E.  Nelson. 

Litchfield,  R.  C.  Shellenbarger. 

Macomb,  R.  C.  Rennick. 

Maywood,  J.  Porter  Adams. 

Mattoon,  Benjamin  F.  Armitage. 

Metropolis  City,  Edward  Longbons. 

Moline,  William  J.  M.  Cox. 

Monmouth,  James  C.  Burns. 

Morris,  Preston  King  Cross. 

Mount  Carmel,  W.  S.  Booth. 

Mount  Vernon,  H.  J.  Alvis. 

Murphysboro,  Edward  J.  Klemme. 

Ottawa,  W.  A.  Furr. 

Pana,  William  Miner. 

Paris,  J.  D.  Shoop. 

Pekin,  O.  A.  Shotts. 

Peoria,  Newton  Charles  Dougherty. 

Peru,  Ira  M.  Ong. 

Pontiac,  Isaac  Mitchell. 

Princeton,  M.  G.  Clark. 

Quincy,  A.  A.  Seehorn. 

Rockford,  P.  R.  Walker. 

Rock  Island,  Herbert  B.  Hayden. 

Springfield,  J.  H.  Collins. 

Spring  Valley,  R.  V.  De  Groff. 

Sterling: 

District  No.  3  (the  Sterling  schools),  H.  L. 
Chaplin. 

District  No.  8  (the  Wallace  schools),  H.  A. 
Hollister. 

Streator,  John  A.  Long. 

Taylorville,  John  A.  Cheney. 

Urbana,  J.  W.  Hays. 

Waukegan,  Frank  H.  Hall. 

INDIANA. 

Alexandria,  I.  V.  Busby. 

Anderson,  John  W.  Carr. 

Bedford,  W.  E.  Alexander. 

Bloomington,  W  H.  Glascock. 

Bluffton,  William  A.  Wirt. 

Brazil,  W.  H.  Fertich. 

Columbus,  T,  F.  Fitzgibbons. 

Connersville,  W.  S.  Rowe. 

Crawfordsville,  W.  A.  Millis. 

Elkhart,  D.  W.  Thomas. 

Evansville,  William  A.  Hester. 

Fort  Wayne,  Justin  N.  Study. 

Frankfort,  George  L.  Roberts. 

Franklin,  Horace  Ellis. 

Goshen,  Victor  W.  B.  Hedgepeth. 

Greenfield,  A.  E.  Martin. 


County  superintendent. 


2  Principal, 


1192 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

II.— List  of  City  Superintendents— Continued, 


INDIANA— Continued. 

Greensburg,  D.  M.  Geeting. 
Hammond,  W.  H.  Hershman. 
Hartford  City,  C.  H.  Dry  bread. 
Huntington,  Robert  I.  Hamilton. 
Indianapolis,  Calvin  N.  Kendall. 
Jeffersonville,  A.  C.  Goodwin. 
Kokomo,  Robert  A.  Ogg. 

Lafayette,  Edward  Ayres. 

Laporte,  John  A.  Wood. 
Lawrenceburg,  T.  H.  Meek. 

Lebanon,  C.  A.  Peterson. 

Logansport,  Albert  H.  Douglass. 
Madison,  C.  M.  McDaniels. 

Marion,  Benjamin  F.  Moore. 
Martinsville,  J.  E.  Robinson. 

Michigan  City,  Paul  A.  Cowgill. 
Mishawaka,  Byron  J.  Bogue. 

Mount  Yernon,  Edwin  S.  Monroe. 
Muncie,  W.  R.  Snyder. 

New  Albany,  C.  A.  Prosser. 

Peru,  A.  A.  Campbell. 

Portland,  John  A.  Hill. 

Princeton,  Charles  N.  Peak. 
Richmond,  Thomas  A.  Mott. 
Rushville,  A.  G.  McGregor. 

Seymour,  H.  C.  Montgomery. 

Shelby  ville,  James  H.  Tomlin. 

South  Bend,  Calvin  Moon. 

Terre  Haute,  William  H.  Wiley. 
Valparaiso,  Charles  Henderson  Wood. 
Vincennes,  Albert  E.  Humke. 

Wabash,  Miles  W.  Harrison. 
Washington,  Wm.  F.  Axtell. 

IOWA. 

Atlantic,  Carlos  M.  Cole. 

Boone,  J.  C.  King. 

Burlington,  Francis  M.  Fultz. 

Cedar  Falls,  D.  M.  Kelly. 

Cedar  Rapids,  J.  J.  McConnell. 
Centerville,  F.  E.  King. 

Charles  City,  George  S.  Dick. 

Clinton,  O.  P.  Bostwick. 

Council  Bluffs,  W.  N.  Clifford. 
Creston,  O.  E.  French. 

Davenport,  J.  B.  Young. 

Des  Moines: 

East  Side,  Amos  Hiatt. 

West  Side,  Samuel  H.  Sheakley. 
Capital  Park,  Z.  C.  Thornburg. 
Dubuque,  F.  T.  Oldt. 

Fairfield,  J.  E.  Williamson. 

Fort  Dodge,  E.  N.  Coleman. 

Fort  Madison,  C.  W.  Cruikshank. 

Iowa  City,  S.  K.  Stevenson. 

Keokuk,  O.  W.  Weyer. 

Le  Mars,  Anson  H.  Bigelow. 

Marion,  G.  E.  Finch. 

Marshalltown,  F.  E.  Willard. 

Mason  City,  L.  D.  Ellis. 

Missouri  Valley,  A.  B.  Warner. 

Mount  Pleasant,  Frank  Whittier  Else. 
Muscatine,  W.  F.  Chevalier. 

Oelwein,  L.  B.  Moffett. 


IOWA— Continued. 

Oskaloosa,  S.  J.  Finley. 

Ottumwa,  A.  W.  Stuart. 

Red  Oak,  G.  W.  Bryan. 

Sioux  City,  W.  M.  Stevens. 
Washington,  W.  A.  Pratt. 

Waterloo: 

East  Side,  F.  H.  Bloodgood. 

West  Side,  A.  T.  Hukill. 

Webster  City,  L.  H.  Ford. 

KANSAS. 

Argentine,  H.  P.  Butcher. 

Arkansas  City,  W.  M.  Fisher. 
Atchison,  Nathan  T.  Veatch. 

Coffey  ville,  W.  E.  Ringle. 

Emporia,  L.  A.  Lowther. 

Fort  Scott,  David  M.  Bowen. 

Galena,  J.  A.  Higdon. 

Hutchinson,  George  W.  Winans. 

Iola,  Mrs.  Clifford  A.  Mitchell. 
Junction  City,  William.  S.  Heusner. 
Kansas  City,  L.  E.  Wolfe. 

Lawrence,  Frank  P.  Smith. 
Leavenworth,  Miss  Mamie  E.  Dolphin. 
Newton,  G.  W.  Kendrick. 

Ottawa,  Walter  H.  Olin. 

Parsons,  N.  McDonald. 

Pittsburg,  R.  S.  Russ. 

Salina,  A.  Ludlum. 

Topeka,  W.  M.  Davidson. 

Wellington,  H.  F.  M.  Bear. 

Wichita,  Frank  R.  Dyer. 

Winfield,  J.  W.  Spindler. 

KENTUCKY. 

Ashland,  John  Grant  Crabbe. 

Bellevue,  F.  S.  Alley. 

Bowling  Green,  Edward  Taylor. 
Covington,  John  Morris. 

Danville,  W.  C.  Grinstead. 

Dayton,  E.  P.  West. 

Frankfort,  H.  V.  McChesney. 
Henderson,  R.  L.  McDonald. 
Hopkinsville,  Livingstone  McCartney. 
Lexington,  William  Rogers  Clay. 
Louisville,  Edgar  H.  Mark. 

Maysville,  G.  W.  Blatterman. 
Middlesboro,  J.  B.  Taylor. 

Newport,  John  Burke. 

Owensboro,  McHenry  Rhoads. 
Paducah,  C.  B.  Hatfield. 

Paris,  A.  O.  Reubelt. 

Richmond,  J.  D.  Clark. 

Winchester,  R.  M.  Shift. 

LOUISIANA. 

Alexandria,  A.  M.  Hendon. 

Baton  Rouge,  R.  C.  Gordon. 

Crowley,  J.  E.  Barry. 

Donaldsonville,  Richard  McCulloch. 
Lake  Charles,  John  McNeese. 

Monroe,  D.  B.  Showalter. 

New  Iberia,  W.  B.  Hale. 

New  Orleans,  Warren  Easton. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY 


1193 


II.— List  of  City  Superintendents— Continued. 


LOUISIANA— Continued. 
Shreveport: 

C.  E.  Byrd  (principal  high  school  and  act¬ 
ing  city  superintendent  under  J.  C.  Mon¬ 
roe,  superintendent  Caddo  Parish). 

MAINE. 

Auburn,  Bertram  C.  Richardson. 

Augusta: 

Mrs.  Caroline  S.  Fogg  (superintendent  sub¬ 
urban  and  high  schools). 

Weston  Lewis  (principal  Williams  district). 
Bangor,  Charles  E.  Tilton. 

Bath,  Edward  H.  McLachlin. 

Belfast,  John  R.  Dunton. 

Biddeford,  Royal  E.  Gould. 

Brewer,  Mrs.  Mertie  M.  Curtis. 

Calais,  J.  F.  Ryan. 

Eastport,  H.  E.  Bryant. 

EIJsworth,  W.  H.  Dresser. 

Gardiner,  L.  M.  Sanborn. 

Lewiston,  I.  C.  Phillips. 

Old  Town,  Miss  Ardelle  M.  Tozier. 

Portland,  Orlando  M.  Lord. 

Rockland,  G.  C.  Minard. 

Saco,  John  S.  Locke. 

Skowhegan,  D.  W.  Colby. 

South  Portland,  James  Otis  Kaler. 

Water  ville,  El  wood  T.  Wyman. 

Westbrook,  Fred.  Benson. 

MARYLAND. 

Annapolis,  Charles  E.  Dryden. 

Baltimore,  J.  H.  Van  Sickle. 

Cambridge,  W.  P.  Beckwith.1 
Cumberland,  John  T.  White.1 
Frederick,  Ephraim  L.  Boblitz.1 
Hagerstown,  John  P.  Fockler.1 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Abington,  W.  H.  Sanderson. 

Adams,  Francis  A.  Bagnall. 

Amesbury,  E.  O.  Perkins.2 
Amherst,  A.  L.  Hardy. 

Andover,  Corwin  F.  Palmer. 

Arlington,  Frank  S.  Sutcliffe. 

Athol,  W.  Scott  Ward. 

Attleboro,  William  P.  Kelly. 

Barnstable,  F.  W.  Kingman. 

Belmont,  George  P.  Armstrong. 

Beverly,  Adelbert  Leon  Safford. 

Blackstone,  Josiah  B.  Davis. 

Boston,  Edwin  P.  Seaver. 

Braintree,  Irving  W.  Horne. 

Bridgewater,  W.  H.  Sanderson. 

Brockton,  B.  B.  Russell. 

Brookline,  George  I.  Aldrich. 

Cambridge,  Francis  Cogswell. 

Canton,  James  S.  Perkins. 

Chelsea, - . 

Chicopee,  John  C.  Gray. 

Clinton,  Charles  L.  Hunt. 


MASSACHUSETTS  -Continued. 

Concord,  William  L.  Eaton. 

Danvers,  A.  P.  Learoyd.2 
Dedham,  Roderick  Whittlesey  Hine. 
Easthampton,  W.  D.  Miller. 

Easton,  Osman  C.  Evans. 

Everett, - . 

Fall  River,  William  C.  Bates. 

Fitchburg,  Joseph  G.  Edgeriy. 
Framingham,  Samuel  F.  Blodgett. 
Franklin,  Irving  H.  Gamwell. 

Gardner,  Judson  I.  Wood. 

Gloucester,  Freeman  Putney. 

Grafton,  W.  H.  Holmes,  jr. 

Great  Barrington ,  Gilman  C.  Fisher. 
Greenfield,  G.  H.  Danforth. 

Haverhill,  Roscoe  D.  McKeen. 

Hingham,  Nelson  G.  Howard. 

Holyoke,  Louis  P.  Nash. 

Hudson,  James  G.  Morrell. 

Hyde  Park.  William  G.  Colesworthy.2 
Ipswich,  John  H.  Cogswell.2 
Lawrence,  John  E.  Burke. 

Leominster,  Thomas  E.  Thompson. 
Lowell,  Arthur  K.  Whitcomb. 

Lynn,  Frank  J.  Peaslee. 

Malden,  George  E.  Gay. 

Manchester,  George  P.  Armstrong. 
Mansfield,  Edward  B.  Fitts. 
Marblehead,  John  B.  Gifford. 

Marlboro,  J.  Asbury  Pitman. 

Medford,  Charles  H.  Morss. 

Melrose,  Fred  H.  Nickerson. 

Merrimac,  F.  E.  Pease.3 
Methuen,  A.  Everett  White. 
Middleboro,  Charles  H.  Bates. 

Milford,  Charles  W.  Haley. 

Millbury,  C.  S.  Lyman. 

Milton,  Asher  J.  Jacoby. 

Montague,  F.  P.  Davison. 

Natick,  Albert  L.  Barbour. 

Needham,  Henry  M.  Walradt. 

New  Bedford,  William  E.  Hatch. 
Newburyport,  William  P.  Lunt. 
Newton,  Albert  B.  Fifield. 

North  Adams,  Isaac  Freeman  Hall. 
Northampton,  J.  H.  Carfrey. 

North  Andover,  George  E.  Chickering. 
North  Attleboro,  James  W.  Brehant. 
Northbridge,  S.  A.  Melcher. 

Norwood,  A.  P.  Wagg. 

Orange,  Edward  Dixon. 

Palmer,  A.  C.  Thompson. 

Peabody,  Lester  L.  Burrington. 
Pittsfield,  Eugene  Bouton. 

Plymouth,  Francis  J.  Heavens. 
Provincetown,  Alvan  R.  Lewis. 

Quincy,  Frank  Edson  Parian. 

Reading,  Melville  A.  Stone. 

Revere,  William  H.  Winslow. 
Rockland,  William  C.  Hobbs. 

Rockport,  Nathaniel  Richardson. 
Salem,  John  Wright  Perkins. 


1  County  school  examiner. 

2  Secretary  of  the  school  committee. 


3  Chairman  of  the  school  committee. 


1194 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

II. — List  of  City  Superintendents— Continued, 


M  ASSACB  USETTS — Continued. 

Saugus,  Charles  E.  Stevens. 

Somerville,  Gordon  A.  South  worth. 
Southbridge,  John  T.  Clarlre. 

South  Hadley,  A.  H.  Campbell. 

Spencer,  George  I.  Clapp. 

Springfield,  Thomas  M.  Balliet. 
Stoneham,  Charles  E.  Stevens. 
Stoughton,  Edward  P.  Fitts. 
Swampscott,  Harold  C.  Childs.1 
Taunton,  C.  F.  Boydan. 

Upton,  W.  H.  Holmes,  jir. 

Wakefield,  U.  G.  Wheeler. 

Waltham,  William  D.  Parkinson. 

Ware,  Samuel  W.  Hallett. 

Warren,  O.  H.  Adams. 

Watertown,  Frank  R.  Page. 

Webster,  A.  H.  Morse. 

Wellesley,  Marshall  Livingston  Perria. 
Westboro,  H.  C.  Waldron. 

Westfield,  Stanley  H.  Holmes. 

West  Springfield,  C.  E.  Brockway. 
Weymouth,  Andrew  S.  Thomson. 
Whitman,  William  C.  Hobbs. 
Williamstown,  Walter  G.  Mitchell. 
Winchendon,  David  B.  Locke. 
Winchester,  Henry  M.  Walradt. 
Winthrop,  Frank  A.  Douglas. 

Woburn,  Thomas  Emerson. 

Worcester,  Clarence  F.  Carroll. 

MICHIGAN. 

Adrian,  P.  J.  Willson. 

Albion,  W.  J.  McEone. 

Alpena,  George  A.  Hunt. 

Ann  Arbor,  H.  M.  Slauson. 

Battle  Creek,  William  G.  Coburn. 

Bay  City,  John  A.  Stewart. 

Benton  Harbor,  Eugene  A.  Wilson. 

Big  Rapids,  James  R.  Miller. 

Cadillac,  James  Hamilton  Kaye. 
Calumet,  F.  W.  Cooley. 

Charlotte,  M.  R.  Parmelee. 

Cheboygan,  William  C.  Thompson. 
Coldwater,  H.  E.  J ohnson. 

Delray,  Frank  Cody. 

Detroit,  Wales  C.  Martindale. 

Dowagiac,  W.  E.  Conkling. 

Escanaba,  William  M.  Jolliffe. 

Flint,  R.  H.  Kirtland. 

Grand  Haven,  Edward  P.  Cummings. 
Grand  Rapids,  W.  PI.  Elson. 

Hancock,  Eugene  La  Rowe. 

Hillsdale,  S.  J.  Gier. 

Holland,  F.  D.  Haddock. 

Ionia,  C.  L.  Bemis. 

Iron  Mountain,  L.  E.  Amidon. 

Ironwood,  L.  L.  Wright. 

Ishpeming,  G.  T.  Sweetland. 

Jackson,  L.  S.  Norton. 

Kalamazoo,  S.  O.  HartwelL 
Lansing,  Clarence  E.  Holmes. 
Ludington,  Gerard  T.  Smith. 


MICHIGAN— Continued, 

Manistee,  Samuel  W.  Baker. 
Manistique,  J.  J.  Hoenberger. 
Marquette,  E.  C.  Thompson. 

Marshall,  Ralph  S.  Garwood. 
Menominee,  B.  S.  Hopkins. 

Monroe,  R.  D.  Briggs. 

Mount  Clemens,  J.  B.  Estabrook. 
Muskegon,  David  Mackenzie. 
Negaunee,  Orr  Schurtz. 

Niles,  J.  D.  Schiller. 

Norway,  E.  P.  Frost. 

Owosso,  E.  T.  Austin. 

Petoskey,  W.  M.  Andrews. 

Pontiac,  R.  B.  Dean. 

Port  Huron,  W.  F.  Lewis. 

Saginaw : 

East  Side,  E.  C.  Warriner. 

West  Side,  N.  A.  Richards. 

St.  Joseph,  Ernest  P.  Clarke. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  E.  E.  Ferguson. 

South  Haven,  A.  D.  Prentice. 

Traverse  City,  C.  H.  Horn. 

West  Bay  City,  N.  A.  Richard. 
Wyandotte,  George  R.  Brandt. 
Ypsilanti,  Austin  George. 

MINNESOTA. 

Albert  Lea,  E.  M.  Phillips. 

Austin,  Andrew  Nelson. 

Brainerd,  JohnL.  Torrens. 

Duluth,  Robert  E.  Denfeld. 

Faribault,  George  A.  Franklin. 

Fergus  Falls,  J.  A.  Vandyke. 

Little  Falls,  Alexander  M.  Rowe. 
Mankato,  Edwin  B.  UKne. 

Minneapolis,  Charles  M.  Jordan. 

New  Ulm,  E.  T.  Critchett. 

Owatonna,  Walter  V.  Kasper. 

Red  Wing,  W.  F.  Kunze. 

Rochester,  Lester  S.  Overholt. 

St.  Cloud,  Waite  A.  Shoemaker. 

St.  Paul,  Irwen  Leviston. 

St.  Peter,  V.  R.  Wasson. 

Stillwater,  Darius  Steward. 

Winona,  J.  A.  Tormey. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Biloxi,  J.  H.  Owings. 

Columbus,  Joe  Cook. 

Greenville,  E.  E.  Bass. 

Hattiesburg,  F.  B.  Woodley. 

Jackson,  Edward  L.  Bailey. 

McComb,  Henry  P.  Hughes. 

Meridian,  J.  C.  Fant. 

Natchez,  J.  W.  Henderson.2 
Vicksburg,  Charles  Pendleton  Kemper. 

MISSOURI. 

Boonville,  William  A.  Annin. 
Brookfield,  J.  U.  White. 

Cape  Girardeau,  E.  E.  McCullough.1 
Carterville,  O.  N.  Waltz. 


1  Principal. 


2  County  superintendent. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIKECTORY 


1195 


IT. — List  of  City  Superintendents— Continued. 


MISSOURI— Continued. 

Carthage,  W.  J.  Stevens. 

Cbillieothe,  Oliver  Stigall. 

Clintonr  F.  B.  Owen. 

Columbia,  R.  H.  Emberson. 

De  Soto,  A.  B.  Carroll. 

Fulton,  J.  C.  Humphreys. 

Hannibal,  R.  B.  D.  Simonson. 

Independence,  W.  H.  Johnson. 

Jefferson  City,  J.  W.  Richardson. 

Joplin,  Joseph  I>.  Elliff. 

Kansas  City,  James  M.  Greenwood. 
Kirksville,  C.  S.  Brother. 

Lexington,  C.  A.  Phillips. 

Louisiana,  Elizabeth  Whitaker. 

Macon,  W.  F.  Jamison. 

Marshall,  T.  E.  Spencer. 

Maryville,  Benjamin  F.  Duncan. 

Mexico,  D.  A.  McMillan. 

Moberly,  J.  A.  Whiteford. 

Nevada,  John  C.  Pike. 

Poplar  Bluff,  J.  N.  Street. 

Rich  Hill,  S.  M.  Barrett. 

St.  Charles,  George  W.  Jones. 

St.  Joseph,  Edward  B.  Neelv. 

St.  Louis,  F.  Louis  Soldan. 

Sedalia,  G.  Y.  Buchanan. 

Springfield,  Jonathan  Fairbanks. 

Trenton,  W.  C.  Ryan. 

Warrensburg,  W.  E.  Morrow. 

Webb  City,  A.  G.  Young. 

MONTANA. 

Anaconda,  J.  A.  Koontz. 

Butte,  R.  G.  Young. 

Great  Falls,  S.  D.  Largent. 

Helena,  Randall  J.  Condon. 

Missoula,  Roscoe  W.  Beighla. 

NEBRASKA. 

Beatrice,  W.  L.  Stevens. 

Fremont,  J.  L.  Laird. 

Grand  Island,  Robert  J.  Barr. 

Hastings,  J.  D.  French. 

Kearney,  A.  O.  Thomas. 

Lincoln,  C.  H.  Gordon. 

Nebraska  City,  Allen  C.  Fling. 

Omaha,  Carroll  G.  Pearse. 

Plattsmouth,  John  G.  McHugh. 

South  Omaha,  J.  Arnott  McLean. 

York,  C.  R.  Atkinson. 

NEVADA. 

Reno,  John  Edwards  Bray. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Berlin,  H.  W.  Johnson.1 

Concord  (Union  district),  Louis  J.  Rundlett. 
Dover,  Frank  H.  Pease. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE— Continued. 

Exeter,  John  A.  Brown. * 

Franklin,  O.  A.  Towne.1 2 

Keene  (Union  district),  Thaddeus  William 
Harris. 

Laconia,  J.  H.  Blaisdell. 

Manchester,  C.  W.  Bickford. 

Nashua,  James  H.  Fassett. 

Portsmouth,  H.  C.  Morrison. 

Rochester,  E.  L.  Silver. 

Somersworth,  Elisha  C.  Andrews.3 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Asbury  Park,  Fred  S.  Shepherd. 

Atlantic  City,  Charles  B.  Boyer. 

Bayonne,  James  H.  Christie. 

Bloomfield,  William  E.  Chancellor. 
Bordentown,  William  Macfarland.4 
Bridgeton,  E.  J.  Hitchner. 

Burlington,  Wilbur  Watts.5 
Camden,  Martin  Y.  Bergen. 

Dover,  J.  Howard  Hulsart.4 
East  Orange,  Yernon  L.  Davey. 

Elizabeth,  William  J.  Shearer. 

Englewood,  Marceilus  Oakey. 

Gloucester,  Orville  P.  De  Witt.® 

Hackensack,  John  Terhune.7 
Harrison,  John  Dwyer. 

Hoboken,  A.  J.  Demaresi. 

Irvington,  F.  H.  Morrell. 

Jersey  City,  Henry  Snyder. 

Kearney,  Don  C.  Bliss.8 
Lambertville,  Robert  H.  Dilts. 

Long  Branch,  Christopher  Gregory. 

Millville,  Silas  C.  Smith. 

Montclair,  Randall  Spaulding. 

Morristown,  W.  L.  R.  Haven. 

Newark,  Addison  B.  Poland. 

New  Brunswick,  William  Clinton  Armstrong. 
Newton,  Charles  J.  Majory.4 
North  Plainfield,  H.  J.  Wightman. 

Orange,  William  M.  Swingle. 

Passaic,  F.  EL  Spaulding. 

Paterson,  L.  A.  Goodenough. 

Perth  Amboy,  S.  E.  Shull. 

Phillipsburg,  H.  Budd  Howell. 

Plainfield,  Henry  M.  Maxson. 

Rahway,  W.  O.  Robinson.. 

Red  Bank,  S.  V.  Arrowsmith. 

Salem,  Morris  H.  Stratton. 

Somerville,  H.  C.  Krebs. 

South  Amboy,  R.  M.  Fitch. 

South  Orange,  H.  W.  Foster. 

Summit,  John  K.  Lathrop. 

Trenton,  Leslie  C.  Pierson. 

Union,  Otto  Ortel.9 
Vineland,  J.  J.  Unger. 

West  Hoboken,  Robert  Waters. 

West  Orange,  Edward  D.  McCollom. 
Woodbury,  J.  E.  Frey.4 


1  Chairman  of  school  board. 

2  Clerk  school  board. 

3  Secretary  school  board. 


4  Supervising  principal. 

5  Principal. 

6  Supervisor. 


7  County  superintendent. 
8' Post-office,  Arlington. 
^Post-office,  Weehawken. 


1196 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

II. — List  of  City  Superintendents — Continued. 


NEW  MEXICO. 

Albuquerque,  M.  E.  Hickey. 

Santa  Fe,  J.  A.  Wood. 

NEW  YORK. 

Albany,  Charles  W.  Cole. 

Albion,  Willis  G.  Carxner. 

Amsterdam,  H.  T.  Morrow. 

Auburn,  Clinton  S.  Marsh. 

Batavia,  John  Kennedy. 

Bath,  W.  F.  Palmer.1 
Binghamton,  Darwin  L.  Bardwell. 

Buffalo,  Henry  P.  Emerson. 

Canandaigua,  J.  Carlton  Norris. 

Catskill,  Thomas  A.  Caswell. 

Cohoes,  George  E.  Dixon. 

Corning,  Leigh  R.  Hunt. 

Cortland,  Ferdinand  E.  Smith. 

Dunkirk,  John  W.  Babcock. 

Elmira,  C.  F.  Walker. 

Fredonia,  George  G.  Miner.2 
Fulton,  B.  G.  Clapp. 

Geneva,  William  H.  Truesdale. 

Glens  Falls,  E.  W.  Griffith. 

Gloversville,  James  A.  Estee. 

Green  Island,  James  Heatley. 

Haverstraw,  L.  O.  Markham. 

Herkimer,  A.  J.  Merrell. 

Hoosick  Falls,  H.  H.  Snell. 

Hornellsville,  Elmer  S.  Redman. 

Hudson,  F.  J.  Sagendorph. 

Hion,  Alfred  W.  Abrams. 

Ithaca,  F.  D.  Boynton. 

Jamestown,  Rovillus  R.  Rogers. 

Johnstown,  Frank  W.  Jennings. 

Kingston : 

District  No.  5,  Kingston  school  district, 
Charles  M.  Ryon. 

District  No.  1,  P.  H.  Cullen1  (post-office, 
Rondout). 

District  No.  2, - . 

District  No.  3,  Henry  Powers1  (post-office, 
Rondout). 

District  No.  4,  William  A.  McConnell1  (post- 
office,  Rondout). 

Lansingburg,  George  F.  Sawyer. 

Little  Falls,  Harry  E.  Reed. 

Lockport,  Emmet  Belknap. 

Lyons,  W.  H.  Kinney. 

Malone,  Sarah  L.  Perry. 

Mamaroneck,  Samuel  J.  Preston. 

Matteawan,  Gurdon  R.  Miller.1 
Mechanicsville,  L.  B.  Blakeman. 

Medina,  T.  H.  Armstrong. 

Middletown,  James  F.  Tuthill. 

Mount  Vernon,  Charles  E.  Nichols. 

Newark,  Charles  A.  Hamilton.1 
New  burg,  James  M.  Crane. 

New  Rochelle,  Isaac  E.  Young. 


NEW  YORK— Continued. 

New  York: 

William  H.  Maxwell,3  city  superintendent. 
Boroughs  of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx, 
John  Jasper.3 

Borough  of  Brooklyn,  John  H.  Walsh.4 
Borough  of  Queens,  Edward  L.  Stevens.6 
Borough  of  Richmond,  Hubbard  R.  Yet- 
man.6 

Niagara  Falls,  Nathaniel  L.  Benham. 

North  Tonawanda,  Frank  J.  Beardsley. 
Norwich,  Stanford  J.  Gibson. 

Nyack,  Ira  H.  Lawton. 

Ogdensburg,  Barney  Whitney. 

Olean,  Fox  Holden. 

Oneida,  Avery  Warner  Skinner. 

Oneonta,  William  C.  Franklin. 

Ossining,  J.  Irving  Gorton. 

Oswego,  George  E.  Bullis. 

Owego,  H.  B.  Tilbury. 

Peekskill: 

District  No.  7  ^Drumhill),  John  Millar. 
District  No.  8  (Oakside),  A.  D.  Dunbar. 
Penn  Yan,  Jay  Crissey. 

Plattsburg,  F.  H.  Davis. 

Port  Chester,  E.  G.  Lautman. 

Port  Jervis,  John  M.  Dolph. 

Poughkeepsie,  Edwin  Schuyler  Harris. 
Rensselaer,  R.  W.  Wickham. 

Rochester,  Charles  B.  Gilbert. 

Rome,  Walter  D.  Hood. 

Salamanca,  Thomas  Stone  Bell. 

Sandy  Hill,  Frances  A.  Tefft. 

Saratoga  Springs,  Thomas  R.  Kneil. 
Schenectady,  Samuel  B.  Howe. 

Seneca  Falls,  C.  Willard  Rice. 

Syracuse,  A.  B.  Blodgett. 

Tarry  town,  Albert  W.  Emerson. 

Tonawanda,  F.  J.  Diamond. 

Troy,  John  H.  Willets. 

Utica,  George  Griffith. 

Waterloo,  H.  T.  Skerritt. 

Watertown,  Frank  S.  Tisdale. 

Watervliet,  J.  Edman  Massee. 

Waverly,  H.  J.  Walter. 

Whitehall,  Wilber  W.  Howe. 

White  Plains,  Sylvester  R.  Shear. 

Yonkers,  Charles  E.  Gorton. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Asheville,  R.  J.  Tighe. 

Charlotte,  R.  B.  Hunter. 

Concord,  C.  S.  Coler. 

Durham,  J.  A.  Matheson. 

Fayetteville,  B.  C.  Mclver. 

Gastonia,  John  F.  Bradley. 

Goldsboro,  J.  I.  Foust. 

Greensboro,  G.  A.  Grimsley. 

High  Point,  George  H.  Crowell. 

Newbern,  H.  P.  Harding. 


1  Principal. 

2  President  board  of  education. 

3  Post-office,  New  York  City. 


4  Post-office,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

5  Post-office,  Flushing,  N.  Y. 

6  Post-office,  Totten ville,  N.  Y. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY. 


II.— List  of  City  Superintendents — Continued. 


NORTH  CAROLINA— Continued. 

Raleigh,  C.  H.  Mebane. 

Salisbury,  Charles  L.  Coon. 

Washington,  Harry  Howell. 

Wilmington, - . 

Winston,  C.  F.  Tomlinson. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 

Fargo,  F.  Everett  Smith. 

Grand  Forks,  J.  Nelson  Kelley. 

OHIO. 

Akron,  Henry  V.  Hotchkiss. 

Alliance,  John  E.  Morris. 

Ashland,  W.  S.  Robinson. 

Ashtabula,  J.  S.  Lowe. 

Barberton,  W.  M.  Glasgow. 

Bellaire,  J.  R.  Anderson. 

Bellefontaine, - . 

Bellevue,  E.  F.  Warner. 

Bucyrus,  J.  J.  Bliss. 

Cambridge,  C.  L.  Cronebaugh. 

Canton,  J.  M.  Sarver. 

Chillicothe,  N.  H.  Chaney. 

Cincinnati,  Richard  G.  Boone. 

Circle ville,  C.  L.  Boyer. 

Cleveland,  Lewis  H.  Jones. 

Columbus,  J.  A.  Shawan. 

Conneaut,  Jay  F.  Ullery. 

Coshocton,  H.  S.  Piatt. 

Dayton,  W.  N.  Hailmann. 

Defiance,  R.  W.  Mitchell. 

Delaware,  Horace  A.  Stokes. 

Delphos,  G.  W.  Lewis. 

East -Liverpool,  Robert  E.  Ray  man. 
Elyria,  W.  R.  Comings. 

Findlay,  J.  W.  Zellar. 

Fostoria,  W.  S.  Robinson. 

Fremont,  W.  W.  Ross. 

Gabon,  I.  C.  Guinther. 

Gallipolis,  Charles  J.  Britton. 

Glenvillle,  H.  H.  Cully. 

Greenville,  Edward  M.  Van  Cleve. 
-Hamilton,  S.  L.  Rose. 

Hillsboro,  H.  C.  Minnich. 

Ironton,  S.  P.  Humphrey. 

-Jackson,  J.  E.  Kinnison. 

Kent,  A.  B.  Stutzman. 

Kenton,  E.  P.  Dean. 

Lancaster,  George  W.  Welsh. 

Lima,  Charles  C.  Miller. 

Lorain,  F.  D.  Ward. 

Mansfield,  Edmund  D.  Lyon. 

Marietta,  Henry  G.  Williams. 

Marion,  Arthur  Powell. 

Martins  Ferry,  W.  H.  Stewart. 
Massillon,  Edmund  A.  Jones. 
Middletown,  J.  E.  -McKean. 

Mount  Vernon,  John  K.  Baxter. 
Nelsonville,  Aaron  Grady. 

Newark,  F.  Martin  Townsend. 
New-Philadelphia,  G.  C.  Maurer. 


OHIO— Continued. 

Niles,  Frank  J.  Roller. 

Norwalk,  A.  D.  Beechy. 

Norwood,  W.  S.  Cadman. 

Oberlin,  E.  A.  Miller. 

Paines  ville,  W.  W.  Boyd. 

Piqua,  C.  W.  Bennett. 

Pomeroy,  T.  C.  Flanegin. 
Portsmouth,  J.  I.  Hudson. 

St.  Mary’s,  J.  D.  Simkins. 

Salem,  Jesse  L.  Johnson. 

Sandusky,  H.  B.  Williams. 

Shelby,  W.  S.  Lynch. 

Sidney,  E.  Hard. 

Springfield,  John  S.  Weaver. 
Steubenville,  Arthur  Powell. 

Tiffin,  C.  A.  Krout. 

Toledo,  William  Wallace  Chalmers. 
Troy,  Charles  L.  Van  Cleve. 
Uhrichsville,  L.  E.  Everett. 

Urbana,  I.  N.  Keyser. 

Van  Wert,  J.  P.  Sharkey. 

Warren,  C.  E.  Carey. 

Washington  C.  H.,H.  R.  McVay. 
Wellston,  Ezekiel  Wallace  Patterson. 
Wellsville,  James  L.  MacDonald. 
Wooster,  Charles  Haupert. 

Xenia,  Edwin  B.  Cox. 

Youngstown,  F.  Trendley. 

Zanesville,  W.  D.  Lash. 

OKLAHOMA. 

Guthrie,  James  R.  Campbell. 
Oklahoma,  B.  F.  Nihart. 

OREGON. 

Astoria,  A.  L.  Clark. 

Portland,  Frank  Rigler. 

Salem,  D.  W.  Yoder. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Allegheny,  John  Morrow. 

Allentown,  Francis  D.  Raub. 
Altoona,  D.  S.  Keith. 

Archbald,  J.  C.  Taylor. 

Ashland,  William  C.  Estler. 

Ashley,  T.  B.  Harrison. 

Bangor,  Wm.  H.  Lindeman. 

Beaver  Falls,  Charles  J.  Boak. 
Bellefonte,  David  O.  Etters. 
Bethlehem,  Fred  W.  Robbins. 
Braddock,  Geo.  H.  Lamb. 

Bradford,  E.  E.  Miller. 

Bristol,  Louise  D.  Baggs. 

Butler,  John  A.  Gibson. 

Carbondale,  Elmer  E.  Garr. 

Carlisle,  I.  L.  Bryner. 

Carnegie,  W.  S.  Bryan.1 
Chambersburg,  Samuel  GeLwix. 
Charleroi,  J.  A.  Snodgrass. 

Chester,  A.  Duncan  Yocum. 
Columbia,  Daniel  Fleisher. 


1  Principal. 


1198 


EDUCATION  EEPORT,  1900-1901. 

II. — List  of  City  Superintendents — Continued. 


PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. 

Connells ville,  J.  P.  Wiley. 
Conshohocken,  J.  Horace  Landis. 

Corry,  A.  D.  Colegrove. 

Danville,  U.  L.  Gordy. 

Dickson  City,  M.  J.  Lloyd. 

Dubois,  W.  L.  Greene. 

Dunmore,  E.  D.  Bovard. 

Duquesne,  A.  V.  McKee. 1 
Easton,  William  W.  Cottingham. 
Edwardsdale,  J.  O.  Hermann. 

Erie,  H.  C.  Missimer. 

Etna,  J.  Q.  A.  Irvine. 1 
Forest  City,  C.  T.  Thorpe.1 
Franklin,  N.  P.  Kinsley. 

Greensburg,  A.  M.  Wyant. 

Greenville,  A.  H.  Wright. 

Hanover,  Thomas  F.  Chrostwaite. 
Harrisburg,  Lemuel  O.  Foose. 

Hazleton,  David  A.  Harman. 

Homestead,  John  C.  Kendall. 
Huntingdon,  Kimber  Cleaver. 

Indiana,  W.  S.  Trainer. 

Jeannette,  John  W.  Anthony. 
Johnstown,  J.  M.  Berkey. 

Kane,  J.  E.  Henretta. 

Lancaster,  R.  K.  Buehrle. 

Lansford,  E.  M.  Balsbaugh.2 
Latrobe,  A.  A.  Streng. 

Lebanon,  R.  T.  Adams. 

Lehighton,  A.  L.  Custer. 

Lock  Haven,  John  A.  Robb. 

McKeesport,  H.  F.  Brooks. 

McKees  Rocks,  F.  H.  Powers. 

Mahanoy  City,  William  N.  Ehrhart 
Mauch  Chunk,  James  J.  Be  van. 
Meadville,  U.  G.  Smith. 

Middletown,  H.  J.  Wickey. 

Millville,  S.  J.  Johnston.1 
Milton,  A.  Reist  Rutt. 

Miners  ville,  H.  H.  Spayd.1 
Monongahela  City,  E.  W.  Dalbey.1 
Mount  Carmel,  Samuel  Halsey  Dean. 
Mount  Pleasant,  S.  Grant  Miller. 
Nanticoke,  John  William  Griffith. 

New  Brighton,  Joseph  Burdette  Richey. 
New  Castle,  J.  W.  Canon. 

New  Kensington,  B.  S.  Hunnell. 
Norristown,  Joseph  K.  Gotwals. 

Oil  City,  C.  A.  Babcoek. 

Olyphant,  M.  W.  Cumming.2 
Philadelphia,  Edward  Brooks. 
Phoenixville,  Harry  F.  Leister. 
Pittsburg,  Samuel  Andrews. 

Pittston,  Robert  Shiel.2 
Plymouth,  Frank  E.  Fiekinger. 
Pottstown,  William  W.  Rupert. 
Pottsville,  B.  F.  Patterson. 
Punxsutawney,  James  L.  Allison.2 
Reading,  E.  Mackey. 


PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. 

Renovo,  James  W.  Elliott. 

Rochester,  Rufus  Dan-. 

St.  Clair,  Thomas  G.  Jones. 

St.  Marys,  J.  W.  Sweeney. 

Sayer,  J.  F.  Stetler. 

Scottdale,  B.  S.  Fox. 

Scranton,  George  Howell. 

Shamokin,  Joseph  Howerth. 

Sharon,  D.  F.  Grier. 

Sharpsburg,  C.  C.  Kelso.2 
Shenandoah,  J.  W.  Cooper. 

South  Bethlehem,  Owen  R.  Wilt. 
Steelton,  L.  E.  McGinnes. 

Sunbury,  Ira  Shipman. 

Tamaqua,  Robert  F.  Ditchburn. 
Tarentum,  Charles  Edwin  Carter. 
Titusville,  Henry  Pease. 

To wanda,  H.  G.  Padget.2 
Tyrone,  I.  C.  M.  Ellenberger. 
Uniontown,  Lee  Smith. 

Warren,  W.  L.  MacGowan, 
Washington,  W.  D.  BrightwelL 
Waynesboro,  J.  H.  Reber. 

West  Chester,  Addison  L.  Jones. 

West  Pittston,  L.  P.  Bierly. 
Wilkesbarre,  James  M.  Coughlin 
Wilkinsburg,  E.  J.  Shives. 
Williamsport,  Charles  Lose. 
Wilmerding,  Samuel  Hamilton.3 
York,  Atreus  Wanner. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Bristol,  John  Post  Reynolds. 

Burrill ville,  Allen  P.  Keith.4 
Central  Falls,  Wendell  A.  Mowry. 
Coventry,  Charles  M.  Tyler. 

Cranston,  Valentine  Almy. 
Cumberland,  Albert  E.  Kingsbury. 
East  Providence,  George  N.  Bliss. 
Johnston,  William  H.  Starr.5 
Lincoln,  Frederick  E.  Bragdon. 
Newport,  Herbert  Warren  Lull. 

North  Kingston,  F.  B.  Cole.6 
Pawtucket,  Henry  D.  Hervey. 
Providence,  W.  H.  Small. 

South  Kingston,  B.  E.  Helme.7 
Warren,  Alva  E.  Carpenter. 

Warwick,  C.  Edward  Glover. 
Westerly,  C.  H.  Babcock. 

Woonsocket,  Frank  E.  McFee. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Anderson,  Thomas  C.  Walton. 
Beaufort,  Frank  T.  Harder. 
Charleston,  Henry  P.  Archer. 

Chester,  W.  H.  Hand. 

Columbia,  E.  S.  Dreher. 

Georgetown,  Ellison  Capers,  jr. 
Greenville,  E.  L.  Hughes. 


1  Principal. 

2  Supervising  principal. 

3  County  superintendent. 


4  Post- office,  Pascoag. 

5  Post-office,  Centerdale. 


6  Post-office,  Wickford. 

7  Post-office,  Kingston. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY, 


1199 


II. — List  o-f  City  Superintendents — Continued. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA— Continued. 

G-reenwood,  Edward  C.  Coker. 

Laurens,  B.  L.  Jones. 

Orangeburg,  A.  J.  Thackston 
Spartanburg,  Frank  Evans. 

Sumter,  S.  H.  Edmunds. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 
Aberdeen,  E.  T.  Fitch. 

Lead,  E.  C.  Grubbs. 

Mitchell,  E.  J.  Quigley. 

Sioux  Falls,  Frank  C.  McClelland. 
Yankton,  C.  W.  Martindale. 

TENNESSEE. 

Bristol,  L.  S.  London. 

Chattanooga,  A.  T.  Barrett. 

Clarksville,  J.  W.  Graham. 

Columbia,  W.  E.  Bostick  and  J.  B.  Kelly.1 
Jackson,  Seymour  A.  Mynders. 

Johnson  City,  J.  E.  Crouch. 

Knoxville,  Albert  Ruth. 

Memphis,  George  W.  Gordon. 

Nashville,  Z.  H.  Brown. 

TEXAS. 

Austin,  T.  G.  Harris,  I.  W.  Evans. 
Bonham,  I.  W.  Evans. 

Brenham,  Edward  W.  Tarrant. 
Brownsville,  Thomas  P.  Barbour.2 
Cleburne,  V.  M.  Fulton. 

Corpus  Christi,  Charles  W.  Crossley. 
Corsicana,  H.  S.  Melear. 

Dallas,  J.  L.  Long. 

Denison,  J.  E.  Blair. 

Denton,  J.  S.  Carlisle. 

El  Paso,  G.  P.  Putnam. 

Ennis,  H.  F.  Triplett. 

Fort  Worth.  M.  G.  Bates. 

Gainesville,  E.  F.  Comegys. 

Galveston,  John  W.  Hopkins. 

Gonzales,  T.  L.  Toland. 

Greenville,  J.  H.  Van  Amburgh. 
Hillsboro,  T.  S.  Cox. 

Houston,  W.  W.  Barnett. 

Laredo,  S.  J.  Christen. 

McKinney,  F.  D.  Shepherd. 

Marshall,  W.  H.  Attebery. 

Palestine,  D.  C.  Lake. 

Paris,  J.  G.  Wooten. 

San  Antonio,  Thomas  M.  Colston. 
Sherman,.  P.  W.  Horn. 

Taylor,  W.  M.  Williams. 

Temple,  Justin  F.  Kimball. 

Terrell,  S.  M.  N.  Marrs. 

Texarkana,  W.  Owens. 

Tyler,  J.  L.  Henderson. 

Victoria,  Felix  E.  Smith. 

Waco,  J.  C.  Lattimore. 

Waxahachie,  Walter  Acker. 
Weatherford,  H.  C.  Reed. 

UTAH. 

Logan,  Albert  M.  Merrill. 

Ogden,  William  Allison. 


UTAH — Continued. 

Provo,  William  S.  Rawlings. 

Salt  Lake  City,  D.  H.  Christensen. 

VERMONT. 

Barre,  O.  D.  Mathewson. 

Bellows  Falls,  Everett  W.  Lord. 
Bennington,  Charles  L.  Simmons. 
Brattleboro,  H.  K.  Whitaker. 
Burlington,  Henry  O.  Wheeler. 
Montpelier,  Walter  E.  Ranger. 
Rutland,  Willard  A.  Frasier. 

St.  Albans,  Francis  A.  Bagnall. 

St.  Johnsbury,  Clarence  H.  Dempsey. 

VIRGINIA. 

Alexandria,  Kosciusko  Kemper. 
Bristol,  E.  H.  Russell. 

Charlottesville,  John  S.  Patton. 
Danville,  Abner  Anderson. 
Fredericksburg,  Benjamin  P.  Willis. 
Lynchburg,  E.  C.  Glass. 

Manchester,  David  L.  Pulliam. 
Newport  News,  John  Sheldon  Jones. 
Norfolk,  Richard  A.  Dobie. 
Petersburg,  D.  M.  Brown. 
Portsmouth,  John  C.  Ashton. 
Richmond,  William  F.  Fox. 

Roanoke,  Bushrod  Rust. 

Staunton,  John  H.  Bader. 
Winchester,  Mail  rice  M.  Lynch. 

WASHINGTON. 
Ballard,  J..  C.  Dickson. 

Everett,  George  E.  St.  John. 
Fairhaven,  W.  J.  Hughes. 

New  Whatcom,  E.  E.  White. 

Olympia,  Cl  W.  Durette. 

Seattle,  Frank  B.  Cooper. 

Spokane,  J.  F.  Saylor. 

Tacoma,  Reuben  S.  Bingham. 
Vancouver,  C.  W.  Shumway. 

Walla  Walla,  F.  M.  Burke. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 
Benwood,  Charles.  E.  Carrigan.2 
Bluefield,  C.  A.  Ful wider. 

Charleston,  George  S.  Laidley. 
Clarksburg,  F.  L.  Burdette. 

Grafton,  Hayward  Fleming. 
Huntington,  W.  H.  Cole. 
Martinsburg,  C.  H.  Cole. 
Moundsville,  D.  T.  Williams. 
Parkersburg,  U.  S.  Fleming. 
Wheeling,  W.  H.  Anderson. 

WISCONSIN. 
Antigo,  F.  F.  Showers. 

Appleton,  Carrie  E.  Morgan. 
Ashland,  J.  T.  Hooper. 

Baraboo,  H.  A.  Whipple. 

Beaver  Dam,  W.  Cl  Griffis. 

Beloit,  Franklin  E.  Converse. 

Berlin,  J.  El  Murphy. 

Chippewa  Falls,  SI  B.  Tobey. 


1  Principals. 


2  Principal. 


1200 


EDUCATION  REPOET,  1900-1901. 

II. — List  of  City  Superintendents — Continued. 


WISCONSIN— Continued. 

Depere: 

East  Side,  Andrew  C.  Mailer. 
West  Side,  J.  D.  Conley. 

Eau  Claire,  Otis  C.  Gross. 

Fond  du  Lac,  Myron  E.  Keats. 

Grand  Rapids,  George  P.  Hambrecht. 
Green  Bay,  A.  W.  Burton. 

Janesville,  H.  C.  Buell. 

Kaukauna,  E.  A.  Baker. 

Kenosha,  Norman  L.  Baker. 

La  Crosse,  John  P.  Bird. 

Madison,  R.  B.  Dudgeon. 

Manitowoc,  Fred.  Christiansen.1 
Marinette,  John  T.  Edwards. 
Menasha,  John  Callahan. 

Menominee,  Judson  E.  Hoyt. 

Merrill,  W.  H.  Schulz. 

Milwaukee,  H.  O.  R.  Siefert, 

Neenah,  Jennie  S.  Cooke. 


WISCONSIN— Continued. 

Oconto,  R.  L.  Cooley. 

Oshkosh,  H.  A.  Simonds. 

Portage,  A.  C.  Kellogg. 

Racine,  George  F.  Bell. 

Rhinelander,  Myra  Germond. 
Sheboygan,  H.  F.  Leverenz. 

Stevens  Point,  J.  W.  Simmons. 
Superior,  B.  B.  Jackson. 

Washburn,  D.  E.  Cameron. 
Watertown,  Charles  F.  Yiebahn. 
Waukesha,  H.  L.  Terry.2 
Wausau,  Karl  Mathie. 

West  Green  Bay,  A.  W.  Burton. 

WYOMING. 

Cheyenne,  James  O.  Churchill.  - 
Laramie,  Frank  W.  Lee. 

Rock  Springs,  B.  A.  Dunbar. 


III.— College  Presidents. 

I. — Colleges  for  men  and  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


Frank  M.  Roof,  A.  M . 

Rev.  S.  M.  Hosmer,  D.  D . 

James  H.  Riddle,  Ph.  M . 

J.  P.  Neff,  M.  S . . . 

Rev.  Benedict  Menges,  O.  S.  B _ 

Rev.  C.  S.  Dinkins . 

Rev.  William  Tyrrell,  S.  J _ 

John  W.  Abercrombie,  LL.  D  ... 

M.  M.  Parker,  A.  M . 

G.  C.  Jones,  A.  M . 

John  W.  Conger,  A.  M . 

Eugene  R. Long, Ph. D  - . 

F.R.  Earle  - . 

Rev.  A.  C.  Millar,  A.  M . 

J.  L.  Buchanan,  LL.  D . . . 

Rev.  J.  M.  Cox,  D.  D . 


B.  I.  Wheeler,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. . 

Rev.  George  A.  Gates,  D.  D. . 

Rev.  G.  W.  Wadsworth,  A.  B . 

Rev.  J.  S.  Glass,  C.  M. ,  D.  D . 

William  T. Randall,  A. M., dean.. 

Rev.  T.  G.  Brownson,D.  D._ . 

W alter  A.  Edwards,  A.  M . 

Rev.  John  P.  Frieden,  S.  J . 

Rev.  Eli  McClish,D.  D . 

Rev.  Robert  E.  Kenna,  S.  J . 

G .  H.  Wilkinson,  Ph.  B . 

D.  S.  Jordan.  Ph.  D. ,  LL.  D . . . 

James  H.  Baker,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  W.  F.  Slocum,  LL.  D  . . 

Rev.  J.  J.  Brown,  S.  J . . . . 

Rev.  Henry  A.  Buchtel,  D.  D., 
chancellor. 


Howard  College . . 

Southern  University . . . 

Hartselle  College . 

Lafayette  College . 

St.  Bernard  College . 

Alabama  Baptist  Colored  University 

Spring  Hill  College . 

University  of  Alabama . 

University  of  Arizona. . 

Arkadelphia  Methodist  College. . 

Ouachita  Baptist  College . 

Arkansas  College . . . 

Arkansas  Cumberland  College . 

Hendrix  College . 

University  of  Arkansas . . . . 

Philander  Smith  College . 

Mountain  Home  College. . 

University  of  California . 

Pomona  College  . . 

Occidental  College. . . . 

St.  Vincent’s  College . . . 

University  of  Southern  California. 

California  College  . . 

Throop  Polytechnic  Institute . 

St.  Ignatius  College . 

University  of  the  Pacific . 

Santa  Clara  College . . 

Pacific  Methodist  College  . . 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

University  of  Colorado . 

Colorado  College . . . 

College  of  the  Sacred  Heart . 

University  of  Denver . . . 


East  Lake,  Ala. 
Greensboro,  Ala. 
Hartselle,  Ala. 
Lafayette,  Ala. 

St.  Bernard,  Ala. 

Selma,  Ala. 

Spring  Hill,  Ala. 
University,  Ala. 

Tucson,  Ariz. 
Arkadelphia,  Ark. 

Do. 

Batesville,  Ark. 
Clarksville,  Ark. 
Conway,  Ark. 
Fayetteville,  Ark. 

Little  Rock,  Ark. 
Mountain  Home,  Ark. 
Berkeley,  Cal. 
Claremont,  Cal. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Do. 

Do. 

Oakland,  Cal. 

Pasadena,  Cal. 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

San  Jose,  Cal. 

Santa  Clara,  Cal. 

Santa  Rosa,  Cal. 
Stanford  University, CaL 
Boulder,  Colo. 

Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 
Denver,  Colo. 

University  Park,  Colo. 


Rev.  G.  W.  Smith,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D  .  _ . 
Rev.  B.  P.  Raymond,  D.  D.,  LL.  D 

Arthur  T.  Hadley,  LL.D . . 

Rev.  W.  C.  Jason,  A.  M.,  B.  D . 

Geo.  A.  Harter,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  T.  J.  Conaty.  S.  T.  D.,  rector - 

Charles  W.  Needham,  LL.  D - 

E.  M.  Gallaudet,  Ph.  D. ,  LL.  D . . . . 
Rev.  Jerome  Daugherty,  S.  J _ 


Trinity  College . 

Wesleyan  University . 

Yale  University . 

State  College  for  Colored  Students 

Delaware  College . . 

Catholic  University  of  America - 

Columbian  University  „ . . 

Gallaudet  College . — 

Georgetown  University . 


Hartford,  Conn. 
Middletown,  Conn. 
New  Haven,  Conn. 
Dover,  Del. 
Newark,  Del. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


1  County  superintendent. 


2  Principal. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTOKY, 


1201 


III— College  Presidents — Continued. 

I. — Colleges  for  men  and  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


Rev.  Edward  X.  Fink,  S.  J . 

Rev.  J.  E.  Rankin,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D  . . . 

Rev.  Brother  Abdas,  F.  S.  C . 

John  F.  Forbes,  Ph.  D . 

Thos.  H.  Taliaferro,  Ph.  D  - . 

Rev.  Charles  H.  More,  Ph.  D . 

A.  A.  Murphree,  A.  B . 

Rev.  G-.M.  Ward,  D.D . . 

Walter  B.  Hill,  LL.  D.,  chancellor 

Rev.  George  Sale,  A.  M . . . 

Rev. Horace  Bumstead, D.D - 

Rev.  J.  M.  Henderson,  D.D . 

J.  P.  W.  Brouse,  A.  M. ,  C.  E . 

Joseph  S.  Stewart.  A.  M... . 

P.D.  Pollock.  LL.D . 

Rev.  C.  E.  Dowman,  D.D- . 

Rev.  C.  M.  Mel  den,  Ph.  D . 

Charles  A.  Bell . . . 

Rev.  J oseph  A.  Sharp,  A.  B- . 

James  A.  MacLean,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  Ulric  Z.  Gilmer,  D.  D . 

Rev. E. M.  Smith, D.D . 

Rev.  M.  J.  Marsile,  C.  S.  V . 

W.  II.  Bradley, A.  M.,  chairman. . 

Rev.  Fred  L.  Sigmund,  D.D . 

Andrew  S.  Draper,  LL.  D - 

Rev.  Henry  J.  Dumbach,  S.  J . 

Rev.  John  Krusgynski,  C.  R . 

Rev.  Wm.  R.  Harper,  Ph.  D., 
D.D.,LL.D. 

W.  E.  Lugenbeel,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  Daniel  Irion . 

Robert  E.  Hieronymus,  A.  M . 

Edmund  J.  James,  Ph.  D  . . . 

Rev.  J.  A.  Leavitt,  D.D. . 

J.  E.  Bittinger,  A.  M _ 

Rev. Thomas  McClelland, D.D. .. 

Rev.  Charles  E.  Nash,  S.  T.  D _ 

Wilson  T.  Hogg,  Ph.  B . 

Rev.  Clifford  W.  Barnes,  A.  M _ 

Rev.  Richard  D.  Harlan . 

M.  H.  Chamberlin,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  J. L.  Goodknight, D.D . 

John  H.  McMillan,  Litt.  D . 

Rev.  H.  J.  Kiekhoefer,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  Alexius  Grass, O.S.B.,  rector 
Rev.  N.  Leonard,  O.  S.  F. ,  rector  . 

Gustav  A.  Andreen,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  H.  Storff ,  O.  S.  F.,  rector _ 

Rev. Stanley  A. McKay, D.D _ 

Rev.  Wm.  S.  Reese,  D.  D . 

Rev.  C.  A.  Blanchard,  D.  D  . . 


Rev.  Wm.  P.  Kane,  D.D . 

Rev.  Jos. Schmidt  . . 

Rev.  William  T.  Stott,  D.  D.,LL.D 

Rev.  H.  A.  Gobin,  D.D . 

Rev.  D.  W.  Fisher,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  -  _| 

Scot  Butler,  LL.  D . 

Rev. L.  J.  Aldrich,  D.D. . . 

Rev.  C.  W. Lewis,  D.D. . 

Rev.  A.  Morrissey,  C.  S.  C . 

Joseph  J. Mills, LL.D  . . 

Rev.  A.  Schmitt,  O.  S.  B. . 

Rev.  T.  C.  Reade,  D.  D . 

J.  H.  Scott,  A.  B . 

Rev.  A.  Grant  Evans  . . 

Rev.  S.  B.  McCormick,  D.D. . 

J.  Frederick  Hirsch,  A.  M . 

O.  Xraushaar  . . , . 

Rev.  J .  C.  Calhoun,  D.D . 

Rev.  Laur.  Larsen . . . . . . 

Rev.  George  D.  Adams,  A.  M _ 

Rev.  Wm.  B.  Craig,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
chancellor. 

Rev.  John  P.  Carroll,  D.  D . 

Rev.  F.  W.  Hinitt,  Ph.  D  . . 


Rev.  Dan  F.  Bradley,  D.  D . 

Andrew  G.  Wilson,  A.  M . 


Gonzaga  College . 

Howard  University . . . 

St.John’s  College . 

JohnB.  Stetson  University . . 

Florida  Agricultural  College . 

St.  Leo  Military  College . 

Florida  State  College . . 

Rollins  College . 

University  of  Georgia . . 

Atlanta  Baptist  College . . 

Atlanta  University . . . 

Morris  Brown  College . 

Bowdon  College . . . 

North  Georgia  Agricultural  College 

Mercer  University . 

Emory  College . 

Clark  University . 

Nannie  Lou  Warthen  Institute . 

Young  Harris  College . . 

University  of  Idaho . 

Hedding  College. . 

Illinois  Wesleyan  University . 

St.  Viateur’s  College. . 

Blackburn  University . 

Carthage  College . 

University  of  Illinois . 

St.  Ignatius  College . . . . 

St.  Stanislaus  College . . . 

University  of  Chicago . . 


Washington,  D.  C. 
Do. 

Do. 

Deland,  Fla. 

Lake  City,  Fla. 

St.  Leo,  Fla. 
Tallahassee,  Fla. 
Winter  Park,  Fla. 
A.thens,  Ga. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 

Do. 


Bowdon,  Ga. 
Dahlonega,  Ga. 
Macon,  Ga. 

Oxford,  Ga. 

South  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Wrightsville,  Ga. 
Young  Harris,  Ga. 
Moscow,  Idaho. 
Abingdon,  Ill. 
Bloomington,  Ill. 
Bourbonnais,  Ill. 
Carlin  ville.  Ill. 
Carthage,  Ill. 
Champaign,  Ill. 
Chicago,  HI. 

Do. 

Do. 


Austin  College . . . . 

Evangelical  Proseminary . 

Eureka  College . 

Northwestern  University . . 

Ewing  College . . 

Northern  Illinois  College . 

Knox  College. . . . 

Lombard  College . . . 

Greenville  College . . 

Illinois  College . 

Lake  Forest  University . 

McKendree  College. . 

Lincoln  College _ _ _ _ 

Monmouth  College . 

Northwestern  College . 

St.  Bede  College . . . . 

St.  Francis  Solanus  College . 

Augustana  College . . . . . 

St.  Joseph’s  Diocesan  College - *... 

Shurtleff  College . 

Westfield  College . 

Wheaton  College . . 

Indiana  University . .. . 

Wabash  College . 

Concordia  College . 

Franklin  College. . 

De  Pauw  University . s. . 

Hanover  College...' . 

Butler  College  . . . . — 

Union  Christian  College . . 

Moores  Hill  College _ _ _ 

University  of  Notre  Dame . 

Earlham  College . . . 

St.  Meinrad  College . . . 

Taylor  University _ _ _ 

Indian  University . 

Henry  Kendall  College. . 

Coe  College . . . . 

Charles  City  College. . . . 

Wartburg  College . 

Amity  College . . . 

Luther  College. . . 

Des  Moines  College  . . 

Drake  University . . . 


Effingham,  Ill. 
Elmhurst,  Ill. 

Eureka,  III. 

Evanston,  Ill. 

Ewing,  Ill. 

Fulton,  Ill. 

Galesburg,  Ill. 

Do. 

Greenville,  Ill. 
Jacksonville,  Ill. 

Lake  Forest,  Ill. 
Lebanon,  Ill. 

Lincoln,  Ill. 
Monmouth,  Ill. 
Naperville,  111. 

Peru,  Ill. 

Quincy,  Ill. 

Rock  island.  Ill. 
Teutopolis,  Ill. 

LTpijer  Alton,  Ill 
Westfield,  Ill. 
Wheaton,  Ill. 
Bloomington,  Ind. 
Crawfordsville,  Ind. 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 
Franklin,  Ind. 
Greeneastle,  Ind. 
Hanover,  ind. 
Irvington,  Ind. 
Merom,  Ind. 

Moores  Hill,  Ind. 
Notre  Dame,  Ind. 
Richmond,  Ind. 

St.  Meinrad,  Ind. 
Upland,  Ind. 

Bacone,  Ind.  T. 
Muscogee,  Ind.  T. 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa. 
Charles  City,  Iowa. 
Clinton,  Iowa. 

College  Springs,  Iowa. 
Decorah,  Iowa. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Do. 


St.  Joseph’s  College . . . 

Parsons'  College . 

Upper  Iowa  University _ _ 

Iowa  College . . 

Lenox  College.. . . 


Dubuque,  Iowa. 
Fairfield,  Iowa. 
Fayette,  Iowa. 
Grinnell,  Iowa. 
Hopkinton,  Iowa. 


ED  1901- 


■76 


1202  EDUCATION  .REPORT,  1900-1901. 

III.— College  Presidents— Continued. 

I.  —Colleges  for  men  and  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts — Continued, 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Charles  E  Shelton,  A.  M. . . 

Geo.  E.  MacLean,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D._ 

Herbert  S.  Salisbury,  B.  S . 

Carlyl9  Summerbeli,  A.  M - 

Rev.  E.  S.  Havighorst,  D.  D_ . 

Rev.  John  W.  Hancher,  S.T.D-,- 
Rev.  Wm.  F.  King,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. . . 

A.  Rosenberger,  A.  B. ,  LL.  B . 

L.  A. Garrison,  A. B.,  vice  pres... 

Rev.  W.  S.  Lewis,  D.  D . 

Rev.  E.  E.  Reed,  A.  M . 

Rev.  J.  Gordon,  D.  D. ,  acting . 

Rev.  L.  Bookwalter,  D.  D . . 

Rev.  Jacob  A.  Clutz,  D.  D- . 

Rev.  I.  Wolf,  O.S.B.,D.D _ 

Rev.  L.  H.  Murlin,  D.  D _ 

Rev. E.H.  Vaughan. Ph. D., D. D  . 

Rev.  J.C.  Miller,  D.D- . 

Amos  A.  Davis,  A.  M . 

E.  N.  Johnson,  A.  M.,  C.  E _ 

Rev.  D.  S.  Stephens,  D.  D.,  chan¬ 
cellor. 

Frank  Strong,  Ph.  D  . . . 

Rev.  J.D.  Broke,  D.D . . . 

T.  W.  Bellingham,  Ph.  D . . . . . 

Rev.  C.  A.  Swensson,  Ph.  D.,D.  D.| 

J.D.S.  Riggs,  Ph.D.,L.H.D _ 

Rev.  James  McCabe,  S.  J _ 

Rev.  Milton  E.  Phillips,  D.D . 

Rev. F.  M.  Spencer,  D.D. . 


Rev. IN.  J. Morrison,  D. D., lL. D. 

Rev.  A.  W.  Meyer . . . 

Rev.  Frederic  C.  Demorest,  D.D. 

Rev.  J.  P.  Faulkner,  A.  M  . . 

Rev.  Wm.  G.  Frost,  Ph.  D  . . 

Wm.  A.  Obenchain,  A.  M . 

Rev.  Wm.  C.  Roberts,  D.  D.,  LL.D 

Rev.  Baron  D.  Gray,  D.  D . .. 

Rev.  J.  H.  Burnett,  A.  M. . 

A.  C.  Kuykendall,  A.  B  . . ...I 

Rev.  Burris  A.  J enkins,  A.  M. .  B.D 
J.  K.  Patterson,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D___ 

Rev.  E.  S.  Alderman,  D.  D_ . 

Rev.  David  Fennessy,  C.  R . 

Rev.  John  L.  Weber,  D.D . 

Thomas  D.  Boyd,  LL.  D . --- 

Rev.  M.  Thouvenin,  S.  M _ 

Rev.  I.  W.  Cooper,  D.  D. . I 

Rev.  John  Brislan,  S.  J . . 

R.  W.  Perkins,  Ph.  D . j 

Frederic  H.  Knight,  Ph.  D. . 

Oscar  Atwood,  A.  M . . 

E.  A.  Alderman,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  Wm.  D.  Hyde,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  G.  C.  Chase,  D.  D.,  LL.  D  .. 

George  E.  Fellows,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  Charles  L.  White,  A.  M _ 

Thomas  Fell,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D _ 

Ira Remsen,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Rev.  JohnF.  Quirk,  S.  J . 


Charles  W.  Reid,  Ph.  D . . 

R.  W.  Silvester . . 

Rev.  Brother  Abraham. . 

Rev.  C.  B.  Schrantz,  S.  S  _ 

Rev.  Win.  L.  O’Hai’a,  LL.  D _ 

Rev.  James  Fraser,  Ph.  D _ 

Rev.  Thomas  H.  Lewis,  D.  D _ 

Rev.  George  Harris,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Rev.  W.  G.  R.  Mullan,  S.  J . 

Rev.  Wm.  F.  Warren,  LL.  D _ 

Charles  W.  Eliot,  LL.  D . . 

Re v .  Samuel  H.  Lee ,  A.  M . . . 

Rev.  ElmerH.  Capen,  D.D.,LL.D. 

Rev.  Henry  Hopkins,  D.  D. . . 

G.  Stanley  Hall ,  Ph.  D. ,  LL.  D . . . . 
Rev.  Joseph  F.  Hanselman,  S.  J  . . 
Rev.  David  Jones, D.  D . 


Simpson  College . . 

State  University  of  Iowa . 

Graceland  College . . . 

Palmer  College . . . 

German  College . . . . 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University . 

Cornell  College . 

Penn  College . . . . 

Central  University  of  Iowa  . . 

Morningside  College . . 

Buena  Vista  College. . . . 

Tabor  College . . . 

Western  College . . 

Midland  College _ _ 

St.  Benedict’s  College . . 

Baker  University . . . . . 

Soule  College . . 

College  of  Emporia . 

Highland  University . 

Campbell  University . . . 

Kansas  City  University  . . 

University  of  Kansas . 

Lane  University . . 

Kansas  Christian  College . 

Bethany  College . . . 

Ottawa  University  . . 

St.  Mary’s  College . . 

Kansas  Wesleyan  University . 

Cooper  Memorial  College . 

Washburn  College - 

Fairmount  College. . . 

St.  John’s  Lutheran  College . 

Southwest  Kansas  College . 

Union  College . 

Berea  College . 

0gd6n  College . . . 

Central  University  of  Kentucky.... 

Georgetown  College . 

Liberty  College . 

South  Kentucky  College . . 

Kentucky  University . . 

State  College  of  Kentucky . . 

Bethel  College. . . 

St.  Mary’s  College . 

Kentucky  Wesleyan  College  . . . 

Louisiana  State  University . 

Jefferson  College . 

Centenary  College  of  Louisiana _ 

College  of  the  Immaculate  Concep¬ 
tion. 

Leland  University . 

New  Orleans  University _ 

Straight  University  ...“. . 

Tulane  University . . 

Bowdoin  College . . . . 

Bates  College  . . . 

University  of  Maine . . 

Colby  College . . . . 

St.  John’s  College . 

Johns  Hopkins  University . 

Loyola  College . 

Morgan  College . . . . . . 

Washington  College  . . 

Maryland  Agricultural  College _ 

Rock  Hill  College . . 

St.  Charles  College . 

Mount  St.  Mary’s  College . 

New  Windsor  College  . . . 

Western  Maryland  College . . 

Amherst  College . . . . 

Boston  College . . . 

Boston  University . . . 

Harvard  University. . . . 

French- American  College . 

Tufts  College . 

W illiam3  College . . . . 

Clark  University . . . 

College  of  the  Holy  Cross . 

Adrian  College . 


Address. 


Indianola,  Iowa. 

Iowa  City,  Iowa. 
Lamoni,  Iowa. 
Legrand,  Iowa. 

Mount  Pleasant,  Iowa. 
Do. 

Mount  Vernon,  Iowa. 
Oskaloosa,  Iowa. 

Pella,  Iowa. 

Sioux  City,  Iowa. 
Storm  Lake,  Iowa. 
Tabor,  Iowa. 

Toledo,  Iowa. 
Atchison,  Kans. 

Do. 

Baldwin,  Kans. 

Dodge  City,  Kans. 
Emporia,  Kans. 
Highland,  Kans. 
Holton,  Kans. 

Kansas  City,  Kans. 

Lawrence,  Kans. 
Lecompton,  Kans. 
Lincoln,  Kans. 
Lindsborg,  Kans. 
Ottawa,  Kans. 

St.  Marys,  Kans. 
Salina,  Kans. 

Sterling,  Kans. 
Topeka,  Kans. 
Wichita,  Kans. 
Winfield,  Kans. 

Do. 

Barbourville,  Ky. 
Berea,  Ky. 

Bowling  Green,  Ky. 
Danville,  Ky. 
Georgetown,  Ky. 
Glasgow,  Ky. 
Hopkinsville,  Ky. 
Lexington,  Ky. 

Do. 

Russellville,  Ky. 

St.  Marys,  Ky. 
Winchester,  Ky. 

Baton  Rouge,  La. 
Convent,  La. 

Jackson,  La. 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Brunswick,  Me. 
Lewiston,  Me. 

Orono,  Me. 

Water ville,  Me. 
Annapolis,  Md. 
Baltimore,  Md. 

Do. 

Do. 

Chestertown,  Md. 
College  Park,  Md. 
Ellicott  City,  Md. 

Do. 

Mount  St.  Marys,  Md. 
New  Windsor,  Md. 
Westminster,  Md. 
Amherst,  Mass. 
Boston,  Mass. 

Do. 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
Springfield,  Mass. 
Tufts  College,  Mass. 
Williamstown,  Mass. 

I  Worcester,  Mass. 

Do. 

1  Adrian,  Mich. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIKECTORY 


1203 


III. — College  Presidents— Con  tinned. 

I. — Colleges  for  men  and  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


Samuel  Dickie,  LL.D  . . . 

Rev.  August  F.  Bruske.D.  D - 

James  B.  Angell,  LL.  D._ . .. 

Rev.  James  L>.  Foley,  S.  J - 

O.  H.  Gurney,  A.  M  - - - 

Gerrit  J.  Kollen,  LL.D - - - 

A. G. Slocum,  LL.D . . . . 

Rev.  W.  G.  Sperry, D.  D  . . . 

Rev.  P.  Engel,  O.  S.  B. ,  Ph.  D . . 

Georg  Sverdrup _ _ _ 

Cyrus  Northrop,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  Wm.H.  Sallmon . - . . 

Rev.  John  N.  Kildahl.  . . . .. 

Rev.  Geo.  H.  Bridgman,  D.  D., 


Albion  College . . 

Alma  College _ _ 

University  of  Michigan . . 

Detroit  College _ . _ 

Hillsdale  College _  .... 

Hope  College — . . 

Kalamazoo  College . 

Olivet  College _ 

St.John’s  University _ 

Augsburg  Seminary _ 

University  of  Minnesota 

Carleton  College . 

St.  Olaf  College _ 

Hamline  University . 


Albion,  Mich. 
Alma,  Mich. 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 
Detroit,  Mich. 
Hillsdale,  Mich. 
Holland,  Mich. 
Kalamazoo,  Mich. 
Olivet,  Mich. 
Collegeville,  Minn. 
Minneanolis,  Minn. 
Do.  ‘ 

Northfield,  Minn. 
Do. 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 


LL.D. 

James  W allace,  Ph.  D . . 

Rev.  M.  Wahlstrom,  Ph.  D  . . 

R.  M.  Lawrence,  A.  M  . . . 

Rev.  Win.  T.  Lowrey,  D.  D  . . 

Rev.  Wm.  W.  Foster,  jr.,D.  D - 

Rev.  W.  B.  Murrah,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. . 
R.  B.  Fulton.  LL.  D.,  chancellor .  - 

J.  W.  Ellis,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  R.  E.  L .  Burks,  D.  D  - . . 

Charles  R.  Wakeland,  B.  S  - . J 

Rev.  B.  W.  Baker, Ph.  D.,  D.  D....I 

D.  R.  Dungan,  LL.  D. . . 

Rev.  J.  Layton,  C.  M . . . 

Rev.  J.E.  Dillard,  A.  B _ 

Richard  H.  Jesse, LL.D . 

Rev.  Geo.  W.  Mitchell,  D.  D _ i 

T.  B.  Smith,  A.  M.,  acting . I 

J.  H.  MacCracken,  Ph.  D _ 

Rev.  C.  C.  Hemenway,  Ph.  D - 1 

Jere  T.  Muir,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  J.  P.  Green©,  D.  D.,  LL.  D  J 

Rev.  Wm.  H.  Black,  D.  D . ... 

W.  W.  Thomas - - J 

Rev.  J.  B.  Ellis . . . J 

L.  H.  Gehman . . . . 

L.  M.  McAfee,  A.  M.,  chairman  J 
Rev.  Brother  Baldwin,  F.  S.  C... 

Rev.  W.  B.  Rogers,  S.  J _ _ 

W.  S.  Chaplin,  LL.  D., chancellor . 
Rev.  Homer  T.  Fuller, Ph.D.,D.D 

Rev.  J.  A.  Thompson,  D.  D . 

Geo.  McA.  Miller . . 

Geo.  B.  Addieks,  A .  M . . . 

Rev.  J.  W.  Morris,  Ph.  D _ _ _ 

Oscar  J.  Craig,  Ph.  D  . . . 

Rev.  D.  R.  Kerr.  Ph.  D„  D.  D . 

W.  P.  Aylsworth,  LL.  D  . . 

Lewis  A.  Hoopes . — . 

Rev.  David  B.  Perry,  D.D _ 

Rev.  Geo.  Sutherland,  D.  D - 

Wm .  N .  Filson ,  A.B _ 

Rev.  E.  B.  Andrews,  D.  D.,LL.D. , 


Macalester  College - - - 

Gustavus  Adolphus  College . . 

Parker  College . . . . . 

Mississippi  College. . . 

Rust  University  . . . . 

Millsaps  College - - - 

University  of  Mississippi . 

Central  Christian  College . . . 

Southwest  Baptist  College . . 

Pike  College _ _ _ 

Missouri  Wesleyan  College . . . 

Christian  University - - 

St.  Vincent  College  . . . . . 

Clarksburg  College - - 

University  of  the  State  of  Missouri- 
Grand  River  Christian  Union  Col¬ 
lege. 

Central  College - - 

Westminster  College. . 

Pritchett  College . 

Lagrange  College . . . . . 

William  Jeweli  College  . . 

Missouri  Valley  College . 

Morrisville  College . . . . 

Scarritt  Collegiate  Institute . . 

Odessa  College _ _ 

Park  College - - - - - 

Christian  Brothers  College . ..[ 

St.  Louis  University. . . 

Washington  University . . 

Drury  College _ _ _ 

Tarkio  College . . . - 

Ruskin  College . 

Central  Wesleyan  College . 

Montana  Wesleyan  University - 

University  of  Montana... - - 

University  of  Omaha.. . . . . . 

Cotner  University - - - - 

Union  College . . . 

Doane  College _ _ 

Grand  Island  College . . . 

Hastings  College . 

University  of  Nebraska . 


Do. 

St.  Peter,  Minn. 
Winnebago  City,  Alina, 
Clinton,  Miss. 

Holly  Springs,  Miss. 
Jackson,  Miss. 
University,  Miss. 
Albany,  Mo. 

Bolivar,  Mo. 

Bowling  Green,  Mo. 
Cameron,  Mo. 

Canton,  Mo. 

Cape  Girardeau,  la 
Clarksburg,  Mo. 
Columbia,  Mo. 
Edinburg.  Mo. 

Fayette,  Mo. 

Fulton,  Mo. 

Glasgow,  Mo. 
Lagrange,  Mo. 

Liberty,  Mo. 

Marshall,  Mo. 
Morrisville,  Mo. 
Neosho,  Mo. 

Odessa,  Mo. 

Parkville,  Mo. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Do. 

Do. 

Springfield,  Mo. 

Tarkio,  Mo. 

Trenton,  Mo. 
Warrenton,  Mo. 
Helena,  Mont. 
Missoula,  Mont. 
Bellevue,  Nebr. 
Betbany,  Nebr. 

College  View,  Nebr. 
Crete,  Nebr. 

Grand  Island,  Nebr. 
Hastings,  Nebr. 
Lincoln,  Nebr. 


chancellor. 

Rev.  M.  P.  Dowling,  S.  J  . . . 

Rev.  D.  W.  C.  Huntington,  D.  D. 
LL.  D.,  chancellor. 

Wm.E.  Schell,  A.  M . 

Rev.  J.E.  Stubbs.  D.D. ,  LL.D _ 

Rev.  W.  J.  Tucker,  D.  D.,  LL.  D  . . 

Rev.  Abbot  Hilary,  O.  S.  B . . 

Rev.  J  oseph  Zwinge,  S.  J . 

Rev.  G.  Bien,0.  S.  B. ,  director _ 

Austin  Scott,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D . 

Woodrow  Wilson,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D_. 

Rev.  John  A.  Stafford,  S.T.  L _ 

William  G.  Tight,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  B.  C.  Davis.  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  Joseph  F.  Butler,  O.  F.  M  ... 

Rev.  Lawrenee  T.  Cole,  Ph.  D _ 

C.  H.  Levermore.  Ph.  D . 

Henry  S.  Snow,  LL.  D . 

Brother  Jerome,  O.  S.  F . 

Rev.  Patrick  McHale,  C.  M . . 

Rev.  John  B.  Theis,  S.  J . . 


Creighton  University _ _  Omaha,  Nebr. 

Nebraska  Wesleyan  University....  University  Place,  Nebr, 


Y ork  College . . . . . : 

State  University  of  Nevada . . 

Dartmouth  College . __ . 

St.  Anselm’s  College _ 

St.  Peter’s  College . . 

St.  Benedict’s  College  . . 

Rutgers  College . . . 

Princeton  University . . . 

Seton  Hall  College . . . . . 

University  of  New  Mexico. . 

Alfred  University _ 

St.  Bonaventure’s  College . . 

St.  Stephen’s  College . . 

Adelphi  College . . 

Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn. . 

St.  Francis  College _ _ _ _ _ 

St.John’s  College . . . 

CanisiusCoilege . . .  — 


York,  Nebr. 

Reno,  N  ev. 

Hanover,  N.  EL 
Manchester,  N.  H. 
Jersev  City,N.  J. 
Newark,  N.J. 

New  Brunswick,  N.J. 
Princeton,  N.  J. 

South  Orange, N.J. 
Albuquerque,  N.  Mex. 
Alfred,  N.Y. 
Allegany,  N.  Y. 
Annandale,  N.  Y. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


1204  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

/^v  ,  .  » 

III. — College  Presidents— Continued. 

I. — Colleges  for  men  and  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


Rev.  Almon  Gunnison,  D.  D . 

Rev.  M.  W.  Stryker,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Rev.  Robert  E.  Jones,  S.  T.  D _ 

Rev. Geo.  E.  Merrill,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

J.  G.  Schurraan,  Sc.  D.,  LL.  D - 

Rev.  D.W.  Hearn,  S.J . 

Alexander  S.  Webb,  LL.  D . 

Nicholas  M. Butler, Ph.D., LL.D. 

Rev.  Brother  Jerome,  F.  S.  C . 

Rev.  Geo.  A.  Pettit,  S.J . 

Rev.  H.  M.  MacCracken,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  chancellor. 

Rev.  W.  F.  Likly,  C.  M . 

Rev.  Rush  Rhees,  D.  D . 

Rev.  A.  V .  V.  Raymond,  D.  D _ 

Rev.  J.  R.  Day,  S.T.  D.,  LL.  D., 
chancellor. 

Rev.  Leo  Haid,  D.  D.,  O.  S.  B . . 

F.P.  Venable, Ph.D  . . . 

Rev.  D.  J.  Sanders,  D.D . 

Henry  L.  Smith, Ph.D . 

Rev.  John  C.  Kilgo, D.D . 

Rev.  W.W.  Staley,  D.D . 

L.  Lyndon  Hobbs,  A.  M . 

Rev.  R.  L.  Fritz,  A.  M . 


C.  H.  Mebane . 

Chas.  F.  Meserve,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  William  H.  Goler,  D.  D . 

Rev.  C.  E.  Taylor,  D.  D.,  Litt.  B.  _ . 

James  M.  Robeson . 

Rev.  John  H.  Morley ,  LL.  D . 

W.  Merrifield,  A.M . 

Rev.  E.  P.  Robertson,  D.  D . 

Rev.  A.  B.  Church,  A.M . 

Rev.  Albert  B.  Riker.  D.  D . 

Alston  Ellis,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  R.  M.  Freshwater, D.D . 

Rev.  C.  Riemenschneider,  Ph.  D., 
D.D. 

Rev.  David  McKinney, D.D . 

Rev.  Albert  A.  Dierckes,  S.  J _ 

Howard  Ayers, Ph.D., LL.D _ 

Re  v.  J  ohn  I .  Zahm,  S.J . 

Rev.  C.  F.  Thwing,  D.  D. ,  LL.  D. . . 

Rev.  L.  H.  Schuh,  Ph.  D. . . 

Rev.  W.  O.  Thompson,  D.  D., 
LL.D. 

Rev.  J.  R. H. Latchaw, D.D . 

Rev.  J.  W.Bashford, Ph.D., D.D. 

Rev.  C.  Manchester, D.D . 

Rev.  Wm.  F.  Peirce,  L.  H.  D . 

Rev.  Emory  W.  Hunt,  D.  D . 


Rev.  S.  P.  Long,  A.M  . . 

Alfred  T.  Perry,  A.  M . . . 

Robert  B.  Spicer,  A.  B . 

Rev.  Jesse  Johnson,  D.D. . 


Rev.  Guy  P.  Benton,  D.D _ 

Rev.  G.  W.  MacMillan,  Ph.  D., 
D.D. 

Rev.  J.  M.  Davis,  Ph.  D. ,  D.  D . 


Rev.  Charles  E.  Miller,  D.  D . 

George  Scott,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D _ 

Rev.  Joshua  H.  Jones,  D.D . 

James  B.  Unthank,  M.  S . 

Rev.  Louis  E.  Holden,  D.D . 

Hon.  Wm.  A.  Bell  A.  M . . 

D.R.  Boyd, Ph.D . 

Wallace  H.  Lee,  A.  M . 

Rev.  C.C. Poling, Ph.D. . 


Wm.  N.  Ferrin,  A.  M.,  dean . 

Rev.  H.  L.  Boardman,  A.  M _ 

Edwin  McGrew,  M.  S . 

P.  O.  Bonebrake,  A.M _ _ 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


St.  Lawrence  University . 

Hamilton  College . 

Hobart  College . 

Colgate  University . 

Cornell  University . . . 

College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier _ 

College  of  the  City  of  New  Y ork .... 

Columbia  University . 

Manhattan  College . 

St.  John’s  College . 

New  York  University . 


Canton,  N.  Y. 
Clinton,  N.Y. 
Geneva,  N.  Y. 
Hamilton,  N.  Y. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
New  York,  N.  Y. 
Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


Niagara  University . 

University  of  Rochester 

Union  College . 

Syracuse  University .... 


NiagaraUniversity,N.Y 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


St.  Mary’s  College . 

University  of  North  Carolina 

Biddle  University  . . 

Davidson  College . 

Trinity  College . 

Elon  College . . 

Guilford  College. . 

Lenoir  College . . 

North  Carolina  College . 

Catawba  College. . 

Shaw  University . 

Livingstone  College . . 

Wake  Forest  College . 

Weaver ville  College . 

Fargo  College . 

University  of  North  Dakota  .. 
Red  River  Valley  University  . 

Buchtel  College . 

Mount  Union  College . 

Ohio  University  . . . . . 

Baldwin  University . 

German  Wallace  College . . 

Cedarville  College . 

St.  Xavier  College . . 

University  of  Cincinnati . 

St.  Ignatius  College . 

|  Western  Reserve  University  . 

j  Capital  University . 

Ohio  State  University . 


Belmont.  N.  C. 

Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. 
Charlotte,  N.  C. 
Davidson,  N.  C. 
Durham,  N.  C. 

Elon  College,  N.  C. 
Guilford  College,  N.  C. 
Hickory,  N.  C. 

Mount  Pleasant,  N.  U. 
Newton,  N.  C. 

Raleigh,  N.  C. 
Salisbury,  N .  C. 

Wake  Forest,  N.  C. 
Weaverville,  N.  C. 
Fargo,  N.  Dak. 
University,  NT.  Dak. 
Wahpeton,  N.  Dak. 
Akron,  Ohio. 

Alliance,  Ohio. 

Athens,  Ohio. 

Berea,  Ohio. 

Do. 

Cedarville,  Ohio. 
Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Do. 

Cleveland ,  Ohio. 

Do. 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

Do. 


|  Defiance  College . 

I  Ohio  Wesleyan  University 

Findlay  College . . 

Kenyon  College . . 

Denison  University . . 

Hiram  College . 

Lima  College.. . . 

Marietta  College . 

Franklin  College. . 

Muskingum  College - 

Oberlin  College . 

Miami  University . 

Richmond  College . 


Defiance  Ohio. 
Delaware,  Ohio. 
Findlay,  Ohio. 
Gambier,  Ohio. 
Granville,  Ohio. 
Hiram,  Ohio. 

Lima,  Ohio. 
Marietta,  Ohio. 

New  Athens,  Ohio. 
New  Concord,  Ohio. 
Oberlin,  Ohio. 
Oxford,  Ohio. 
Richmond,  Ohio. 


Rio  Grande  College . 

Scio  College . 

Wittenberg  College . 

Heidelberg  University . . 
Otterbein  University.... 
Wilberforce  University . 

Wilmington  College . 

University  of  Wooster  .. 

Antioch  College . 

University  of  Oklahoma 

Albany  College . . 

Dallas  College . 

University  of  Oregon  ... 

Pacific  University . 

McMinnville  College  .... 

Pacific  College . 

Philomath  College . 


Rio  Grande,  Ohio. 
Scio,  Ohio. 
Springfield,  Ohio. 
Tiffin,  Ohio. 
Westerville,  Ohio. 
Wilberforce,  Ohio. 
Wilmington,  Ohio. 
Wooster,  Ohio. 

Y  ellowsprings,  Ohio. 
Norman,  Okla. 
Albany,  Oreg. 

Dallas,  Oreg. 
Eugene,  Oreg. 
Forestgrove,  Oreg. 
McMinnville,  Oreg. 
N  ewberg,  Oreg. 
Philomath,  Oreg. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY. 


1205 


III. —College  Presidents— Continued. 

I. — Colleges  for  men  and  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


Willis  C.  Hawley,  A.  M . . 

John  A.  Brashear,  Sc.  D.,  acting 
chancellor. 

Rev.  Theodore  L.  Seip,  D.  D . 

Rev.  H.  U.  Roop,  Ph.  D - 

Rev.  Leander  Schnerr,  O.  S.  B  ... 

Rev.  Arthur  Staples,  A.  M . 

Rev.  W.  P.  Johnston,  D.  D - 

Rev.  Aug.  Schultz,  D.  D . 

Rev.  G.  E.  Reed,  D.  D.,  LL.  D . 

Col.  C.E.  Hyatt,  C.E . . . 

Rev.  Henry  T.  Spangler,  D.  D - 

Rev.  E.  D. Warfield,  LL.  D _ 

Rev.  H.  W.  McKnight,  D.  D., 
LL.  D. 

Rev.  Theo.  B.  Roth,  D.  D _ 

Rev.  I.  C.  Ketler,  Ph.  D. .  D.  D _ 

Isaac  Sharpless,  Sc.  D.,  LL. D - 

I.  H.  Brumbaugh,  A.  M. ,  acting. . . 

Rev.  J.  S.  Stahl”,  Ph.  D.,  D.  D_ . 

John  H.  Harris,  Ph.  D. ,  LL.  D - 

Rev.  Isaac  N.  Rendall,  D.  D . 

Rev.  Wm.  H.  Crawford,  D.  D _ 

Rev.  James  D.  Woodring,  A. M... 

Rev.  R.  G.  Ferguson,  D.  D - 

Rev.  R.  E.  Thompson,  S.  T.  D - 

Brother  Wolf  red . . 

C.  C.  Harrison,  LL.  D. ,  provost. . . 

Rev.  M.  A.  Hehir,  C.  S.  Sp . 

Rev.  George  W.  Enders,  D.  D _ 

Thomas  M.  Drown,  LL.  D . 

G.  W.  Atherton,  LL.D . 

Joseph  Swain,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  L.  A.  Delurey,  O.  S.  A _ 

C.F.  Ball,  A.  M . . 

Rev.  J.  D.  Moffat,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. ... 

A.  E.  Turner,  A.  M . 

Rev.  W.  H.  P.  Faunce,  D.  D  . . 

Harrison  Randolph,  LL.  D . 

A.  E.  Spencer,  A.  M . . . 


Rev.D.H.  Johnson,  D.D . 

F.  C.  Woodward,  Litt.  D . 

Rev.  Francis  Y. Pressly, D.D _ 

A.  P.  Montague,  Ph.  D. ,  LL.  D _ 

Geo.  B.  Cromer,  A.  M . 

Rev.  L.  M.  Dunton,  D.D . 

Henry  N.  Snyder,  A.  M . . 

Rev.  C.  H.  French,  D.  D . . 

Rev.  W.  I.  Graham,  D.D . 

Rev.  I.  P.  Patch . 

Garrett  Droppers,  A.  B . 

Rev.  H.  K.  Warren,  A.  M . 


Rev.  A.  G.  Buckner,  D.  D.,  LL.  D  . 
Rev.  George  Summey,  D.  D., 
chancellor. 

Rev.  Samuel  A.  Coile,  D.  D . 

Rev.  J.  F.  Spence,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 
chancellor. 


Willamette  University _ 

Western  University  of  Pennsylva¬ 
nia. 

Muhlenberg  College . . . 

Lebanon  Y alley  College . . . 

St.  Vincent  College . 

Beaver  College . . 

Geneva  College . . 

Moravian  College . 

Dickinson  College  . . . . 

Pennsylvania  Military  College . 

Ursinus  College . . . 

Lafayette  College . . . . 

Pennsylvania  College . . 


Salem,  Oreg. 
Allegheny,  Pa. 

Allentown,  Pa.  ’ 
Annville,  Pa. 
Beatty,  Pa. 
Beaver,  Pa. 
Beaverfalls,  Pa. 
Bethlehem,  Pa.  } 
Carlisle,  Pa.  ^ 
Chester,  Pa. 
College  ville,  Pa. 
Easton,  Pa. 
Gettysburg,  Pa. 


Thiel  College . - . 

Grove  City  College . 

Haverf  ord  College - - - - 

Juniata  College . . . . . 

Franklin  and  Marshall  College . 

Bucknell  University . 

Lincoln  University . 

Allegheny  College _ _ _ _ 

Albright  College . . . 

Westminster  College . 

Central  High  School . . 

La  Salle  College . . 

University  of  Pennsylvania . 

Holy  Ghost  College . . . 

Susquehanna  University . 

Lehigh  University . 

Pennsylvania  State  College . 

Swarthmore  College . . 

Villanova  College . 

Volant  College . 

Washington  and  Jefferson  College  . 

Waynesburg  College . . . 

Brown  University . . . 

College  of  Charleston . 

Presbyterian  College  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina. 

Allen  University . 

South  Carolina  College . 

Erskine  College . . 

Furman  University.... . . . 

Newberry  College . 

Claflin  University . 

Wofford  College . . . 

Huron  College . . . 

Dakota  University . 

Redfield  College . . . . 

University  of  South  Dakota  . . 

Yankton  College . 

U.  S.  Grant  University . 

King  College . . . 

Southwestern  Presbyterian  Uni¬ 
versity. 

Greeneville  and  Tusculum  College. 
American  University  of  Harriman. 


Greenville,  Pa. 

Grove  City,  Pa. 

Haver  ford,  Pa. 
Huntingdon,  Pa. 
Lancaster,  Pa. 
Lewisburg,  Pa. 

Lincoln  University,  Pa. 
Meadville,  Pa. 
Myerstown,  Pa. 

New  Wilmington,  Pa. 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Do. 

Do. 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Selinsgrove,  Pa. 

South  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
State  College,  Pa. 
Swarthmore,  Pa. 
Villanova,  Pa. 

Volant,  Pa. 

Washington,  Pa. 
Waynesburg,  Pa. 
Providence,  R.  I. 
Charleston,  S.  C. 

Clinton,  S.  C. 

Columbia,  S.  C. 

Do. 

Duewest,  S.  C. 
Greenville,  S.  C. 
Newberry,  S.  C. 
Orangeburg,  S.  C. 
Spartanburg,  S.  C. 
Huron,  S.  Dak. 

Mitchell,  S.  Dak. 
Redfield,  S.  Dak. 
Vermilion,  S.  Dak. 
Yankton,  S.  Dak. 
Athens,  Tenn. 

Bristol,  Tenn. 
Clarksville,  Tenn. 

Greeneville,  Tenn. 
Harriman,  Tenn. 


Rev.  J.  E.  Lowery,  A.  M . 

G.  M.  Savage,  LL.  D . 

J.  T.PIenaerson,  A.M . . 

Rev.  R.  V .  McGranaJmn,  D.D,.. 
Chas.  W.  Dabney,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D  .. 

N.  Green,  LL.  D.,  chancellor _ 

Rev.  James  T.  Cooter,  A.  M . 

Rev.  B.  G.  Mitchell,  A.  M _ 

Rev.  Samuel  F.  Wilson,  D.  D - 

Brother  Anthony . 

J.  Hopwood,  A.  M . . 

Rev.  James  G.  Merrill,  D.  D . 

Rev.  Peter  B.  Guernsey,  A.  M _ 

James  D.  Porter,  LL.  D . 

James  H.  Kirkland,  Ph.  D.,  LL. 
D. ,  chancellor. 

Rev.  Jay  B.  Hamilton,  D.D _ 

B.  Lawton  Wiggins,  LL.  D.,  vice- 
chancellor. 

W.  N.  Billingsley,  A.  M _ 


Hiwassee  College . 

Southwestern  Baptist  University.. 

Carson  and  Newman  College . 

Knoxville  College . 

University  of  Tennessee . 

Cumberland  University. . . 

Washington  College . 

Bethel  College . . 

Maryville  College . 

Christian  Brothers  College . 

Milligan  College . 

Fisk  University . 

Roger  Williams  University . 

University  of  Nashville . . 

Vanderbilt  University . . 


Hiwassee  College,  Tenn. 
Jackson,  Tenn. 

Jefferson  City,  Tenn. 
Knoxville,  Tenn. 

Do. 

Lebanon,  Tenn. 
Limestone,  Tenn. 
McKenzie,  Tenn. 
Maryville,  Tenn. 
Memphis,  Tenn. 
Milligan,  Tenn. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


Walden  University . 

University  of  the  South 


Do. 

Sewanee,  Tenn. 


Burritt  College 


Spencer,  Tenn. 


1206 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 
III. — College  Presidents— Continued. 


III. — College  Presidents— Continued. 

I. — Colleges  for  men  and,  coeducational  colleges  of  liberal  arts — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


J.  B.  Reed . . 

Rev.  John  T.  Boland,  C.  S.  C  .... 

Wm.  L.  Prather,  LL.  D. . 

J.  H.  Grove,  A.  M  - . 

T.  H.  Bridges  . . . - . 

Rev.  Oscar  L.  Fisher,  D.  D - 

G.  J.  Nunn,  A.  M-. . 

Rev.  A.  Guyol,  S.J.. . . 

Robert  S.  Hyer,  LL.  D.,  regent  .. 

W.  I.  Gibson,  A.  M . . . 

Ely  V.  Zollars,  LL.  D _ _ 

Rev.  M.  W.  Dogan,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  John  Wolf . . 

Rev.  Thomas  S.  Clyce,  D.  D . 

Jesse  Anderson,  Ph.D  . . 

Samuel  P.  Brooks,  A.  M . 

Rev.  I.  M.  Burgan,  I).  D . 

James  H.  Linford,  B.  S . 

Rev.  George  Bailey . . 

Joseph  T.  Kingsbury,  Ph.  D., 
Sc.  D. 


Sweetwater  College . 

St.  Edward’s  College . 

University  of  Texas . 

Howard  Payne  College . 

Henry  College  . . 

Fort  Worth  University . 

Polytechnic  College  . . 

St.  Mary’s  University . 

Southwestern  University. .. 

Burleson  College  . . . 

Texas  Christian  University 

Wiley  University . 

St. Louis  College.. . . 

Austin  College  . . . 

Trinity  University . 

Baylor  University . 

Paul  Quinn  College . 

Brigham  Young  College _ 

Sheldon  Jackson  College .... 
University  of  Utah . 


Sweetwater,  Tenn. 
Austin,  Tex. 

Do. 

Brownwood,  Tex. 
Campbell,  Tex. 

Fort  W orth,  Tex. 

Do. 

Galveston,  Tex. 
Georgetown,  Tex. 
Greenville,  Tex. 
Hermoson,  Tex. 
Marshall.  Tex. 

San  Antonio,  Tex. 
Sherman,  Tex. 
Tehuacana,  Tex. 
Waco,  Tex. 

Do. 

Logan,  Utah. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
Do. 


Rev.  M.  H.  Buckham,D.D . 

Ezra  Brainerd,  LL.  D - - 

Rev.  Allan  D.  Brown,  LL.  D . 

Robert  E.  Blackwell,  Ph.  D . 

W.  B.  Yount . 

P.  B.  Barringer,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 
chairman. 

Rev.  R.  G.  Waterhouse,  D.  D - 

Rev.  J.  W.  Rosebro,  D.  D _ 

Rev.  Richard  Mcllwaine,  D.  D  . . . 

George  H.  Denny,  Ph.  D . 

F.  W.  Boatwright,  LL.  D _ 

M.  MacVicar,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D- . 

Julius  D.Dreher, Ph.D  . . 

L.G.  Tyler,  LL.D . - 

A.  C.  Jones,  Ph.  D - - 

Frank  P.  Graves,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 
Litt.  D 


University  of  Vermont . . 

Middlebury  College . 

Norwich  University . 

Ran clolp h- Macon  College . . . 

Bridgewater  College . 

University  of  Virginia . . 


Burlington,  V  t. 
Middlebury,  Vt. 
Northfleld,  Vt. 
Ashland,  Va. 
Bridgewater.  Va. 
Charlottesville,  Va. 


Emory  and  Henry  College . 

Fredericksburg  College . .. 

Hampden- Sidney  College  . . 

Washington  and  Lee  University _ 

Richmond  College..- . . 

Virginia  Union  University.  — . 

Roanoke  College . . . 

College  of  William  and  Mary . 

Vashon  College . . 

University  of  Washington . 


Emory,  Va. 
Fredericksburg,  Va. 
Hampden-Sidney,  Va. 
Lexington,  Va. 
Richmond,  Va. 

Do. 

Salem,  Va. 
Williamsburg,  Va. 
Burton,  Wash. 
Seattle,  Wash. 


Rev.  J.Rebmann,S.  J  . 

Orman  C.  Palmer,  A.  M.,  acting. . 

F.B.  Gault, Ph.D . 

Brother  Zenonian . 

Rev.  S.  B.  L.  Penrose,  A.  B.,  B.  D  — 

D.  W.  Shaw,  A.  M . . . 

T.  E.  Cramblet  — . . . . 

D.  B.  Purinton,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D _ 

Rev. S.Plantz, Ph.D., D.D  . . 


Rev.  H.  A.  Muehlmeier,  D.  D 
Lars  M.  Gimmestad . 


Rev.  M.  J.  F.  Albrecht . . . 

Rev.  Alexander  J.  Burrowes, 
S.  J. 


Gonzaga  College . . 

Puget  Sound  University  - . 

Whitworth  College . 

St.  James  College . 

Whitman  College . 

Morris  Harvey  College 

Bethany  College . 

West  Virginia  University 

Lawrence  University . 

Beloit  College  — . 

Mission  House . 

Gale  College  . . 

University  of  Wisconsin .. 

Milton  College . . 

Concordia  College . 

Marquette  College . 


Spokane,  Wash. 
Tacoma,  Wash. 

Do. 

Vancouver,  Wash. 
Walla  Walla,  Wash. 
Barboursville,  W.  Va. 
Bethany,  W.  Va. 
Morgantown,  W.  Va. 
Appleton,  Wis. 

Beloit.  Wis. 

Franklin,  Wis. 
Galesville,  Wis. 
Madison,  Wis. 

Milton,  Wis. 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Do. 


Rev.  Richard  C.  Hughes,  A.  M 

Rev.  A.  F.  Ernst . . 

Rev. Elmer  E. Smiley, D.D . 


Ripon  College . . 

Northwestern  University 
University  of  Wyoming. .. 


Ripon,  Wis. 
Watertown,  Wis. 
Laramie,  Wyo. 


II. — Colleges  for  women . 


Rev.  Hiram  G.  Davis,  D.  D  . . 

Henry  Y .  Weissinger,  A.  M . 

Thos.  F.  Jones . 

Rev.  Robert  G. Patrick, D.D . 

Jas.  D.  Wade,  A.  M . 

Rev.  Frank  B.  Webb,  D.  D.. . 

E.H.Murfee,  LL.D . . 

Rev.  W.  F.  Melton,  Ph.  D . 

John  Massey,  LL.  D  . . 


Mrs.  C.T.  Mills . . 

Sister  Mary  Bernardine 

Sister  Lid  wine  . . 

Mrs,  M.  A.  Lipscomb _ 


Athens  Female  College . 

East  Lake  Athenaeum . . 

Union  Female  College . . 

Judson  Female  Institute . 

Marion  Female  Seminary. . . 

Isbell  College . 

Central  Female  College . . 

Tuscaloosa  Female  College . . 

Alabama  Conference  Female  College 

Central  Baptist  College  . . 

Mills  College . . . 

College  of  Notre  Dame . . 

Trinity  College . . . 

Lucy  Cobb  Institute . 


Athens,  Ala. 
Eastlake,  Ala. 
Eufaula,  Ala. 
Marion,  Ala. 

Do. 

Talladega,  Ala. 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala. 
Do. 

Tuskegee,  Ala. 
Conway.  Ark. 
Mills  College,  Cal. 
San  Jose,  Cal. 
Washington,  D.  C, 
Athens,  Ga. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY, 


1207 


III. — College  Presidents — Continued. 
II. — Colleges  for  women — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


.  Address. 


Chas.C.Cox,Ph.D  . . 

Rev.  Homer  Bush,  A.  M . 

Miss  Mabel  Head . 

C. H.S.  Jackson,  A. M  . . 

A.  W.  Van  Hoose,  chairman . 

Rufus  W.  Smith,  A.  M. . . 

Rev.G.  A.  Nunnally,  D.D . .. 

Rev.  J.  W.  Roberts, D.D . - 

T.  J.  Simmons,  A.  M . . 

Rev.  Joseph  R.  Barker,  Ph.  D  — 
Rev.  C.  W.  Leffingwell,  D.  D., 

rector. 

Emily  Reynolds _ _ _ 

Rev.  P.  R.  Millspaugh,  D.  D _ 

Rev.  Benj.  F.  Cabell . 

Rev.  J.  C.  Elv,  D.  D . 

Th.  Smith,  A.  M. . . . 

Rev.  Edmund  Harrison,  A.  M - 

B.  C.  Hagerman.  A.  M . 

H.  B.  McClellan,  Litt.  D. . 

Rev.  C.  C.  Fisher,  A.  M . 

Mrs.  J.  B.  Skinner. . 

Rev.  T.  S.  McCall,  A.  M  . . . 

W.  H.  Pritchett . 

B.  J.  Pinkerton . 

Rev.  P.  W.  Lewis... . 

G-.  W.  Thigpen,  A.  M . 

T.  S.  Sligh,  A.  M  — . 

Brandt  V.  B.  Dison,  LL.  D . 

Henry  E.  Trefethen,  A.  M.,  act¬ 
ing, 

O.  H.  Perry . . 

Mary  Meletia  of  Notre  Dame - 

Rev.  John  P.  Goucher,  D.  D . . . 

J.  H.  Apple,  A.  M . 

M.L.Maier.Ph.M _ _ _ 

Rev.  J.  H.  Turner,  A.  M. . . 

C.  C.  Bragdon,  A.  M . 

Miss  Agnes  Irwin,  dean . 

Rev.  L.  Clark  Seelye,  D.  D., 

LL.  D. 


Southern  Female  College _ 

Andrew  Female  College . . . 

Dalton  Female  College - - 

Monroe  Female  College - - 

Brenau  College . . 

Lagrange  Female  College. . . 

Southern  Female  College . . 

Wesleyan  Female  College . . . 

Shorter  College =. . . . . . 

Illinois  Woman’s  College. . . 

St.  Mary’s  School . 

Rockford  College _ _ _ _ 

College  of  the  Sisters  of  Bethany. .. 

Potter  College . . . 

Caldwell  College _ _ _ 

Beaumont  College  . . . . 

Bethel  Female  College _ 

Hamilton  Female  College . 

Sayre  Female  Institute . . 

Millersburg  Female  College.... _ 

Jessamine  Female  Institute . 

Owensboro  Female  College . . 

Logan  Female  College. . 

Stanford  Female  College . 

Silliman  Collegiate  Institute _ 

Louisiana  Female  College - - 

Mansfield  Female  College  . . 

H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  Col¬ 
lege. 

Maine  Wesleyan  Seminary  and  Fe¬ 
male  College. 

Westbrook  Seminary _ _ 

Notre  Dame  of  Maryland . 

Woman’s  College  of  Baltimore . 

Woman’s  College . . . . 

Kee  Mar  College  . . . . 

Maryland  College  for  Young  La¬ 
dies. 

La3ell  Seminary  for  Young  Women 

RadclifEe  College . . 

Smith  College . 


College  Park,  Ga. 
Cuthbert,  Ga. 
Dalton,  Ga. 

Forsyth,  Ga. 
Gainesville,  Ga. 
Lagrange,  Ga. 

Do. 

Macon,  Ga. 

Rome,  Ga. 
Jacksonville,  Ill. 
Knoxville,  HI. 

Rockford.  Ill. 
Topeka,  Kans. 
Bowling  Green,  Ky. 
Danville,  Ky. 
Harrodsburg,  Ky. 
Hopkinsville,  Ky. 
Lexington,  Ky. 

Do. 

Millersburg,  Ky. 
Nieholasville,  Ky. 
Owensboro,  Ky. 
Russellville,  Ky. 
Stanford,  Ky. 
Clinton,  La. 
Keatchie.La. 
Mansfield,  La. 

Ne  w  Orleans,  La. 

Kents  Hill,  Me. 

Woodfords,  Me. 
Baltimore,  Md. 

Do. 

Frederick,  Md. 
Hagerstown,  Md. 
Lutherville,  Md. 

Auburndale,  Mass. 
Cambridge,  Mass. 
Northampton,  Mass, 


Mary  E.  Woolley,  Litt.  D.,  L.  H.  D 

Mi3s  Caroline  Hazard . . 

Rev.  R.  B.  Abbott,  D.  D  . . 

B.  G.  Lowrey,  A.  M . . 

A.  F.  Watkins . . . . 

Rev.  John  L.  Johnson,  D.  D., 

LL.  D. 

Hon.  A.  A.Kincannon . 

J.  A.  Sanderson,  principal . 

L.  T.  Fitzhugh,  A.  M . 

J.L.  Logan . . . 

J.  W.  Beeson,  A.  M  . . . . 

Hon.  James  R.  Preston,  A.  M . 

Rev.  J.  W.  Malone, D.D . 

S.  Decatur  Lucas _ _ _ 

Mrs.  M.H.  Meek  . 

Mrs.  W.  T.  Moore  . . 

Rev.  S. F. Taylor,  D.D . 

Rev.  Hiram  D.  Groves . 

Rev.  J.  M.  Spencer . 

Edward  W.  White,  A.  M.. . 

Rev.  Z.  M.  Williams,  A.  M . 

C. M.  Williams,  A.  M . . . 

J.W.  Million,  A.  M . . . 

Mrs.  Y.  A.  C.  Stockard . . 

M.  H.  Reaser,  Ph.  D  . . 

F.  T.  Schultz,  A.  M . 

Jasper  W.  Freley,  M.  S., acting... 

Truman  J.  Backus,  LL.D-... _ 

Rev.  A.  C.  McKenzie,  D.  D . 

Laura  D.  Gill,  A.  M.,  dean . 

Rev.  J.  M.  Taylor,  D.  D.,  LL.D.. 

Archibald  A.  Jones,  A.  M . 

Rev.  C.  B.  King.  A.  M . 

S.  A.  Wolff,  A.  M.._. . . 

Mrs.  Lucy  H.  Robertson . 

M.  W.  Hatton. . 


Mount  Holyoke  College . . 

Wellesley  College . . 

Albert  Lea  College _ _ _ _ 

Blue  Mountain  Female  College _ 

Whitworth  Female  College . - 

Hillman  College . . 


South  Hadley,  Mass. 
W  ellesley ,  Mass. 
Albert  Lea,  Minn. 
Blue  Mountain,  Miss, 
Brookhaven,  Miss. 
Clinton,  Miss. 


Industrial  Institute  and  College _ 

Central  Mississippi  Institute . . 

Belhaven  College  for  Young  Ladies . 

McComb  Female  Institute . 

East  Mississippi  Female  College _ 

Stanton  College  for  Young  Ladies .. 

Woman’s  College . 

Chickasaw  Female  College . 

Port  Gibson  Female  College  . . 

Christian  College . _. . 

Stephens  College  . . . . 

Howard  Payne  College . 

Synodical  Female  College. . 

Baptist  College  for  Young  Ladies  .. 

Central  Female  College . 

Liberty  Ladies’  College . 

Hardin  College . . . 

Cottey  College  for  Young  Ladies ... 
Linden  wood  College  for  Women.... 

Bordentown  Female  College . 

Wells  College... . 

Packer  Collegiate  Institute.. . 

Elmira  College. . . 

Barnard  College . 

Vassar  College . . . 

Asheville  College  for  Y  oung  W  omen 

Elizabeth  College . 

Gaston  College. . . . . 

Greensboro  Female  College . 

Claremont  Female  College . 


Columbus,  Miss. 
French  Camp,  Miss, 
Jackson,  Miss. 
McComb,  Miss. 
Meridian,  Miss. 
Natchez,  Miss. 
Oxford,  Miss. 
Pontotoc,  Miss. 

Port  Gibson,  Miss, 
Columbia,  Mo. 

Do. 

Fayette,  Mo. 

Fulton,  Mo. 
Lexington,  Mo. 

Do. 

Liberty,  Mo. 

Mexico,  Mo. 

Nevada,  Mo. 

St.  Charles,  Mo. 
Bordentown.  N.  J. 
Aurora,  N.  Y. 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Elmira,  N.  Y. 

New  York,  N.  Y. 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y„ 
Asheville,  N.  C. 
Charlotte,  N.  C. 
Dallas,  N.  C. 
Greensboro,  N.  C, 
Hickory,  N.  C. 


1208 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

III. — College  Presidents — Continued. 
II. — Colleges  for  women — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


University  or  college. 


Address. 


M.  S.  Davis,  A.  M . - 

John  C.  Scarborough . . . 

F.  P.  Hobgood,  A.  M. . . . 

Rev.  R.  T.  Yann,  D.  D . . 

Rev.  John  H.  Clewell,  Ph.  D _ 

Rev.  John  H.  Thomas,  D.  D . 

Leila  S.  McKee,  Ph.  D . 

Miss  Mary  Evans,  A.  M . 

Rev.  J.  W.  Knappenberger,  A.  M. 
Rev.  J.  Max  Hark,  D.  D . 


Rev.  S.  B.  Linhart,  A.  M . 

M.  Carey  Thomas,  Ph.  D.,  LL.D.. 

Rev.  Samuel  A.  Martin,  D.  D - 

E.  E.  Campbell,  Ph.  D . . . 

Rev.  Chalmers  Martin,  A.  M . 

Rev.  W.  W.  Daniel,  D.  D_ . . 

Miss  Euphemia  McClintock,  A.  B 

Rev.  James  Boyce . 

Lee  D.  Lodge,  Ph.  D . 

A.  S.  Townes. . 

Edward  C.  James,  Litt.  D . 

Robert  P.  Pell,  A.  B.... . 

Rev.  B.  G.  Clifford,  D.D.,Ph.D  .. 

Rev.  S.  Lander,  D.  D . 

Rev.  S.N.  Barker. . . . 

R.  E.  Hatton,  Ph.  D . . 

T.  E.  Allen  and  J.  H.  Chiles . 

Z.  K.  Griffin,  B.  S . . . 

Rev.  A.  B.  Jones,  D.  D.,  LL.  D - 

Miss  Y.  O.  Wardlaw,  A.  M  . . . 

C.  A.  Folk,  A.  B . 

J.  D.  Blanton . . . 

B.  E.  Atkins  and  T.  L.  Bryan . 

Rev.  T.  P.  Walton . 


W.  A.  Wilson,  D.D . 

L.F.  Smith,  A.  B .  . 

Rev.  J.  E.  Harrison,  A.  B . 

A.Q.Nash,C.E - - 

Rev.  W.  M.  Dyer,  A.  M . . 

Miss  Kate  M.  Hunt . 

J.F.  Howell,  LL.D . 

Rev.  L. H.  Shuck, D.D . . 

Rev.  C.  F.  James,  D.  D . 

Miss  Matty  L.  Cocke . 

W.  W.  Smith,  LL.  D . 

Rev.  J.  J.  Scherer,  A.  M . 

Arthur  K.  Davis,  A.  M . 

Rev.  James  Nelson, D.D  . . 

Rev.  A.  B.  Warwick . 

R.L.  Telford . 

Mrs.  Mary  W.  Murph3r . . 

Miss  Ellen  C.  Sabin,  A.  M... . 


Louisburg  Female  College . 

Chowan  Baptist  Female  Institute.. 

Oxford  Female  Seminary . 

Baptist  Female  University _ 

Salem  Female  Academy  and  Col¬ 
lege. 

Oxford  College . . . 

Western  College. . 

Lake  Erie  College . . . 

Allentown  College  for  Women . 

Moravian  Seminary  and  College  for 
Women. 

Blairsville  College . 

Bryn  Mawr  College . 

Y/ilson  College . 

Irving  Female  College . . 

Pennsylvania  College  for  Women.. 

Columbia  Female  College . 

Presbyterian  College  for  Women. .. 

Due  West  Female  College . 

Limestone  College. . 

Greenville  College  for  Women . 

Greenville  Female  College  . . 

Converse  College . 

Clifford  Seminary . . 

Williamston  Female  College . 

Sullins  College . 

Brownsville  Female  College . 

Tennessee  Female  College . 

Howard  Female  College . . 

Memphis  Conference  Female  Insti¬ 
tute. 

Soule  Female  College . 

Boscobel  College . 

Yv^ard  Seminary  . . . . 

Martin  Female  College . . 

Synodical  Female  College . 

Carlton  College . 

Baylor  Female  College . 

Chappell  Hill  Female  College . 

San  Antonio  Female  College . 

Mary  Nash  College . . . 

Martha  Washington  College _ 

Stonewall  Jackson  Institute . 

Southwest  Virginia  Institute. . 

Albemarle  College  for  Young  Ladies 

Roanoke  Female  College . 

Hollins  Institute. . . . 

Randolph- Macon  W Oman’s  College. 

Marion  Female  College . 

Southern  Female  College . 

Woman’s  College  . . 

Valley  Female  College . 

Lewisburg  Female  Institute . . 

Parkersburg  Seminary  . . 

Milwaukee-Downer  College. . 


Louisburg,  N.  C. 
Murfreesboro,  N.  C. 
Oxford,  N.  C. 
Raleigh.  N.  C. 

Salem,  N.  C. 

Oxford,  Ohio. 

Do. 

Paines ville,  Ohio. 
Allentown,  Pa. 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 

Blairsville,  Pa. 

Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 
Chambers  burg.  Pa. 
Mechanicsburg,  Pa. 
Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Columbia,  S.  C. 

Do. 

Duewest,  S.  C. 
Gaffney,  S.  C. 
Greenville,  S.  C. 

Do. 

Spartanburg,  S.  C. 
Union,  S.  C. 
Williamston,  S.  C. 
Bristol,  Tenn. 
Brownsville,  Tenn. 
Franklin,  Tenn. 
Gallatin,  Tenn. 
Jackson,  Tenn. 

Murfreesboro,  Tenn 
Nashville,  Tenn. 

Do. 

Pulaski,  Tenn. 
Rogersville,  Tenn. 
Bonham,  Tex. 
Belton,  Tex. 
Chappell  Hill,  Tex. 
San  Antonio,  Tex. 
Sherman,  Tex. 
Abingdon,  Va. 

Do. 

Bristol,  Va. 
Charlottesville,  Ya 
Danville,  Ya. 
Hollins,  Va. 
Lynchburg,  V  a. 
Marion,  Va. 
Petersburg,  Ya. 
Richmond,  Va. 

\v  inchester  Ya. 
Lewisburg,  W.  Ya. 
Parkersburg,  W.  Ya. 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 


III. — Schools  of  technology. 


Barton  6.  Aylesworth,  LL.  D - 

Charles  S.  Palmer,  Ph.  D . 

Rev.  R.  W.  Stimson,  acting . 

Lyman  Hall  . . - 

Rev.  Frank  W.  Gunsaulus, D.  D. . 

W.  E.  Stone,  Ph.  D . I 

Carl  L.  Mees,  Ph.  D  . . . . 

W.  M.  Beardshear,  LL.  D. . . 

Ernest  R.  Nichols,  A.  M - 

Commander  R.  Wainwright,  U. 
S.  N.,  superintendent. 

H.  H.  Goodell,  LL.  D . . . 

H.  S.  Pritchett,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D . ! 

Edmund  A.  Engler.  Ph  D., LL  D. 
J.L.  Snyder,  Ph.D. . 


Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute . 

Colorado  Agricultural  College _ 

State  School  of  Mines . . 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College  .. 

State  School  of  Technology _ 

Armour  Institute  of  Technology  ... 

Purdue  University . 

Rose  Polj  technic  Institute . 

Iowa  Agricultural  College . 

Kansas  Agricultural  College . 

United  States  Naval  Academy . 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech¬ 
nology. 

Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute  ... 
Michigan  Agricultural  College . 


Auburn,  Ala. 

Fort  Collins,  Colo. 
Golden,  Colo. 

Storrs,  Conn. 

Atlanta,  Ga. 

Chicago,  Ill. 

Lafayette,  Ind. 

Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

Ames,  Iowa. 

Manhattan,  Kans. 
Annapolis,  Md. 

Amherst,  Mass. 

Boston,  Mass. 

Worcester,  Mass. 

Agr icultural  College, 
Mich. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY. 


1209 


III. — College  Presidents — Continued. 
III. — Schools  of  technology — Continued. 


Name  of  president. 


Institution. 


Address. 


F.  W.  McNair,  B.  S _ _ _ _ 

J.  C.  Hardy,  A.  M . 

W.  H.  Lanier,  A.  B . 

Rev.  James  Reid,  A.  B . . 

C.  S.  Murkland,  Ph.D . 

Alexander  C.  Humphreys,  M.  E.  - 
Luther  Foster,  M.  S.  A  - . 

Charles  R.  Keyes,  Ph.  D.,  di- 
rector. 

W.  S.  Aldrich,  M.  E. ,  director _ 

Palmer  C.  Ricketts,  C.  E _ _ 

Col.  A.  L.  Mills,  U.  S.  A.,  supt _ 

James  B.  Dudley,  A.  M  ...! . 

George  T.  Winston,  LL.  D . 

J.  H.  Worst,  LL.D... . . 

Cady  Staley,  LL.  D . . 

Angelo  C.  Scott,  A.  M. . . 

Thomas  M.  Gatch,  Ph.  D . 

John  H.  Washburn,  Ph.  D . 

Asbury  Coward, LL.  D.,  supt _ 

Henry  S. Hartzog, B.S... . 

John  W.  Heston, Ph.  D., LL. D .... 

Robert  L.  Slagle,  Ph.  D. . 

David  F.  Houston,  A.  M  . . 

W.  J.  Kerr,  B.  S . 

J.  M.  McBryde,  LL.  D . 

Scott  Shipp,  LL.D.,  supt _ 

E.  A.  Bryan,  A.  M . . 


Michigan  College  of  Mines . 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Me¬ 
chanical  College. 

Alcorn  Agricultural  and  Mechan¬ 
ical  College. 

Montana  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts. 

New  Hampshire  College  of  Agri¬ 
culture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology _ 

New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts. 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines. . 

Clarkson  School  of  Technology . 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute... 
United  States  Military  Academy.. . 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col¬ 
lege  for  the  Colored  Race. 

North  Carolina  College  of  Agricul¬ 
ture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

N orth  Dakota  Agricultural  College . 

Case  School  of  Applied  Science _ 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Me¬ 
chanical  College. 

Oregon  Agricultural  College . 

Rhode  Island  College  of  Agricul¬ 
ture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

South  Carolina  Military  Academy. . 

Clemson  Agricultural  College . 

South  Dakota  Agricultural  College. 

State  School  of  Mines . . . . 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col¬ 
lege  of  Texas. 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah . 

Virginia  Agricultural  and  Mechan¬ 
ical  College. 

Virginia  Military  Institute . 

Washington  Agricultural  College 
and  School  of  Science. 


Houghton,  Mich. 

Agr icultural  College, 
Miss. 

Westside,  Miss. 
Bozeman,  Mont. 
Durham,  N.  H. 


Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Mesilla  Park,  N.  Mex. 

Socorro,  N.  Mex. 

Potsdam,  N.  Y. 

Trov,  N.  Y. 

West  Point,  N.  Y. 
Greensboro,  N.  C. 

West  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

Agr  icultural  College 
N.  Dak. 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Stillwater,  Okla. 

Corvallis,  Oreg. 
Kingston,  R.  I. 

Charleston,  S.  C. 
Clemson  College,  S.  C. 
Brookings,  S.  Dak. 
Rapid  City,  S.  Dak. 
College  Station,  Tex. 

Logan,  Utah. 
Blacksburg,  Va. 


Lexington.  Va. 
Pullman,  Wash. 


I 


IV.— Principals  of  Normal  Schools. 
Public  normal  schools. 


Location. 

Name  of  institution. 

Principal. 

ALABAMA. 

Florence 

State  Normal  College  ... _ _ 

J  ackson  villo 

do  .  .  _ _ _ _ _  _ _ 

C.  W.  Daugette. 

Miss  Ju3ia  S.  Tutwiler. 

Livingston . . . 

Alabama  Normal  College  for  Girls. . 

Normal . 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col¬ 

W.  H.  Couneill. 

Troy  . . . 

lege  for  Negroes. 

State  Normal  College . . 

E.  M.  Shackelford. 

ARIZONA. 

Flagstaff . 

Northern  Arizona  Normal  School .. 

A.  N.  Taylor. 

Tempe . . . 

Territorial  Normal  School  of  Ari¬ 

A.  J.  Matthews. 

zona. 

ARKANSAS. 

Pine  Bluff  . 

Branch  Normal  College  . . 

J.  C.  Corbin. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Chico . 

California  State  Normal  School _ 

Chas.  C.  Van  Liew. 

Los  Angeles  _ 

State  Normal  School _ 

Edward  T.  Pierce. 

San  Diego 

__  do . . 

Samuel  T.  Black. 

San  Jose  _  ...  _ 

. do . 

Morris  Elmer  Dailey. 

COLORADO. 

Greeley . . 

Colorado  State  Normal  School . 

Z.  X.  Snyder. 

1210 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

IV.— Principals  of  Normal  Schools— Con  tinned. 
Public  normal  schools — Continued. 


Location. 

Name  of  institution. 

Principal. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Bridgeport  Training  School . 

Besse  E.  Howes. 

Normal  Training  School .... 

Marcus  White. 

Arthur  B.  Morrill. 

W  iliimantic . . . . . 

George  P.  Phenix. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Washington . 

Washington  Normal  School  No.  1 .. 

Anne  M.  Goding. 

Do . 

Washington  Normal  School  No.  2  .. 

Lucy  E.  Moten. 

FLORIDA. 

De  Funiak  Springs . . 

C.  L.  Hayes. 

T.  De  S.  Tucker. 

Tai lahassee  S'. . . 

Florida  State  Normal  and  Indus¬ 
trial  College. 

GEORGIA. 

Athens . . . . . 

E.  C.  Branson. 

College . . . 

Georgia  State  Industrial  College  . . . 

R.  R.  Wright. 

Milledgeville . 

Georgia  Normal  and  Industrial  Col¬ 
lege. 

J.  Harris  Chappell. 

IDAHO. 

J.  C.  Black. 

Geo.  E.  Knepper. 

ILLINOIS. 

Carbon  dale . 

Southern  Illinois  State  Normal  Uni¬ 
versity. 

D.  B.  Parkinson. 

Charleston . 

Eastern  Illinois  State  Normal 
School. 

L.  C.  Lord. 

Chicago,  Station  O . . . . 

Chicago  Normal  School 

Arnold  Tompkins. 

John  W.  Cook. 

Northern  Illinois  State  Normal 
School. 

Normal . . . . 

Illinois  State  Normal  University.. . 

David  Felmley. 

INDIANA. 

Indiananolis _ 

Indianapolis  Normal  School 

M.  E.  Nicholson. 

Terre  Haute _ _ 

Indiana  State  Normal  School 

William  W.  Parsons. 

IOWA. 

Cedarfalls . . . . 

Iowa  State  Normal  School . . . 

Homer  H.  Seerley. 

D.  P.  Repass. 

C.  H.  Brake. 

Dexter . . . 

Dexter  Normal  School . 

Hawarden  . . . . . 

Hawarden  Public  Normal  School. .. 

Woodbine . . . 

Woodbine  Normal  and  Commercial 
School. 

M.  A.  Reed. 

KANSAS. 

Emporia . . 

State  Normal  School  . 

Jasper  N.  Wilkinson. 

KENTUCKY. 

Frankfort . 

State  Normal  School  for  Colored 
Persons. 

James  S.  Hathaway. 

Hazard 

Hazard  TTnrmal  RchrwVl 

Bailey  P.  Wootton. 

W.  J.  McConathy. 

Louisville . . . . 

Louisville  Normal  School _ _ 

LOUISIANA. 

Natchitoches _ _ 

Louisiana  State  Normal  School  .. 

B.  C.  Caldwell. 

New  Orleans . . . 

New  Orleans  Normal  School _ 

Miss  Mar  gar  et  C.  Han  son. 

MAINE. 

Castine . . . ...... _ 

Eastern  State  Normal  School . 

Albert  F.  Richardson. 

Farmington . . . 

Farmington  State  Normal  School .. 

George  C.  Purington. 

Fort  Kent  . . 

Madawaska  Training  School . . 

Mary  P.  Nowland. 

W.  J.  Corthell. 

Gorham _ _ _ 

State  Normal  School .  _ 

Lee.. _ _ 

Lee  Normal  Academy _ 

James  D.  Murphy. 

Miss  Ava  H.  Chadbourne. 

Springfield . . 

Springfield  Normal  School  . 

MARYLAND. 

Baltimore . . . 

Maryland  State  Normal  School - 

E.  B.  Prettyman. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Boston  _ _  .  . . . 

Boston  Normal  School _ _ 

Wallace  C.  Boyden. 
George  H.  Bartlett. 

Do . 

Massachusetts  Normal  Art  School.. 

EDUCATIONAL  DIKECTOBY, 


1211 


IV.— Principals  of  Normal  Schools— Continued. 
Public  normal  schools — Continued. 


Location. 


Name  of  institution. 


Principal. 


Massachusetts— continued. 


Bridgewater. 

Cambridge... 

Fitchburg  ... 
Framingham 

Lowell . 

Salem . 

Westfield .... 
W  orcester . . , 


State  Normal  School . . . 

Cambridge  Training  School  for 
Teachers. 

State  Normal  School . . . 

- do . . . . 

Training  School  for  Teachers . 

- do. . . 

_ .do . . . 

. do. . 


Albert  G.  Boyden. 
Herbert  H.  Bates. 

John  G.  Thompson. 
Henry  Whittemore. 
Gertrude  Edmund. 
W.  P.  Beckwith. 
Charles  S.  Chapin. 
E.  Harlow  Russell. 


MICHIGAN. 

Detroit . . . 

Mount  Pleasant _ 

Ypsilanti . 


Washington  Normal  Training 
School. 

Central  State  Normal  School. . 

Michigan  State  Normal  School - 


Chas.  L.  Spain. 

Chas.  T.  Grawn. 
Elmer  A.  Lyman. 


MINNESOTA. 


Mankato . . 
Moorhead 
St.  Cloud.. 
St.  Paul... 
Winona ... 


State  Normal  School _ 

_ do . 

. do . 

Teachers’  Training  School 
State  Normal  School . . 


Chas.  H.  Cooper. 
Frank  A.  Weld. 
George  R.  Kleeberger. 
Miss  B.  M.  Phelan. 

J.  F.  Millspaugh. 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Abbeville _ _ _ 

Blue  Springs . . 

Holly  Springs . 

Louisville . 

Sherman . . . 

Walnut  Grove  . . . 

MISSOURI. 

Cape  Girardeau . . 

Kirksville . . 

St.  Louis . . . . 

Warrensburg _ 

MONTANA. 

Dillon . . 


Abbeville  Normal  School . 

Blue  Springs  Normal  College. . 

Mississippi  State  Normal  School ... 

Louisville  Normal 'School . . 

Mississippi  Normal  Institute  . . 

Mississippi  Central  Normal  School- 


11.  Harmon. 

E.  W.  Cochran. 
E.D.  Miller. 

J.  A.  Hall. 

D.  H.  Davis. 
John  Bundle. 


State  Normal  School . 

State  Normal  School  (first  district) . 

Normal  and  High  School... . 

State  Normal  School  (second  dis¬ 
trict). 


W.  S.  Dearmont. 
John  R.Kirk. 
William  J.  S.  Bryan. 
E.  B.  Craighead. 


Montana  Normal  School 


Henry  H.  Swain. 


Pern 


NEBRASKA. 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


Nebraska  State  Normal  Training 
School. 


W.  A.  Clark. 


Plymouth 


State  Normal  School 


J.  E.  Klock. 


NEW  JERSEY. 
Newark . 

Paterson . . 

Trenton  . 

NEW  MEXICO. 


Newark  Normal  and  Training 
School. 

Paterson  Normal  Training  School.. 
New  Jersey  State  Normal  and 
Model  Schools. 


W.S.  Willis. 

Jefferson  R.  Potter. 
James  M.  Green. 


Las  Vegas  .. 
Silver  City-. 


New  Mexico  Normal  University _ 

Normal  School  of  New  Mexico . 


Edgar  L.  Hewett. 
C.  M.  Light. 


NEW  YORK. 


Albany  ... 
Brockport 
Brooklyn  . 
Buffalo  ... 
Cortland.. 
Fredonia  . 
Geneseo  .. 
Jamaica  .. 
N e w  Paltz 
New  York 

Do  .... 

Oneonta  . . 


New  York  State  Normal  College.. . 
State  Normal  and  Training  School . 

Training  School  for  Teachers _ 

Buffalo  Normal  School . . 

State  Normal  and  Training  School. 

- do . . . 

Geneseo  State  Normal  School . 

Normal  and  Training  School . 

State  Normal  School . 

New  York  Training  School  for 
Teachers. 

Normal  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

State  Normal  School _ _ _ 


Wm.  J.  Milne. 

Charles  T.  McFarlane. 
John  Gallagher. 
James  M.  Cassety. 
Francis  J.  Cheney. 

F.  B.  Palmer. 

John  M.  Milne. 

A.  C.  McLachlan. 
Myron  T.  Scudder. 

A.  S.  Downing. 

Thomas  Hunter. 

Percy  I.  Bugbee. 


1212  EDUCATION  EEPOET,  1900-1901. 

IV.— Principals  of  Normal  Schools— Continued. 
Public  normal  schools — Continued. 


Location. 


Name  of  institution. 


Principal. 


new  York— continued. 
Oswego . . 


Plattsburg. 
Potsdam ... 
Syracuse  .. 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


Elizabeth  City . 
Fayetteville  . . . 
Franklinton  ... 


Goldsboro  .. 
Greensboro 
Plymouth... 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 


Mayville  .. 
Valley  City 


Cleveland. 


Columbus . 
Dayton  ... 


OKLAHOMA. 


Alva . 

Edmond  . 
Langston 

Ashland  . 
Drain  .... 


Monmouth . 
Weston  .... 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Bloomsburg . . 

California . . 

Clarion . . 

East  Stroudsburg . 


Edinboro 
Indiana . . 


Kutztown 
Lockhaven  . 
Mansfield . . . 
Millers  vide . 


Philadelphia.... 

Pittsburg . . . 

Shippensburg  .. 


Slippery  Pock 
"Westchester.. 


RHODE  ISLAND. 
Providence . . . 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Eockhill . . 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 


Madison  ... 
Spearfish  .. 
Springfield 


Oswego  State  Normal  and  Training 
School. 

State  Normal  School . 

State  Normal  and  Training  School . 
Syracuse  High  School,  Normal  De¬ 
partment. 


State  Colored  Normal  School . 

. do . 

Albion  Academy  and  State  Normal 
School. 

State  Normal  School . . . 

State  Normal  and  Industrial  School. 
Plymouth  State  Normal  School  .... 


State  Normal  School 
_ do . . 


Cleveland  Normal  and  Training 
School. 

Columbus  Normal  School . 

Dayton  Normal  School . . 


Northwestern  Territory  Normal 
School. 

Territorial  Normal  School  of  Okla¬ 
homa. 

Colored  Agricultural  and  Normal 
University. 

Southern  Oregon  State  Normal 
School. 

Central  Oregon  State  Normal 
School. 

State  Normal  School . . 

Eastern  State  Normal  School . 


State  Normal  School . 

Southwestern  State  N ormal  School- 

Clarion  State  Normal  School . . 

East  Stroudsburg  State  Normal 
School. 

State  N ormal  School . 

Indiana  Normal  School  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

Keystone  State  Normal  School . 

Central  State  Normal  School  - . 

Mansfield  Stat9  Normal  School . 

First  Pennsylvania  State  Normal 
School. 

Philadelphia  Normal  School  for 
Girls. 

Pittsburg  High  School,  Normal  De¬ 
partment. 

Cumberland  Valley  State  Normal 
School. 

Slippery  Rock  State  Normal  School. 
State  Normal  School . 


Rhode  Island  State  Normal  School . 


Winthrop  Normal  College 


State  Normal  School 

_ do. . 

_ do . 


Isaac  B.  Poucher. 

Geo.  K.  Hawkins. 
Thomas  B.  Stowell. 
G.  A1?  Lewis. 


P.  V/.  Moore. 

E.E.  Smith. 

Rev.  J.  A.  Savage. 

Henry  E.  Hogans. 
Charles  D.  Mclver. 
Chas.  M.  Eppes. 


Joseph  Carhart. 
George  A.  McFarland. 


J.  W.  McGilvrey. 

Margaret  W.  Sutherland 
Grace  A.  Greene. 


James  E.  Ament. 
Edmund  H.  Murdaugh. 
Inman  E.  Page. 

Willis  M.  Clayton. 

J.  H.  Orcutt. 

P.  L.  Campbell. 

J.  A.  Beattie. 


Judson  P.  Welsh. 
Theo.  B.  Noss. 

A.  J.  Davis. 
George  P.  Bible. 

JohnF.  Bigler. 

D.  J.  Waller,  jr. 

A.  C.  Rothermel. 
J.  R.  Flickinger. 
Andrew  T.  Smith. 

E.  Oram  Lvte. 

J.  M.  Willard. 

Jane  Ralston. 

G.  M.  D.  Eckels. 

Albert  E.  Maltby. 
George  M.  Philips. 


Charles  S.  Chapin. 


D.B.  Johnson. 


W.  H.  H.  Beadle. 
F.  L.  Cook. 

J.  S.  Frazee. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY, 


1213 


IY. — Principals  of  Normal  Schools — Continued. 
Public  normal  schools — Continued. 


Location. 

Name  of  institution. 

Principal. 

TENNESSEE. 

James  D.  Porter. 

TEXAS. 

J.  S.  Kendall. 

Detroit . 

Detroit  Normal  School . 

R.  M.  Parker. 

H.  C.  Pritchett. 

Ed.  L.  Blackshear. 

dustrial  College. 

UTAH. 

Cedar  City . - . 

Southern  Branch  of  the  State  Nor- 

Milton  Bennion. 

mal  School. 

VERMONT. 

Philip  R.  Leavenworth. 

...  do  . . . 

John  L.  Alger. 

Edward  Conant. 

Randolph  Center 

VIRGINIA. 

Farm  vibe  ... _ _ _ _ 

State  Female  Normal  School  . . 

Robert  Frazer. 

Hampton .. . 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 

H.  B.  Frissell. 

Petersburg . 

Institute. 

Virginia  Normal  and  Collegiate  In¬ 

J.  H.  Johnston. 

stitute. 

WASHINGTON. 

Chenev 

State  Normal  School _ 

J.  H.  Miller. 

Elle^sburg  _ _ _ _ 

. do. . 

W.  E.  Wilson. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Athens .. . - . 

Fairmont  _ _ _ 

West  Virginia  State  Normal  School. 
Fairmont  State  Normal  School . 

J.  Walter  Barnes. 

Glenville 

State  Normal  School 

John  C.  Shaw. 

Huntington _ _ _ 

Marshall  College,  State  Normal 

Lawrence  J.  Corbly. 

Institute . . . 

School. 

West  Virginia  Colored  Institute  — 

J.  McH.  Jones. 

Shepherdstown . 

Shepherd  College,  State  Normal 

E.  F.  Goodwin. 

West  Liberty . 

School. 

West  Liberty  State  Normal  School- 

James  M.  Skinner. 

WISCONSIN. 

Milwaukee . 

State  Normal  School _ 

Charles  McKenney. 

R.  H.  Halsey. 

D.  McGregor. 

W.  J.  Brier. 

Oshkosh  . . 

_ do . . . . . 

Platteville . 

..do  . . 

River  Falls . . . . 

River  Falls  State  Normal  School... 

Stephens  Point _ _ 

State  Normal  School  .  .  . 

Theron  B.  Pray. 

O.  E.  Wells. 

W ausau . 

Marathon  County  Training  School . 

West  Superior . 

Whitewater . 

Superior  State  Normal  School _ 

State  Normal  School . 

J.C.  McNeill. 

Albert  Salisbury. 

Private  normal  schools. 


ALABAMA. 

Huntsville . 

Mobile . . . . . 

Tuskegee . 

ARKANSAS. 

Jamestown . 

Mount  Ida  ... . 

Pea  Ridge  ... . . . 

Sulphur  Rock  . . . . 

CALIFORNIA. 

Oakland . .. . 

COLORADO. 

Denver . . . 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Washington . . 

Do . . 


Central  Alabama  Academy  . . 

Emerson  N  ormal  Institute . 

Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute. 

Arkansas  Normal  College . * 

Mount  Ida  Normal  Academy . 

Pea  Ridge  Normal  College . 

Sulphur  Rock  College . 


Gilson’s  hi  ormal  and  Special  Train¬ 
ing  School. 

Denver  Normal  and  Preparatory 
School. 


Kindergarten  Normal 
School. 

Woman’s  League 
Training  School. 


Training 
Kindergarten 


A.  W.  McKinney. 
Rev.  A.  T.  Burnell. 

B.  T.  Washington. 


J.  L.  Graham. 

A.  J.  Denton. 

B.  H.  Caldwell. 
J.  W.  Decker. 


J.  C.  Gilson. 

Fred.  Dick. 


Miss  Susan  P.  Pollock. 
Mrs.  Anna  E.  Murray. 


1214 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

IV. — Principals  of  Normal  Schools — Continued. 
Private  normal  schools— Continued. 


Location. 


Name  of  institution. 


FLORIDA. 


Jasper _ _ 

Orange  Park . 

GEORGIA. 


Jasper  Normal  Institute - - - 

Orange  Park  Normal  and  Manual 
Training  School. 


Augusta  .... 

Cornelia - 

Douglas . 

Macon  - 

Thomasville 


Haines  Manual  and  Industrial  In¬ 
stitute. 

Cornelia  Normal  Institute _ 

Southern  Normal  School . . 

Ballard  Normal  School . . 

Allen  N ormal  and  Industrial  School. 


ILLINOIS. 
Addison . 

Bushnell . . . 

Dixon. . . 

Galesburg . . 

Hoopeston . . . . 

Macomb _ 

Oregon . . . . 

Rushville . 


INDIANA. 


I 


Angola . . 

Cory don  - 

Covington  .. 

Danville - 

Indianapolis 

Marion . 

Muncie - 

Rochester  .. 
Valparaiso.. 


German  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Teachers’  Seminary. 

"Western  Normal  College. . . 

Northern  Illinois  Normal  School. .. 
Galesburg  Kindergarten  Normal 
School. 

Greer  College _ _ _ _ 

Western  Illinois  Normal  School 
and  Business  Institute. 

Wells  School  for  Teachers . 

Rushville  Normal  and  Business 
College. 


Tri-State  Normal  School . 

Ohio  Valley  Normal  School . 

Indiana  Normal  School . 

Central  Normal  College _ _ 

Indiana  Kindergarten  and  Primary 
Normal  Training  School. 

Marion  Normal  College . 

Eastern  Indiana  N ormal  University 

Rochester  Normal  University . 

Northern  Indiana  Normal  School .. 


IOWA. 

Bloomfield . . 

Denison . J 

Humboldt . 

Lemars . . . 

Newton . . . ! 

Perry . . ] 

Shenandoah  . 

Waukon  . . | 

KANSAS. 

Conway  Springs . 

Great  Bend . 

Marysville . . 

Nickerson . 

KENTUCKY. 

Blaine__ . - . - 

Bowling  Green . 

Hardinsburg . A . 

Lexington . . 

Madison  ville . . 

Middleburg . . . 

Morehead . 

Waddy . 

MARYLAND. 

Ammendale  .., . 

Baltimore . . . . 

Buckeystown . 


Southern  Iowa  Normal,  Scientific, 
and  Business  Institute. 

Denison  Normal  School . . 

Humboldt  College  . . 

Lemars  Normal  College... . 

Newton  Normal  College . 

Perry  Normal  School  . . 

Western  Normal  College,  Shenan¬ 
doah  Commercial  Institute  and 
Musical  Conservatory. 

Waukon  Business  College  and  Nor¬ 
mal  School. 


Normal  and  Business  College 

Central  Normal  College . 

Modern  Normal  College . 

Nickerson  Normal  College... 


Blaine  Normal  School . 

Bowling  Green  Business  College 
and  Southern  Normal  School. 

Breckinridge  N ormal  College . 

Chandler  Normal  School . 

Western  Kentucky  Normal  School. 

Middleburg  Normal  College  . . . 

Morehead  Normal  School . 

Central  Normal  College . 


Ammendale  Normal  Institute . 

Baltimore  Normal  School  (colored)  . 
Buckeystown  Normal  Training 
School. 


Principal. 


Wm.  A.  Cate. 

Rev.  Stephen  G.  Butcher. 


Miss  Lucy  C.  Laney. 

A.  E.  Booth. 

J.  M.  Guilliains. 
George  C.  Burrage. 
Abbie  B.  Howland. 


E.  A.  W.  Krauss. 

W.  W.  Earnest. 

|  J.  B.  Dille. 

M.  Evelyn  Strong. 

J.  M.  Clary. 

I.F.  Meyer. 

H.  W.  Sullivan. 
Maxwell  Kennedy. 


I  L.M.  Sniff. 

E.  S.  Hallett. 

Olive  E.  Cofteen. 
Jonathan  Rigdon. 
Eliza  A.  Blaker. 

C.  W.  Boucher. 

P.  A.  Z.  Kumler. 
Wm.  H.  Banta. 

H.  B.  Brown. 


A.  A.  Williams. 

W.C.  Van  Ness. 

J.  P.  Peterson. 
Herman  H.  Thoren. 
G.  W.  Wormley. 
Will  M.  Tarr. 

J.  M.  Hussey. 


J.  E.  Mills. 


S.D.  Crane. 
James  N.  Clark. 
J.  G.  Ellenbecker. 
I  Ed.  B.  Smith. 


G.  Milton  Elam. 

H.  H.  Cherry. 

D.  L.  Robherts. 
Fannie  J.  Webster. 
H.  Evelyn  Brooks. 
J.  W.  Davis. 

F.  C.  Button. 

R.  A.  Burton. 


Brother  Austin. 
George  Harrison. 
F.  R.  Neighbours. 


EDUCATIONAL  DIRECTORY 


1215 


IV.— Principals  of  Normal  Schools— Continued. 
Private  normal  schools — Continued. 


Location. 

Name  of  institution. 

Principal. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Boston  (1069  Boylston) . 

Froebel  School,  Kindergarten  Nor- 

Annie  C.  Rust. 

mal  Classes. 

Lucy  Wheelock. 

Sister  Georgiana. 

MICHIGAN. 

Mrs.  L.  E.  Gould. 

M.  O.  Graves. 

MINNESOTA. 

Madison . * . 

Normal  School  of  the  United  Nor- 

O.  Lokensgaard. 

wegian  Lutheran  Church. 

Dr.  Martin  Luther  College . 

John  Schuller. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Cuthbert  Spencer. 

H.  A.  Dean. 

Poplar  Springs . . . 

Poplar  Springs  Normal  College . 

John  D.  Mitchell. 

J.  M.  Williamson. 

Tougaloo  . . . . 

Normal  Department  Tougaloo  Uni- ! 

Frank  G.  Woodworth. 

versity. 

MISSOURI. 

Chiliicotlie  - . - 

Chillicothe  Normal  Business  and 

Allen  Moore. 

Shorthand  College. 

A.  P.  Selsor. 

Mill  Spring. . . . 

Hales  College . . . i 

W.  H.  Hale. 

Pleasant  Hope . . _ . 

Pleasant  Hope  Normal  Academy. .. 

J.  M.  Ricks. 

Stanberry . . . 

Stanberry  Normal  School . . ' 

D.  S.  Robbins. 

NEBRASKA. 

Fremont _ _ _ _ _ 

Fremont  Normal  School _ _ 

W.  H.  Clemmons. 

Santee  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

Santee  Normal  Training  School .... 

Alfred  L.  Riggs. 

W  ay  n  e  _ 

Nebraska,  Normal  College  ... 

J.  M.  Pile. 

NEW  YORK. 

New  York _ _ . 

Teachers’  College  .  _ 

James  E.  Russell. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Asheville  . . 

Normal  and  Collegiate  Institute - 

Rev.  Thos.  Lawrence, 

Liberty . . . . 

Liberty  Normal  College _ _ 

Thos.  C.  Amick. 

Lnmberton  _ 

Whitin  Normal  School _ 

D.  P.  Allen. 

Raleigh . . . 

St.  Augustine’s  School _  _ 

Rev.  A.  B.  Hunter. 

Wilmington _ _ 

Gregory  Normal  Institute  .  .. 

Geo.  A.  Woodward. 

Winton . . . . . . 

Waters  Normal  Institute . . 

C.  S.  Brown. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 

Grand  Forks  . . 

Northwestern  Normal  College  _ 

John  J.  Swengel. 

OHIO. 

Ada . . . 

i  Ohio  Normal  University . . 

H.  S.  Lehr. 

Canfield- . 

!  Northeastern  Ohio  Normal  College 

James  B.  Bowman. 

Dayton  _ _ _ _ _ 

St.  Mary’s  Academy  _ _ _ 

Brother  Michael. 

Ewington _ _ _ 

Ewington  Academy _ _ 

F.  F.  Yale. 

Fayette  _ _ _ 

Fayette  Normal  University _ 

P.  C.  Palmer. 

Lebanon . . . 

National  Normal  University 

J.  W.  Withers. 

Middlepoint . . 

Western  Ohio  Normal  School.. . 

P.  S.  Morgan, 
j  ohn  P.  Kuhn. 

New  Philadelphia . 

John  P.  Kuhn’s  Normal  School . 

Tremont  City" . 

Western  Normal  University . 

B.  L.  Barr. 

Woodville . 

Teachers’  Seminary  . . . 

Theo.  Mees. 

PENNSYLVANIA . 

Ebensburg . 

Ebensburg  Normal  Institute.. . 

H.  T.  Jones. 

Muncy . . . . . . 

Lycoming  County  Normal  School .. 
Curry  College . . .  _ 

G.  B.  Milnor. 

Pittsburg _ 

G.  H.  Kane. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Charleston _ 

1  Avery  Nonbal  Institute  ...... ...... 

Morrison  A.  Holmes. 

Do . 

1  Wailingfdrd  Academy . . . 

Rev.  Da\  id  Brown. 

Frogmore. _ _ _ _ _ 

Penn  N orraal  and  Industrial  School. 

Miss  Ellen  Murray. 

Greenwood _ _ 

Brewer  Normal  School . . .  . 

Rev.  J.  M.  Bobxuson, 

Lancaster  . 

Lancaster  Normal  and  Industrial 

M.D.Lee. 

I  Institute ; 

1 

1216 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1900-1901. 

IV.— Principals  of  Normal  Schools— Continued. 
Private  normal  schools — Continued. 


Location. 

Name  of  institution. 

Principal. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

Sioux  Falls . 

Lutheran  Normal  School . 

Rev.  A.  Mikkelsen. 

TENNESSEE. 

Chattanooga . 

Chattanooga  Normal  University .. . 

H.  M.  Evans. 

T.B.Loggins. 

Jas.  C.  Blassingame. 

N.  J.  Pritchard. 

Holbrook  Normal  College. . 

Greenbrier  .1 . . 

Central  Tennessee  Normal  and 

Huntingdon . _ . .. . 

Commercial  School. 

Southern  Normal  University.. . 

J.  A.  Baber. 

Jonesboro  -  . _ _ _ _ _ 

Warner  Institute  .  _ ...... 

H.  L.  Peterson. 

Memphis _ ..  ...... _ _ _ _ .. 

Le  Moyne  Normal  Institute _ 

A.  J.  Steele. 

Morristown . . . 

Morristown  Normal  Academy . 

Judson  S.  Hill. 

TEXAS. 

Commerce  . . . 

East  Texas  Normal  College . 

W.  L.  Mayo. 

Geo.  A.  Curlee. 

Cumby _ _ _ _ _ 

Independent  Normal  College . 

VIRGINIA 

Reliance . . . . . 

Shenandoah  Normal  College . 

M.  L.  Fearnow. 

Richmond . . . . . 

Hartshorn  Memorial  College . 

Lvman  B.  Tefft. 

J.  P.  Matthews. 

Rocky  Mount. _ 

Piedmont  Normal  College _ _ 

Stuart . . . 

Stuart  Normal  College . 

M.  W.  Royall. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Harpers  Fer^y _ 

Storer  College . . . 

Henry  T.  McDonald. 

P.  H.  Murphy,  J.  L.  Stew¬ 

Summersville . 

Summersville  Normal  School . 

art. 

WISCONSIN. 

Milwaukee . . . 

National  German- American  Teach¬ 

Emil  Bapprich. 

St.  Francis. . 

ers’  Seminary. 

Catholic  Normal  School  of  the  Holy 

Rev.  M.  J.  Loehemes. 

Family  and  Pio  Nona  College. 

* 


FALVEY  MEMORIAL  LIBRARY 

VILLANOVA  UNIVERSITY 


DATE  DUE 


VILLANOVA  UNIVERSITY 


9346  00027389  8 


•  A3 

1901-1 


27389 


AUTHOR 

-  IT.  S.  Bures 

TITLE 

Report  of 

DATE 

27389 


U.S. Bureau  of  E&uc. 


Rept.  of  Gom::i!r.